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This day in .....

Discussion in 'Break Room' started by NewsBot, Apr 6, 2008.

  1. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    12 February 1963 – Construction begins on the Gateway Arch in St. Louis.

    Gateway Arch

    The Gateway Arch is a 630-foot-tall (192 m) monument in St. Louis, Missouri, United States. Clad in stainless steel and built in the form of a weighted catenary arch,[5] it is the world's tallest arch[4] and Missouri's tallest accessible structure. Some sources consider it the tallest human-made monument in the Western Hemisphere.[6] Built as a monument to the westward expansion of the United States[5] and officially dedicated to "the American people", the Arch, commonly referred to as "The Gateway to the West", is a National Historic Landmark in Gateway Arch National Park and has become an internationally recognized symbol of St. Louis, as well as a popular tourist destination.[4]

    The Arch was designed by the Finnish-American architect Eero Saarinen in 1947, and construction began on February 12, 1963 and was completed on October 28, 1965,[7][8] at an overall cost of $13 million[9] (equivalent to $92.6 million in 2018).[2] The monument opened to the public on June 10, 1967.[10] It is located at the 1764 site of the founding of St. Louis on the west bank of the Mississippi River.[11][12][13]

    1. ^ "Gateway Arch". GreatBuildings.com. Archived from the original on April 6, 2011. Retrieved January 26, 2011.
    2. ^ a b Johnston, Louis; Williamson, Samuel H. (2023). "What Was the U.S. GDP Then?". MeasuringWorth. Retrieved November 30, 2023. United States Gross Domestic Product deflator figures follow the Measuring Worth series.
    3. ^ "National Register Information System". National Register of Historic Places. May 28, 1987. Archived from the original on February 20, 2013.
    4. ^ a b c Cite error: The named reference nhlsum was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    5. ^ a b "St. Louis Arch" (PDF). Modern Steel Construction. 3 (4). American Institute of Steel Construction: 12–14. 1963. Retrieved January 16, 2015.
    6. ^ Lohraff, Kevin (2009). Hiking Missouri (2nd ed.). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics. p. 73. ISBN 978-0-7360-7588-6.
    7. ^ "Gateway Arch Facts". Gateway Arch Riverfront. Archived from the original on May 1, 2011. Retrieved December 14, 2010.
    8. ^ Ledden, Nicholas (October 6, 2010). "Gateway Arch to celebrate its 45th". St. Louis Business Journal. Retrieved January 7, 2011.
    9. ^ "Arch Frequently Asked Questions". July 25, 2006. Archived from the original on February 28, 2011. Retrieved December 14, 2010.
    10. ^ "Arch Timeline". St. Louis Post-Dispatch. October 17, 2005. Archived from the original on December 14, 2010. Retrieved December 14, 2010.
    11. ^ Cite error: The named reference csmonitor was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    12. ^ Cite error: The named reference Soroka was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    13. ^ Wick, Temple (April 25, 1965). "Curving Gateway Arch: Memorial To Pioneers". St. Petersburg Times. p. 9B. Retrieved December 16, 2010.
     
  2. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    13 February 1990German reunification: An agreement is reached on a two-stage plan to reunite Germany.

    German reunification

    West Germany and East Germany (1957[a]–1990)
    Germany (1990–present)

    German reunification (German: Deutsche Wiedervereinigung) was the process of re-establishing Germany as a single full sovereign state, which took place between 9 November 1989 and 15 March 1991. The "Unification Treaty" entered into force on 3 October 1990, dissolving the German Democratic Republic (GDR; German: Deutsche Demokratische Republik, DDR, or East Germany) and integrating its recently re-established constituent federated states into the Federal Republic of Germany (FRG; German: Bundesrepublik Deutschland, BRD, or West Germany) to form present-day Germany. This date has been chosen as the customary German Unity Day (Tag der deutschen Einheit), and has thereafter been celebrated each year as a national holiday in Germany since 1991.[1] As part of the reunification, East and West Berlin of the two countries were also de facto united into a single city, which eventually became the capital of this country.

    The East German government dominated by the Socialist Unity Party of Germany (SED) (a communist party) started to falter on 2 May 1989, when the removal of Hungary's border fence with Austria opened a hole in the Iron Curtain. The border was still closely guarded, but the Pan-European Picnic and the indecisive reaction of the rulers of the Eastern Bloc set in motion an irreversible movement.[2][3] It allowed an exodus of thousands of East Germans fleeing to West Germany via Hungary. The Peaceful Revolution, a part of the international Revolutions of 1989 including a series of protests by the East German citizens, led to the fall of the Berlin Wall on 9 November 1989 and GDR's first free elections later on 18 March 1990 and then to the negotiations between the two countries that culminated in a Unification Treaty.[1] Other negotiations between the two Germanies and the four occupying powers in Germany produced the so-called "Two Plus Four Treaty" (Treaty on the Final Settlement with Respect to Germany), granting on 15 March 1991 full sovereignty to a reunified German state, whose two parts were previously bound by a number of limitations stemming from their post-World War II status as occupation zones, though only on 31 August 1994 did the last Russian occupation troops (Russia is the successor of the Soviet Union legally) leave Germany.

    After the end of World War II in Europe, the old German Reich was abolished and Germany was divided by the four Allied countries. There was no peace treaty. Two countries emerged. The American, British, and French zones combined to form the FRG ie West Germany on 23 May 1949. The GDR ie East Germany was established October 1949. The West German state joined NATO in 1955. In 1990, a range of opinions continued to be maintained over whether a reunited Germany could be said to represent "Germany as a whole"[b] for this purpose. In the context of the successful and international Revolutions of 1989 against the communist states, including the GDR; on 12 September 1990, under the Two Plus Four Treaty with the four Allies, both East and West Germany committed to the principle that their joint pre-1990 boundary constituted the entire territory that could be claimed by a government of Germany, and hence that there were no further lands outside this boundary that were parts of Germany as a whole occupied. East Germany re-established the federated states on its soil and subsequently dissolved itself on 3 October 1990; also on the same day, modern Germany was formed when the new states joined the FRG while East and West Berlin were united into a single city.

    The reunited state is not a successor state, but an enlarged continuation of the 1949–1990 West German state. The enlarged Federal Republic of Germany retained the West German seats in the governing bodies of the European Economic Community (EC) (later the European Union/EU) and in international organizations including the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) and the United Nations (UN), while relinquishing membership in the Warsaw Pact (WP) and other international organizations to which East Germany belonged.


    Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

    1. ^ a b "EinigVtr – Vertrag zwischen der Bundesrepublik Deutschland und der Deutschen Demokratischen Republik über die Herstellung der Einheit Deutschlands". www.gesetze-im-internet.de (in German). Archived from the original on 20 November 2022. Retrieved 6 March 2022.
    2. ^ Brait, Andrea; Gehler, Michael (6 July 2014), "Grenzöffnung 1989 – Offene Grenzen?", Grenzöffnung 1989, Wien: Böhlau Verlag, pp. 9–44, doi:10.7767/boehlau.9783205793236.9, ISBN 978-3-205-79496-7, retrieved 6 March 2022
    3. ^ Sardemann, Gerhard (1 August 2010). "Die Welt aus den Angeln heben". TATuP: Zeitschrift für Technikfolgenabschätzung in Theorie und Praxis. 19 (2): 8–17. doi:10.14512/tatup.19.2.8. ISSN 2199-9201.
     
  3. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    14 February 2005 – YouTube is launched by a group of college students, eventually becoming the largest video sharing website in the world and a main source for viral videos.

    YouTube

    YouTube is an American online video sharing and social media platform owned by Google. Accessible worldwide,[7] it was launched on February 14, 2005, by Steve Chen, Chad Hurley, and Jawed Karim, three former employees of PayPal. Headquartered in San Bruno, California, United States, it is the second most visited website in the world, after Google Search. YouTube has more than 2.5 billion monthly users,[2] who collectively watch more than one billion hours of videos every day.[8] As of May 2019, videos were being uploaded to the platform at a rate of more than 500 hours of content per minute,[9][10] and as of 2023, there were approximately 14 billion videos in total.[10]

    In October 2006, YouTube was purchased by Google for $1.65 billion (equivalent to $2.22 billion in 2022).[11] Google expanded Youtube's business model of generating revenue from advertisements alone, to offering paid content such as movies and exclusive content produced by and for YouTube. It also offers YouTube Premium, a paid subscription option for watching content without ads. YouTube incorporated Google's AdSense program, generating more revenue for both Youtube and approved content creators. In 2022, YouTube's annual advertising revenue increased to $29.2 billion, more than $9 billion higher than in 2020.[1][12]

    Since its purchase by Google, YouTube has expanded beyond the core website into mobile apps, network television, and the ability to link with other platforms. Video categories on YouTube include music videos, video clips, news, short and feature films, songs, documentaries, movie and teaser trailers, live streams, vlogs, and more. Most content is generated by individuals, including collaborations between "YouTubers" and corporate sponsors. Established media, news, and entertainment corporations have also created and expanded their visibility to YouTube channels in order to reach greater audiences.

    YouTube has had unprecedented social impact, influencing popular culture, internet trends, and creating multimillionaire celebrities. Despite its growth and success, the platform is sometimes criticized for allegedly facilitating the spread of misinformation, the sharing of copyrighted content, routinely violating its users' privacy, enabling censorship, endangering child safety and wellbeing, and for its inconsistent or incorrect implementation of platform guidelines.

    1. ^ a b Weprin, Alex (February 1, 2022). "YouTube Ad Revenue Tops $8.6B, Beating Netflix in the Quarter". The Hollywood Reporter. Archived from the original on June 8, 2023. Retrieved June 11, 2022.
    2. ^ a b "Top Social Media Statistics And Trends Of 2023 – Forbes Advisor". Forbes. Archived from the original on June 14, 2023. Retrieved June 15, 2023.
    3. ^ Claburn, Thomas (January 5, 2017). "Google's Grumpy code makes Python Go". The Register. Archived from the original on December 14, 2019. Retrieved September 16, 2017.
    4. ^ Wilson, Jesse (May 19, 2009). "Guice Deuce". Official Google Code Blog. Archived from the original on March 26, 2017. Retrieved March 25, 2017.
    5. ^ "YouTube Architecture". High Scalability. Archived from the original on October 4, 2014. Retrieved October 13, 2014.
    6. ^ "Golang Vitess: a database wrapper written in Go as used by Youtube". GitHub. October 23, 2018. Archived from the original on January 30, 2018. Retrieved September 16, 2017.
    7. ^ Excluding blocked countries.
    8. ^ Goodrow, Cristos (February 27, 2017). "You know what's cool? A billion hours". Archived from the original on August 6, 2020. Retrieved April 19, 2021 – via YouTube.
    9. ^ Loke Hale, James (May 7, 2019). "More Than 500 Hours Of Content Are Now Being Uploaded To YouTube Every Minute". TubeFilter. Los Angeles, CA. Archived from the original on January 5, 2023. Retrieved June 10, 2019.
    10. ^ a b Neufeld, Dorothy (January 27, 2021). "The 50 Most Visited Websites in the World". Visual Capitalist. Archived from the original on December 10, 2021. Retrieved December 6, 2021.
    11. ^ Hooker, Lucy (February 1, 2016). "How did Google become the world's most valuable company?". BBC News. Archived from the original on May 26, 2021. Retrieved May 26, 2021.
    12. ^ "YouTube Revenue and Usage Statistics (2023)". Business of Apps. Archived from the original on September 6, 2023. Retrieved August 9, 2023.
     
  4. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    15 February 1804 – The Serbian Revolution begins.

