This day in .....

3 January 1938 – The March of Dimes is established by President Franklin D. Roosevelt.

March of Dimes

American nonprofit organization

March of Dimes is a United States nonprofit organization that works to improve the health of mothers and babies.^[1] The organization was founded by President Franklin D. Roosevelt in 1938, as the National Foundation for Infantile Paralysis, to combat polio. The name "March of Dimes" was coined by Eddie Cantor. After funding Jonas Salk's polio vaccine, the organization expanded its focus to the prevention of birth defects and infant mortality. In 2005, as preterm birth emerged as the leading cause of death for children worldwide,^[2] research and prevention of premature birth became the organization's primary focus.^[3]

1. ^ "About Us". March of Dimes. Retrieved May 2, 2017.
2. ^ "Preterm Birth". World Health Organization. Retrieved May 2, 2017.
3. ^ "Baby Talk: March of Dimes Rebrands". Adweek. Retrieved November 11, 2010.

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4 January 46 BC – Julius Caesar defeats Titus Labienus in the Battle of Ruspina.

Battle of Ruspina

Part of Caesar's Civil War (46 BC)

The Battle of Ruspina was fought on 4 January 46 BC in the Roman province of Africa, between the Republican forces of the Optimates and forces loyal to Julius Caesar. The Republican army was commanded by Titus Labienus, Caesar's former lieutenant during the Gallic Wars who had defected to the Republican side at the beginning of the civil war.

1. ^ Goldsworthy 2006, p. 459, The action outside Ruspina – it is sometimes described as a battle – was without doubt a defeat for Caesar, who had been prevented from his aim of gathering the supplies that his army required..

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5 January 1949 – United States President Harry S. Truman unveils his Fair Deal program.

Fair Deal

Domestic agenda of U.S. President Harry S. Truman (1945–53)

For the copyright doctrine, see Fair dealing.

The Fair Deal was a set of proposals put forward by U.S. President Harry S. Truman to Congress in 1945 and in his January 1949 State of the Union Address. More generally, the term characterizes the entire domestic agenda of the Truman administration, from 1945 to 1953. It offered new proposals to continue New Deal liberalism, but with a conservative coalition controlling Congress, only a few of its major initiatives became law and then only if they had considerable Republican Party support. As Richard Neustadt concludes, the most important proposals were aid to education, national health insurance, the Fair Employment Practices Commission, and repeal of the Taft–Hartley Act. They were all debated at length, then voted down. Nevertheless, enough smaller and less controversial items passed that liberals could claim some success.^[1]

1. ^ Richard E. Neustadt, "Congress and the Fair Deal: A Legislative Balance Sheet", Public Policy, 5 (1954): 349–81, reprinted in Alonzo L. Hamby ed., Harry S. Truman and the Fair Deal (1974), p. 29

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6 January 1721 – The Committee of Inquiry on the South Sea Bubble publishes its findings.

South Sea Company

18th-century economic speculation bubble

"South Sea Bubble" redirects here. For the Noel Coward play, see South Sea Bubble (play).

The South Sea Company (officially: The Governor and Company of the merchants of Great Britain, trading to the South Seas and other parts of America and for the encouragement of the Fishery)^[3] was a British joint-stock company founded in January 1711, created as a public-private partnership to consolidate and reduce the cost of the national debt. To generate income, in 1713 the company was granted a monopoly (the Asiento de Negros) to supply African slaves to the islands in the "South Seas" and South America.^[4] When the company was created, Britain was involved in the War of the Spanish Succession and Spain and Portugal controlled most of South America. There was thus no realistic prospect that trade would take place, and as it turned out, the Company never realised any significant profit from its monopoly. However, Company stock rose greatly in value as it expanded its operations dealing in government debt, and peaked in 1720 before suddenly collapsing to little above its original flotation price. The notorious economic bubble thus created, which ruined thousands of investors, became known as the South Sea Bubble.

The Bubble Act 1720 (6 Geo. 1 c. 18), which forbade the creation of joint-stock companies without royal charter, was promoted by the South Sea Company itself before its collapse.

In Great Britain, many investors were ruined by the share-price collapse, and as a result, the national economy diminished substantially. The founders of the scheme engaged in insider trading, by using their advance knowledge of the timings of national debt consolidations to make large profits from purchasing debt in advance. Huge bribes were given to politicians to support the Acts of Parliament necessary for the scheme.^[5] Company money was used to deal in its own shares, and selected individuals purchasing shares were given cash loans backed by those same shares to spend on purchasing more shares. The expectation of profits from trade with South America was talked up to encourage the public to purchase shares, but the bubble prices reached far beyond what the actual profits of the business (namely the slave trade) could justify.^[6]

A parliamentary inquiry was held after the bursting of the bubble to discover its causes. A number of politicians were disgraced, and people found to have profited immorally from the company had personal assets confiscated proportionate to their gains (most had already been rich and remained so). Finally, the Company was restructured and continued to operate for more than a century after the Bubble. The headquarters were in Threadneedle Street, at the centre of the City of London, the financial district of the capital. At the time of these events, the Bank of England was also a private company dealing in national debt, and the crash of its rival confirmed its position as banker to the British government.^[7]

1. ^ Thornbury, Walter, Old and New London, vol. 1, p. 538
2. ^ "Cloth Seal, Company, 1711–1853, South Seas & Fisheries". www.bagseals.org.
3. ^ Journals of the House of Commons, volume 16: 1708–1711, p. 685.
4. ^ Paul, Helen (2009). "The South Sea Company's slaving activities" (PDF). Discussion Papers in Economics and Econometrics. ISSN 0966-4246.
5. ^ Dorothy Marshall (1962). Eighteenth Century England. pp. 121–130.
6. ^ Paul, Helen J. (2013). The South Sea Bubble: an economic history of its origins and consequences. London. ISBN 978-0-415-70839-5. OCLC 925312648.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
7. ^ Walter Thornbury. "Threadneedle Street". Old and New London. Volume 1 (London, 1878). pp. 531–544 – via British History Online. Accessed 21 July 2016.

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6 January 1721 – The Committee of Inquiry on the South Sea Bubble publishes its findings.

South Sea Company

18th-century economic speculation bubble

"South Sea Bubble" redirects here. For the Noel Coward play, see South Sea Bubble (play).

The South Sea Company (officially: The Governor and Company of the merchants of Great Britain, trading to the South Seas and other parts of America and for the encouragement of the Fishery)^[3] was a British joint-stock company founded in January 1711, created as a public-private partnership to consolidate and reduce the cost of the national debt. To generate income, in 1713 the company was granted a monopoly (the Asiento de Negros) to supply African slaves to the islands in the "South Seas" and South America.^[4] When the company was created, Britain was involved in the War of the Spanish Succession and Spain and Portugal controlled most of South America. There was thus no realistic prospect that trade would take place, and as it turned out, the Company never realised any significant profit from its monopoly. However, Company stock rose greatly in value as it expanded its operations dealing in government debt, and peaked in 1720 before suddenly collapsing to little above its original flotation price. The notorious economic bubble thus created, which ruined thousands of investors, became known as the South Sea Bubble.

The Bubble Act 1720 (6 Geo. 1 c. 18), which forbade the creation of joint-stock companies without royal charter, was promoted by the South Sea Company itself before its collapse.

In Great Britain, many investors were ruined by the share-price collapse, and as a result, the national economy diminished substantially. The founders of the scheme engaged in insider trading, by using their advance knowledge of the timings of national debt consolidations to make large profits from purchasing debt in advance. Huge bribes were given to politicians to support the Acts of Parliament necessary for the scheme.^[5] Company money was used to deal in its own shares, and selected individuals purchasing shares were given cash loans backed by those same shares to spend on purchasing more shares. The expectation of profits from trade with South America was talked up to encourage the public to purchase shares, but the bubble prices reached far beyond what the actual profits of the business (namely the slave trade) could justify.^[6]

A parliamentary inquiry was held after the bursting of the bubble to discover its causes. A number of politicians were disgraced, and people found to have profited immorally from the company had personal assets confiscated proportionate to their gains (most had already been rich and remained so). Finally, the Company was restructured and continued to operate for more than a century after the Bubble. The headquarters were in Threadneedle Street, at the centre of the City of London, the financial district of the capital. At the time of these events, the Bank of England was also a private company dealing in national debt, and the crash of its rival confirmed its position as banker to the British government.^[7]

1. ^ Thornbury, Walter, Old and New London, vol. 1, p. 538
2. ^ "Cloth Seal, Company, 1711–1853, South Seas & Fisheries". www.bagseals.org.
3. ^ Journals of the House of Commons, volume 16: 1708–1711, p. 685.
4. ^ Paul, Helen (2009). "The South Sea Company's slaving activities" (PDF). Discussion Papers in Economics and Econometrics. ISSN 0966-4246.
5. ^ Dorothy Marshall (1962). Eighteenth Century England. pp. 121–130.
6. ^ Paul, Helen J. (2013). The South Sea Bubble: an economic history of its origins and consequences. London. ISBN 978-0-415-70839-5. OCLC 925312648.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
7. ^ Walter Thornbury. "Threadneedle Street". Old and New London. Volume 1 (London, 1878). pp. 531–544 – via British History Online. Accessed 21 July 2016.

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7 January 1610 – Galileo Galilei makes his first observation of the four Galilean moons: Ganymede, Callisto, Io and Europa, although he is not able to distinguish the last two until the following day.

Galileo Galilei

Italian physicist and astronomer (1564–1642)

"Galileo" redirects here. For other uses, see Galileo (disambiguation) and Galileo Galilei (disambiguation).

Galileo di Vincenzo Bonaiuti de' Galilei (15 February 1564 – 8 January 1642), commonly referred to as Galileo Galilei (/ˌɡælɪˈleɪoʊ ˌɡælɪˈleɪ/ GAL-il-AY-oh GAL-il-AY, US also /ˌɡælɪˈliːoʊ -/ GAL-il-EE-oh -⁠, Italian: [ɡaliˈlɛːo ɡaliˈlɛːi]) or simply Galileo, was an Italian astronomer, physicist and engineer, sometimes described as a polymath. He was born in the city of Pisa, then part of the Duchy of Florence.^[3] Galileo has been called the father of observational astronomy,^[4] modern-era classical physics,^[5] the scientific method,^[6] and modern science.^[7]

Galileo studied speed and velocity, gravity and free fall, the principle of relativity, inertia, projectile motion and also worked in applied science and technology, describing the properties of the pendulum and "hydrostatic balances". He was one of the earliest Renaissance developers of the thermoscope^[8] and the inventor of various military compasses, and used the telescope for scientific observations of celestial objects. With an improved telescope he built, he observed the stars of the Milky Way, the phases of Venus, the four largest satellites of Jupiter, Saturn's rings, lunar craters and sunspots. He also built an early microscope.

Galileo's championing of Copernican heliocentrism was met with opposition from within the Catholic Church and from some astronomers. The matter was investigated by the Roman Inquisition in 1615, which concluded that heliocentrism was foolish, absurd, and heretical since it contradicted the Ptolemaic system.^[9][10][11]

Galileo later defended his views in Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems (1632), which appeared to attack Pope Urban VIII and thus alienated both the Pope and the Jesuits, who had both supported Galileo up until this point.^[9] He was tried by the Inquisition, found "vehemently suspect of heresy", and forced to recant. He spent the rest of his life under house arrest.^[12][13] During this time, he wrote Two New Sciences (1638), primarily concerning kinematics and the strength of materials, summarizing work he had done around forty years earlier.^[14]

1. ^ Science: The Definitive Visual Guide. United Kingdom: DK Publishing. 2009. p. 83. ISBN 978-0-7566-6490-9.
2. ^ Drake 1978, p. 1.
3. ^ Modinos, A. (2013). From Aristotle to Schrödinger: The Curiosity of Physics, Undergraduate Lecture Notes in Physics (illustrated ed.). Springer Science & Business Media. p. 43. ISBN 978-3-319-00750-2.
4. ^ Singer, C. (1941). A Short History of Science to the Nineteenth Century. Clarendon Press. p. 217.
5. ^ Whitehouse, D. (2009). Renaissance Genius: Galileo Galilei & His Legacy to Modern Science. Sterling Publishing. p. 219. ISBN 978-1-4027-6977-1.
6. ^ Thomas Hobbes: Critical Assessments, Volume 1. Preston King. 1993. p. 59
7. ^ Disraeli, I. (1835). Curiosities of Literature. W. Pearson & Company. p. 371.
8. ^ Valleriani, Matteo (2010). Galileo Engineer. Dordrecht Heidelberg; London; New York: Springer. p. 160. ISBN 978-90-481-8644-0.
9. ^ ^{a b} Hannam 2009, pp. 329–344.
10. ^ Sharratt 1994, pp. 127–131.
11. ^ Finocchiaro 2010, p. 74.
12. ^ Finocchiaro 1997, p. 47.
13. ^ Hilliam 2005, p. 96.
14. ^ Carney, J. E. (2000). Renaissance and Reformation, 1500–1620: a.

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8 January 1962 – The Harmelen train disaster killed 93 people in the Netherlands.

Harmelen train disaster

1962 railway accident in the Netherlands

Not to be confused with Woerden train disaster.

The Harmelen train disaster, on 8 January 1962, was the worst railway accident in the history of the Netherlands. Harmelen, in the central Netherlands, is the location of a railway junction where a branch to Amsterdam leaves the Rotterdam to Utrecht line. It is common at high-speed junctions to avoid the use of diamond crossings wherever possible – instead a ladder crossing is employed where trains destined for the branch line cross over to the track normally employed for trains travelling in the opposite direction for a short distance before taking the branch line.

The accident happened 18 months after the Woerden train accident, the derailment of a British furlough train nearby. Previously the Weesp train disaster of 1918 had been the worst railway disaster in the Netherlands.

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9 January 2007 – Apple CEO Steve Jobs introduces the original iPhone at a Macworld keynote in San Francisco.

IPhone

Line of smartphones by Apple Inc.

For other uses, see IPhone (disambiguation).

The iPhone is a line of smartphones produced by Apple Inc. that use Apple's own iOS mobile operating system. The first-generation iPhone was announced by then–Apple CEO Steve Jobs on January 9, 2007. Since then, Apple has annually released new iPhone models and iOS updates. As of November 1, 2018, more than 2.2 billion iPhones had been sold. As of 2023, the iPhone accounts for 20% of global smartphone sales, making it number 1 in the world for smartphone market sales.^[3]

The iPhone was the first mobile phone to use multi-touch technology.^[4] Since the iPhone's launch, it has gained larger screen sizes, video-recording, waterproofing, and many accessibility features. Up to the iPhone 8 and 8 Plus, iPhones had a single button on the front panel, with the iPhone 5s and later integrating a Touch ID fingerprint sensor.^[5] Since the iPhone X, iPhone models have switched to a nearly bezel-less front screen design with Face ID facial recognition, and app switching activated by gestures. Touch ID is still used for the budget iPhone SE series.

The iPhone is one of the two largest smartphone platforms in the world alongside Android, and is a large part of the luxury market. The iPhone has generated large profits for Apple, making it one of the world's most valuable publicly traded companies. The first-generation iPhone was described as a "revolution" for the mobile phone industry and subsequent models have also garnered praise.^[6] The iPhone has been credited with popularizing the smartphone and slate form factor, and with creating a large market for smartphone apps, or "app economy". As of January 2017^[update], Apple's App Store contained more than 2.2 million applications for the iPhone.