    Serbian Revolution

    The Serbian Revolution (Serbian: Српска револуција / Srpska revolucija) was a national uprising and constitutional change in Serbia that took place between 1804 and 1835, during which this territory evolved from an Ottoman province into a rebel territory, a constitutional monarchy, and modern Serbia.[2] In 1804, the Ottoman Janissary decided to execute all prominent nobles throughout Central Serbia, a move known as the Slaughter of the Knezes. The heads of the murdered Serbian nobles were put on public display in the central square to serve as an example to those who might plot against Ottoman rule. The event triggered the start of the Serbian Revolution aimed at putting an end to the 370 years of Ottoman occupation. The first part of the period, from 1804 to 1817, was marked by a violent struggle for independence from the Ottoman Empire with two armed uprisings taking place, ending with a ceasefire. The later period (1817–1835) witnessed a peaceful consolidation of political power of the increasingly autonomous Serbia, culminating in the recognition of the right to hereditary rule by Serbian princes in 1830 and 1833 and the territorial expansion of the young monarchy.[3] The adoption of the first written Constitution in 1835 abolished feudalism and serfdom,[4] and made the country suzerain.[3] The term Serbian Revolution was coined by a German academic historiographer, Leopold von Ranke, in his book Die Serbische Revolution, published in 1829.[5] These events marked the foundation of modern Serbia.[6]

    The period is further divided as follows:

    The Proclamation (1809) by Karađorđe in the capital Belgrade represents the probable peak of the first phase. It called for national unity, drawing on Serbian history to demand the freedom of religion and formal, written rule of law, both of which the Ottoman Empire had failed to provide. It also called on Serbs to stop paying taxes to the Porte, deemed unfair as based on religious affiliation. Apart from dispensing with poll tax on non-Muslims (jizya), the revolutionaries also abolished all feudal obligations in 1806, only 15 years after the French Revolution, peasant and serf emancipation thus representing a major social break with the past. The rule of Miloš Obrenović consolidated the achievements of the Uprisings, leading to the proclamation of the first constitution in the Balkans and the establishment of the first Serbian institution of higher learning still in existence, the Great Academy of Belgrade (1808). In 1830 and again in 1833, Serbia was recognized as an autonomous principality, with hereditary princes paying annual tribute to the Porte. Finally, de facto independence came in 1867, with the withdrawal of Ottoman garrisons from the principality; de jure independence was formally recognized at the Congress of Berlin in 1878.

    1. ^ Meriage, Lawrence P. (27 January 2017). "The First Serbian Uprising (1804–1813) and the Nineteenth-Century Origins of the Eastern Question". Slavic Review. 37 (3): 421–439. doi:10.2307/2497684. JSTOR 2497684. S2CID 222355180. Archived from the original on 30 November 2021. Retrieved 9 November 2020.
    2. ^ Cite error: The named reference staff.lib.msu.edu was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    3. ^ a b Plamen Mitev (2010). Empires and Peninsulas: Southeastern Europe Between Karlowitz and the Peace of Adrianople, 1699–1829. LIT Verlag Münster. pp. 147–. ISBN 978-3-643-10611-7. Archived from the original on 2023-01-23. Retrieved 2015-10-25.
    4. ^ "Dr". Archived from the original on 2012-03-06. Retrieved 2015-03-29.
    5. ^ English translation: Leopold Ranke, A History of Serbia and the Serbian Revolution. Translated from the German by Mrs Alexander Kerr (London: John Murray, 1847)
    6. ^ L. S. Stavrianos, The Balkans since 1453 (London: Hurst and Co., 2000), pp. 248–250.
     
  5. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    16 February 1985Hezbollah is founded.

    Hezbollah

    Hezbollah (/ˌhɛzbəˈlɑː/,[44] /ˌxɛz-/; Arabic: حزب الله, romanizedḤizbu 'llāh, lit.'Party of Allah' or 'Party of God')[45] is a Lebanese Shia Islamist political party and militant group,[46][47] led since 1992 by its Secretary-General Hassan Nasrallah. Hezbollah's paramilitary wing is the Jihad Council,[48] and its political wing is the Loyalty to the Resistance Bloc party in the Lebanese Parliament.

    Hezbollah was established in the wake of the 1982 Lebanon War by Lebanese clerics who studied in the Shia seminaries Hawza Najaf in Najaf. It adopted the model set out by Ayatollah Khomeini after the Iranian Revolution in 1979, and the party's founders adopted the name "Hezbollah" as chosen by Khomeini. Since then, close ties have developed between Iran and Hezbollah.[49] The organization was created with the support of 1,500 Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps (IRGC) instructors,[50] and aggregated a variety of Lebanese Shia groups into a unified organization to resist the former Israeli occupation of Southern Lebanon.[51][52][14][53] During the Lebanese Civil War, Hezbollah's 1985 manifesto listed its objectives as the expulsion of "the Americans, the French and their allies definitely from Lebanon, putting an end to any colonialist entity on our land".[54] From 1985 to 2000, Hezbollah also participated in the 1985–2000 South Lebanon conflict against the South Lebanon Army (SLA) and Israel Defense Forces (IDF), and fought again with the IDF in the 2006 Lebanon War. During the 1990s, Hezbollah also organized volunteers to fight for the Army of the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina during the Bosnian War.[55]

    Since 1990, Hezbollah has participated in Lebanese politics, in a process which is described as the Lebanonisation of Hezbollah, and it later participated in the government of Lebanon and joined political alliances. After the 2006–08 Lebanese protests[56] and clashes,[57] a national unity government was formed in 2008, with Hezbollah and its opposition allies obtaining 11 of 30 cabinet seats, enough to give them veto power.[58] In August 2008, Lebanon's new cabinet unanimously approved a draft policy statement that recognizes Hezbollah's existence as an armed organization and guarantees its right to "liberate or recover occupied lands" (such as the Shebaa Farms). Hezbollah is part of Lebanon's March 8 Alliance, in opposition to the March 14 Alliance. It maintains strong support among Lebanese Shia Muslims,[59] while Sunnis have disagreed with its agenda.[60][61] Hezbollah also has support in some Christian areas of Lebanon.[62] Since 2012, Hezbollah involvement in the Syrian civil war has seen it join the Syrian government in its fight against the Syrian opposition, which Hezbollah has described as a Zionist plot and a "Wahhabi-Zionist conspiracy" to destroy its alliance with Bashar al-Assad against Israel.[63][64] Between 2013 and 2015, the organisation deployed its militia in both Syria and Iraq to fight or train local militias to fight against the Islamic State.[65][66] In the 2018 Lebanese general election, Hezbollah held 12 seats and its alliance won the election by gaining 70 out of 128 seats in the Parliament of Lebanon.[67][68]

    Hezbollah did not disarm after the Israeli withdrawal from South Lebanon, in violation of the UN Security Council resolution 1701.[69] From 2006, the group's military strength grew significantly,[70][71] to the extent that its paramilitary wing became more powerful than the Lebanese Army.[72][73] Hezbollah has been described as a "state within a state",[74] and has grown into an organization with seats in the Lebanese government, a radio and a satellite TV station, social services and large-scale military deployment of fighters beyond Lebanon's borders.[75][76][77] The group currently receives military training, weapons, and financial support from Iran and political support from Syria,[78] although the sectarian nature of the Syrian war has damaged the group's legitimacy.[75][79][80] In 2021, Nasrallah said the group had 100,000 fighters.[81] Either the entire organization or only its military wing has been designated a terrorist organization by several countries, including by the European Union[82] and, since 2017, also by most member states of the Arab League, with two exceptions – Lebanon, where Hezbollah is one of the country's most influential political parties, and Iraq.[83] Russia does not view Hezbollah as a "terrorist organization" but as a "legitimate socio-political force".[84]

    1. ^ "Fadlallah Hits Back at March 14 over Karam Release, Marouni Slams 'Treason Accusations'". Naharnet. 18 April 2013.
    2. ^ a b c Dalacoura, Katerina (2012). "Islamist Terrorism and National Liberation: Hamas and Hizbullah". Islamist Terrorism and Democracy in the Middle East. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 66–96. doi:10.1017/CBO9780511977367.004. ISBN 978-0-511-97736-7. LCCN 2010047275. S2CID 150958046.
    3. ^ Stepanova, Ekaterina (2008). Terrorism in Asymmetrical Conflict: Ideological and Structural Aspects (PDF). Oxford University Press. p. 113. Archived from the original (PDF) on 10 March 2016.
    4. ^ a b Philip Smyth (February 2015). The Shiite Jihad in Syria and Its Regional Effects (PDF) (Report). The Washington Institute for Near East Studies. pp. 7–8. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2 April 2015. Retrieved 13 March 2015.
    5. ^ "Hezbollah, the Lebanese Sectarian State, and Sectarianism". Middle East Institute. Retrieved 13 April 2017.
    6. ^ Bassel F, Salloukh (2015). "The Sectarian Image Reversed: The Role of Geopolitics in Hezbollah's Domestic Politics". Middle East political science.
    7. ^ "Hezbollah and the Lebanese Popular Movement".
    8. ^ Salamey, Imad; Pearson, Frederic (2007). "Hezbollah: A Proletarian Party with an Islamic Manifesto – A Sociopolitical Analysis of Islamist Populism in Lebanon and the Middle East". Small Wars & Insurgencies. 18 (3): 416–438. doi:10.1080/09592310701674358. S2CID 143896155.
    9. ^ Elie Alagha, Joseph (2011). Hizbullah's Documents: From the 1985 Open Letter to the 2009 Manifesto. Amsterdam University Press. pp. 15, 20. ISBN 978-90-8555-037-2.
      Shehata, Samer (2012). Islamist Politics in the Middle East: Movements and Change. Routledge. p. 176. ISBN 978-0-415-78361-3.
    10. ^ Husseinia, Rola El (2010). "Hezbollah and the Axis of Refusal: Hamas, Iran and Syria". Third World Quarterly. 31 (5): 803–815. doi:10.1080/01436597.2010.502695. S2CID 219628295.
    11. ^ Levitt, Matthew (2013). Hezbollah: The Global Footprint of Lebanon's Party of God. Hurst Publishers. p. 356. ISBN 978-1-84904-333-5. 'Hezbollah's anti-Western militancy began with attacks against Western targets in Lebanon, then expanded to attacks abroad intended to exact revenge for actions threatening its or Iran's interests, or to press foreign governments to release captured operatives.'
    12. ^ Hanhimäki, Jussi M.; Blumenau, Bernhard (2013). An International History of Terrorism: Western and Non-Western Experiences. Routledge. p. 267. ISBN 978-0-415-63540-0. Based upon these beliefs, Hezbollah became vehemently anti-West and anti-Israel.
    13. ^ Siegel, Larry J. (2012). Criminology: Theories, Patterns & Typology. Cengage Learning. p. 396. ISBN 978-1-133-04964-7. Hezbollah is anti-West and anti-Israel and has engaged in a series of terrorist actions including kidnappings, car bombings, and airline hijackings.
    14. ^ a b "Who Are Hezbollah?". BBC News. 21 May 2008. Retrieved 15 August 2008.
    15. ^ Julius, Anthony (2015). Trials of the Diaspora: A History of Anti-Semitism in England. OUP Oxford. ISBN 978-0-19-929705-4 – via Google Books.
    16. ^ Michael, Robert; Rosen, Philip (2015). Dictionary of Antisemitism from the Earliest Times to the Present. Scarecrow Press. ISBN 978-0-8108-5868-8 – via Google Books.
    17. ^ Perry, Mark (2015). Talking to Terrorists: Why America Must Engage with Its Enemies. Basic Books. p. 158. ISBN 978-0-465-01117-9.
    18. ^ "Analysis: Hezbollah's lethal anti-Semitism". The Jerusalem Post. 12 November 2012.
    19. ^ Joshua L. Gleis; Benedetta Berti (2012). Hezbollah and Hamas: A Comparative Study. JHU Press. ISBN 978-1-4214-0671-8.
    20. ^ "JCPA Middle East Briefing: Hezbollah" Archived 4 June 2008 at the Wayback Machine. United Jewish Communities. 14 February 2008.
    21. ^ "Hezbollah chief in new attack on same-sex relations". France 24. 29 July 2023.
    22. ^ Revolutions: A Worldwide Introduction to Political and Social Change. Routledge. 2015. ISBN 978-1-317-26457-6.
    23. ^ "Interior Ministry releases numbers of votes for new MPs". The Daily Star. 9 May 2018. Archived from the original on 8 March 2021. Retrieved 24 October 2019.
    24. ^ a b "Hezbollah fighters train Iraqi Shiite militants near Mosul". longwarjournal.org – FDD's Long War Journal. 5 November 2016.
    25. ^ "Lebanon's Hezbollah chief Nasrallah says group has never been stronger". Reuters. 18 October 2021.
    26. ^ Agencies, The New Arab Staff & (18 October 2021). "Hassan Nasrallah says Hezbollah has 100,000 fighters". english.alaraby.co.uk/.
    27. ^ "Lebanon Hezbollah chief says movement has 100,000 fighters". France 24. 18 October 2021.
    28. ^ "Hezbollah is the Long Arm of Iran – Factsheet 5". 20 September 2019. Retrieved 8 February 2023.
    29. ^ "Why Assad's alliance with Iran and Hezbollah will endure". 8 February 2019. Retrieved 8 February 2023.
    30. ^ Pardo, Ramon Pacheco (February 2011). "Beyond Iran" (PDF). The Majalla. 1561: 12–14. Archived from the original (PDF) on 15 July 2012. Retrieved 5 April 2013.
    31. ^ a b "Iraq admits Lebanese Hezbollah and Iranian RG fight alongside Iraqi security forces". 9 November 2014. Archived from the original on 15 June 2018. Retrieved 28 July 2018.
    32. ^ "Hezbollah Fights Alongside LAF Demonstrating its Continuing Control over Lebanon". The Tower. 21 August 2017. Archived from the original on 2 February 2020. Retrieved 28 July 2018.
    33. ^ "New Experience of Hezbollah with Russian Military". 2 February 2016. Archived from the original on 28 July 2018.
    34. ^ Rosenfeld, Jesse (11 January 2016). "Russia is Arming Hezbollah, Say Two of the Group's Field Commanders". The Daily Beast.
    35. ^ "Yemeni FM slams Hezbollah's Houthi support: report". The Daily Star. Archived from the original on 28 July 2018. Retrieved 28 July 2018.
    36. ^ "Lebanon's Hezbollah denies sending weapons to Yemen". Reuters. 20 November 2017.
    37. ^ "Wagner Group 'tasked to deliver Russian weapons to Hezbollah' – US intelligence". 4 November 2023.
    38. ^ "Hezbollah – International terrorist organization". Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs. 22 July 2013.
    39. ^ Francis, Xavier (21 May 2020). "Israel Impressed How Turkish Army Crushed Hezbollah In Idlib, Syria". Latest Asian, Middle-East, EurAsian, Indian News.
    40. ^ "Israel learned from Hezbollah's defeat at the hands of Turkey". The Jerusalem Post.
    41. ^ "Turkish strike in Syria kills nine Hezbollah members, according to source". Haaretz.
    42. ^ "Beware Iran's 'Axis of Resistance' | People's Mojahedin Organization of Iran (PMOI/MEK)". Archived from the original on 31 October 2021. Retrieved 16 January 2020.
    43. ^ Nimrod Raphaeli (11 February 2009). "The Iranian Roots of Hizbullah". MEMRI. Archived from the original on 11 February 2009.
    44. ^
      • "Hezbollah". The Collins English Dictionary. Glasgow: HarperCollins. 2013. Retrieved 7 May 2013.
      • "Hezbollah". Webster's New World College Dictionary. Cleveland: Wiley Publishing, Inc. 2012. Retrieved 7 May 2013.
    45. ^ Other transliterations include Hizbullah, Hizballah, Hizbollah, Hezbolla, Hezballah, Hisbollah, Hizbu'llah and Hizb Allah.
    46. ^ "Hezbollah | Meaning, History, & Ideology | Britannica". www.britannica.com. 15 December 2023. Retrieved 17 December 2023.
    47. ^ "What Is Hezbollah?". Council on Foreign Relations. Retrieved 17 December 2023.
    48. ^ Levitt, Matthew (2013). Hezbollah: The Global Footprint of Lebanon's Party of God. Hurst Publishers. p. 15. ISBN 978-1-84904-333-5. ... the Jihad Council coordinates 'resistance activity'.
      Ghattas Saab, Antoine (15 May 2014). "Hezbollah cutting costs as Iranian aid dries up". The Daily Star. Retrieved 1 June 2014. ... Hezbollah's military wing ... Known as the 'Jihad Council'
    49. ^ Hirst, David (2010) Beware of Small States. Lebanon, battleground of the Middle East. Faber and Faber. ISBN 978-0-571-23741-8 p. 189
    50. ^ Adam Shatz (29 April 2004). "In Search of Hezbollah". The New York Review of Books. Archived from the original on 22 August 2006. Retrieved 14 August 2006.
    51. ^ Dominique Avon, Anaïs-Trissa Khatchadourian, Hezbollah: A History of the "Party of God", Harvard University Press, 2012 ISBN 978-0-674-07031-8 pp. 21ff.
    52. ^ E. Azani, Hezbollah: The Story of the Party of God: From Revolution to Institutionalization, Springer, 2011 ISBN 978-0-230-11629-0 pp. 59–63
    53. ^ Mariam Farida, Religion and Hezbollah: Political Ideology and Legitimacy, Routledge, 2019 ISBN 978-1-000-45857-2 pp. 1–3.
    54. ^ Itamar Rabinovich (2008). Israel in the Middle East. UPNE. ISBN 978-0-87451-962-4. Retrieved 18 November 2010.
    55. ^ Fisk, Robert (7 September 2014). "After the atrocities committed against Muslims in Bosnia, it is no wonder today's jihadis have set out on the path to war in Syria". The Independent. Archived from the original on 17 July 2018. Retrieved 25 March 2016.
    56. ^ Ghattas, Kim (1 December 2006). "Political ferment in Lebanon". BBC News. Retrieved 15 August 2008.
    57. ^ Stern, Yoav; Issacharoff, Avi (10 May 2008). "Hezbollah fighters retreat from Beirut after 37 die in clashes". Haaretz. Archived from the original on 12 May 2008. Retrieved 20 October 2012.
    58. ^ "Hezbollah (a.k.a. Hizbollah, Hizbu'llah)". Council on Foreign Relations. 13 September 2008. Archived from the original on 13 September 2008. Retrieved 15 September 2008.
    59. ^ "Huge Beirut protest backs Syria". BBC News. 8 March 2005. Retrieved 7 February 2007.
    60. ^ "Hariri: Sunnis 'refuse' to join Hezbollah-Al Qaida war". AFP, 25 January 2014.
    61. ^ Blanford & Salim 2013.
    62. ^ Zirulnick 2012.
    63. ^ Barnard, Anne (3 January 2014). "Mystery in Hezbollah Operatives Life and Death". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 3 January 2022.
    64. ^ Barnard, Anne (9 July 2013). "Car Bombing Injures Dozens in Hezbollah Section of Beirut". The New York Times. Retrieved 30 August 2013. Hezbollah has portrayed the Syrian uprising as an Israeli-backed plot to destroy its alliance with Mr. Assad against Israel.
    65. ^ Liz Sly and Suzan Haidamous 'Lebanon's Hezbollah acknowledges battling the Islamic State in Iraq,' Washington Post 16 February 2015.
    66. ^ Ali Hashem, arrives in Iraq Archived 7 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine. Al Monitor 25 November 2014
    67. ^ "Factbox: Hezbollah and allies gain sway in Lebanon parliament". Reuters. 22 May 2018.
    68. ^ Ajroudi, Asma. "Hezbollah and allies biggest winners in Lebanon polls". Al Jazeera.
    69. ^ "Fears grow of all-out Israel-Hezbollah war as fighting escalates". The Guardian. 17 December 2023. Retrieved 27 December 2023.
    70. ^ "UN: Hezbollah has increased military strength since 2006 war". Haaretz. 25 October 2007. Retrieved 5 September 2013.
    71. ^ Frykberg, Mel (29 August 2008). "Mideast Powers, Proxies and Paymasters Bluster and Rearm". Middle East Times. Retrieved 31 May 2011. And if there is one thing that ideologically and diametrically opposed Hezbollah and Israel agree on, it is Hezbollah's growing military strength.
    72. ^ Barnard, Anne (20 May 2013). "Hezbollah's Role in Syria War Shakes the Lebanese". The New York Times. Retrieved 20 June 2013. Hezbollah, stronger than the Lebanese Army, has the power to drag the country into war without a government decision, as in 2006, when it set off the war by capturing two Israeli soldiers
    73. ^ Morris, Loveday (12 June 2013). "For Lebanon's Sunnis, growing rage at Hezbollah over role in Syria". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on 5 November 2013. Retrieved 20 June 2013. ... Hezbollah, which has a fighting force generally considered more powerful than the Lebanese army.
    74. ^ "Iran-Syria vs. Israel, Round 1: Assessments & Lessons Learned". Defense Industry Daily. 13 September 2013. Retrieved 19 February 2013.
    75. ^ a b Hubbard, Ben (20 March 2014). "Syrian Fighting Gives Hezbollah New but Diffuse Purpose". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 3 January 2022. Retrieved 30 May 2014. ... the fighting has also diluted the resources that used to go exclusively to facing Israel, exacerbated sectarian divisions in the region, and alienated large segments of the majority Sunni population who once embraced Hezbollah as a liberation force... Never before have Hezbollah guerrillas fought alongside a formal army, waged war outside Lebanon or initiated broad offensives aimed at seizing territory.
    76. ^ Deeb, Lara (31 July 2006). "Hizballah: A Primer". Middle East Report. Archived from the original on 19 October 2011. Retrieved 31 May 2011.
    77. ^ Goldman, Adam (28 May 2014). "Hezbollah operative wanted by FBI dies in fighting in Syria". The Washington Post. Retrieved 30 May 2014. ... Hasan Nasrallah has called the deployment of his fighters to Syria a 'new phase' for the movement, and it marks the first time the group has sent significant numbers of men outside Lebanon's borders.
    78. ^ Filkins, Dexter (30 September 2013). "The Shadow Commander". The New Yorker. Retrieved 4 October 2013. From 2000 to 2006, Iran contributed a hundred million dollars a year to Hezbollah. Its fighters are attractive proxies: unlike the Iranians, they speak Arabic, making them better equipped to operate in Syria and elsewhere in the Arab world.
    79. ^ "Hezbollah's Syrian Quagmires" (PDF). The Washington Institute for Near East Policy. Archived from the original (PDF) on 6 October 2014. Retrieved 17 September 2014. By siding with the Assad regime, the regime's Alawite supporters, and Iran, and taking up arms against Sunni rebels, Hezbollah has placed itself at the epicenter of a sectarian conflict that has nothing to do with the group's purported raison d'être: 'resistance' to Israeli occupation.
    80. ^ Kershner, Isabel (10 March 2014). "Israel Watches Warily as Hezbollah Gains Battle Skills in Syria". The New York Times. Retrieved 30 May 2014. ... the Lebanese group's image at home and in the broader Arab world has been severely damaged because it is fighting Sunni rebels in Syria while its legitimacy rested on its role in fighting Israel.
    81. ^ El Deeb, Sarah (18 October 2021). "Hezbollah leader declares his group has 100,000 fighters". Associated Press. Retrieved 21 October 2021.
    82. ^ Cite error: The named reference auto4 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    83. ^ Cite error: The named reference Wedeman was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    84. ^ Maria Kiselyova. Greg Mahlich (ed.). "Russia says Hezbollah not a terrorist group: Ifax". Reuters. Retrieved 19 February 2021.
     
  6. Admin2

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    17 February 1979 – The Sino-Vietnamese War begins.

    Sino-Vietnamese War

    The Sino-Vietnamese War (also known by other names) was a brief conflict that occurred in early 1979 between China and Vietnam. China launched an offensive in response to Vietnam's invasion and occupation of Cambodia in 1978, which ended the rule of the Chinese-backed Khmer Rouge. The conflict lasted for about a month, with China withdrawing its troops in March 1979.