1. ^ "32 iPhone User Statistics: Sales, Usage & Revenue (2024)". Demandsage. January 11, 2024. Archived from the original on February 18, 2024. Retrieved February 17, 2024.
2. ^ "iPhone 14 Pro Max vs iPhone SE (third generation) vs iPhone 13". Apple Inc. Archived from the original on October 3, 2022. Retrieved October 3, 2013.
3. ^ "Apple overtakes Samsung as number 1 smartphone manufacturer". Reuters. Retrieved March 6, 2024.{{cite news}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
4. ^ Merchant, Brian (June 22, 2017). The One Device: The Secret History of the iPhone. Transworld. ISBN 978-1-4735-4254-9.
5. ^ "A New Touch for iPhone". AllThingsD. Archived from the original on April 23, 2022. Retrieved January 5, 2024.
6. ^ Egan, Timothy (July 7, 2017). "Opinion | The Phone Is Smart, but Where's the Big Idea?". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on October 3, 2022. Retrieved October 3, 2022.

Cite error: There are <ref group=note> tags on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=note}} template (see the help page).

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10 January 1861 – American Civil War: Florida secedes from the Union.

American Civil War

1861–1865 conflict in the United States

The American Civil War (April 12, 1861 – May 26, 1865; also known by other names) was a civil war in the United States between the Union^[e] ("the North") and the Confederacy ("the South"), which had been formed by states that had seceded from the Union. The central conflict leading to the war was the dispute over whether slavery would be permitted to expand into the western territories, leading to more slave states, or be prevented from doing so, which many believed would place slavery on a course of ultimate extinction.^[17]

Decades of political controversy over slavery were brought to a head by the victory in the 1860 U.S. presidential election of Abraham Lincoln, who opposed slavery's expansion into the western territories. Seven southern slave states responded to Lincoln's victory by seceding from the United States and forming the Confederacy. The Confederacy seized U.S. forts and other federal assets within their borders. The war began when on April 12, 1861, Confederate troops fired on Fort Sumter in South Carolina's Charleston Harbor. A wave of enthusiasm for war swept over both North and South, as recruitment soared. The states in the undecided border region had to choose sides, although Kentucky declared it was neutral. Four more southern states seceded after the war began and, led by Confederate President Jefferson Davis, the Confederacy asserted control over about a third of the U.S. population in eleven states. Four years of intense combat, mostly in the South, ensued.

During 1861–1862 in the Western Theater, the Union made significant permanent gains—though in the Eastern Theater the conflict was inconclusive. The abolition of slavery became a Union war goal on January 1, 1863, when Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation, which declared all slaves in rebel states to be free, which applied to more than 3.5 million of the 4 million enslaved people in the country. To the west, the Union first destroyed the Confederacy's river navy by the summer of 1862, then much of its western armies, and seized New Orleans. The successful 1863 Union siege of Vicksburg split the Confederacy in two at the Mississippi River, while Confederate General Robert E. Lee's incursion north failed at the Battle of Gettysburg. Western successes led to General Ulysses S. Grant's command of all Union armies in 1864. Inflicting an ever-tightening naval blockade of Confederate ports, the Union marshaled resources and manpower to attack the Confederacy from all directions. This led to the fall of Atlanta in 1864 to Union General William Tecumseh Sherman, followed by his March to the Sea. The last significant battles raged around the ten-month Siege of Petersburg, gateway to the Confederate capital of Richmond. The Confederates abandoned Richmond, and on April 9, 1865, Lee surrendered to Grant following the Battle of Appomattox Court House, setting in motion the end of the war. Lincoln lived to see this victory but on April 14, he was assassinated.

Appomattox is often referred to symbolically as the end of the war, although arguably there are several different dates for the war's conclusion. Lee's surrender to Grant set off a wave of Confederate surrenders—the last military department of the Confederacy, the Department of the Trans-Mississippi disbanded on May 26. By the end of the war, much of the South's infrastructure was destroyed. The Confederacy collapsed, slavery was abolished, and four million enslaved black people were freed. The war-torn nation then entered the Reconstruction era in an attempt to rebuild the country, bring the former Confederate states back into the United States, and grant civil rights to freed slaves.

The Civil War is one of the most extensively studied and written about episodes in U.S. history. It remains the subject of cultural and historiographical debate. The myth of the Lost Cause of the Confederacy is often the subject of critical analysis. The American Civil War was among the first wars to use industrial warfare. Railroads, the telegraph, steamships, the ironclad warship, and mass-produced weapons were all widely used during the war. In total, the war left between 620,000 and 750,000 soldiers dead, along with an undetermined number of civilian casualties, making the Civil War the deadliest military conflict in American history.^[f] The technology and brutality of the Civil War foreshadowed the coming World Wars.

Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

1. ^ Blair, William A. (2015). "Finding the Ending of America's Civil War". The American Historical Review. 120 (5). Oxford University Press: 1753–1766. doi:10.1093/ahr/120.5.1753. JSTOR 43697075. Retrieved July 29, 2022. Pennsylvania State University Professor William A. Blair wrote at pages 313–14: "the sheer weight of scholarship has leaned toward portraying the surrenders of the Confederate armies as the end of the war."; The New York Times: "End of the Rebellion; The Last Rebel Army Disbands. Kirby Smith Surrenders the Land and Naval Forces Under His Command. The Confederate Flag Disappears from the Continent. The Era of Peace Begins. Military Prisoners During the War to be Discharged. Deserters to be Released from Confinement. [Official.] From Secretary Stanton to Gen. Dix". The New York Times. United States Department of War. May 29, 1865. Retrieved July 29, 2022.; United States Civil War Centennial Commission Robertson, James I. Jr. (1963). The Civil War. Washington, D.C.: Civil War Centennial Commission. OCLC 299955768. At p. 31, Professor James I. Robertson Jr. of Virginia Tech University and Executive Director of the U. S. Civil War Centennial Commission wrote, "Lee's surrender left Johnston with no place to go. On April 26, near Durham, N. C., the Army of Tennessee laid down its arms before Sherman's forces. With the surrender of isolated forces in the Trans-Mississippi West on May 4, 11, and 26, the most costly war in American history came to an end."
2. ^ Among the many other contemporary sources and later historians citing May 26, 1865, the date that the surrender of the last significant Confederate force in the trans-Mississippi department was agreed upon, or citing simply the surrender of the Confederate armies, as the end date for the American Civil War hostilities are George Templeton Strong, who was a prominent New York lawyer; a founder, treasurer, and member of the Executive Committee of United States Sanitary Commission throughout the war; and a diarist. A diary excerpt is published in Gienapp, William E., ed. The Civil War and Reconstruction: A Documentary Collection. New York: W.W. Norton & Co., 2001, pp. 313–314 ISBN 978-0-393-97555-0. A footnote in Gienapp shows the excerpt was taken from an edited version of the diaries by Allan Nevins and Milton Halsey Thomas, eds., The Diary of George Templeton Strong, vol. 2 (New York: The McMillan Company), pp. 600–601, which differs from the volume and page numbers of the original diaries; the actual diary is shown at https://digitalcollections.nyhistory.org/islandora/object/nyhs%3A55249 Archived November 16, 2022, at the Wayback Machine, the page in Strong's original handwriting is shown at that web page, it is Volume 4, pp. 124–125: diary entries for May 23 (continued)-June 7, 1865 of the original diaries; Horace Greeley, The American Conflict: A History of the Great Rebellion in the United States, 1860–'65. Volume II. Hartford: O. D. Case & Company, 1866. OCLC 936872302. p. 757: "Though the war on land ceased, and the Confederate flag utterly disappeared from this continent with the collapse and dispersion of Kirby Smith's command...."; John William Draper, History of the American Civil War. [1] Volume 3. New York: Harper & Brothers, 1870. OCLC 830251756. Retrievfootnoed July 28, 2022. p. 618: "On the 26th of the same month General Kirby Smith surrendered his entire command west of the Mississippi to General Canby. With this, all military opposition to the government ended."; Jefferson Davis. The Rise And Fall Of The Confederate Government. Volume II. New York: D. Appleton and Company, 1881. OCLC 1249017603. p. 630: "With General E. K. Smith's surrender the Confederate flag no longer floated on the land; p. 663: "When the Confederate soldiers laid down their arms and went home, all hostilities against the power of the Government of the United States ceased."; Ulysses S. Grant Personal Memoirs of U. S. Grant. Volume 2. [2] New York: Charles L. Webster & Company, 1886. OCLC 255136538. p. 522: "General E. Kirby Smith surrendered the trans-Mississippi department on the 26th of May, leaving no other Confederate army at liberty to continue the war."; Frederick H. Dyer A compendium of the War of the Rebellion. [3] Des Moines, IA: Dyer Publishing Co., 1908. OCLC 8697590. Full entry on last Table of Contents page (unnumbered on download): "Alphabetical Index of Campaigns, Battles, Engagements, Actions, Combats, Sieges, Skirmishes, Reconnaissances, Scouts and Other Military Events Connected with the "War of the Rebellion" During the Period of Actual Hostilities, From April 12, 1861, to May 26, 1865"; Nathaniel W. Stephenson, The Day of the Confederacy, A Chronicle of the Embattled South, Volume 30 in The Chronicles Of America Series. [4] New Haven: Yale University Press; Toronto: Glasgow, Brook & Co.; London: Oxford University Press, 1919. p. 202: "The surrender of the forces of the Trans-Mississippi on May 26, 1865, brought the war to a definite conclusion."; Bruce Catton. The Centennial History of the Civil War. Vol. 3, Never Call Retreat. Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1965. p. 445. "and on May 26 he [E. Kirby Smith] surrendered and the war was over"; and Gary W. Gallagher, Stephen D. Engle, Robert K. Krick & Joseph T. Glatthaar, foreword by James M. McPherson. The American Civil War: This Mighty Scourge of War. New York: Osprey Publishing, Ltd., 2003 ISBN 978-1-84176-736-9. p. 308: "By 26 May, General Edward Kirby Smith had surrendered the Rebel forces in the trans-Mississippi west. The war was over."
3. ^ ^{a b c} "Facts". National Park Service.
4. ^ "Size of the Union Army in the American Civil War" Archived April 16, 2017, at the Wayback Machine: Of which 131,000 were in the Navy and Marines, 140,000 were garrison troops and home defense militia, and 427,000 were in the field army.
5. ^ Long 1971, p. 705.
6. ^ "The war of the rebellion: a compilation of the official records of the Union and Confederate armies; Series 4 – Volume 2" Archived July 25, 2017, at the Wayback Machine, United States War Dept., 1900.
7. ^ ^{a b c} Fox, William F. Regimental losses in the American Civil War Archived May 25, 2017, at the Wayback Machine (1889).
8. ^ ^{a b c} "DCAS Reports – Principal Wars, 1775–1991". dcas.dmdc.osd.mil.
9. ^ Chambers & Anderson 1999, p. 849.
10. ^ Rhodes, James Ford (1893). History of the United States from the Compromise of 1850. Harvard University. New York, Harper & Bros. pp. 507–508.
11. ^ Rhodes, James Ford (1893). History of the United States from the Compromise of 1850. Harvard University. New York, Harper & Bros. pp. 507–508.
12. ^ Cite error: The named reference StatsWarCost was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
13. ^ James Downs, "Colorblindness in the demographic death toll of the Civil War" Archived January 19, 2018, at the Wayback Machine. Oxford University Press blog, April 13, 2012. "The rough 19th century estimate was that 60,000 former slaves died from the epidemic, but doctors treating black patients often claimed that they were unable to keep accurate records due to demands on their time and the lack of manpower and resources. The surviving records only include the number of black patients whom doctors encountered; tens of thousands of other slaves had no contact with army doctors, leaving no records of their deaths." 60,000 documented plus 'tens of thousands' undocumented gives a minimum of 80,000 slave deaths.
14. ^ Toward a Social History of the American Civil War Exploratory Essays, Cambridge University Press, 1990, p. 4.
15. ^ Cite error: The named reference recounting was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
16. ^ James Downs, "Colorblindness in the demographic death toll of the Civil War" Archived January 19, 2018, at the Wayback Machine. Oxford University Press blog, April 13, 2012. "An 2 April 2012 New York Times article, 'New Estimate Raises Civil War Death Toll', reports that a new study ratchets up the death toll from an estimated 650,000 to a staggering 850,000 people. As horrific as this new number is, it fails to reflect the mortality of former slaves during the war. If former slaves were included in this figure, the Civil War death toll would likely be over a million casualties ...".
17. ^ "The Declaration of Causes of Seceding States. Primary Sources". American Battlefield Trust. 2023. Retrieved December 30, 2023.

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11 January 1922 – First use of insulin to treat diabetes in a human patient.

Insulin

Peptide hormone

This article is about the naturally occurring protein. For uses of insulin in treating diabetes, see Insulin (medication).

Not to be confused with Inulin.

Insulin (/ˈɪn.sjʊ.lɪn/,^[5][6] from Latin insula, 'island') is a peptide hormone produced by beta cells of the pancreatic islets encoded in humans by the insulin (INS) gene. It is considered to be the main anabolic hormone of the body.^[7] It regulates the metabolism of carbohydrates, fats and protein by promoting the absorption of glucose from the blood into liver, fat and skeletal muscle cells.^[8] In these tissues the absorbed glucose is converted into either glycogen via glycogenesis or fats (triglycerides) via lipogenesis, or, in the case of the liver, into both.^[8] Glucose production and secretion by the liver is strongly inhibited by high concentrations of insulin in the blood.^[9] Circulating insulin also affects the synthesis of proteins in a wide variety of tissues. It is therefore an anabolic hormone, promoting the conversion of small molecules in the blood into large molecules inside the cells. Low insulin levels in the blood have the opposite effect by promoting widespread catabolism, especially of reserve body fat.

Beta cells are sensitive to blood sugar levels so that they secrete insulin into the blood in response to high level of glucose, and inhibit secretion of insulin when glucose levels are low.^[10] Insulin production is also regulated by glucose: high glucose promotes insulin production while low glucose levels lead to lower production.^[11] Insulin enhances glucose uptake and metabolism in the cells, thereby reducing blood sugar level. Their neighboring alpha cells, by taking their cues from the beta cells,^[10] secrete glucagon into the blood in the opposite manner: increased secretion when blood glucose is low, and decreased secretion when glucose concentrations are high. Glucagon increases blood glucose level by stimulating glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis in the liver.^[8][10] The secretion of insulin and glucagon into the blood in response to the blood glucose concentration is the primary mechanism of glucose homeostasis.^[10]

Decreased or absent insulin activity results in diabetes, a condition of high blood sugar level (hyperglycaemia). There are two types of the disease. In type 1 diabetes, the beta cells are destroyed by an autoimmune reaction so that insulin can no longer be synthesized or be secreted into the blood.^[12] In type 2 diabetes, the destruction of beta cells is less pronounced than in type 1, and is not due to an autoimmune process. Instead, there is an accumulation of amyloid in the pancreatic islets, which likely disrupts their anatomy and physiology.^[10] The pathogenesis of type 2 diabetes is not well understood but reduced population of islet beta-cells, reduced secretory function of islet beta-cells that survive, and peripheral tissue insulin resistance are known to be involved.^[7] Type 2 diabetes is characterized by increased glucagon secretion which is unaffected by, and unresponsive to the concentration of blood glucose. But insulin is still secreted into the blood in response to the blood glucose.^[10] As a result, glucose accumulates in the blood.