    In February 1979, Chinese forces launched a surprise invasion of northern Vietnam and quickly captured several cities near the border. On 6 March of that year, China declared that its punitive mission had been accomplished. Chinese troops then withdrew from Vietnam. However, Vietnam continued to occupy Cambodia until 1989, which means that China did not achieve its goal of dissuading Vietnam from involvement in Cambodia. However, China's operation at least successfully forced Vietnam to withdraw some units, namely the 2nd Corps, from the invasion forces of Cambodia to reinforce the defense of Hanoi.[18] The conflict had a lasting impact on the relationship between China and Vietnam, and diplomatic relations between the two countries were not fully restored until 1991. Following the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991, the Sino-Vietnamese border was finalized. Although unable to deter Vietnam from ousting Pol Pot from Cambodia, China demonstrated that the Soviet Union, its Cold War communist adversary, was unable to protect its Vietnamese ally.[19]

    1. ^ Nayan Chanda, "End of the Battle but Not of the War", p. 10. Khu vực có giá trị tượng trưng tinh thần nhất là khoảng 300m đường xe lửa giữa Hữu Nghị Quan và trạm kiểm soát biên giới Việt Nam.
    2. ^ Nguyen, Can Van. "Sino-Vietnamese Border Issues". NGO Realm. Archived from the original on 31 August 2014. Retrieved 6 October 2014.
    3. ^ Nguyen, Can Van. "INTERVIEW ON TERRITORY AND TERRITORIAL WATERS". vlink.com. Archived from the original on 12 January 2015. Retrieved 6 October 2014.
    4. ^ Gompert, David C.; Binnendijk, Hans; Lin, Bonny. Blinders, Blunders, and Wars: What America and China Can Learn (PDF) (Report). RAND Corporation. Archived (PDF) from the original on 16 November 2016. Retrieved 1 August 2020.
    5. ^ Tretiak 1979, p. 753.
    6. ^ a b c Zhang Xiaoming, "China's 1979 War with Vietnam: A Reassessment" Archived October 31, 2007, at the Wayback Machine, China Quarterly, Issue no. 184 (December 2005), pp. 851–874. Actually thought to have been 200,000 with 400–550 tanks. Zhang writes that: "Existing scholarship tends towards an estimate of as many as 25,000 PLA killed in action and another 37,000 wounded. Recently available Chinese sources categorize the PLA's losses as 6,594 dead and approximately 31,000 injured, giving a total of 24,000 casualties from an invasion force of 200,000."
    7. ^ a b Nga, Đỗ Thu. "Trung Quốc – đi hùng hổ, về ê chê ở CT biên giới 1979: Nhìn số lượng và thiệt hại về xe tăng là biết". songdep.com.vn (in Vietnamese). Sống Đẹp. Archived from the original on 22 February 2022. Retrieved 9 March 2022.
    8. ^ Copper 2009, p. 71.
    9. ^ King V. Chen (1987): China's War With Việt Nam, 1979. Hoover Institution Press, Stanford University, page 103
    10. ^ a b Cite error: The named reference mil.chinaiiss.org was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    11. ^ a b China at War: An Encyclopedia, p. 413, at Google Books
    12. ^ Howard, Russell D. (September 1999). "USAF Institute for National Security Studies, USAF Academy" (PDF). Regional Security Series. INSS Occasional Paper. 28. Archived (PDF) from the original on 3 October 2021. Retrieved 3 October 2021.
    13. ^ a b Tonnesson, Bởi Stein (2010). Vietnam 1946: How the War Began. University of California Press. p. 2. ISBN 9780520256026.
    14. ^ a b Chan, Gerald (1989). China and international organizations: participation in non-governmental organizations since 1971 (illustrated ed.). Oxford University Press. p. 80. ISBN 0195827384. Archived from the original on 12 October 2022. Retrieved 19 May 2018.
    15. ^ a b Military Law Review, Volumes 119–122. Vol. 119. Contributors United States. Dept. of the Army, Judge Advocate General's School (United States. Army). Headquarters, Department of the Army. 1988. p. 72. Archived from the original on 12 October 2022. Retrieved 19 May 2018.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: others (link)
    16. ^ a b c d e King C. Chen (1983). "China's war against Vietnam, 1979: a military analysis". Journal of East Asian Affairs. 3 (1). Archived from the original on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 1 August 2020.
    17. ^ Chen, King C. (1987). China's War with Vietnam, 1979: Issues, Decisions, and Implications. Hoover Press. p. 114. ISBN 9780817985738. Archived from the original on 16 October 2017. Retrieved 16 October 2017.
    18. ^ "Nghệ thuật chỉ đạo đấu tranh trong Cuộc chiến đấu bảo vệ biên giới phía Bắc". baotintuc.vn (in Vietnamese). 18 February 2019. Retrieved 8 August 2023.
    19. ^ Elleman, Bruce A. (2001). Modern Chinese Warfare, 1795–1989. Routledge. p. 297. ISBN 0415214742.
     
  7. Admin2

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    18 February 1930 – While studying photographs taken in January, Clyde Tombaugh discovers Pluto.

    Clyde Tombaugh

    Clyde William Tombaugh /ˈtɒmb/ (February 4, 1906 – January 17, 1997) was an American astronomer. He discovered Pluto in 1930, the first object to be discovered in what would later be identified as the Kuiper belt. At the time of discovery, Pluto was considered a planet, but was reclassified as a dwarf planet in 2006. Tombaugh also discovered many asteroids, and called for the serious scientific research of unidentified flying objects.

     
  8. Admin2

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    19 February 1985 – EastEnders, BBC's flagship soap opera, broadcasts for the first time.

    EastEnders

    EastEnders is a British television soap opera created by Julia Smith and Tony Holland which has been broadcast on BBC One since February 1985. Set in the fictional borough of Walford in the East End of London, the programme follows the stories of local residents and their families as they go about their daily lives. Within eight months of the show's original launch, it had reached the number one spot in BARB's television ratings, and has consistently remained among the top-rated series in Britain. Four EastEnders episodes are listed in the all-time top 10 most-watched programmes in the UK, including the number one spot, when over 30 million watched the 1986 Christmas Day episode.[1] EastEnders has been important in the history of British television drama, tackling many subjects that are considered to be controversial or taboo in British culture, and portraying a social life previously unseen on UK mainstream television.[2]

    Since co-creator Holland was from a large family in the East End, a theme heavily featured in EastEnders is strong families, and each character is supposed to have their own place in the fictional community. The Watts, Beales, Mitchells, Brannings and the Slaters are some of the families that have been central to the soap's notable and dramatic storylines. EastEnders has been filmed at the BBC Elstree Centre since its inception, with a set that is outdoors and open to weather. In 2014, the BBC announced plans to rebuild the set entirely. Filming commenced on the new set in January 2022,[3] and it was first used on-screen in March 2022.[4] Demolition on the old set commenced in November 2022.[5]

    EastEnders has received both praise and criticism for many of its storylines, which have dealt with difficult themes including violence, rape, murder and abuse. It has been criticised for various storylines, including the 2010 baby swap storyline, which attracted over 6,000 complaints, as well as complaints of showing too much violence and allegations of national and racial stereotypes. However, EastEnders has also been commended for representing real-life issues and spreading awareness on social topics. The cast and crew of the show have received and been nominated for various awards.

    1. ^ "'Happy Christmas, Ange!' The nation's most-watched TV episode". Science and Media Museum. Retrieved 31 August 2022.
    2. ^ Demory, Pamela; Pullen, Christopher. Queer Love in Film and Television: Critical Essays. Palgrave Macmillan. p. 35.
    3. ^ "EastEnders starts filming on troubled new £87 million set". BBC. Retrieved 23 November 2022.
    4. ^ "EastEnders' new-look Albert Square to hit screens next week". whattowatch. Retrieved 23 November 2022.
    5. ^ "EastEnders set demolished as fans slam 'wasted opportunity'". Metro. Retrieved 23 November 2022.
     
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    NewsBot The Admin that posts the news.

    Articles:
    1
    20 February 1877Tchaikovsky's ballet Swan Lake receives its premiere at the Bolshoi Theatre in Moscow.

    Swan Lake

    Swan Lake (Russian: Лебеди́ное о́зеро, tr. Lebedínoje ózero, IPA: [lʲɪbʲɪˈdʲinəjə ˈozʲɪrə] listen), Op. 20, is a ballet composed by Russian composer Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky in 1875–76. Despite its initial failure, it is now one of the most popular ballets of all time.[1]

    The scenario, initially in two acts, was fashioned from Russian and German folk tales and tells the story of Odette, a princess turned into a swan by an evil sorcerer's curse. The choreographer of the original production was Julius Reisinger (Václav Reisinger). The ballet was premiered by the Bolshoi Ballet on 4 March [O.S. 20 February] 1877[2][3] at the Bolshoi Theatre in Moscow. Although it is presented in many different versions, most ballet companies base their stagings both choreographically and musically on the 1895 revival of Marius Petipa and Lev Ivanov, first staged for the Imperial Ballet on 15 January 1895, at the Mariinsky Theatre in St. Petersburg. For this revival, Tchaikovsky's score was revised by the St. Petersburg Imperial Theatre's chief conductor and composer Riccardo Drigo.[4]

    1. ^ "Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky - Years of fame". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 19 June 2021.
    2. ^ Kant, Marion, ed. (2007). The Cambridge Companion to Ballet. Cambridge Companions to Music. Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press. p. 164. ISBN 978-0-521-53986-9.; 'Old style' date 4 March
    3. ^ Chaĭkovskiĭ, Modest Ilʹich; Newmarch, Jeaffreson; Rosa Harriet (1906). The life & letters of Peter Ilich Tchaikovsky. J Lane. p. 735.
    4. ^ "Swan Lake Ballet 2018 India". BookMyShow. Archived from the original on 6 March 2018.
     
  10. Admin2

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    21 February 1918 – The last Carolina parakeet dies in captivity at the Cincinnati Zoo.

    Carolina parakeet

    The Carolina parakeet (Conuropsis carolinensis), or Carolina conure, is an extinct species of small green neotropical parrot with a bright yellow head, reddish orange face, and pale beak that was native to the Eastern, Midwest, and Plains states of the United States. It was the only indigenous parrot within its range, as well as one of only three parrot species native to the United States (the others being the thick-billed parrot, now extirpated,[3] and the green parakeet, still present in Texas;[4] a fourth parrot species, the red-crowned amazon, is debated).[5][6][7] It was called puzzi la née ("head of yellow") or pot pot chee by the Seminole and kelinky in Chickasaw.[8] Though formerly prevalent within its range, the bird had become rare by the middle of the 19th century. The last confirmed sighting in the wild was of the C. c. ludovicianus subspecies in 1910. The last known specimen, a male named Incas, perished in captivity at the Cincinnati Zoo in 1918,[9][10] and the species was declared extinct in 1939.

    The earliest reference to these parrots was in 1583 in Florida reported by Sir George Peckham in A True Report of the Late Discoveries of the Newfound Lands of expeditions conducted by English explorer Sir Humphrey Gilbert, who notes that explorers in North America "doe testifie that they have found in those countryes; ... parrots." They were first scientifically described in English naturalist Mark Catesby's two-volume Natural History of Carolina, Florida and the Bahama Islands published in London in 1731 and 1743.

    Carolina parakeets were probably poisonous – French-American naturalist and painter John J. Audubon noted that cats apparently died from eating them, and they are known to have eaten the toxic seeds of cockleburs.[11][12]

    1. ^ BirdLife International (2021). "Conuropsis carolinensis". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2021: e.T22685776A195444267. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2021-3.RLTS.T22685776A195444267.en. Retrieved 20 November 2022.
    2. ^ "NatureServe Explorer 2.0". explorer.natureserve.org. Retrieved 31 March 2022.
    3. ^ Cite error: The named reference usfwstbp2012 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    4. ^ Cite error: The named reference tamugp was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    5. ^ Cite error: The named reference tamurcp was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    6. ^ Cite error: The named reference shackelford2016 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    7. ^ BirdLife International (2021). "Amazona viridigenalis". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2021: e.T22686259A152441187. Retrieved 20 November 2022.
    8. ^ Snyder, Noel F.; Russell, Keith (2002). Poole, A.; Gill, F. (eds.). "Carolina Parakeet (Conuropsis carolinensis)". The Birds of North America. 667. Philadelphia, PA: The Birds of North America, Inc. doi:10.2173/bna.667.
    9. ^ Tallman, Dan A.; Swanson, David L.; Palmer, Jeffrey S. (2002). Birds of South Dakota. Midstates/Quality Quick Print. p. 181. ISBN 0-929918-06-1.
    10. ^ "The last Carolina Parakeet". John James Audubon Center at Mill Grove. 22 December 2015. Retrieved 30 October 2018.
    11. ^ Birkhead, Tim (2012). Bird Sense: What It's Like to Be a Bird. New York: Walker & Company. p. 123. ISBN 978-0-8027-7966-3.
    12. ^ Phillips, Kristin Elise. "Plumes of Poison". Audubon Magazine. Archived from the original on 28 January 2016. Retrieved 8 August 2015.
     
  11. Admin2

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    22 February 1959Lee Petty wins the first Daytona 500.

    Daytona 500

    Preview warning: Page using Template:Infobox motor race with unknown parameter "Last race."

    The Daytona 500 is a 500-mile-long (805 km) NASCAR Cup Series motor race held annually at Daytona International Speedway in Daytona Beach, Florida. It is the first of two Cup races held every year at Daytona, the second being the Coke Zero Sugar 400, and one of three held in Florida, with the annual fall showdown Dixie Vodka 400 being held at Homestead south of Miami. From 1988 to 2019, it was one of the four restrictor plate races on the Cup schedule. The inaugural Daytona 500 was held in 1959 coinciding with the opening of the speedway and since 1982, it has been the season-opening race of the Cup series.[1]

    The Daytona 500 is regarded as the most important and prestigious race on the NASCAR calendar, carrying by far the largest purse.[2] Championship points awarded are equal to that of any other NASCAR Cup Series race. It is also the series' first race of the year; this phenomenon is unique in sports, which tend to have championships or other major events at the end of the season rather than the start. From 19952020, U.S. television ratings for the Daytona 500 have been the highest for any auto race of the year, surpassing the traditional leader, the Indianapolis 500 which in turn greatly surpasses the Daytona 500 in in-track attendance and international viewing; however, in 2021 the Indianapolis 500 surpassed the Daytona 500 in TV ratings and viewership.[3][4] The 2006 Daytona 500 attracted the sixth largest average live global TV audience of any sporting event that year with 20 million viewers.[5]

    The race serves as the final event of Speedweeks and is also known as "The Great American Race" or the "Super Bowl of Stock Car Racing".[6][7][8] Since its inception, the race has been held in mid-to-late February. From 1971 to 2011, and again since 2018, the event has been as associated with Presidents Day weekend,[9] taking place on the third Sunday of February and since 2022, it was held on the same day that the NBA All-Star Game was held and one week after the Super Bowl. On eight occasions, the race has been run on Valentine's Day.

    Since 1997, the winner of the Daytona 500 has been presented with the Harley J. Earl Trophy in Victory Lane, and the winning car is displayed in race-winning condition for one year at Daytona 500 Experience, a museum and gallery adjacent to Daytona International Speedway.

    1. ^ Chad Culver (2014). Dover International Speedway: The Monster Mile. Arcadia Publishing. p. 127. ISBN 978-1467121378.
    2. ^ "Culture, Class, Distinction"Bennett, Tony. Culture, Class, Distinction. Routledge (2009) Disaggregating cultural capital. English translation ISBN 0-415-42242-6 (hardcover).
    3. ^ Staff, The Athletic. "Daytona 500 posts record-worst TV rating, in part due to rain delay". The Athletic. Archived from the original on 2021-10-20. Retrieved 2021-10-20.
    4. ^ "Indy 500 viewership highest in five years". June 2, 2021. Archived from the original on October 20, 2021. Retrieved October 20, 2021.
    5. ^ "World's most watched TV sports events: 2006 Rank & Trends report". Initiative. 2007-01-19. Archived from the original on 2007-02-08. Retrieved 2007-01-30.
    6. ^ "A History of the Daytona 500". TicketCity. Archived from the original on May 9, 2012. Retrieved November 24, 2015.
    7. ^ Crossman, Matt (February 22, 2015). "Daytona 500 Magic Hour: Best 60 minutes in sports". NASCAR. Archived from the original on November 25, 2015. Retrieved November 24, 2015.
    8. ^ Briggs, Josh (10 February 2009). "How Daytona Qualifying Works". HowStuffWorks. Archived from the original on November 25, 2015. Retrieved November 24, 2015.
    9. ^ "Your Gateway to Knowledge". Knowledge Zone. Retrieved 2024-01-31.
     
  12. Admin2

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    23 February 1941Plutonium is first produced and isolated by Dr. Glenn T. Seaborg.

    Plutonium

    Plutonium is a chemical element; it has symbol Pu and atomic number 94. It is an actinide metal of silvery-gray appearance that tarnishes when exposed to air, and forms a dull coating when oxidized. The element normally exhibits six allotropes and four oxidation states. It reacts with carbon, halogens, nitrogen, silicon, and hydrogen. When exposed to moist air, it forms oxides and hydrides that can expand the sample up to 70% in volume, which in turn flake off as a powder that is pyrophoric. It is radioactive and can accumulate in bones, which makes the handling of plutonium dangerous.

    Plutonium was first synthetically produced and isolated in late 1940 and early 1941, by a deuteron bombardment of uranium-238 in the 1.5-metre (60 in) cyclotron at the University of California, Berkeley. First, neptunium-238 (half-life 2.1 days) was synthesized, which subsequently beta-decayed to form the new element with atomic number 94 and atomic weight 238 (half-life 88 years). Since uranium had been named after the planet Uranus and neptunium after the planet Neptune, element 94 was named after Pluto, which at the time was considered to be a planet as well. Wartime secrecy prevented the University of California team from publishing its discovery until 1948.

    Plutonium is the element with the highest atomic number known to occur in nature. Trace quantities arise in natural uranium-238 deposits when uranium-238 captures neutrons emitted by decay of other uranium-238 atoms. The heavy isotope plutonium-244 has a half-life long enough that extreme trace quantities should have survived primordially (from the Earth's formation) to the present, but so far experiments have not yet been sensitive enough to detect it.

    Both plutonium-239 and plutonium-241 are fissile, meaning that they can sustain a nuclear chain reaction, leading to applications in nuclear weapons and nuclear reactors. Plutonium-240 exhibits a high rate of spontaneous fission, raising the neutron flux of any sample containing it. The presence of plutonium-240 limits a plutonium sample's usability for weapons or its quality as reactor fuel, and the percentage of plutonium-240 determines its grade (weapons-grade, fuel-grade, or reactor-grade). Plutonium-238 has a half-life of 87.7 years and emits alpha particles. It is a heat source in radioisotope thermoelectric generators, which are used to power some spacecraft. Plutonium isotopes are expensive and inconvenient to separate, so particular isotopes are usually manufactured in specialized reactors.

    Producing plutonium in useful quantities for the first time was a major part of the Manhattan Project during World War II that developed the first atomic bombs. The Fat Man bombs used in the Trinity nuclear test in July 1945, and in the bombing of Nagasaki in August 1945, had plutonium cores. Human radiation experiments studying plutonium were conducted without informed consent, and several criticality accidents, some lethal, occurred after the war. Disposal of plutonium waste from nuclear power plants and dismantled nuclear weapons built during the Cold War is a nuclear-proliferation and environmental concern. Other sources of plutonium in the environment are fallout from numerous above-ground nuclear tests, which are now banned.

    1. ^ Calculated from the atomic weight and the atomic volume. The unit cell, containing 16 atoms, has a volume of 319.96 cubic Å, according to Siegfried S. Hecker (2000). "Plutonium and its alloys: from atoms to microstructure" (PDF). Los Alamos Science. 26: 331.. This gives a density for 239Pu of (1.66053906660×10−24g/dalton×239.0521634 daltons/atom×16 atoms/unit cell)/(319.96 Å3/unit cell × 10−24cc/Å3) or 19.85 g/cc.
    2. ^ Kondev, F. G.; Wang, M.; Huang, W. J.; Naimi, S.; Audi, G. (2021). "The NUBASE2020 evaluation of nuclear properties" (PDF). Chinese Physics C. 45 (3): 030001. doi:10.1088/1674-1137/abddae.
    3. ^ Magurno & Pearlstein 1981, pp. 835 ff.
     
  13. Admin2

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    24 February 1942 – The Battle of Los Angeles: A false alarm led to an anti-aircraft barrage that lasted into the early hours of February 25.

    Battle of Los Angeles

    The Battle of Los Angeles, also known as the Great Los Angeles Air Raid, is the name given by contemporary sources to a rumored attack on the continental United States by Imperial Japan and the subsequent anti-aircraft artillery barrage which took place from late 24 February to early 25 February 1942, over Los Angeles, California.[1][2][3] The incident occurred less than three months after the U.S. entered World War II in response to the Imperial Japanese Navy's surprise attack on Pearl Harbor, and one day after the bombardment of Ellwood near Santa Barbara on 23 February. Initially, the target of the aerial barrage was thought to be an attacking force from Japan, but speaking at a press conference shortly afterward, Secretary of the Navy Frank Knox called the purported attack a "false alarm". Newspapers of the time published a number of reports and speculations of a cover-up to conceal an actual invasion by enemy airplanes.

    When documenting the incident in 1949, the United States Coast Artillery Association identified a meteorological balloon sent aloft at 1:00 am as having "started all the shooting" and concluded that "once the firing started, imagination created all kinds of targets in the sky and everyone joined in".[4] In 1983, the U.S. Office of Air Force History attributed the event to a case of "war nerves" triggered by a lost weather balloon and exacerbated by stray flares and shell bursts from adjoining batteries. As an example of incompetence, the incident was derisively referred to as the "Battle of Los Angeles" or the "Great Los Angeles Air Raid".[5]

    1. ^ "The Battle of Los Angeles". Military Museum. Retrieved 6 November 2015.
    2. ^ Caughey, John; Caughey, LaRee (1977). Los Angeles: biography of a city. University of California Press. p. 364. ISBN 978-0-520-03410-5. great los angeles air raid.
    3. ^ Farley, John E. (1998). Earthquake fears, predictions, and preparations in mid-America. Southern Illinois University Press. ISBN 978-0-8093-2201-5. Retrieved 17 May 2010.
    4. ^ Murphy, Col. John G. (May–June 1949). "Activities of The Ninth Army AAA – L.A. 'Attacked'" (PDF). Antiaircraft Journal, the United States Coast Artillery Association. LXXXII (3): 5. Archived from the original (PDF) on 12 November 2020. Retrieved 3 March 2016.
    5. ^ Cite error: The named reference Lotchin was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
     
  14. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    25 February 1856 – A Peace conference opens in Paris after the Crimean War.

    Congress of Paris (1856)

    Diplomats assembled at Congress of Paris - Painting by Edouard Dubufe

    The Congress of Paris is the name for a series of diplomatic meetings held in 1856 in Paris, France, to negotiate peace between the warring powers in the Crimean War that had started almost three years earlier.[1]

    The Congress was attended by diplomatic representatives from the nations of France, Great Britain, Russia, Austria, and Prussia, as well as from the Ottoman Empire and Piedmont-Sardinia and was presided by the French Prime-Minister Alexandre Colonna-Walewski. The agreement resulted in continued recognition of the Ottoman Empire and the return to pre-war territorial borders for Russia and the Empire.

    1. ^ "Paris, Treaty of (1856)". The New Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc. Volume 9. 15th ed. pp. 153-154. 2007.
     
  15. Admin2

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    26 February 1935Adolf Hitler orders the Luftwaffe to be re-formed, violating the provisions of the Treaty of Versailles.

    Luftwaffe

    Hermann Göring, the first Supreme Commander of the Luftwaffe (in office: 1935–1945)
    Robert Ritter von Greim, the second and last Supreme Commander of the Luftwaffe (in office: April–May 1945)

    The Luftwaffe[N 2] (German pronunciation: [ˈlʊftvafə] ) was the aerial-warfare branch of the Wehrmacht before and during World War II. Germany's military air arms during World War I, the Luftstreitkräfte of the Imperial Army and the Marine-Fliegerabteilung of the Imperial Navy, had been disbanded in May 1920 in accordance with the terms of the 1919 Treaty of Versailles which banned Germany from having any air force.

    During the interwar period, German pilots were trained secretly in violation of the treaty at Lipetsk Air Base in the Soviet Union. With the rise of the Nazi Party and the repudiation of the Versailles Treaty, the Luftwaffe's existence was publicly acknowledged on 26 February 1935, just over two weeks before open defiance of the Versailles Treaty through German rearmament and conscription would be announced on 16 March.[6] The Condor Legion, a Luftwaffe detachment sent to aid Nationalist forces in the Spanish Civil War, provided the force with a valuable testing ground for new tactics and aircraft. Partially as a result of this combat experience, the Luftwaffe had become one of the most sophisticated, technologically advanced, and battle-experienced air forces in the world when World War II broke out in September 1939.[7] By the summer of 1939, the Luftwaffe had twenty-eight Geschwader (wings). The Luftwaffe also operated a paratrooper force known as the Fallschirmjäger.