The human insulin protein is composed of 51 amino acids, and has a molecular mass of 5808 Da. It is a heterodimer of an A-chain and a B-chain, which are linked together by disulfide bonds. Insulin's structure varies slightly between species of animals. Insulin from non-human animal sources differs somewhat in effectiveness (in carbohydrate metabolism effects) from human insulin because of these variations. Porcine insulin is especially close to the human version, and was widely used to treat type 1 diabetics before human insulin could be produced in large quantities by recombinant DNA technologies.^{[13][14][15][16]}

Insulin was the first peptide hormone discovered.^[17] Frederick Banting and Charles Best, working in the laboratory of John Macleod at the University of Toronto, were the first to isolate insulin from dog pancreas in 1921. Frederick Sanger sequenced the amino acid structure in 1951, which made insulin the first protein to be fully sequenced.^[18] The crystal structure of insulin in the solid state was determined by Dorothy Hodgkin in 1969. Insulin is also the first protein to be chemically synthesised and produced by DNA recombinant technology.^[19] It is on the WHO Model List of Essential Medicines, the most important medications needed in a basic health system.^[20]

1. ^ ^{a b c} GRCh38: Ensembl release 89: ENSG00000254647 - Ensembl, May 2017
2. ^ ^{a b c} GRCm38: Ensembl release 89: ENSMUSG00000000215 - Ensembl, May 2017
3. ^ "Human PubMed Reference:". National Center for Biotechnology Information, U.S. National Library of Medicine.
4. ^ "Mouse PubMed Reference:". National Center for Biotechnology Information, U.S. National Library of Medicine.
5. ^ "Insulin | Meaning of Insulin by Lexico". Lexico Dictionaries | English. Archived from the original on 1 August 2020.
6. ^ "insulin - WordReference.com Dictionary of English". www.wordreference.com.
7. ^ ^{a b} Voet D, Voet JG (2011). Biochemistry (4th ed.). New York: Wiley.
8. ^ ^{a b c} Stryer L (1995). Biochemistry (Fourth ed.). New York: W.H. Freeman and Company. pp. 773–74. ISBN 0-7167-2009-4.
9. ^ Sonksen P, Sonksen J (July 2000). "Insulin: understanding its action in health and disease". British Journal of Anaesthesia. 85 (1): 69–79. doi:10.1093/bja/85.1.69. PMID 10927996.
10. ^ ^{a b c d e f} Koeslag JH, Saunders PT, Terblanche E (June 2003). "A reappraisal of the blood glucose homeostat which comprehensively explains the type 2 diabetes mellitus-syndrome X complex". The Journal of Physiology. 549 (Pt 2) (published 2003): 333–46. doi:10.1113/jphysiol.2002.037895. PMC 2342944. PMID 12717005.
11. ^ Andrali SS, Sampley ML, Vanderford NL, Ozcan S (1 October 2008). "Glucose regulation of insulin gene expression in pancreatic beta-cells". The Biochemical Journal. 415 (1): 1–10. doi:10.1042/BJ20081029. ISSN 1470-8728. PMID 18778246.
12. ^ American Society of Health-System Pharmacists (1 February 2009). "Insulin Injection [". PubMed Health. National Center for Biotechnology Information, U.S. National Library of Medicine. Retrieved 12 October 2012.
13. ^ Drug Information Portal NLM – Insulin human USAN druginfo.nlm.nih.gov Archived 19 November 2022 at the Wayback Machine
14. ^ "First Successful Laboratory Production of Human Insulin Announced". News Release. Genentech. 6 September 1978. Archived from the original on 27 September 2016. Retrieved 26 September 2016.
15. ^ Tof I (1994). "Recombinant DNA technology in the synthesis of human insulin". Little Tree Publishing. Retrieved 3 November 2009.
16. ^ Aggarwal SR (December 2012). "What's fueling the biotech engine-2011 to 2012". Nature Biotechnology. 30 (12): 1191–7. doi:10.1038/nbt.2437. PMID 23222785. S2CID 8707897.
17. ^ Weiss M, Steiner DF, Philipson LH (2000). "Insulin Biosynthesis, Secretion, Structure, and Structure-Activity Relationships". In Feingold KR, Anawalt B, Boyce A, Chrousos G, Dungan K, Grossman A, et al. (eds.). Endotext. MDText.com, Inc. PMID 25905258. Retrieved 18 February 2020.
18. ^ Cite error: The named reference Stretton_2002 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
19. ^ "The discovery and development of insulin as a medical treatment can be traced back to the 19th century". Diabetes. 15 January 2019. Retrieved 17 February 2020.
20. ^ 19th WHO Model List of Essential Medicines (April 2015) (PDF). WHO. April 2015. p. 455. hdl:10665/189763. ISBN 978-92-4-120994-6. Retrieved 10 May 2015.

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12 January 1967 – Dr. James Bedford becomes the first person to be cryonically preserved with intent of future resuscitation.

Cryonics

Freezing of a human corpse

For the study of the production of very low temperatures, see Cryogenics. For the low-temperature preservation of living tissue and organisms in general, see Cryopreservation. For the Hot Cross album, see Cryonics (album).

Cryonics (from Greek: κρύος kryos meaning 'cold') is the low-temperature freezing (usually at −196 °C or −320.8 °F or 77.1 K) and storage of human remains, with the speculative hope that resurrection may be possible in the future.^[1][2] Cryonics is regarded with skepticism within the mainstream scientific community. It is generally viewed as a pseudoscience,^[3] and its practice has been characterized as quackery.^[4][5]

Cryonics procedures can begin only after the "patients" are clinically and legally dead. Cryonics procedures may begin within minutes of death,^[6] and use cryoprotectants to try to prevent ice formation during cryopreservation.^{[7][better source needed]} It is, however, not possible for a corpse to be reanimated after undergoing vitrification, as this causes damage to the brain including its neural circuits.^[8][9] The first corpse to be frozen was that of James Bedford in 1967.^[10] As of 2014, about 250 bodies had been cryopreserved in the United States, and 1,500 people had made arrangements for cryopreservation of their remains.^[11]

Economic reality means it is highly improbable that any cryonics corporation could continue in business long enough to take advantage of the claimed long-term benefits offered.^[12] Early attempts at cryonic preservation were performed in the 1960s and early 1970s; these ended in failure, with all but one of the companies going out of business, and their stored corpses thawed and disposed of.^[13]

1. ^ McKie, Robin (13 July 2002). "Cold facts about cryonics". The Observer. Archived from the original on 8 July 2017. Retrieved 1 December 2013. Cryonics, which began in the Sixties, is the freezing – usually in liquid nitrogen – of human beings who have been legally declared dead. The aim of this process is to keep such individuals in a state of refrigerated limbo so that it may become possible in the future to resuscitate them, cure them of the condition that killed them, and then restore them to functioning life in an era when medical science has triumphed over the activities of the Grim Reaper.
2. ^ "Dying is the last thing anyone wants to do – so keep cool and carry on". The Guardian. 10 October 2015. Archived from the original on 3 July 2017. Retrieved 21 February 2016.
3. ^ Cite error: The named reference jk was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
4. ^ Cite error: The named reference butler was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
5. ^ Cite error: The named reference q was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
6. ^ Hendry, Robert; Crippen, David (2014). "Brain Failure and Brain Death". ACS Surgery: Principles and Practice critical care. Decker Intellectual Properties Inc. pp. 1–10. Archived from the original on 23 January 2021. Retrieved 3 March 2016. A physician will pronounce a patient using the usual cardiorespiratory criteria, whereupon the patient is legally dead. Following this pronouncement, the rules pertaining to procedures that can be performed change radically because the individual is no longer a living patient but a corpse. In the initial cryopreservation protocol, the subject is intubated and mechanically ventilated, and a highly efficient mechanical cardiopulmonary resuscitation device reestablishes circulation.
7. ^ Best BP (April 2008). "Scientific justification of cryonics practice" (PDF). Rejuvenation Research. 11 (2): 493–503. doi:10.1089/rej.2008.0661. PMC 4733321. PMID 18321197. Archived from the original (PDF) on 21 July 2018. Retrieved 26 December 2013.
8. ^ Cite error: The named reference popsicle was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
9. ^ Devlin, Hannah (18 November 2016). "The cryonics dilemma: will deep-frozen bodies be fit for new life?". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 24 January 2019. Retrieved 21 January 2019.
10. ^ "Death To Dust: What Happens To Dead Bodies? 2nd Edition, Chapter 7: Souls On Ice". Archived from the original on 27 March 2019. Retrieved 21 March 2016.
11. ^ Moen, OM (August 2015). "The case for cryonics". Journal of Medical Ethics. 41 (18): 493–503. doi:10.1136/medethics-2015-102715. PMID 25717141. S2CID 31744039.
12. ^ Cite error: The named reference decline was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
13. ^ Cite error: The named reference hta-law was invoked but never defined (see the help page).

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13 January 1888 – The National Geographic Society is founded in Washington, D.C.

National Geographic Society

American non-profit scientific and educational institution

The National Geographic Society (NGS), headquartered in Washington, D.C., United States, is one of the largest nonprofit scientific and educational organizations in the world.^[2]

Founded in 1888, its interests include geography, archaeology, and natural science, the promotion of environmental and historical conservation, and the study of world culture and history. The National Geographic Society's logo is a yellow portrait frame—rectangular in shape—which appears on the margins surrounding the front covers of its magazines and as its television channel logo. Through National Geographic Partners (a joint venture with The Walt Disney Company), the Society operates the magazine, TV channels, a website, worldwide events, and other media operations.

1. ^ ^{a b} "NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY | Open990". www.open990.org. Archived from the original on March 21, 2021. Retrieved March 21, 2021.
2. ^ Yeadon, David (2004). National Geographic Guide to the World's Secret Places. National Geographic. ISBN 0792265645. Retrieved August 16, 2022.

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14 January 1950 – The first prototype of the MiG-17 makes its maiden flight.

Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-17

Soviet jet fighter aircraft family

The Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-17 (Russian: Микоян и Гуревич МиГ-17; NATO reporting name: Fresco)^[1] is a high-subsonic fighter aircraft produced in the Soviet Union from 1952 and was operated by air forces internationally. The MiG-17 was license-built in China as the Shenyang J-5 and Poland as the PZL-Mielec Lim-6. The MiG-17 is still being used by the North Korean air force in the present day and has seen combat in the Middle East and Asia.

The MiG-17 was an advanced modification of the MiG-15 aircraft produced by the Soviet Union during the Korean War. Production of the MiG-17 was too late for use in that conflict and was first used in the Second Taiwan Strait Crisis in 1958. While the MiG-17 was designed to shoot down slower American bombers, it showed surprising success when used by North Vietnamese pilots to combat American fighters and fighter-bombers during the Vietnam War, nearly a decade after its initial design. This was due to the MiG-17 being more agile and maneuverable than the American F-4 Phantom and F-105 Thunderchief, which were focused on speed and long range combat, as well as the fact that MiG-17 was armed with guns, which initial models of the F-4 Phantom lacked.^[2]

1. ^ Parsch, Andreas and Aleksey V. Martynov. "Designations of Soviet and Russian Military Aircraft and Missiles." Non-U.S. Military Aircraft and Missile Designations, revised 18 January 2008. Retrieved: 30 March 2009.
2. ^ Parsch, Andreas and Aleksey V. Martynov. "Designations of Soviet and Russian Military Aircraft and Missiles: 5.1 "Type" Numbers (1947-1955)." Non-U.S. Military Aircraft and Missile Designations, revised 18 January 2008. Retrieved: 30 March 2009.

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15 January 1892 – James Naismith publishes the rules of basketball.

James Naismith

Inventor of basketball (1861–1939)

For the chemical biologist, see James Naismith (chemist).

James Naismith (NAY-smith; November 6, 1861 – November 28, 1939) was a Canadian-American^[1] physical educator, physician, Christian chaplain, and sports coach, best known as the inventor of the game of basketball.^[2][3] After moving to the United States, he wrote the original basketball rule book and founded the University of Kansas basketball program.^[4] Naismith lived to see basketball adopted as an Olympic demonstration sport in 1904 and as an official event at the 1936 Summer Olympics in Berlin, as well as the birth of the National Invitation Tournament (1938) and the NCAA Tournament (1939).

Naismith studied and taught physical education at McGill University in Montreal until 1890 before moving to Springfield, Massachusetts, United States later that year, where in 1891 he designed the game of basketball while he was teaching at the International YMCA Training School.^[5] Seven years after inventing basketball, Naismith received his medical degree in Denver in 1898. He then arrived at the University of Kansas, later becoming the Kansas Jayhawks' athletic director and coach.^[5] While a coach at Kansas, Naismith coached Phog Allen, who later became the coach at Kansas for 39 seasons, beginning a lengthy and prestigious coaching tree. Allen then went on to coach legends including Adolph Rupp and Dean Smith, among others, who themselves coached many notable players and future coaches.^[6]

1. ^ Porter, David L. (2005). Basketball: A Biographical Dictionary. Greenwood. ISBN 978-0313309526.
2. ^ "James A. Naismith". Biography.com. Retrieved May 19, 2017.
3. ^ Cite error: The named reference mcgill was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
4. ^ Sandomir, Richard (December 15, 2015). "Basketball's Birth, in James Naismith's Own Spoken Words". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved May 19, 2017.
5. ^ ^{a b} Porter, David (2005). Basketball : a biographical dictionary. Westport, Conn: Greenwood Press. pp. 346–347. ISBN 9780313061974. OCLC 562553759.
6. ^ "Dean Smith's Coaching Tree Displays Incredible Reach Across Decades". BleacherReport.com.

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16 January 1991 – Coalition Forces go to war with Iraq, beginning the Gulf War.

Gulf War

1990–1991 conflict between Iraq and a 42-country coalition

This article is about the conflict against Iraq in 1990–1991. For other conflicts with the same name, see Gulf War (disambiguation).

"Desert Storm" redirects here. For other uses, see Desert Storm (disambiguation).

The Gulf War was an armed conflict between Iraq and a 42-country coalition led by the United States. The coalition's efforts against Iraq were carried out in two key phases: Operation Desert Shield, which marked the military buildup from August 1990 to January 1991; and Operation Desert Storm, which began with the aerial bombing campaign against Iraq on 17 January 1991 and came to a close with the American-led liberation of Kuwait on 28 February 1991.

On 2 August 1990, Iraq, governed by President Saddam Hussein, launched an invasion of neighboring Kuwait and fully occupied the country within two days. Initially, Iraq ran the occupied territory under a puppet government known as the "Republic of Kuwait" before proceeding with an outright annexation in which Kuwaiti sovereign territory was split, with the "Saddamiyat al-Mitla' District" being carved out of the country's northern portion and the "Kuwait Governorate" covering the rest. Varying speculations have been made regarding intents behind the Iraqi invasion, most notably including Iraq's inability to repay a US$14 billion debt the country had borrowed from Kuwait to finance its prior war with Iran. Kuwait's demands for repayment were coupled with its surge in petroleum production levels, which kept revenues down for Iraq and further weakened its economic prospects; throughout much of the 1980s, Kuwait's oil production was above its mandatory quota under OPEC, which kept international oil prices down. Iraq interpreted the Kuwaiti refusal to decrease oil production as an act of aggression towards the Iraqi economy, leading up to the hostilities.

The invasion of Kuwait was immediately met with international condemnation, including Resolution 660 by the United Nations Security Council (UNSC), and economic sanctions were unanimously imposed on Iraq in its Resolution 661. British prime minister Margaret Thatcher and American president George H. W. Bush deployed troops and equipment into Saudi Arabia and openly urged other countries to send their own forces. An array of countries joined the American-led coalition, forming the largest military alliance since World War II. The bulk of the coalition's military power was from the United States, with Saudi Arabia, the United Kingdom, and Egypt as the largest lead-up contributors, in that order; Saudi Arabia and the Kuwaiti government-in-exile paid out around US$32 billion of the US$60 billion cost to mobilize the coalition against Iraq.