    The Luftwaffe proved instrumental in the German victories across Poland and Western Europe in 1939 and 1940. During the Battle of Britain, however, despite inflicting severe damage to the RAF's infrastructure and, during the subsequent Blitz, devastating many British cities, the German Air Force failed to batter the beleaguered British into submission. From 1942, Allied bombing campaigns gradually destroyed the Luftwaffe's fighter arm. From late 1942, the Luftwaffe used its surplus ground support and other personnel to raise Luftwaffe Field Divisions. In addition to its service in the West, the Luftwaffe operated over the Soviet Union, North Africa, and Southern Europe. Despite its belated use of advanced turbojet and rocket-propelled aircraft for the destruction of Allied bombers, the Luftwaffe was overwhelmed by the Allies' superior numbers and improved tactics, and a lack of trained pilots and aviation fuel. In January 1945, during the closing stages of the Battle of the Bulge, the Luftwaffe made a last-ditch effort to win air superiority, and met with failure. With rapidly dwindling supplies of petroleum, oil, and lubricants after this campaign, and as part of the entire combined Wehrmacht military forces as a whole, the Luftwaffe ceased to be an effective fighting force.

    After the defeat of Nazi Germany, the Luftwaffe was disbanded in 1946. During World War II, German pilots claimed roughly 70,000 aerial victories, while over 75,000 Luftwaffe aircraft were destroyed or significantly damaged. Of these, nearly 40,000 were lost entirely. The Luftwaffe had only two commanders-in-chief throughout its history: Reichsmarschall Hermann Göring and later Generalfeldmarschall Robert Ritter von Greim for the last two weeks of the war.

    The Luftwaffe was deeply involved in Nazi war crimes. By the end of the war, a significant percentage of aircraft production originated in concentration camps, an industry employing tens of thousands of prisoners.[N 3] The Luftwaffe's demand for labour was one of the factors that led to the deportation and murder of hundreds of thousands of Hungarian Jews in 1944. The Luftwaffe frequently bombed non-military targets, the Oberkommando der Luftwaffe organised Nazi human experimentation, and Luftwaffe ground troops committed massacres in Italy, Greece, and Poland.

    1. ^ "Control Council Law No. 34, Resolution of the Wehrmacht of 20 August 1946" (in German). Archived 30 June 2020 at the Wayback Machine Official Gazette of the Control Council for Germany, 1 May 2004 – 7 June 2004, p. 172.
    2. ^ Tom Philo. "WWII production figures". Taphilo.com. Archived from the original on 26 March 2017. Retrieved 26 April 2014.
    3. ^ Jason Pipes (2008). "Statistics and Numbers". Feldgrau.com. Retrieved 26 April 2014.
    4. ^ "Entry in German dictionary Duden". Archived from the original on 24 February 2016. Retrieved 16 February 2016.
    5. ^ Stedman 2012, p. 3
    6. ^ Fischer 1995, p. 408
    7. ^ Killen 2003, p. 93


    Cite error: There are <ref group=N> tags on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=N}} template (see the help page).

     
  16. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    27 February 1951 – The Twenty-second Amendment to the United States Constitution, limiting Presidents to two terms, is ratified.

    Twenty-second Amendment to the United States Constitution

    The Twenty-second Amendment (Amendment XXII) to the United States Constitution limits the number of times a person can be elected to the office of President of the United States to two terms, and sets additional eligibility conditions for presidents who succeed to the unexpired terms of their predecessors.[1] Congress approved the Twenty-second Amendment on March 21, 1947, and submitted it to the state legislatures for ratification. That process was completed on February 27, 1951, when the requisite 36 of the 48 states had ratified the amendment (neither Alaska nor Hawaii had yet been admitted as states), and its provisions came into force on that date.

    The amendment prohibits anyone who has been elected president twice from being elected again. Under the amendment, someone who fills an unexpired presidential term lasting more than two years is also prohibited from being elected president more than once. Scholars debate whether the amendment prohibits affected individuals from succeeding to the presidency under any circumstances or whether it applies only to presidential elections. Until the amendment's ratification, the president had not been subject to term limits, but both George Washington and Thomas Jefferson (the first and third presidents) decided not to serve a third term, establishing the two-term tradition. In the 1940 and 1944 presidential elections, Franklin D. Roosevelt became the only president to win third and fourth terms, giving rise to concerns about a president serving unlimited terms.[2]

    1. ^ Neale, Thomas H. (October 19, 2009). "Presidential Terms and Tenure: Perspectives and Proposals for Change" (PDF). Washington, D.C.: Congressional Research Service, The Library of Congress. Archived (PDF) from the original on April 12, 2019. Retrieved March 22, 2018.
    2. ^ "FDR's third-term election and the 22nd amendment". Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: National Constitution Center. November 5, 2020. Retrieved April 29, 2022.
     
  17. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    28 February 1991 – The first Gulf War ends.

    Gulf War

    The Gulf War was an armed conflict between Iraq and a 42-country coalition led by the United States. The coalition's efforts against Iraq were carried out in two key phases: Operation Desert Shield, which marked the military buildup from August 1990 to January 1991; and Operation Desert Storm, which began with the aerial bombing campaign against Iraq on 17 January 1991 and came to a close with the American-led liberation of Kuwait on 28 February 1991.

    On 2 August 1990, Iraq, governed by dictator Saddam Hussein, launched an invasion of neighboring Kuwait and fully occupied the country within two days. Initially, Iraq ran the occupied territory under a puppet government known as the "Republic of Kuwait" before proceeding with an outright annexation in which Kuwaiti sovereign territory was split, with the "Saddamiyat al-Mitla' District" being carved out of the country's northern portion and the "Kuwait Governorate" covering the rest. Varying speculations have been made regarding intents behind the Iraqi invasion, most notably including Iraq's inability to repay a US$14 billion debt the country had borrowed from Kuwait to finance its prior war with Iran. Kuwait's demands for repayment were coupled with its surge in petroleum production levels, which kept revenues down for Iraq and further weakened its economic prospects; throughout much of the 1980s, Kuwait's oil production was above its mandatory quota under OPEC, which kept international oil prices down. Iraq interpreted the Kuwaiti refusal to decrease oil production as an act of aggression towards the Iraqi economy, leading up to the hostilities.

    The invasion of Kuwait was immediately met with international condemnation, including Resolution 660 by the United Nations Security Council (UNSC), and economic sanctions were unanimously imposed on Iraq in its Resolution 661. British prime minister Margaret Thatcher and American president George H. W. Bush deployed troops and equipment into Saudi Arabia and openly urged other countries to send their own forces. An array of countries joined the American-led coalition, forming the largest military alliance since World War II. The bulk of the coalition's military power was from the United States, with Saudi Arabia, the United Kingdom, and Egypt as the largest lead-up contributors, in that order; Saudi Arabia and the Kuwaiti government-in-exile paid out around US$32 billion of the US$60 billion cost to mobilize the coalition against Iraq.

    UNSC Resolution 678 adopted on 29 November 1990 offered Iraq one final chance until 15 January 1991 to implement Resolution 660 and withdraw from Kuwait; it further empowered states after the deadline to use "all necessary means" to force Iraq out of Kuwait. Initial efforts to dislodge the Iraqis from Kuwait began with an aerial and naval bombardment on 17 January 1991, which continued for five weeks. As the Iraqi military struggled against the coalition attacks, Iraq began to fire missiles at Israel. The coalition did not include Israel, however the Iraqi leadership expected the missile barrage to provoke an independent Israeli military response, which would prompt the coalition's Muslim-majority countries to withdraw on account of tense relations between Arab nations and Israel. The provocation was unsuccessful; Israel did not retaliate and Iraq continued to remain at odds with most Muslim-majority countries. Iraqi missile barrages against coalition targets in Saudi Arabia were also largely unsuccessful, and on 24 February 1991, the coalition launched a major ground assault into Iraqi-occupied Kuwait. The offensive was a decisive victory for the coalition, who liberated Kuwait and promptly began to advance past the Iraq–Kuwait border into Iraqi territory. A hundred hours after the beginning of the ground campaign, the coalition ceased its advance into Iraq and declared a ceasefire. Aerial and ground combat was confined to Iraq, Kuwait, and areas straddling the Iraq–Saudi Arabia border.

    The conflict marked the introduction of live news broadcasts from the front lines of the battle, principally by the American network CNN. It has also earned the nickname Video Game War, after the daily broadcast of images from cameras onboard American bombers during Operation Desert Storm. The Gulf War has gained notoriety for including three of the largest tank battles in American military history.

    1. ^ "DESERT SHIELD AND DESERT STORM A CHRONOLOGY AND TROOP LIST FOR THE 1990–1991 PERSIAN GULF CRISIS" (PDF). apps.dtic.mil. Archived (PDF) from the original on 12 April 2019. Retrieved 18 December 2018.
    2. ^ Persian Gulf War, the Sandhurst-trained Prince
      Khaled bin Sultan al-Saud was co-commander with General Norman Schwarzkopf
      www.casi.org.uk/discuss Archived 3 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine
    3. ^ General Khaled was Co-Commander, with US General Norman Schwarzkopf, of the allied coalition that liberated Kuwait www.thefreelibrary.com Archived 30 April 2011 at the Wayback Machine
    4. ^ Knights, Michael (2005). Cradle of Conflict: Iraq and the Birth of Modern U.S. Military Power. United States Naval Institute. p. 20]. ISBN 978-1-59114-444-1.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
    5. ^ a b "Persian Gulf War". MSN Encarta. Archived from the original on 1 November 2009.
    6. ^ 18 M1 Abrams, 11 M60, 2 AMX-30
    7. ^ CheckPoint, Ludovic Monnerat. "Guerre du Golfe: le dernier combat de la division Tawakalna".
    8. ^ Scales, Brig. Gen. Robert H.: Certain Victory. Brassey's, 1994, p. 279.
    9. ^ Halberstadt 1991. p. 35
    10. ^ Atkinson, Rick. Crusade, The untold story of the Persian Gulf War. Houghton Mifflin Company, 1993. pp. 332–3
    11. ^ Captain Todd A. Buchs, B. Co. Commander, Knights in the Desert. Publisher/Editor Unknown. p. 111.
    12. ^ Malory, Marcia. "Tanks During the First Gulf War – Tank History". Archived from the original on 3 March 2016. Retrieved 5 July 2016.
    13. ^ M60 vs T-62 Cold War Combatants 1956–92 by Lon Nordeen & David Isby
    14. ^ "TAB H – Friendly-fire Incidents". Archived from the original on 1 June 2013. Retrieved 5 July 2016.
    15. ^ NSIAD-92-94, "Operation Desert Storm: Early Performance Assessment of Bradley and Abrams". Archived 21 February 2014 at the Wayback Machine US General Accounting Office, 10 January 1992. Quote: "According to information provided by the Army's Office of the Deputy Chief of Staff for Operations and Plans, 20 Bradleys were destroyed during the Gulf war. Another 12 Bradleys were damaged, but four of these were quickly repaired. Friendly fire accounted for 17 of the destroyed Bradleys and three of the damaged ones
    16. ^ Iraqi Invasion of Kuwait; 1990 (Air War) Archived 6 October 2014 at the Wayback Machine. Acig.org. Retrieved on 12 June 2011
    17. ^ a b c d e Bourque (2001), p. 455.
    18. ^ "Appendix – Iraqi Death Toll | The Gulf War | FRONTLINE | PBS". www.pbs.org. Retrieved 24 July 2021.
    19. ^ Tucker-Jones, Anthony (31 May 2014). The Gulf War: Operation Desert Storm 1990–1991. Pen and Sword. ISBN 978-1-4738-3730-0. Archived from the original on 5 December 2022. Retrieved 22 April 2022.
    20. ^ "Human Rights Watch". Archived from the original on 22 April 2022. Retrieved 22 April 2022.
    21. ^ "Appendix A: Chronology - February 1991". Naval History and Heritage Command. Retrieved 4 February 2024.
    22. ^ "Iraq air force wants Iran to give back its planes". Reuters. 10 August 2007.
    23. ^ "The Use of Terror during Iraq's invasion of Kuwait". The Jewish Agency for Israel. Archived from the original on 24 January 2005. Retrieved 22 June 2010.
    24. ^ "Kuwait: missing people: a step in the right direction". Red Cross. Archived from the original on 7 March 2016. Retrieved 5 March 2014.
    25. ^ "The Wages of War: Iraqi Combatant and Noncombatant Fatalities in the 2003 Conflict". Project on Defense Alternatives. Retrieved 9 May 2009.
     
  18. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    1 March 1936 – The Hoover Dam is completed.