UNSC Resolution 678 adopted on 29 November 1990 offered Iraq one final chance until 15 January 1991 to implement Resolution 660 and withdraw from Kuwait; it further empowered states after the deadline to use "all necessary means" to force Iraq out of Kuwait. Initial efforts to dislodge the Iraqis from Kuwait began with an aerial and naval bombardment on 17 January 1991, which continued for five weeks. As the Iraqi military struggled against the coalition attacks, Iraq began to fire missiles at Israel. The coalition did not include Israel, however the Iraqi leadership expected the missile barrage to provoke an independent Israeli military response, which might have prompted the coalition's Muslim-majority countries to withdraw on account of tense relations between Arab nations and Israel. The provocation was unsuccessful; Israel did not retaliate and Iraq continued to remain at odds with most Muslim-majority countries. Iraqi missile barrages against coalition targets in Saudi Arabia were also largely unsuccessful, and on 24 February 1991, the coalition launched a major ground assault into Iraqi-occupied Kuwait. The offensive was a decisive victory for the coalition, who liberated Kuwait and promptly began to advance past the Iraq–Kuwait border into Iraqi territory. A hundred hours after the beginning of the ground campaign, the coalition ceased its advance into Iraq and declared a ceasefire. Aerial and ground combat was confined to Iraq, Kuwait, and areas straddling the Iraq–Saudi Arabia border.

The conflict marked the introduction of live news broadcasts from the front lines of the battle, principally by the American network CNN. It has also earned the nickname Video Game War, after the daily broadcast of images from cameras onboard American bombers during Operation Desert Storm. The Gulf War has gained notoriety for including three of the largest tank battles in American military history.

1. ^ "DESERT SHIELD AND DESERT STORM A CHRONOLOGY AND TROOP LIST FOR THE 1990–1991 PERSIAN GULF CRISIS" (PDF). apps.dtic.mil. Archived (PDF) from the original on 12 April 2019. Retrieved 18 December 2018.
2. ^ Persian Gulf War, the Sandhurst-trained Prince
   Khaled bin Sultan al-Saud was co-commander with General Norman Schwarzkopf www.casi.org.uk/discuss Archived 3 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine
3. ^ General Khaled was Co-Commander, with US General Norman Schwarzkopf, of the allied coalition that liberated Kuwait www.thefreelibrary.com Archived 30 April 2011 at the Wayback Machine
4. ^ Knights, Michael (2005). Cradle of Conflict: Iraq and the Birth of Modern U.S. Military Power. United States Naval Institute. p. 20]. ISBN 978-1-59114-444-1.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
5. ^ ^{a b} "Persian Gulf War". MSN Encarta. Archived from the original on 1 November 2009.
6. ^ 18 M1 Abrams, 11 M60, 2 AMX-30
7. ^ CheckPoint, Ludovic Monnerat. "Guerre du Golfe: le dernier combat de la division Tawakalna".
8. ^ Scales, Brig. Gen. Robert H.: Certain Victory. Brassey's, 1994, p. 279.
9. ^ Halberstadt 1991. p. 35
10. ^ Atkinson, Rick. Crusade, The untold story of the Persian Gulf War. Houghton Mifflin Company, 1993. pp. 332–3
11. ^ Captain Todd A. Buchs, B. Co. Commander, Knights in the Desert. Publisher/Editor Unknown. p. 111.
12. ^ Malory, Marcia. "Tanks During the First Gulf War – Tank History". Archived from the original on 3 March 2016. Retrieved 5 July 2016.
13. ^ M60 vs T-62 Cold War Combatants 1956–92 by Lon Nordeen & David Isby
14. ^ "TAB H – Friendly-fire Incidents". Archived from the original on 1 June 2013. Retrieved 5 July 2016.
15. ^ NSIAD-92-94, "Operation Desert Storm: Early Performance Assessment of Bradley and Abrams". Archived 21 February 2014 at the Wayback Machine US General Accounting Office, 10 January 1992. Quote: "According to information provided by the Army's Office of the Deputy Chief of Staff for Operations and Plans, 20 Bradleys were destroyed during the Gulf war. Another 12 Bradleys were damaged, but four of these were quickly repaired. Friendly fire accounted for 17 of the destroyed Bradleys and three of the damaged ones
16. ^ Iraqi Invasion of Kuwait; 1990 (Air War) Archived 6 October 2014 at the Wayback Machine. Acig.org. Retrieved on 12 June 2011
17. ^ ^{a b c d e} Bourque (2001), p. 455.
18. ^ "Appendix – Iraqi Death Toll | The Gulf War | FRONTLINE | PBS". www.pbs.org. Retrieved 24 July 2021.
19. ^ Tucker-Jones, Anthony (31 May 2014). The Gulf War: Operation Desert Storm 1990–1991. Pen and Sword. ISBN 978-1-4738-3730-0. Archived from the original on 5 December 2022. Retrieved 22 April 2022.
20. ^ "Human Rights Watch". Archived from the original on 22 April 2022. Retrieved 22 April 2022.
21. ^ "Appendix A: Chronology - February 1991". Naval History and Heritage Command. Retrieved 4 February 2024.
22. ^ "Iraq air force wants Iran to give back its planes". Reuters. 10 August 2007.
23. ^ "The Use of Terror during Iraq's invasion of Kuwait". The Jewish Agency for Israel. Archived from the original on 24 January 2005. Retrieved 22 June 2010.
24. ^ "Kuwait: missing people: a step in the right direction". Red Cross. Archived from the original on 7 March 2016. Retrieved 5 March 2014.
25. ^ "The Wages of War: Iraqi Combatant and Noncombatant Fatalities in the 2003 Conflict". Project on Defense Alternatives. Retrieved 9 May 2009.

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17 January 1917 – The United States pays Denmark $25 million for the Virgin Islands.

United States Virgin Islands

Territory of the United States

Not to be confused with British Virgin Islands or Spanish Virgin Islands.

Unincorporated and organized U.S. territory in the United States

The United States Virgin Islands,^{[note 2]} officially the Virgin Islands of the United States, are a group of Caribbean islands and an unincorporated and organized territory of the United States.^[7] The islands are geographically part of the Virgin Islands archipelago and are located in the Leeward Islands of the Lesser Antilles.^[8]

The U.S. Virgin Islands consist of the main islands of Saint Croix, Saint John, and Saint Thomas and 50 other surrounding minor islands and cays.^[9] The total land area of the territory is 133.73 square miles (346.36 km²).^[7] The territory's capital is Charlotte Amalie on the island of St. Thomas.

Previously known as the Danish West Indies of the Kingdom of Denmark–Norway (from 1754 to 1814) and the independent Kingdom of Denmark (from 1814 to 1917), they were sold to the United States by Denmark for $25,000,000 in the 1917 Treaty of the Danish West Indies^[7] ($595 million in 2023) and have since been an organized, unincorporated United States territory. The U.S. Virgin Islands are organized under the 1954 Revised Organic Act of the Virgin Islands and have since held five constitutional conventions. As with other territories in the United States, the Virgin Islands elects a delegate who can participate in debates in the House of Representatives but cannot vote.^[10]

Tourism and related categories are the primary economic activities.^[7]

Cite error: There are <ref group=note> tags on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=note}} template (see the help page).

1. ^ "2020 Island Areas Censuses Data on Demographic, Social, Economic and Housing Characteristics Now Available for the U.S. Virgin Islands". Archived from the original on October 26, 2022. Retrieved October 26, 2022.
2. ^ "Religions in U S Virgin Islands - PEW-GRF". www.globalreligiousfutures.org. Archived from the original on January 7, 2018. Retrieved February 22, 2017.
3. ^ "2020 Island Areas Censuses: U.S. Virgin Islands". United States Census Bureau. United States Department of Commerce. Archived from the original on January 20, 2022. Retrieved January 8, 2022.
4. ^ Gross Domestic Product Per Capita for U.S. Virgin Islands (Report). May 5, 2017. Archived from the original on May 23, 2017. Retrieved July 14, 2017.
5. ^ "Virgin Islands (U.S.) | Data". data.worldbank.org. Archived from the original on August 10, 2021. Retrieved August 10, 2021.
6. ^ "The Forgotten Isles: A Risk Assessment of the United States' Island Territories, 2008-2020" (PDF). sites.tufts.edu. Archived (PDF) from the original on December 4, 2021. Retrieved December 20, 2022.
7. ^ ^{a b c d} Cite error: The named reference WorldFactbook was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
8. ^ "United States Virgin Islands". Britannica. Archived from the original on July 31, 2022. Retrieved August 6, 2022.
9. ^ "Virgin Islands". britannica.com. Archived from the original on July 26, 2018. Retrieved January 2, 2020.
10. ^ Leibowitz, Arnold H. (1989). Defining status : a comprehensive analysis of United States territorial relations. Dordrecht: Nijhoff. ISBN 0-7923-0069-6. OCLC 18779202.

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18 January 2003 – A bushfire kills four people and destroys more than 500 homes in Canberra, Australia.

2003 Canberra bushfires

Bushfires Near Canberra Australia

The 2003 Canberra bushfires caused severe damage to the suburbs and outer areas of Canberra, the capital city of Australia, during 18–22 January 2003. Almost 70% of the Australian Capital Territory's (ACT) pastures, pine plantations, and nature parks were severely damaged,^[1] and most of the Mount Stromlo Observatory was destroyed. After burning for a week around the edges of the ACT, the fires entered the suburbs of Canberra on 18 January 2003. Over the next ten hours, four people died, over 490 were injured, and 470 homes were destroyed or severely damaged, requiring a significant relief and reconstruction effort.

1. ^ "Canberra 2003". Australian Disaster Resilience Knowledge Hub. Retrieved 3 November 2019.

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19 January 1977 – President Gerald Ford pardons Iva Toguri D'Aquino (a.k.a. "Tokyo Rose").

Tokyo Rose

World War II Japanese propagandists

For other uses, see Tokyo Rose (disambiguation).

Tokyo Rose (alternative spelling Tokio Rose) was a name given by Allied troops in the South Pacific during World War II to all female English-speaking radio broadcasters of Japanese propaganda.^[1] The programs were broadcast in the South Pacific and North America to demoralize Allied forces abroad and their families at home by emphasizing troops' wartime difficulties and military losses.^[1][2] Several female broadcasters operated using different aliases and in different cities throughout the territories occupied by the Japanese Empire, including Tokyo, Manila, and Shanghai.^[3] The name "Tokyo Rose" was never actually used by any Japanese broadcaster,^[2][4] but it first appeared in U.S. newspapers in the context of these radio programs during 1943.^{[5][original research]}

During the war, Tokyo Rose was not any one individual, but rather a group of largely unassociated women working for the same propagandist effort throughout the Japanese Empire.^[3] In the years soon after the war, the character "Tokyo Rose" – whom the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) now avers to be "mythical" – became an important symbol of Japanese villainy for the United States.^[1] American cartoons,^[6][7] movies,^[8][9][10] and propaganda videos^[11] between 1945 and 1960 tend to portray her as sexualized, manipulative, and deadly to American interests in the South Pacific, particularly by revealing intelligence of American losses in radio broadcasts. Similar accusations concern the propaganda broadcasts of Lord Haw-Haw^[12] and Axis Sally,^[13] and in 1949 the San Francisco Chronicle described Tokyo Rose as the "Mata Hari of radio".^[14]

Tokyo Rose ceased to be merely a symbol during September 1945 when Iva Toguri D'Aquino, a Japanese-American disc jockey for a propagandist radio program, attempted to return to the United States.^[1] Toguri was accused of being the "real" Tokyo Rose, arrested, tried, and became the seventh person in U.S. history to be convicted of treason.^[1] Toguri was eventually paroled from prison in 1956, but it was more than twenty years later that she received an official presidential pardon for her role in the war.^[1]

1. ^ ^{a b c d e f} "Iva Toguri d'Aquino and 'Tokyo Rose'". Famous Cases & Criminals. Federal Bureau of Investigation (F.B.I.). Retrieved April 10, 2017.
2. ^ ^{a b} Berg, Jerome S. The Early Shortwave Stations: A Broadcasting History Through 1945. Jefferson: McFarland, 2013. CREDO Reference. Web. Retrieved 5 March 2017. p. 205.
3. ^ ^{a b} Shibusawa, Naoko (2010). "Femininity, Race, and Treachery: How 'Tokyo Rose' Became a Traitor to the United States after the Second World War". Gender and History. 22 (1): 169–188. doi:10.1111/j.1468-0424.2010.01584.x. S2CID 145688118.
4. ^ Kushner, Barak. "Tokyo Rose." Propaganda and Mass Persuasion: A Historical Encyclopedia, 1500 to the Present. Ed. Nicholas John Cull, et al. 2003. Credo Reference. Accessed 05 Mar 2017.
5. ^ Arnot, Charles P. (June 22, 1943). "American Submarines Have Sunk 230 Japanese Ships in Pacific". Brainerd Daily Dispatch. p. 6. We were tuned in on Radio Tokyo when Tokyo Rose, the woman who broadcasts in English, came on the air with 'Hello America ... You build 'em, we sink 'em...'
6. ^ Cite error: The named reference :2 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
7. ^ Leon Schlessinger, Tokyo Woes, retrieved 2017-05-22
8. ^ Cite error: The named reference :3 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
9. ^ Cite error: The named reference :4 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
10. ^ Pfau, Ann Elizabeth (2008). "The Legend of Tokyo Rose". Miss Yourlovin: GIs, Gender, and Domesticity during World War II. Columbia University Press. ISBN 978-0231509565.
11. ^ Cite error: The named reference :5 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
12. ^ Pfau, Ann Elizabeth; Householder, David (2009). "'Her Voice a Bullet': Imaginary Propaganda and the Legendary Broadcasters of World War II". In Strasser, Susan; Suisman, David (eds.). Sound in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction. University of Pennsylvania Press.
13. ^ Pfau, Ann; Hochfelder, David (April 24, 2008). "World War II Radio Propaganda: Real and Imaginary". Talking History.
14. ^ Stanton Delaplane, 'Tokyo Rose on Trial: "Bribery" Comes up, but it's Ruled out of Court', San Francisco Chronicle, 16 July 1949, p. 3.

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20 January 1649 – Charles I of England goes on trial for treason and other "high crimes".

Charles I of England

King of England, Scotland and Ireland from 1625 to 1649

Charles I (19 November 1600 – 30 January 1649)^[a] was King of England, Scotland, and Ireland from 27 March 1625 until his execution in 1649.

Charles was born into the House of Stuart as the second son of King James VI of Scotland, but after his father inherited the English throne in 1603, he moved to England, where he spent much of the rest of his life. He became heir apparent to the kingdoms of England, Scotland, and Ireland in 1612 upon the death of his elder brother, Henry Frederick, Prince of Wales. An unsuccessful and unpopular attempt to marry him to Infanta Maria Anna of Spain culminated in an eight-month visit to Spain in 1623 that demonstrated the futility of the marriage negotiation. Two years later, shortly after his accession, he married Henrietta Maria of France.

After his succession in 1625, Charles quarrelled with the English Parliament, which sought to curb his royal prerogative. He believed in the divine right of kings, and was determined to govern according to his own conscience. Many of his subjects opposed his policies, in particular the levying of taxes without parliamentary consent, and perceived his actions as those of a tyrannical absolute monarch. His religious policies, coupled with his marriage to a Roman Catholic, generated antipathy and mistrust from Reformed religious groups such as the English Puritans and Scottish Covenanters, who thought his views too Catholic. He supported high church Anglican ecclesiastics and failed to aid continental Protestant forces successfully during the Thirty Years' War. His attempts to force the Church of Scotland to adopt high Anglican practices led to the Bishops' Wars, strengthened the position of the English and Scottish parliaments, and helped precipitate his own downfall.

From 1642, Charles fought the armies of the English and Scottish parliaments in the English Civil War. After his defeat in 1645 at the hands of the Parliamentarian New Model Army, he fled north from his base at Oxford. Charles surrendered to a Scottish force and after lengthy negotiations between the English and Scottish parliaments he was handed over to the Long Parliament in London. Charles refused to accept his captors' demands for a constitutional monarchy, and temporarily escaped captivity in November 1647. Re-imprisoned on the Isle of Wight, he forged an alliance with Scotland, but by the end of 1648, the New Model Army had consolidated its control over England. Charles was tried, convicted, and executed for high treason in January 1649. The monarchy was abolished and the Commonwealth of England was established as a republic. The monarchy would be restored to Charles's son Charles II in 1660.
Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

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11 January 1981 – Production of the iconic DeLorean DMC-12 sports car begins in Dunmurry, Northern Ireland, United Kingdom.

DeLorean DMC-12

Redirect to:

• DMC DeLorean

• From a page move: This is a redirect from a page that has been moved (renamed). This page was kept as a redirect to avoid breaking links, both internal and external, that may have been made to the old page name.

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22 January 1905 – Bloody Sunday in Saint Petersburg, beginning of the 1905 revolution.

Bloody Sunday (1905)

1905 protest in St. Petersburg, Russia

For other events of the same name, see Bloody Sunday (disambiguation).

Bloody Sunday or Red Sunday^[1] (Russian: Кровавое воскресенье, tr. Krovavoye voskresenye, IPA: [krɐˈvavəɪ vəskrʲɪˈsʲenʲjɪ]) was the series of events on Sunday, 22 January [O.S. 9 January] 1905 in St Petersburg, Russia, when unarmed demonstrators, led by Father Georgy Gapon, were fired upon by soldiers of the Imperial Guard as they marched towards the Winter Palace to present a petition to Tsar Nicholas II of Russia.

Bloody Sunday caused grave consequences for the Tsarist autocracy governing Imperial Russia: the events in St. Petersburg provoked public outrage and a series of massive strikes that spread quickly to the industrial centres of the Russian Empire. The massacre on Bloody Sunday is considered to be the start of the active phase of the Revolution of 1905. In addition to beginning the 1905 Revolution, historians such as Lionel Kochan in his book Russia in Revolution 1890–1918 view the events of Bloody Sunday to be one of the key events which led to the Russian Revolution of 1917.

1. ^ A History of Modern Europe 1789–1968 by Herbert L. Peacock m.a.

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23 January 1879 – Anglo-Zulu War: the Battle of Rorke's Drift ends.

Battle of Rorke's Drift

1879 battle in the Anglo-Zulu War

The Battle Rorke's Drift, also known as the Defence of Rorke's Drift, was an engagement in the Anglo-Zulu War. The successful British defence of the mission station of Rorke's Drift, under the command of Lieutenants John Chard of the Royal Engineers and Gonville Bromhead, of the 24th Regiment of Foot began once a large contingent of Zulu warriors broke off from the main force during the final hour of the British defeat at the day-long Battle of Isandlwana on 22 January 1879, diverting 6 miles (9.7 km) to attack Rorke's Drift later that day and continuing into the following day.

Just over 150 British and colonial troops defended the station against attacks by 3,000 to 4,000 Zulu warriors. The massive but piecemeal attacks by the Zulu on Rorke's Drift came very close to overwhelming the much smaller garrison, but were consistently repelled.^[9] Eleven Victoria Crosses were awarded to individual defenders, along with a number of other decorations and honours.

1. ^ Knight, Ian. Zulu: Isandlwana, Ulindi and Rorke's Drift, 1992, pp. 107–108.
2. ^ Holme, Norman. The Noble 24th, Savannah Publications, ISBN 1-902366-04-2, 1999, p. 265–369, 383.
3. ^ Whybra 2004, pp. 68–69.
4. ^ Estimates vary: Colenso 1880, p. 305, gives 3,000; Knight 2003, p. 37, gives "in excess of 3,000"; Lock and Quantrill 2005, pp. 231–232 gives 3,000, p. 231; Morris 1998 gives over 4,000.
5. ^ Knight 1996, p. 23.
6. ^ Porter 1889, p. 33, "17 killed and 10 wounded" (including one killed by 'friendly fire' while fleeing the garrison at start of the battle)
7. ^ Colenso 1880, p. 305
8. ^ Lock and Quantrill 2005, excerpt from private journal of Lieutenant Colonel John North Crealock, Crealock states "351 dead were found and 500 wounded".
9. ^ Knight 2003, p. 37.

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24 January 2009 – Cyclone Klaus makes landfall near Bordeaux, France, causing 26 deaths as well as extensive disruptions to public transport and power supplies.

Cyclone Klaus

2009 windstorm over southern and southwestern Europe

Cyclone Klaus^[2] was a European windstorm or cyclone that made landfall over large parts of central and southern France, Spain and parts of Italy in January 2009. The storm was the most damaging since Lothar and Martin in December 1999.^[3] The storm caused widespread damage across France and Spain, especially in northern Spain.

The storm caused twenty-six fatalities,^[1] as well as extensive disruptions to public transport and power supplies, with approximately 1.7 million homes in southwest France and tens of thousands of homes in Spain experiencing power cuts. Severe damage to property and major forest damage occurred.^[4] Peak gusts were over 200 km/h (120 mph); sustained winds over 170 km/h (110 mph) were observed, which are hurricane-force winds.

1. ^ ^{a b} https://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5iFx6G9AxzlMnJfrI_QNV_F3LeX_Q ^{[permanent dead link]}
2. ^ "Adopt a Vortex!". Institut für Meteorologie, Free University of Berlin. Archived from the original on 2007-02-27. Retrieved 2009-01-25. Shown on map Archived 2016-03-04 at the Wayback Machine
3. ^ "France, Spain pick up pieces after deadly storm". ABC News. 25 January 2009. Retrieved 2009-01-26.
4. ^ "Storm leaves 15 dead in S Europe". The BBC. 2009-01-25. Retrieved 2009-01-25.

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25 January 1949 – The first Emmy Awards are presented; the venue is the Hollywood Athletic Club.

Emmy Award

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• Emmy Awards

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26 January 1855 – Point No Point Treaty is signed in Washington Territory.

Point No Point Treaty

1855 treaty between American settlers of the Washington Territory and local tribes

The Point No Point Treaty was signed on January 26, 1855, at Point No Point, on the northern tip of the Kitsap Peninsula.^[1] Governor of Washington Territory, Isaac Stevens, convened the treaty council on January 25, with the S'Klallam, the Chimakum, and the Skokomish tribes.^[2][1] Under the terms of the treaty, the original inhabitants of northern Kitsap Peninsula and Olympic Peninsula ceded ownership of their land in exchange for small reservations along Hood Canal and a payment of $60,000 from the federal government. The treaty required the natives to trade only with the United States, to free all their slaves, and to not acquire any new slaves.

On the first day of the council, treaty provisions were translated from English to the Chinook Jargon for the 1,200 natives who assembled at the sand spit they called Hahdskus,^[1] across Admiralty Inlet from Whidbey Island. Today this is the site of a lighthouse.

Skokomish leader Hool-hol-tan expressed concern about finding sufficient food in the new locations, and did not like the lands being offered as a reservation. L'Hau-at-scha-uk, a To-antioch, was afraid he would die if he left his ancestral lands. Others objected that the land was being bought too cheaply, now that they understood what it was worth. The whites played down the importance of the land, but the first day ended without an agreement.

But by the next morning, the various chiefs and headmen returned under white flags to add their marks to the treaty. It had already been prepared by the United States representatives in its final form; they had no intention of using it as a basis for negotiations.^[1]

1. ^ ^{a b c d} Cite error: The named reference historylink was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
2. ^ Cite error: The named reference pnquarterly was invoked but never defined (see the help page).

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27 January 1996 – Germany first observes International Holocaust Remembrance Day.

International Holocaust Remembrance Day

International memorial day on 27 January for the victims of Nazi genocides

There are a number of Holocaust memorial days, but not all of them are on the same day.

The International Holocaust Remembrance Day, or the International Day in Memory of the Victims of the Holocaust, is an international memorial day on 27 January that commemorates the victims of the Holocaust, which resulted in the genocide of one third of the Jewish people, along with countless members of other minorities by Nazi Germany between 1933 and 1945, an attempt to implement its "final solution" to the Jewish question. 27 January was chosen to commemorate the date when the Auschwitz concentration camp was liberated by the Red Army in 1945.

The day remembers the killing of six million Jews, two-thirds of Europe's Jewish population, and millions of others by the Nazi regime and its collaborators.^[1][2] It was designated by United Nations General Assembly resolution 60/7 on 1 November 2005.^[3] The resolution came after a special session was held earlier that year on 24 January to mark the 60th anniversary of the liberation of the Nazi concentration camps and the end of the Holocaust.^[4][5][6][7]

Many countries have instituted their own Holocaust memorial days. Many, such as the UK's Holocaust Memorial Day, also fall on 27 January, while others, such as Israel's Yom HaShoah, are observed at other times of the year.

1. ^ "Documenting Numbers of Victims of the Holocaust and Nazi Persecution". encyclopedia.ushmm.org. Retrieved 27 January 2019.
2. ^ "International Holocaust Remembrance Day" (PDF). Retrieved 24 January 2022.
3. ^ "Resolution 60/7 Holocaust Remembrance" (PDF). United Nations. 1 November 2005. Retrieved 24 January 2022.
4. ^ "28th Special Session of the General Assembly (1st meeting)". United Nations. 24 January 2005. Retrieved 27 January 2022.
5. ^ "28th Special Session of the General Assembly (2nd meeting)". United Nations. 24 January 2005. Retrieved 27 January 2022.
6. ^ "International Holocaust Remembrance Day". www.ushmm.org. Retrieved 27 January 2019.
7. ^ "International Holocaust Remembrance Day". 27 January 2019. Retrieved 27 January 2019.

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28 January 1956 – Elvis Presley makes his first American television appearance.

Elvis Presley

American singer and actor (1935–1977)

For other uses, see Elvis Presley (disambiguation).

"Elvis" and "King of Rock and Roll" redirect here. For other uses, see Elvis (disambiguation) and King of Rock and Roll (disambiguation).

Elvis Aaron Presley^[a] (January 8, 1935 – August 16, 1977), also known mononymously as Elvis, was an American singer and actor. Known as the "King of Rock and Roll", he is regarded as one of the most significant cultural figures of the 20th century. Presley's energized interpretations of songs and sexually provocative performance style, combined with a singularly potent mix of influences across color lines during a transformative era in race relations, brought both great success and initial controversy.

Presley was born in Tupelo, Mississippi; his family relocated to Memphis, Tennessee, when he was 13. His music career began there in 1954, at Sun Records with producer Sam Phillips, who wanted to bring the sound of African-American music to a wider audience. Presley, on guitar and accompanied by lead guitarist Scotty Moore and bassist Bill Black, was a pioneer of rockabilly, an uptempo, backbeat-driven fusion of country music and rhythm and blues. In 1955, drummer D. J. Fontana joined to complete the lineup of Presley's classic quartet and RCA Victor acquired his contract in a deal arranged by Colonel Tom Parker, who would manage him for more than two decades. Presley's first RCA Victor single, "Heartbreak Hotel", was released in January 1956 and became a number-one hit in the United States. Within a year, RCA Victor would sell ten million Presley singles. With a series of successful television appearances and chart-topping records, Presley became the leading figure of the newly popular rock and roll; though his performative style and promotion of the then-marginalized sound of African Americans^[6] led to him being widely considered a threat to the moral well-being of white American youth.^[7]

In November 1956, Presley made his film debut in Love Me Tender. Drafted into military service in 1958, he relaunched his recording career two years later with some of his most commercially successful work. Presley held few concerts, however, and guided by Parker, proceeded to devote much of the 1960s to making Hollywood films and soundtrack albums, most of them critically derided. Some of Presley's most famous films included Jailhouse Rock (1957), Blue Hawaii (1961), and Viva Las Vegas (1964). In 1968, following a seven-year break from live performances, he returned to the stage in the acclaimed NBC television comeback special Elvis, which led to an extended Las Vegas concert residency and a string of highly profitable tours. In 1973, Presley gave the first concert by a solo artist to be broadcast around the world, Aloha from Hawaii. However, years of prescription drug abuse and unhealthy eating habits severely compromised his health, and Presley died unexpectedly in August 1977 at his Graceland estate at the age of 42.

Having sold more than 500 million records worldwide, Presley is one of the best-selling music artists of all time. He was commercially successful in many genres, including pop, country, rockabilly, rhythm and blues, adult contemporary, and gospel. He won three Grammy Awards, received the Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award at age 36, and has been inducted into multiple music halls of fame. He also holds several records, including the most RIAA-certified gold and platinum albums, the most albums charted on the Billboard 200, the most number-one albums by a solo artist on the UK Albums Chart, and the most number-one singles by any act on the UK Singles Chart. In 2018, Presley was posthumously awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom.

Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

1. ^ US Department of Defense 1960.
2. ^ Elster 2006, p. 391.
3. ^ ^{a b} Nash 2005, p. 11.
4. ^ Guralnick 1994, p. 13.
5. ^ ^{a b} Adelman 2002, pp. 13–15.
6. ^ Cite error: The named reference :00 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
7. ^ Brown & Broeske 1997, p. 55.

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29 January 1861 – Kansas is admitted as the 34th U.S. state.

Kansas

U.S. state

This article is about the U.S. state. For other uses, see Kansas (disambiguation).

State in the United States

Kansas (/ˈkænzəs/ ^ⓘ KAN-zəss)^[9] is a landlocked state in the Midwestern region of the United States.^[10] It borders Nebraska to the north; Missouri to the east; Oklahoma to the south; and Colorado to the west. Kansas is named after the Kansas River, in turn named after the Kansa people.^{[11][12][13][14]} Its capital is Topeka, and its most populous city is Wichita, however the largest urban area is the bi-state Kansas City, MO–KS metropolitan area.