    Hoover Dam

    Hoover Dam is a concrete arch-gravity dam in the Black Canyon of the Colorado River, on the border between the U.S. states of Nevada and Arizona. Constructed between 1931 and 1936, during the Great Depression, it was dedicated on September 30, 1935, by President Franklin D. Roosevelt. Its construction was the result of a massive effort involving thousands of workers, and cost over 100 lives. In bills passed by Congress during its construction, it was referred to as the Hoover Dam, after President Herbert Hoover, but was named the Boulder Dam by the Roosevelt administration. In 1947, the name Hoover Dam was restored by Congress.

    Since about 1900, the Black Canyon and nearby Boulder Canyon had been investigated for their potential to support a dam that would control floods, provide irrigation water and produce hydroelectric power. In 1928, Congress authorized the project. The winning bid to build the dam was submitted by a consortium named Six Companies, Inc., which began construction in early 1931. Such a large concrete structure had never been built before, and some of the techniques used were unproven. The torrid summer weather and lack of facilities near the site also presented difficulties. Nevertheless, Six Companies turned the dam over to the federal government on March 1, 1936, more than two years ahead of schedule.

    Hoover Dam impounds Lake Mead and is located near Boulder City, Nevada, a municipality originally constructed for workers on the construction project, about 30 mi (48 km) south-east of Las Vegas, Nevada. The dam's generators provide power for public and private utilities in Nevada, Arizona, and California. Hoover Dam is a major tourist attraction, with 7 million tourists a year.[7] The heavily traveled U.S. Route 93 (US 93) ran along the dam's crest until October 2010, when the Hoover Dam Bypass opened.

    1. ^ Johnston, Louis; Williamson, Samuel H. (2023). "What Was the U.S. GDP Then?". MeasuringWorth. Retrieved November 30, 2023. United States Gross Domestic Product deflator figures follow the Measuring Worth series.
    2. ^ Cite error: The named reference meadfaq was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    3. ^ "What you need to know about Lake Mead's falling water levels". June 27, 2021.
    4. ^ Cite error: The named reference nrhp was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    5. ^ Cite error: The named reference nhlsum was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    6. ^ "Construction of Hoover Dam". Water and Power Associates.
    7. ^ "Nevada and Arizona: Hoover Dam (U.S. National Park Service)". www.nps.gov. Retrieved July 14, 2022.
     
  19. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    2 March 1859 – The two-day Great Slave Auction, the largest such auction in United States history, begins.

    The Great Slave Auction

     
  20. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    3 March 1938Oil is discovered in Saudi Arabia.

    History of the oil industry in Saudi Arabia

    Dammam No. 7, the first commercial oil well in Saudi Arabia, struck oil on March 3,[1] 1938.
    Saudi Arabia crude oil production 1950-2012

    Saudi Arabian oil was first discovered by the Americans in commercial quantities at Dammam oil well No. 7 in 1938 in what is now modern day Dhahran.

    1. ^ Society, National Geographic (20 February 2014). "Oil Discovered in Saudi Arabia". nationalgeographic.org. Retrieved 13 April 2018.
     
  21. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    4 March 1960 – The French freighter La Coubre explodes in Havana, Cuba, killing 100.

    La Coubre explosion

    The French freighter La Coubre (French: [la kubʁ]) exploded in the harbour of Havana, Cuba, on 4 March 1960 while it was unloading 76 tons of grenades and munitions. Seventy-five to 100 people were killed, and many were injured. Fidel Castro alleged it was an act of sabotage on the part of the United States, which denied any involvement.

     
  22. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    5 March 1970 – The Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty goes into effect after ratification by 43 nations.

    Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons

    The Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons, commonly known as the Non-Proliferation Treaty or NPT, is an international treaty whose objective is to prevent the spread of nuclear weapons and weapons technology, to promote cooperation in the peaceful uses of nuclear energy, and to further the goal of achieving nuclear disarmament and general and complete disarmament.[3] Between 1965 and 1968, the treaty was negotiated by the Eighteen Nation Committee on Disarmament, a United Nations-sponsored organization based in Geneva, Switzerland.

    Opened for signature in 1968, the treaty entered into force in 1970. As required by the text, after twenty-five years, NPT Parties met in May 1995 and agreed to extend the treaty indefinitely.[4] More countries are parties to the NPT than any other arms limitation and disarmament agreement, a testament to the treaty's significance.[3] As of August 2016, 191 states have become parties to the treaty, though North Korea, which acceded in 1985 but never came into compliance, announced its withdrawal from the NPT in 2003, following detonation of nuclear devices in violation of core obligations.[5] Four UN member states have never accepted the NPT, three of which possess or are thought to possess nuclear weapons: India, Israel, and Pakistan. In addition, South Sudan, founded in 2011, has not joined.

    The treaty defines nuclear-weapon states as those that have built and tested a nuclear explosive device before 1 January 1967; these are the United States (1945), Russia (1949), the United Kingdom (1952), France (1960), and China (1964). Four other states are known or believed to possess nuclear weapons: India, Pakistan, and North Korea have openly tested and declared that they possess nuclear weapons, while Israel is deliberately ambiguous regarding its nuclear weapons status.

    The NPT is often seen to be based on a central bargain:

    the NPT non-nuclear-weapon states agree never to acquire nuclear weapons and the NPT nuclear-weapon states in exchange agree to share the benefits of peaceful nuclear technology and to pursue nuclear disarmament aimed at the ultimate elimination of their nuclear arsenals.[6]

    The treaty is reviewed every five years in meetings called Review Conferences. Even though the treaty was originally conceived with a limited duration of 25 years, the signing parties decided, by consensus, to unconditionally extend the treaty indefinitely during the Review Conference in New York City on 11 May 1995, in the culmination of U.S. government efforts led by Ambassador Thomas Graham Jr.

    At the time the NPT was proposed, there were predictions of 25–30 nuclear weapon states within 20 years. Instead, over forty years later, five states are not parties to the NPT, and they include the only four additional states believed to possess nuclear weapons.[6] Several additional measures have been adopted to strengthen the NPT and the broader nuclear nonproliferation regime and make it difficult for states to acquire the capability to produce nuclear weapons, including the export controls of the Nuclear Suppliers Group and the enhanced verification measures of the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) Additional Protocol.

    Critics argue that the NPT cannot stop the proliferation of nuclear weapons or the motivation to acquire them. They express disappointment with the limited progress on nuclear disarmament, where the five authorized nuclear weapons states still have 13,400 warheads in their combined stockpile. Several high-ranking officials within the United Nations have said that they can do little to stop states using nuclear reactors to produce nuclear weapons.[7][8]

    1. ^ a b c d "UK Depositary Status List;Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons" (PDF). Government of the United Kingdom. Retrieved 6 April 2020.
    2. ^ "Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons". United Nations Office for Disarmament Affairs. Retrieved 13 May 2017.
    3. ^ a b "UNODA - Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons (NPT)". un.org. Retrieved 20 February 2016.
    4. ^ "Decisions Adopted at the 1995 NPT Review & Extension Conference - Acronym Institute". Archived from the original on 27 March 2019. Retrieved 11 August 2021.
    5. ^ "Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT)" (PDF). Defense Treaty Inspection Readiness Program - United States Department of Defense. Defense Treaty Inspection Readiness Program. Archived from the original (PDF) on 11 March 2013. Retrieved 19 June 2013.
    6. ^ a b Graham, Thomas Jr. (November 2004). "Avoiding the Tipping Point". Arms Control Association.
    7. ^ Benjamin K. Sovacool (2011). Contesting the Future of Nuclear Power: A Critical Global Assessment of Atomic Energy, World Scientific, pp. 187–190.
    8. ^ Cite error: The named reference tcr2009 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
     
  23. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    6 March 1899Bayer registers "Aspirin" as a trademark.

    Aspirin

    Aspirin, also known as acetylsalicylic acid (ASA), is a nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) used to reduce pain, fever, and/or inflammation, and as an antithrombotic.[9] Specific inflammatory conditions which aspirin is used to treat include Kawasaki disease, pericarditis, and rheumatic fever.[9]

    Aspirin is also used long-term to help prevent further heart attacks, ischaemic strokes, and blood clots in people at high risk.[9] For pain or fever, effects typically begin within 30 minutes.[9] Aspirin works similarly to other NSAIDs but also suppresses the normal functioning of platelets.[9]

    One common adverse effect is an upset stomach.[9] More significant side effects include stomach ulcers, stomach bleeding, and worsening asthma.[9] Bleeding risk is greater among those who are older, drink alcohol, take other NSAIDs, or are on other blood thinners.[9] Aspirin is not recommended in the last part of pregnancy.[9] It is not generally recommended in children with infections because of the risk of Reye syndrome.[9] High doses may result in ringing in the ears.[9]

    A precursor to aspirin found in the bark of the willow tree (genus Salix) has been used for its health effects for at least 2,400 years.[10][11] In 1853, chemist Charles Frédéric Gerhardt treated the medicine sodium salicylate with acetyl chloride to produce acetylsalicylic acid for the first time.[12] Over the next 50 years, other chemists, mostly of the German company Bayer, established the chemical structure and devised more efficient production methods.[12]: 69–75 

    Aspirin is available without medical prescription as a proprietary or generic medication[9] in most jurisdictions. It is one of the most widely used medications globally, with an estimated 40,000 tonnes (44,000 tons) (50 to 120 billion pills)[clarification needed] consumed each year,[10][13] and is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines.[14] In 2021, it was the 34th most commonly prescribed medication in the United States, with more than 17 million prescriptions.[15][16]

    1. ^ "Aspirin Use During Pregnancy". Drugs.com. 2 April 2018. Retrieved 29 December 2019.
    2. ^ "OTC medicine monograph: Aspirin tablets for oral use". Therapeutic Goods Administration (TGA). 21 June 2022. Retrieved 4 April 2023.
    3. ^ "Poisons Standard October 2022". Australian Government Federal Register of Legislation. 26 September 2022. Retrieved 9 January 2023.
    4. ^ "Aspirin Product information". Health Canada. 22 October 2009. Retrieved 20 August 2023.
    5. ^ a b "Zorprin, Bayer Buffered Aspirin (aspirin) dosing, indications, interactions, adverse effects, and more". Medscape Reference. WebMD. Archived from the original on 7 April 2014. Retrieved 3 April 2014.
    6. ^ a b c Brayfield A, ed. (14 January 2014). "Aspirin". Martindale: The Complete Drug Reference. Pharmaceutical Press. Retrieved 3 April 2014.
    7. ^ CID 2244 from PubChem
    8. ^ Cite error: The named reference b92 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    9. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l "Aspirin". American Society of Health-System Pharmacists. 29 November 2021. Archived from the original on 25 April 2017 – via Drugs.com.
    10. ^ a b Jones A (2015). Chemistry: An Introduction for Medical and Health Sciences. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 5–6. ISBN 978-0-470-09290-3.
    11. ^ Ravina E (2011). The Evolution of Drug Discovery: From Traditional Medicines to Modern Drugs. John Wiley & Sons. p. 24. ISBN 978-3-527-32669-3.
    12. ^ a b Jeffreys D (2008). Aspirin the remarkable story of a wonder drug. Bloomsbury Publishing USA. ISBN 978-1-59691-816-0. Archived from the original on 8 September 2017.: 46–48 
    13. ^ Warner TD, Mitchell JA (October 2002). "Cyclooxygenase-3 (COX-3): filling in the gaps toward a COX continuum?". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 99 (21): 13371–3. Bibcode:2002PNAS...9913371W. doi:10.1073/pnas.222543099. PMC 129677. PMID 12374850.
    14. ^ World Health Organization (2023). The selection and use of essential medicines 2023: web annex A: World Health Organization model list of essential medicines: 23rd list (2023). Geneva: World Health Organization. hdl:10665/371090. WHO/MHP/HPS/EML/2023.02.
    15. ^ "The Top 300 of 2021". ClinCalc. Archived from the original on 15 January 2024. Retrieved 14 January 2024.
    16. ^ "Aspirin - Drug Usage Statistics, US 2013-2021". ClinCalc. Retrieved 14 January 2024.
     
  24. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    7 March 1965Bloody Sunday: a group of 600 civil rights marchers is brutally attacked by state and local police in Selma, Alabama.

    Selma to Montgomery marches

    The Selma to Montgomery marches were three protest marches, held in 1965, along the 54-mile (87 km) highway from Selma, Alabama, to the state capital of Montgomery. The marches were organized by nonviolent activists to demonstrate the desire of African-American citizens to exercise their constitutional right to vote, in defiance of segregationist repression; they were part of a broader voting rights movement underway in Selma and throughout the American South. By highlighting racial injustice, they contributed to passage that year of the Voting Rights Act, a landmark federal achievement of the civil rights movement.