For thousands of years, what is now Kansas was home to numerous and diverse Indigenous tribes. The first settlement of non-indigenous people in Kansas occurred in 1827 at Fort Leavenworth. The pace of settlement accelerated in the 1850s, in the midst of political wars over the slavery debate. When it was officially opened to settlement by the U.S. government in 1854 with the Kansas–Nebraska Act, conflict between abolitionist Free-Staters from New England and pro-slavery settlers from neighboring Missouri broke out over the question of whether Kansas would become a free state or a slave state, in a period known as Bleeding Kansas. On January 29, 1861,^[15][16] Kansas entered the Union as a free state, hence the unofficial nickname "The Free State". Passage of the Homestead Acts in 1862 brought a further influx of settlers, and the booming cattle trade of the 1870s attracted some of the Wild West's most iconic figures to western Kansas.^[17][18]

As of 2015, Kansas was among the most productive agricultural states, producing high yields of wheat, corn, sorghum, and soybeans.^[19] In addition to its traditional strength in agriculture, Kansas possesses an extensive aerospace industry. Kansas, which has an area of 82,278 square miles (213,100 square kilometers) is the 15th-largest state by area, the 36th most-populous of the 50 states, with a population of 2,940,865^[20] according to the 2020 census, and the 10th least densely populated. Residents of Kansas are called Kansans. Mount Sunflower is Kansas's highest point at 4,039 feet (1,231 meters).^[21]

1. ^ Riney-Kehrberg, Pamela. "Wholesome, Home-Baked Goodness: Kansas, the Wheat State" (PDF). Kansas History: A Journal of the Central Plains (Spring 2011). Kansas State Historical Society: 60–69.
2. ^ "New vanity tag rule spurs drivers' creativity".
3. ^ ^{a b c} Geography, US Census Bureau. "State Area Measurements and Internal Point Coordinates". Archived from the original on March 16, 2018. Retrieved May 31, 2016.
4. ^ Perlman, Howard. "Area of each state that is water". Archived from the original on June 25, 2016.
5. ^ ^{a b} "Kansas Geography from NETSTATE". Archived from the original on June 4, 2016.
6. ^ ^{a b} "Elevations and Distances in the United States". United States Geological Survey. 2001. Archived from the original on October 15, 2011. Retrieved October 21, 2011.
7. ^ ^{a b} "Median Annual Household Income". The Henry J. Kaiser Family Foundation. Retrieved April 11, 2024.
8. ^ "Governor's Signature Makes English the Official Language of Kansas". US English. May 11, 2007. Archived from the original on July 10, 2007. Retrieved August 6, 2008.
9. ^ "Kansas". Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary. Retrieved March 8, 2024.
10. ^ "Current Lists of Metropolitan and Micropolitan Statistical Areas and Delineations". Archived from the original on January 27, 2017.
11. ^ "Kansas Historical Quarterly—A Review of Early Navigation on the Kansas River—Kansas Historical Society". Kshs.org. Retrieved August 15, 2012.
12. ^ "Kansas history page". Retrieved April 13, 2019.
13. ^ The Encyclopedia of Kansas (1994) ISBN 0-403-09921-8
14. ^ John Koontz, p.c.
15. ^ "Today in History: January 29". Memory.loc.gov. Archived from the original on July 27, 2010. Retrieved July 31, 2010.
16. ^ "Kansas Quick Facts". governor.ks.gov. Archived from the original on May 11, 2011. Retrieved December 30, 2010.
17. ^ Clavin, Thomas; Clavin, Tom (February 28, 2017). Dodge City: Wyatt Earp, Bat Masterson, and the Wickedest Town in the American West. St. Martin's Publishing Group. ISBN 978-1-250-07148-4.
18. ^ Magazine, Smithsonian. "How Dodge City Became a Symbol of Frontier Lawlessness". Smithsonian Magazine. Retrieved January 6, 2024.
19. ^ "Kansas Agriculture". Kansas Department of Agriculture. Archived from the original on September 20, 2015. Retrieved September 14, 2015.
20. ^ "2020 Census" (PDF). Census.gov. April 26, 2021.
21. ^ "Mount Sunflower—Kansas, United States • peakery". April 3, 2011. Archived from the original on April 3, 2011.

Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

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30 January 2003 – The Kingdom of Belgium officially recognizes same-sex marriages.

Same-sex marriage

Marriage of persons of the same sex or gender

"Marriage equality" and "gay marriage" redirect here. For other uses, see marriage equality (disambiguation) and gay marriage (disambiguation).

Same-sex marriage, also known as gay marriage, is the marriage of two people of the same legal sex. As of 2024,^[update] marriage between same-sex couples is legally performed and recognized in 36 countries,^[1][2][3] with a total population of 1.3 billion people (17% of the world's population). The most recent country to legalise same-sex marriage is Greece.^[4]

Adoption rights are not necessarily covered, though most states with same-sex marriage allow those couples to jointly adopt as other married couples can. In contrast, 35 countries (as of 2023) have definitions of marriage in their constitutions that prevent marriage between couples of the same sex, most enacted in recent decades as a preventative measure. Some other countries have constitutionally mandated Islamic law, which is generally interpreted as prohibiting marriage between same-sex couples. In six of the former and most of the latter, homosexuality itself is criminalized. It is legally recognized in a large majority of the world's developed democracies; notable exceptions are Italy, Japan, South Korea and the Czech Republic. It is not yet recognized in any of the world's Islamic polities. Some countries, such as China and Russia, restrict advocacy for same-sex marriage.^[5][6]

There are records of marriage between men dating back to the first century.^[7] The first same-sex couple to be married legally in modern times were Michael McConnell and Jack Baker in 1971 in the United States; they were married in the county of Blue Earth County, Minnesota.^[8] The first law providing for marriage equality between same-sex and opposite-sex couples was passed in the continental Netherlands in 2000 and took effect on 1 April 2001.^[9] The application of marriage law equally to same-sex and opposite-sex couples has varied by jurisdiction, and has come about through legislative change to marriage law, court rulings based on constitutional guarantees of equality, recognition that marriage of same-sex couples is allowed by existing marriage law, and by direct popular vote, such as through referendums and initiatives.^[10][11] The most prominent supporters of same-sex marriage are the world's major medical and scientific communities,^[12][13][14] along with human rights and civil rights organizations,^[15] while its most prominent opponents are religious fundamentalist groups.^[16] Polls consistently show continually rising support for the recognition of same-sex marriage in all developed democracies and in many developing countries.

Scientific studies show that the financial, psychological, and physical well-being of gay people are enhanced by marriage, and that the children of same-sex parents benefit from being raised by married same-sex couples within a marital union that is recognized by law and supported by societal institutions. Social science research indicates that the exclusion of same-sex couples from marriage stigmatizes and invites public discrimination against gay and lesbian people, with research repudiating the notion that either civilization or viable social orders depend upon restricting marriage to heterosexuals.^[17][18][19] Same-sex marriage can provide those in committed same-sex relationships with relevant government services and make financial demands on them comparable to that required of those in opposite-sex marriages, and also gives them legal protections such as inheritance and hospital visitation rights.^[20] Opposition is based on claims such as that homosexuality is unnatural and abnormal, that the recognition of same-sex unions will promote homosexuality in society, and that children are better off when raised by opposite-sex couples. These claims are refuted by scientific studies, which show that homosexuality is a natural and normal variation in human sexuality, that sexual orientation is not a choice, and that children of same-sex couples fare just as well as the children of opposite-sex couples.^[12]

1. ^ "Grecia: il Parlamento approva matrimoni e adozioni per le coppie gay". Retrieved 16 February 2024.
2. ^ "Same-Sex Marriage Around the World". Pew Research Center. Retrieved 26 October 2023.
3. ^ "Marriage Equality Around the World". Human Rights Campaign. Retrieved 3 February 2024.
4. ^ "Greece legalises same-sex marriage". Retrieved 16 February 2024.
5. ^ VERPOEST, LIEN (2017). "The End of Rhetorics: LGBT policies in Russia and the European Union". Studia Diplomatica. 68 (4): 3–20. ISSN 0770-2965. JSTOR 26531664.
6. ^ Huang, Wen (4 January 2001). "Gayness as a Western disease". Bay Area Reporter. Vol. 31, no. 1. Center for Bibliographical Studies and Research. Retrieved 31 August 2020.
7. ^ Williams, CA., Roman Homosexuality: Second Edition, Oxford University Press, 2009, p. 280, p. 284.
8. ^ William N. Eskridg Jr. and Christopher R. Riano, "Marriage Equality: From Outlaws to In-Laws", Yale University Press (2020), Chapter 24.
9. ^ Winter, Caroline (4 December 2014). "In 14 years, same-sex marriage has spread round the world". Bloomberg. Archived from the original on 13 January 2022. Retrieved 20 February 2022.
10. ^ "Same-sex Oklahoma couple marries legally under tribal law". KOCO. 26 September 2013. Archived from the original on 22 October 2013. Retrieved 22 October 2013.
11. ^ "Clela Rorex, former Boulder County Clerk who issued first same-sex marriage license in 1975 dies at 78". 19 June 2022.
12. ^ ^{a b} Multiple sources:
    • Coghlan, Andy (16 June 2008). "Gay brains structured like those of the opposite sex". New Scientist. Archived from the original on 29 April 2019. Retrieved 5 April 2018.
    • Lamanna, Mary Ann; Riedmann, Agnes; Stewart, Susan D. (2014). Marriages, Families, and Relationships: Making Choices in a Diverse Society. Cengage Learning. p. 82. ISBN 978-1305176898. Archived from the original on 30 November 2016. Retrieved 11 February 2016. [T]he APA says that sexual orientation is not a choice [...]. (American Psychological Association, 2010).
    • Pawelski, J. G.; Perrin, E. C.; Foy, J. M.; Allen, C. E.; Crawford, J. E.; Del Monte, M.; Kaufman, M.; Klein, J. D.; Smith, K.; Springer, S.; Tanner, J. L.; Vickers, D. L. (2006). "The Effects of Marriage, Civil Union, and Domestic Partnership Laws on the Health and Well-being of Children". Pediatrics. 118 (1): 349–364. doi:10.1542/peds.2006-1279. PMID 16818585. S2CID 219194821. Archived from the original on 29 April 2019. Retrieved 2 November 2013.
    • American Medical Association; American Academy of Pediatrics; American Psychological Association; American Psychiatric Association; American Association for Marriage and Family Therapy; National Association of Social Workers; American Psychoanalytic Association; American Academy of Family Physicians; et al. "Brief of [medical organizations] as Amici Curiae in Support of Petitioners" (PDF). supremecourt.gov. Archived from the original (PDF) on 12 April 2019. Retrieved 5 April 2018.
    • Bever, Lindsey (7 July 2014). "Children of same-sex couples are happier and healthier than peers, research shows". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on 4 May 2019. Retrieved 12 December 2018.
    • Pawelski, James G.; Perrin, Ellen C.; Foy, Jane M.; Allen, Carole E.; Crawford, James E.; Del Monte, Mark; Kaufman, Miriam; Klein, Jonathan D.; Smith, Karen; Springer, Sarah; Tanner, J. Lane; Vickers, Dennis L. (July 2006). "The Effects of Marriage, Civil Union, and Domestic Partnership Laws on the Health and Well-being of Children". Pediatrics. 118 (1). American Academy of Pediatrics: 349–64. doi:10.1542/peds.2006-1279. PMID 16818585. S2CID 219194821. Archived from the original on 1 May 2011. Retrieved 16 June 2019. In fact, growing up with parents who are lesbian or gay may confer some advantages to children.
13. ^ Cite error: The named reference amici was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
14. ^ Cite error: The named reference cpa2006 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
15. ^ Cite error: The named reference bbc was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
16. ^ Cite error: The named reference religion was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
17. ^ Multiple sources:
    • "Resolution on Sexual Orientation and Marriage" (PDF). American Psychological Association. 2004. Archived from the original (PDF) on 11 May 2011. Retrieved 10 November 2010.
    • "Brief of the American Psychological Association, The California Psychological Association, the American Psychiatric Association, and the American Association for Marriage and Family Therapy as amici curiae in support of plaintiff-appellees – Appeal from United States District Court for the Northern District of California Civil Case No. 09-CV-2292 VRW (Honorable Vaughn R. Walker)" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 13 April 2015. Retrieved 5 November 2010.
    • "Marriage of Same-Sex Couples  – 2006 Position Statement" (PDF). Canadian Psychological Association. Archived from the original (PDF) on 7 July 2012. Retrieved 28 September 2012.
    • Pawelski JG, Perrin EC, Foy JM, et al. (July 2006). "The effects of marriage, civil union, and domestic partnership laws on the health and well-being of children". Pediatrics. 118 (1): 349–64. doi:10.1542/peds.2006-1279. PMID 16818585. S2CID 219194821.
    • Pawelski, J. G.; Perrin, E. C.; Foy, J. M.; Allen, C. E.; Crawford, J. E.; Del Monte, M.; Kaufman, M.; Klein, J. D.; Smith, K.; Springer, S.; Tanner, J. L.; Vickers, D. L. (2006). "The Effects of Marriage, Civil Union, and Domestic Partnership Laws on the Health and Well-being of Children". Pediatrics. 118 (1): 349–364. doi:10.1542/peds.2006-1279. PMID 16818585. S2CID 219194821. Archived from the original on 1 May 2011. Retrieved 7 July 2017.
18. ^ "Brief of Amici Curiae American Anthropological Association et al., supporting plaintiffs-appellees and urging affirmance – Appeal from United States District Court for the Northern District of California Civil Case No. 09-CV-2292 VRW (Honorable Vaughn R. Walker)" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 26 December 2010. Retrieved 5 November 2010.
19. ^ Cite error: The named reference aaa was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
20. ^ Handbook of Gay, Lesbian, Bisexual, and Transgender Administration and Policy — Page 13, Wallace Swan – 2004

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1929 – The Soviet Union exiles Leon Trotsky.

Leon Trotsky

Russian Marxist revolutionary (1879–1940)

"Trotsky" redirects here. For other uses, see Trotsky (disambiguation).

In this name that follows Eastern Slavic naming customs, the patronymic is Davidovich and the family name is Bronstein.

Lev Davidovich Bronstein^[b] (7 November [O.S. 26 October] 1879 – 21 August 1940), better known as Leon Trotsky,^[c] was a Russian revolutionary, Soviet politician, journalist, and political theorist. He was a central figure in the 1905 Revolution,^[4] October Revolution, Russian Civil War, and the establishment of the Soviet Union. Alongside Vladimir Lenin, Trotsky was widely considered the most prominent Soviet figure and was de facto second-in-command during the early years of the Russian Soviet Republic. Ideologically a Marxist and a Leninist, his thought and writings inspired a school of Marxism known as Trotskyism.

Born into a wealthy Jewish family in Yanovka in what was then the Russian Empire, Trotsky was initially a narodnik, but embraced Marxism soon after moving to Nikolayev in 1896. In 1898, he was arrested for revolutionary activities and exiled to Siberia, but in 1902 escaped to London, where he met Lenin and wrote for the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party's paper Iskra. Trotsky initially sided with Julius Martov's Mensheviks against Lenin's Bolsheviks during the party's 1903 split, but was non-factional from 1904. During the 1905 Revolution, Trotsky returned to Russia and became chairman of the Saint Petersburg Soviet. He was again exiled to Siberia, but escaped in 1907 and spent time in London, Vienna, Switzerland, Paris, and New York. After the February Revolution of 1917, which overthrew the tsar, Trotsky returned to Russia and joined the Bolsheviks. As chairman of the Petrograd Soviet, he played an important role in the October Revolution that overthrew the Provisional Government.

In Lenin's first government, Trotsky was appointed the People's Commissar for Foreign Affairs and led the negotiations for the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, by which Russia withdrew from World War I. From 1918 to 1925, he served as the People's Commissar for Military and Naval Affairs, founding the Red Army; establishing conscription, training, and discipline; and leading it to victory in the Russian Civil War. In 1922, Trotsky and Lenin formed an alliance against the emerging Soviet bureaucracy;^[5] Lenin proposed that Trotsky become his Deputy Chairman and preside over economic management^[6] at the Council of People's Commissars, but he declined the post.^[7]

During the New Economic Policy, Trotsky led the party's Left Opposition, which advocated a programme of rapid industrialisation, voluntary collectivisation of agriculture, and expansion of workers' democracy. After Lenin's death in 1924, Trotsky was outmaneuvered by Joseph Stalin and his allies and lost his positions: he was expelled from the Politburo in 1926 and from the party in 1927, internally exiled to Alma Ata in 1928, and deported in 1929. He lived in Turkey, France, and Norway before settling in Mexico in 1937.

In exile, Trotsky wrote extensively and polemically against Stalinism, supporting proletarian internationalism against Stalin's theory of "socialism in one country". Trotsky's own theory of "permanent revolution" posited that the revolution could only survive if extended to advanced capitalist countries. In The Revolution Betrayed (1936), Trotsky argued that the Soviet Union had become a "degenerated workers' state" due to its isolation, and called for an end to Stalin's bureaucratic dictatorship. He founded the Fourth International in 1938 as an alternative to the Comintern. In 1936, Trotsky was sentenced to death in absentia at the first of the Moscow show trials, and in 1940, he was assassinated at his home in Mexico City by NKVD agent Ramón Mercader.

Written out of Soviet history books under Stalin, Trotsky was one of the few of his rivals who never received political rehabilitation from later leaders. In the Western world, he emerged as a hero of the anti-Stalinist left for his defense of a more democratic, internationalist form of socialism^[8] against Stalinist totalitarianism and intellectual contributions to left-wing movements. Whilst some of his wartime measures have proved controversial and have been criticised along with his ideological defence of the Red Terror. Modern scholarship generally ranks his leadership of the Red Army highly among historical figures and he is credited for his major involvement with the military, economic, cultural^[9] and political development of the Soviet Union.

Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

1. ^ Cliff, Tony (2004) [1976]. "Lenin Rearms the Party". All Power to the Soviets: Lenin 1914–1917. Vol. 2. Chicago: Haymarket Books. p. 139. ISBN 9781931859103. Retrieved 17 December 2021. Trotsky was a leader of a small group, the Mezhraionts, consisting of almost four thousand members.
2. ^ Renton 2004, p. 19.
3. ^ "Trotsky". Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary.
4. ^ "A prolific writer and a spellbinding orator, he was a central figure in the Russian Revolution of 1905 and the October Revolution of 1917, the organizer and leader of the Red Army in the Russian Civil War, the heir apparent to Soviet leader Vladimir Lenin, and the arch enemy and then vanquished foe of Joseph Stalin in the succession struggle after Lenin's death".Patenaude, Betrand (21 September 2017). "Trotsky and Trotskyism" in The Cambridge History of Communism: Volume 1, World Revolution and Socialism in One Country 1917–1941. Cambridge University Press. p. 189. ISBN 978-1-108-21041-6.
5. ^ Mccauley 2014, p. 59; Deutscher 2003b, p. 63; Kort 2015, p. 166; Service 2010, p. 301–20; Pipes 1993, p. 469; Volkogonov 1996, p. 242; Lewin 2005, p. 67; Tucker 1973, p. 336; Figes 2017, pp. 796, 797; D'Agostino 2011, p. 67.
6. ^ Getty 2013b, p. 53; Douds 2019b, p. 165.
7. ^ Bullock 1991b, p. 163; Rees & Rosa 1992b, p. 129; Kosheleva 1995b, pp. 80–81.
8. ^ Barnett, Vincent (7 March 2013). A History of Russian Economic Thought. Routledge. p. 101. ISBN 978-1-134-26191-8.
9. ^ Knei-Paz 1979, p. 296; Kivelson & Neuberger 2008, p. 149.

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1 February 1981 – The Underarm bowling incident of 1981 occurred when Trevor Chappell bowls underarm on the final delivery of a game between Australia and New Zealand at the Melbourne Cricket Ground (MCG).

Underarm bowling incident of 1981

1981 cricket controversy

The underarm bowling incident of 1981 is a sporting controversy that took place on 1 February 1981, when Australia played New Zealand in a One Day International cricket match, the third in the best-of-five final of the 1980–81 World Series Cup, at the Melbourne Cricket Ground.^[1]

With one ball of the final over remaining in the match, New Zealand required a six to tie the match. To ensure that New Zealand were unable to achieve this, the Australian captain Greg Chappell instructed his bowler (and younger brother) Trevor Chappell to deliver the last ball to batsman Brian McKechnie underarm along the ground. Trevor did so, forcing McKechnie to play the ball defensively, meaning Australia won. This action, although legal at the time, was nevertheless widely perceived as being wholly against the traditional spirit of cricketing fair play.

The outrage caused by the incident eventually led to an official amendment to the international laws of cricket to prevent it from occurring again.

1. ^ "Cricinfo scorecard of the match". Aus.cricinfo.com. Retrieved 23 January 2013.

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2 February 1901 – Funeral of Queen Victoria.

Queen Victoria

Queen of the United Kingdom from 1837 to 1901

"Victoria of the United Kingdom" and "Victoria I" redirect here. For other people, see Victoria of the United Kingdom (disambiguation) and Queen Victoria (disambiguation). For the videogame, see Victoria: An Empire Under the Sun.

Victoria (Alexandrina Victoria; 24 May 1819 – 22 January 1901) was Queen of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland from 20 June 1837 until her death in 1901. Her reign of 63 years and 216 days, which was longer than those of any of her predecessors, is known as the Victorian era. It was a period of industrial, political, scientific, and military change within the United Kingdom, and was marked by a great expansion of the British Empire. In 1876, the British Parliament voted to grant her the additional title of Empress of India.

Victoria was the daughter of Prince Edward, Duke of Kent and Strathearn (the fourth son of King George III), and Princess Victoria of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld. After the deaths of her father and grandfather in 1820, she was raised under close supervision by her mother and her comptroller, John Conroy. She inherited the throne aged 18 after her father's three elder brothers died without surviving legitimate issue. Victoria, a constitutional monarch, attempted privately to influence government policy and ministerial appointments; publicly, she became a national icon who was identified with strict standards of personal morality.

Victoria married her first cousin, Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, in 1840. Their nine children married into royal and noble families across the continent, earning Victoria the sobriquet "grandmother of Europe". After Albert's death in 1861, Victoria plunged into deep mourning and avoided public appearances. As a result of her seclusion, British republicanism temporarily gained strength, but in the latter half of her reign, her popularity recovered. Her Golden and Diamond jubilees were times of public celebration. Victoria died in 1901 at Osborne House on the Isle of Wight, at the age of 81. The last British monarch of the House of Hanover, she was succeeded by her son Edward VII of the House of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha.
Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

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3 February 1897 – The Greco-Turkish War breaks out.

Greco-Turkish War (1897)

Conflict over the status of Crete

For other uses, see Greco-Turkish War (disambiguation).

The Greco-Turkish War of 1897 or the Ottoman-Greek War of 1897 (Turkish: 1897 Osmanlı-Yunan Savaşı or 1897 Türk-Yunan Savaşı), also called the Thirty Days' War and known in Greece as the Black '97 (Greek: Μαύρο '97, Mauro '97) or the Unfortunate War (Greek: Ατυχής πόλεμος, romanized: Atychis polemos), was a war fought between the Kingdom of Greece and the Ottoman Empire. Its immediate cause involved the status of the Ottoman province of Crete, whose Greek-majority population had long desired union with Greece. Despite the Ottoman victory on the field, an autonomous Cretan State under Ottoman suzerainty was established the following year (as a result of the intervention of the Great Powers after the war), with Prince George of Greece and Denmark as its first High Commissioner.

The war put the military and political personnel of Greece to test in an official open war for the first time since the Greek War of Independence in 1821. For the Ottoman Empire, this was also the first war-effort to test a re-organized military system. The Ottoman army operated under the guidance of a German military mission led (1883–1895) by Colmar Freiherr von der Goltz, who had reorganized the Ottoman military after its defeat in the Russo-Turkish War of 1877–1878.

The conflict proved that Greece was wholly unprepared for war. Plans, fortifications and weapons were non-existent, the mass of the officer corps was unsuited to its tasks, and training was inadequate. As a result, the numerically superior, better-organized, -equipped and -led Ottoman forces, heavily composed of Albanian warriors with combat experience, pushed the Greek forces south out of Thessaly and threatened Athens,^[8] only to cease fire when the Great Powers persuaded the Sultan to agree to an armistice.^{[9][need quotation to verify][10][11]} The war is notable in that it was the first to be filmed on camera, though the footage has since been lost.^[12]

1. ^ ^{a b c} Mehmet Uğur Ekinci: The Origins of the 1897 Ottoman-Greek War: A Diplomatic History. University Bilkent, Ankara 2006, p. 80.
2. ^ ^{a b} Kokkinos, P. (1965). Կոկինոս Պ., Հունահայ գաղութի պատմությունից (1918–1927) (in Armenian). Yerevan: National Academy of Sciences of the Republic of Armenia. pp. 14, 208–209. ISBN 9789609952002. Cited in Vardanyan, Gevorg (12 November 2012). Հայ-հունական համագործակցության փորձերը Հայոց ցեղասպանության տարիներին (1915–1923 թթ.) [The attempts of the Greek-Armenian Co-operation during the Armenian Genocide (1915–1923)]]. akunq.net (in Armenian). Research Center on Western Armenian Studies. Archived from the original on 25 August 2020. Retrieved 25 August 2020.
3. ^ Gyula Andrássy, Bismarck, Andrássy, and Their Successors, Houghton Mifflin, 1927, p. 273.
4. ^ Mehmed'in kanı ile kazandığını, değişmez kaderimiz !-barış masasında yine kaybetmiştik..., Cemal Kutay, Etniki Eterya'dan Günümüze Ege'nin Türk Kalma Savaşı, Boğaziçi Yayınları, 1980, p. 141. (in Turkish)
5. ^ Yunanistan'ın savaş meydanındaki yenilgisi ise Büyük Devletler sayesinde barış masasında zafere dönüşmüş, ilk defa Lozan müzakerelerinde aksi yaşanacak olan, Yunanistan'ın mağlubiyetlerle gelişme ve büyümesi bu savaş sonunda bir kez daha görülmüştür., M. Metin Hülagü, "1897 Osmanlı-Yunan Savaşı'nın Sosyal Siyasal ve Kültürel Sonuçları", in Güler Eren, Kemal Çiçek, Halil İnalcık, Cem Oğuz (ed.), Osmanlı, Cilt 2, Yeni Türkiye Yayınları, 1999, ISBN 975-6782-05-6, pp. 315–316. (in Turkish)
6. ^ ^{a b c} Clodfelter 2017, p. 197.
7. ^ ^{a b} Dumas, Samuel; Vedel-Petersen, K. O. Losses of life caused by war. Clarendon Press. p. 57.
8. ^ Uyar, Mesut; Erickson, Edward J. (2009). A Military History of the Ottomans: From Osman to Ataturk: From Osman to Ataturk. Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO. p. 210. ISBN 9780313056031. Retrieved 19 April 2021. The three pitched battles (Velestin, Catalca, and Domeke) in front of the last Greek defensive line turned out to be decisive. The Greek defenders were beaten in detail and lost any chance to safeguard the road to Athens.
9. ^ Erickson (2003), pp. 14–15
10. ^ Pikros, Ioannis (1977). "Ο Ελληνοτουρκικός Πόλεμος του 1897" [The Greco-Turkish War of 1897]. Ιστορία του Ελληνικού Έθνους, Τόμος ΙΔ′: Νεώτερος Ελληνισμός από το 1881 ως το 1913 [History of the Greek Nation, Volume XIV: Modern Hellenism from 1881 to 1913] (in Greek). Ekdotiki Athinon. pp. 125–160.
11. ^ Phillipson, Coleman (1916). Termination of War and Treaties of Peace (reprint ed.). Clark, New Jersey: The Lawbook Exchange, Ltd. (published 2008). p. 69. ISBN 9781584778608. Retrieved 19 April 2021. In the Greco-Turkish War, 1897, the Powers intervened, and asked the Sultan to suspend his offensive operations. After some delay [...] [h]ostilities went on, and the Turks soon became masters of Thessaly. The Czar or Russia having mde an appeal to the Sultan (as has already been mentioned), an armistice convention was concluded on May 19 for Epirus, and on May 20 for Thessaly.
12. ^ "First filming of war".

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4 February 1859 – The Codex Sinaiticus is discovered in Egypt.

Codex Sinaiticus

4th-century handwritten Bible copy in Greek

New Testament manuscript

The Codex Sinaiticus (Shelfmark: London, British Library, Add MS 43725), designated by siglum א‎ [Aleph] or 01 (in the Gregory-Aland numbering of New Testament manuscripts), δ 2 (in the von Soden numbering of New Testament manuscripts), also called Sinai Bible, is a fourth-century Christian manuscript of a Greek Bible, containing the majority of the Greek Old Testament, including the deuterocanonical books, and the Greek New Testament, with both the Epistle of Barnabas and the Shepherd of Hermas included. It is written in uncial letters on parchment. It is one of the four great uncial codices (these being manuscripts which originally contained the whole of both the Old and New Testaments). Along with Codex Alexandrinus and Codex Vaticanus, it is one of the earliest and most complete manuscripts of the Bible, and contains the oldest complete copy of the New Testament.^[1] It is a historical treasure,^[2] and using the study of comparative writing styles (palaeography), it has been dated to the mid-fourth century.^{[3]: 77–78}

Biblical scholarship considers Codex Sinaiticus to be one of the most important Greek texts of the New Testament, along with Codex Vaticanus. Until German Biblical scholar (and manuscript hunter) Constantin von Tischendorf's discovery of Codex Sinaiticus in 1844, the Greek text of Codex Vaticanus was unrivalled.^[4]: 26 Since its discovery, study of Codex Sinaiticus has proven to be useful to scholars for critical studies of the biblical text.

Codex Sinaiticus came to the attention of scholars in the 19th century at Saint Catherine's Monastery in the Sinai Peninsula, with further material discovered in the 20th and 21st centuries. Although parts of the codex are scattered across four libraries around the world, most of the manuscript is held today in the British Library in London, where it is on public display.^{[5][6]: 107–108}

1. ^ "Codex Sinaiticus - Home". www.codexsinaiticus.org. Retrieved 14 April 2022.
2. ^ Saad El Din, Mursi; Taher, Ayman; Romano, Luciano (1998). Sinai: The Site & the History. New York: New York University. p. 101. ISBN 0-8147-2203-2.
3. ^ Cite error: The named reference Metzger-Palaeo was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
4. ^ Scrivener, Frederick Henry Ambrose (1875). Six Lectures on the Text of the New Testament and the Ancient Manuscripts. London: George Bell & Sons. ISBN 978-1-4097-0826-1.
5. ^ "Liste Handschriften". Münster: Institute for New Testament Textual Research. Retrieved 16 March 2013.
6. ^ Cite error: The named reference Aland was invoked but never defined (see the help page).

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5 February 1971 – Astronauts land on the moon in the Apollo 14 mission.

Apollo 14

Third crewed Moon landing

Apollo 14 (January 31 – February 9, 1971) was the eighth crewed mission in the United States Apollo program, the third to land on the Moon, and the first to land in the lunar highlands. It was the last of the "H missions", landings at specific sites of scientific interest on the Moon for two-day stays with two lunar extravehicular activities (EVAs or moonwalks).

The mission was originally scheduled for 1970, but was postponed because of the investigation following the failure of Apollo 13 to reach the Moon's surface, and the need for modifications to the spacecraft as a result. Commander Alan Shepard, Command Module Pilot Stuart Roosa, and Lunar Module Pilot Edgar Mitchell launched on their nine-day mission on Sunday, January 31, 1971, at 4:03:02 p.m. EST. En route to the lunar landing, the crew overcame malfunctions that might have resulted in a second consecutive aborted mission, and possibly, the premature end of the Apollo program.

Shepard and Mitchell made their lunar landing on February 5 in the Fra Mauro formation – originally the target of Apollo 13. During the two walks on the surface, they collected 94.35 pounds (42.80 kg) of Moon rocks and deployed several scientific experiments. To the dismay of some geologists, Shepard and Mitchell did not reach the rim of Cone crater as had been planned, though they came close. In Apollo 14's most famous event, Shepard hit two golf balls he had brought with him with a makeshift club.

While Shepard and Mitchell were on the surface, Roosa remained in lunar orbit aboard the Command and Service Module, performing scientific experiments and photographing the Moon, including the landing site of the future Apollo 16 mission. He took several hundred seeds on the mission, many of which were germinated on return, resulting in the so-called Moon trees, that were widely distributed in the following years. After liftoff from the lunar surface and a successful docking, the spacecraft was flown back to Earth where the three astronauts splashed down safely in the Pacific Ocean on February 9.

1. ^ Orloff, Richard W. (September 2004) [First published 2000]. "Table of Contents". Apollo by the Numbers: A Statistical Reference. NASA History Series. Washington, D.C.: NASA. ISBN 0-16-050631-X. LCCN 00061677. NASA SP-2000-4029. Archived from the original on September 6, 2007. Retrieved July 17, 2013.
2. ^ ^{a b} Orloff & Harland 2006, p. 396.
3. ^ "Apollo 14 Command and Service Module (CSM)". NASA Space Science Data Coordinated Archive. Retrieved November 20, 2019.
4. ^ "Apollo 14 Lunar Module /ALSEP". NASA Space Science Data Coordinated Archive. Retrieved November 20, 2019.

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6 February 1833 – Otto becomes the first modern King of Greece.

Otto of Greece

King of Greece from 1832 to 1862

Otto (Greek: Όθων, romanized: Óthon; German: Otto Friedrich Ludwig von Wittelsbach; 1 June 1815 – 26 July 1867) was a Bavarian prince who ruled as King of Greece from the establishment of the Kingdom of Greece on 27 May 1832, under the Convention of London, until he was deposed in October 1862.

The second son of King Ludwig I of Bavaria, Otto ascended the newly created throne of Greece at age 17. His government was initially run by a three-man regency council made up of Bavarian court officials. Upon reaching his majority, Otto removed the regents when they proved unpopular with the people, and he ruled as an absolute monarch. Eventually, his subjects' demands for a constitution proved overwhelming, and in the face of an armed (but bloodless) insurrection, Otto granted a constitution in 1843.

Throughout his reign, Otto was unable to resolve Greece's poverty and prevent economic meddling from outside. Greek politics in this era were based on affiliations with the three Great Powers that had guaranteed Greece's independence, Britain, France and Russia, and Otto's ability to maintain the support of the powers was key to his remaining in power. To remain strong, Otto had to play the interests of each of the Great Powers' Greek adherents against the others, while not irritating the Great Powers. When Greece was blockaded by the British Royal Navy in 1850 and again in 1854, to stop Greece from attacking the Ottoman Empire during the Crimean War, Otto's standing amongst Greeks suffered. As a result, there was an assassination attempt on Queen Amalia, and finally, in October 1862, Otto was deposed while in the countryside. He died in exile in Bavaria in 1867.

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7 February 1935 – The classic board game Monopoly is invented.

Monopoly (game)

Property trading board game

Monopoly is a multiplayer economics-themed board game. In the game, players roll two dice to move around the game board, buying and trading properties and developing them with houses and hotels. Players collect rent from their opponents and aim to drive them into bankruptcy. Money can also be gained or lost through Chance and Community Chest cards and tax squares. Players receive a salary every time they pass "Go" and can end up in jail, from which they cannot move until they have met one of three conditions. House rules, hundreds of different editions, many spin-offs, and related media exist. Monopoly has become a part of international popular culture, having been licensed locally in more than 103 countries and printed in more than 37 languages. As of 2015^[update], it was estimated that the game had sold 275 million copies worldwide.^[4] The original game was based on locations in Atlantic City, New Jersey, United States with the exception of Marven Gardens which is in adjacent Ventnor, NJ.

Monopoly is derived from The Landlord's Game, created in 1903 in the US by Lizzie Magie, as a way to demonstrate that an economy rewarding individuals is better than one where monopolies hold all the wealth.^[1][5] It also served to promote the economic theories of Henry George—in particular, his ideas about taxation.^[6] The Landlord's Game originally had two sets of rules, one with tax and another on which the current rules are mainly based. When Parker Brothers first published Monopoly in 1935, the game did not include the less capitalistic taxation rule, resulting in a more aggressive game. Parker Brothers was eventually absorbed into Hasbro in 1991. The game is named after the economic concept of a monopoly—the domination of a market by a single entity.

1. ^ ^{a b} Pilon, Mary (February 13, 2015). "Monopoly's Inventor: The Progressive Who Didn't Pass 'Go'". The New York Times. Retrieved February 14, 2015.
2. ^ Burton H. Wolfe (1976). "The Monopolization of Monopoly: Louis & Fred Thun". The San Francisco Bay Guardian. Archived from the original on November 30, 2009. Retrieved October 28, 2009.
3. ^ Monopoly at winningmoves.com
4. ^ Leopold, Todd (March 19, 2015). "Monopoly: At 80, it just keeps 'Go'-ing". CNN. Retrieved July 31, 2022.
5. ^ "Monopoly's Forgotten Left-Wing Origins". TIME. February 28, 2024. Retrieved March 3, 2024.
6. ^ Wagner, Erica (June 24, 2015). "Do not pass go: the tangled roots of Monopoly". New Statesman. Retrieved July 31, 2022.

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8 February 1950 – The Stasi, the secret police of East Germany, is established.

Stasi

East German secret police

For other uses, see Stasis.

The Ministry for State Security (German: Ministerium für Staatssicherheit, pronounced [minɪsˈteːʁiʊm fyːɐ̯ ˈʃtaːtsˌzɪçɐhaɪ̯t]; abbreviated as "MfS"), commonly known as the Stasi (German: [ˈʃtaːziː] ^ⓘ), an abbreviation of Staatssicherheit, was the state security service of East Germany (the GDR) from 1950 to 1990.

The Stasi's function in East Germany resembled that of the KGB in the Soviet Union⁠ and previously Gestapo of Nazi Germany‍—‍it served as a means of maintaining state authority, i.e., as the "Shield and Sword of the Party" (German: Schild und Schwert der Partei). This was accomplished primarily through the use of a network of civilian informants. This organization contributed to the arrest of approximately 250,000 people in East Germany.^[3]

The Stasi also conducted espionage and other clandestine operations outside the GDR through its subordinate foreign-intelligence service, the Office of Reconnaissance, or Head Office A (German: Hauptverwaltung Aufklärung or HVA). Its operatives also maintained contacts and occasionally cooperated with West-German terrorists.^[4]

The Stasi had its headquarters in East Berlin, with an extensive complex in Berlin-Lichtenberg and several smaller facilities throughout the city. Erich Mielke, the Stasi's longest-serving chief, controlled the organisation for 32 (1957–1989) of the 40 years of the GDR's existence. The HVA (Hauptverwaltung Aufklärung), under Markus Wolf (in office as Leiter der HVA from 1952 to 1986), gained a reputation as one of the most effective intelligence agencies of the Cold War.^{[5][need quotation to verify][6]}

After the German reunification of 1989–1991, some Stasi officials were prosecuted for their crimes^[7] and the surveillance files that the Stasi had maintained on millions of East Germans were declassified so that all citizens could inspect their personal files on request. The Stasi Records Agency maintained the files until June 2021, when they became part of the German Federal Archives.

1. ^ Vilasi, Antonella Colonna (9 March 2015). The History of the Stasi. AuthorHouse. ISBN 9781504937054.
2. ^ Hinsey, Ellen (2010). "Eternal Return: Berlin Journal, 1989–2009". New England Review. 31 (1): 124–134. JSTOR 25699473.
3. ^ Germans campaign for memorial to victims of communism Archived 10 May 2023 at the Wayback Machine, BBC News, 31 January 2018
4. ^ Blumenau, Bernhard (2018). "Unholy Alliance: The Connection between the East German Stasi and the Right-Wing Terrorist Odfried Hepp". Studies in Conflict & Terrorism. 43: 47–68. doi:10.1080/1057610X.2018.1471969. hdl:10023/19035.
5. ^ Blumenau, Bernhard (2 September 2014). The United Nations and Terrorism: Germany, Multilateralism, and Antiterrorism Efforts in the 1970s. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 29–32. ISBN 978-1-137-39196-4.
6. ^ Volodarsky, Boris Borisovich (30 June 2023). The Murder of Alexander Litvinenko: To Kill a Mockingbird. Barnsley, South Yorkshire: White Owl. ISBN 9781399060196. Archived from the original on 18 July 2023. Retrieved 18 July 2023. Suddenly, the East German Ministerium für Staatssicherheit (MFS), better known as the Stasi, came to light, and specifically its Chief Directorate 'A' (Hauptverwaltung Aufklärung, HVA) under Markus 'Misha' Wolf. It was one of the most effective spy agencies of the Cold War.
7. ^ Willis, Jim (24 January 2013). Daily Life behind the Iron Curtain. The Greenwood Press Daily Life through History Series. Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO. ISBN 9780313397639. Archived from the original on 18 July 2023. Retrieved 18 July 2023. The Stasi destruction of many records, plus the German statute of limitations on crimes, plus the desire by some politicians to leave the divisive past behind have resulted in few prosecutions of former Stasi officials and the actual imprisonment of even fewer.

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9 February 1951 – Korean War: Geochang massacre

Geochang massacre

1951 massacre of unarmed civilians by South Korean forces during the Korean War

The Geochang massacre (Korean: 거창 양민학살 사건,^[3][4] Hanja: 居昌良民虐殺事件) was a massacre conducted by the third battalion of the 9th regiment of the 11th Division of the South Korean Army between 9 February 1951 and 11 February 1951 of 719 unarmed citizens in Geochang, South Gyeongsang district of South Korea.^[1][5][6] The victims included 385 children.^[1] The 11th Division also conducted the Sancheong-Hamyang massacre two days earlier. The general commanding the division was Choe Deok-sin.^[7]

On February 8 the 3rd Battalion, 9th Regiment, 11th Division of the South Korean army, called the "Hwarang Division", occupied Kwaejong-ri, Simon Sub-County. The guerrilla unit under the Sanchong County Party Committee had temporarily controlled Sinwon County before their brief engagement with the South Korean army during their withdrawal from the region.

On February 10, the "Hwang Division" rounded up 136 men, from six villages in the region, and brought them to the nearby Paksin Valley where they were all killed with machine guns. On February 11, all those who remained in the region were gathered at the playground of the Sinwon Primary School under the pretense of evacuation. They were taken to a remote mountain valley and all shot to death. Most of the victims were old people, women, and children. Only the families of South Korean army members, local police, and public officials were spared.

In an effort to cover up the massacre, the South Korean army burned the victims' bodies and bombed a nearby mountain slope in order to cover them with soil. Sin Song Mo, the then minister of defense of South Korea, downplayed the massacre by claiming that the South Korean army had eliminated "communist bandits", not innocent civilians. Attempting to minimize his complicity in the massacre, the Commander of the 11th Division, Kim Jong-won, said: "Could anyone issue such an order, which goes against common sense?"^[8]

In March 1951, Shin Chung-mok (ko), a leading assembly lawmaker from Geochang reported the massacre to the National Assembly against the South Korean Army's cover up.^[2][5][9] The National Assembly's special investigation team investigated, but was hampered by the South Korean Army's interruption.^[2][5] Shin was arrested and sentenced to death in an Army court martial.^[9] In May 1951, the second investigation team was dispatched by the National Assembly and they reported the South Korean Army involvement.^[5] After the investigation, Major Han and Colonel Oh Ik-gyun were sentenced to life in prison by a military court.^[5] President Syngman Rhee subsequently granted clemency to the criminals.^[5] This massacre is pointed out as an example of oppression under his rule.^[10]

In April 2004, the Geochang Massacre Memorial Park was founded in memory of the victims, in Geochang.^[1][11]

On 20 February 2006, National Archives and Records Service reported the files about the massacre were found.^[6]

In 2001, a local court ordered the South Korean government to pay reparations to the victims' families.^[4] On 18 May 2004, a general court ruled that a charge of massacre against the South Korean government was barred by limitation.^[4]

On 5 June 2008, the South Korean Supreme Court confirmed that the charge was barred by limitation.^[3]

In June 2010, An Jeong-a, a researcher for the Truth and Reconciliation Commission, disclosed National Defense Ministry official documents on his thesis that the massacre had been done under official South Korean Army order in order to annihilate citizens living in the guerrilla influenced area.^[12] On September 9, 2010, An was fired for disclosing Geochang massacre documents.^[12] The National Defense Ministry accused An of disclosing the documents which he had been only permitted to view under the condition of nondisclosure.^[12]

In the late 1950s, Kim Jong-won was sentenced to four years in prison for his involvement in a sniper attack on Vice President Chang Myon. He served his sentence at Seodaemun Prison. Jon-won was released from prison on health grounds in December 1961, since he was suffering diabetes. He died on January 1964.^[13]

1. ^ ^{a b c d} 편히 영면하소서!'..거창사건 희생자 위령제. Chosun Ilbo (in Korean). 2009-04-17. Archived from the original on June 11, 2011. Retrieved 2010-07-09.
2. ^ ^{a b c} Stueck, William (12 September 2010). The Korean War in world history. Univ Pr of Kentucky. p. 45. ISBN 978-0-8131-2306-6.
3. ^ ^{a b} 대법 "거창양민학살사건 국가배상 책임 없다. Dong-a Ilbo (in Korean). 2008-06-05. Archived from the original on 2011-06-08. Retrieved 2010-07-09.
4. ^ ^{a b c} 거창양민학살사건 국가 배상의무 없다. Chosun Ilbo (in Korean). 2004-05-18. Retrieved 2010-07-09.
5. ^ ^{a b c d e f} "SURVIVOR Hundreds were killed in a 1951 massacre. One man is left to remember". JoongAng Daily. 2003-02-10. Retrieved 2010-07-22.
6. ^ ^{a b} "Records throw light on modern Korea's history Detailed archival documents found at government offices". JoongAng Daily. 2006-02-21. Retrieved 2010-07-22.
7. ^ 산청 시천면 양민학살, 어떤 사건인가? 아녀자, 어린이 대부분...알려진 산청 함양사건과는 별개 출처 : 산청 시천면 양민학살, 어떤 사건인가? - 오마이뉴스. Ohmynews (in Korean). 2000-05-16. Retrieved 2010-07-18.
8. ^ Ri, In-mo (1997). My Life and Faith. Democratic People's Republic of Korea: Foreign Languages Publishing House. p. 133.
9. ^ ^{a b} Stueck, William (12 September 2010). The Korean War in world history. Univ Pr of Kentucky. p. 46. ISBN 978-0-8131-2306-6.
10. ^ "Outlook Remembering our father We have forgotten our founding father, the man who helped give birth to our democracy and its market economy. That is shameful". JoongAng Daily. 2007-04-27. Retrieved 2010-07-22.
11. ^ "2008 외국어 관광안내표기 용례집" (PDF). Ministry of Culture, Sports and Tourism of the Republic of Korea. 2008. p. 28/278. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-07-22. Retrieved 2010-07-20.(in Korean, Chinese, Japanese, and English)
12. ^ ^{a b c} ‘진실 공개’한 직원 내쫓은 진실위. Hankyoreh (in Korean). 2010-10-11. Retrieved 2013-04-06.
13. ^ "이승만 덕에 한평생 편히 살았던 '전직 일본군' 김종원". 시사IN, 시사인 (in Korean). 2021-05-22. Retrieved 2023-05-30.

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10 February 1967 – The 25th Amendment to the United States Constitution is ratified.

Twenty-fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution

1967 amendment enumerating presidential succession

"Twenty-fifth Amendment" redirects here. For other uses, see Twenty-fifth Amendment (disambiguation).

The Twenty-fifth Amendment (Amendment XXV) to the United States Constitution deals with presidential succession and disability.

It clarifies that the vice president becomes president if the president dies, resigns, or is removed from office through impeachment, and establishes how a vacancy in the office of the vice president can be filled. It also provides for the temporary transfer of the president's powers and duties to the vice president, either on the initiative of the president alone or on the initiative of the vice president together with a majority of the president's cabinet. In either case, the vice president becomes acting president until the presidential powers and duties are returned to the president.

The amendment was submitted to the states on July 6, 1965, by the 89th Congress, and was adopted on February 10, 1967, the day that the requisite number of states (38) had ratified it.^[1]

1. ^ Mount, Steve. "Ratification of Constitutional Amendments". ussconstitution.net. Archived from the original on April 23, 2018. Retrieved July 20, 2018.

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