    Since the late 19th century, Southern state legislatures had passed and maintained a series of Jim Crow laws that had disenfranchised the millions of African Americans across the South and enforced racial segregation. The initial voter registration drive, started in 1963 by the African-American Dallas County Voters League (DCVL) and the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC) failed as local White officials arrested the organizers and otherwise harassed Blacks wishing to register to vote. The passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 legally ended segregation but the situation in Selma changed little. The DCVL then invited Rev. Martin Luther King Jr. and the activists of the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC) to amplify the efforts, and these figures drew more prominent people to Alabama. Local and regional protests began in January 1965, with 3,000 people arrested by the end of February. On February 26, activist and deacon Jimmie Lee Jackson died after being shot several days earlier by state trooper James Bonard Fowler during a peaceful march in nearby Marion. To defuse and refocus the Black community's outrage, James Bevel, who was directing SCLC's Selma voting rights movement, called for a march of dramatic length, from Selma to the state capital of Montgomery, calling for an unhindered exercise of the right to vote.[3][page needed][4]

    The first march took place on March 7, 1965, led by figures including Bevel and Amelia Boynton, but was ended by state troopers and county possemen, who charged on about 600 unarmed protesters with batons and tear gas after they crossed the Edmund Pettus Bridge in the direction of Montgomery. The event became known as Bloody Sunday.[5][6] Law enforcement beat Boynton unconscious, and the media publicized worldwide a picture of her lying wounded on the bridge.[7] The second march took place two days later but King cut it short as a federal court issued a temporary injunction against further marches. That night, an anti-civil rights group murdered civil rights activist James Reeb, a Unitarian Universalist minister from Boston.[8] The third march, which started on March 21, was escorted by the Alabama National Guard under federal control, the FBI and federal marshals (segregationist Governor George Wallace refused to protect the protesters). Thousands of marchers averaged 10 mi (16 km) a day along U.S. Route 80 (US 80), reaching Montgomery on March 24. The following day, 25,000 people staged a demonstration on the steps of the Alabama State Capitol.

    The violence of "Bloody Sunday" and Reeb's murder resulted in a national outcry, and the marches were widely discussed in national and international news media. The protesters campaigned for a new federal voting rights law to enable African Americans to register and vote without harassment. President Lyndon B. Johnson seized the opportunity and held a historic, nationally televised joint session of Congress on March 15, asking lawmakers to pass what is now known as the Voting Rights Act of 1965. He enacted it on August 6, removing obstacles for Blacks to register en masse. The march route is memorialized and designated as the Selma to Montgomery National Historic Trail.

    1. ^ Taylor Branch, At Canaan's Edge: America in the King Years 1965–1968
    2. ^ "Swarthmore College Bulletin (July 2014)".
    3. ^ Kryn, Randall (1989). "James L. Bevel: The Strategist of the 1960s Civil Rights Movement". In Garrow, David (ed.). We Shall Overcome: The Civil Rights Movement in the United States in the 1950's and 1960's. Martin Luther King, Jr. and the Civil Rights Movement, no. 5. Vol. II. Brooklyn, N.Y.: Carlson Publishing Company. ISBN 9780926019027. OCLC 19740619.
    4. ^ Randy Kryn, "Movement Revision Research Summary Regarding James Bevel" Archived March 3, 2016, at the Wayback Machine, October 2005, Middlebury College.
    5. ^ "Student March at Nyack". The New York Times. March 11, 1965. p. 19. Retrieved March 9, 2015.
    6. ^ Reed, Roy (March 6, 1966). "'Bloody Sunday' Was Year Ago". The New York Times. p. 76. Retrieved March 9, 2015.
    7. ^ Sheila Jackson Hardy; P. Stephen Hardy (2008). Extraordinary People of the Civil Rights Movement. Paw Prints. p. 264. ISBN 978-1-4395-2357-5. Retrieved March 6, 2011.
    8. ^ "James Joseph Reeb". uudb.org. Archived from the original on January 3, 2022. Retrieved July 5, 2019.
     
  25. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    8 March 1736Nader Shah, founder of the Afsharid dynasty, is crowned Shah of Iran.

    Nader Shah

    Nader Shah Afshar (Persian: نادر شاه افشار; August 1688[5] – 19 June 1747)[a] was the founder of the Afsharid dynasty of Iran and one of the most powerful rulers in Iranian history, ruling as shah of Iran (Persia) from 1736 to 1747, when he was assassinated during a rebellion. He fought numerous campaigns throughout the Middle East, the Caucasus, Central Asia, and South Asia, such as the battles of Herat, Mihmandust, Murche-Khort, Kirkuk, Yeghevārd, Khyber Pass, Karnal, and Kars. Because of his military genius,[10] some historians have described him as the Napoleon of Persia, the Sword of Persia,[11] or the Second Alexander. Nader belonged to the Turkoman Afshars, one of the seven Qizilbash tribes that helped the Safavid dynasty establish their power in Iran.

    Nader rose to power during a period of chaos in Iran after a rebellion by the Hotaki Afghans had overthrown the weak Shah Soltan Hoseyn (r. 1694–1722), while the arch-enemy of the Safavids, the Ottomans, as well as the Russians had seized Iranian territory for themselves. Nader reunited the Iranian realm and removed the invaders. He became so powerful that he decided to depose the last members of the Safavid dynasty, which had ruled Iran for over 200 years, and become Shah himself in 1736. His numerous campaigns created a great empire that, at its maximum extent, briefly encompassed what is now part of or includes Afghanistan, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Bahrain, Georgia, India, Iran, Iraq, Turkey, Turkmenistan, Oman, Pakistan, Uzbekistan, the North Caucasus, and the Persian Gulf, but his military spending had a ruinous effect on the Iranian economy.[1]

    Nader idolized Genghis Khan and Timur, the previous conquerors from Central Asia. He imitated their military prowess and—especially later in his reign—their cruelty. His victories during his campaigns briefly made him West Asia's most powerful sovereign, ruling over what was arguably the most powerful empire in the world.[12]: 84  Following his assassination in 1747, his empire quickly disintegrated and Iran fell into a civil war. His grandson Shahrokh Shah was the last of his dynasty to rule, ultimately being deposed in 1796 by Agha Mohammad Khan Qajar, who crowned himself shah the same year.[13]

    Nader Shah has been described as "the last great Asiatic military conqueror".[14]

    1. ^ a b Tucker 2006a.
    2. ^ Colebrooke 1877, p. 374.
    3. ^ Axworthy 2006, pp. 159, 279.
    4. ^ Axworthy 2006, p. 17.
    5. ^ a b Nader's exact date of birth is unknown but 6 August is the "likeliest" according to Axworthy, p. 17 (and note) and The Cambridge History of Iran (vol. 7, p. 3); other biographers favour 1688.
    6. ^ Axworthy 2006, p. 34.
    7. ^ Iranian Studies , Volume 27 , Issue 1-4: Religion and Society in Islamic Iran during the Pre-Modern Era , 1994 , pp. 163–179.
    8. ^ Tucker 2006b.
    9. ^ Axworthy 2006, pp. 168–170.
    10. ^ The Sword of Persia: Nader Shah, from Tribal Warrior to Conquering Tyrant "Nader commanded the most powerful military force in Asia, if not the world" (quote from publisher's summary)
    11. ^ Axworthy, p. xvii
    12. ^ Elena Andreeva; Louis A. DiMarco; Adam B. Lowther; Paul G. Pierpaoli Jr.; Spencer C. Tucker; Sherifa Zuhur (2017). "Iran". In Tucker, Spencer C. (ed.). Modern Conflict in the Greater Middle East: A Country-by-Country Guide. ABC-CLIO. pp. 83–108. ISBN 9781440843617. Under its great ruler and military leader Nader Shah (1736–1747), Persia was arguably the world's most powerful empire
    13. ^ Axworthy 2006, pp. 282–283.
    14. ^ Cambridge History of Iran Vol. 7, p. 59.


    Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

     
  26. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    9 March 2011Space Shuttle Discovery makes its final landing after 39 flights.

    Space Shuttle Discovery

    Space Shuttle Discovery at the Steven F. Udvar-Hazy Center
    Discovery rollout ceremony in October 1983
    Discovery and SCA 905 at Vandenberg Air Force Base, November 6, 1983

    Space Shuttle Discovery (Orbiter Vehicle Designation: OV-103) is a retired American spacecraft. The spaceplane was one of the orbiters from NASA's Space Shuttle program and the third of five fully operational orbiters to be built.[2] Its first mission, STS-41-D, flew from August 30 to September 5, 1984. Over 27 years of service it launched and landed 39 times, aggregating more spaceflights than any other spacecraft to date. The Space Shuttle launch vehicle had three main components: the Space Shuttle orbiter, a single-use central fuel tank, and two reusable solid rocket boosters. Nearly 25,000 heat-resistant tiles cover the orbiter to protect it from high temperatures on re-entry.[3]

    Discovery became the third operational orbiter to enter service, preceded by Columbia and Challenger.[4] It embarked on its final mission, STS-133, on February 24, 2011, and touched down for the last time at Kennedy Space Center on March 9,[5] having spent a cumulative total of nearly a full year in space. Discovery performed both research and International Space Station (ISS) assembly missions, and also carried the Hubble Space Telescope into orbit among other satellites.

    Discovery was the first operational shuttle to be retired, followed by Endeavour and then Atlantis. The shuttle is now on display at the Steven F. Udvar-Hazy Center of the Smithsonian National Air and Space Museum.

    1. ^ NASA (October 2010). "NASAfacts Discovery (OV-103)" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on October 26, 2010. Retrieved October 21, 2010.
    2. ^ NASA (2007). "Space Shuttle Overview: Discovery (OV-103)". National Aeronautics and Space Administration. Archived from the original on November 7, 2007. Retrieved November 6, 2007.
    3. ^ "10 Cool Facts About NASA's Space Shuttle Discovery | Space Shuttle Retirement". Space.com. April 18, 2012. Archived from the original on June 22, 2013. Retrieved August 30, 2013.
    4. ^ "Discovery's last mission flight to space begun". February 24, 2011. Archived from the original on July 16, 2011. Retrieved March 9, 2011.
    5. ^ "Discovery's Final Touchdown A Success". redOrbit.com. Archived from the original on August 20, 2011. Retrieved March 9, 2011.
     
  27. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    10 March 1977 – Astronomers discover the rings of Uranus.

    Rings of Uranus

    An updated image of Uranus' rings system (the epsilon/ε, zeta/ζ, mu/μ and nu/ν rings are annotated) as imaged by the James Webb Space Telescope's near-infrared camera on September 4, 2023.

    The rings of Uranus are intermediate in complexity between the more extensive set around Saturn and the simpler systems around Jupiter and Neptune. The rings of Uranus were discovered on March 10, 1977, by James L. Elliot, Edward W. Dunham, and Jessica Mink. William Herschel had also reported observing rings in 1789; modern astronomers are divided on whether he could have seen them, as they are very dark and faint.[1]

    By 1977, nine distinct rings were identified. Two additional rings were discovered in 1986 in images taken by the Voyager 2 spacecraft, and two outer rings were found in 2003–2005 in Hubble Space Telescope photos. In the order of increasing distance from the planet the 13 known rings are designated 1986U2R/ζ, 6, 5, 4, α, β, η, γ, δ, λ, ε, ν and μ. Their radii range from about 38,000 km for the 1986U2R/ζ ring to about 98,000 km for the μ ring. Additional faint dust bands and incomplete arcs may exist between the main rings. The rings are extremely dark—the Bond albedo of the rings' particles does not exceed 2%. They are probably composed of water ice with the addition of some dark radiation-processed organics.

    The majority of Uranus' rings are opaque and only a few kilometres wide. The ring system contains little dust overall; it consists mostly of large bodies 20 cm to 20 m in diameter. Some rings are optically thin: the broad and faint 1986U2R/ζ, μ and ν rings are made of small dust particles, while the narrow and faint λ ring also contains larger bodies. The relative lack of dust in the ring system may be due to aerodynamic drag from the extended Uranian exosphere.

    The rings of Uranus are thought to be relatively young, and not more than 600 million years old. The Uranian ring system probably originated from the collisional fragmentation of several moons that once existed around the planet. After colliding, the moons probably broke up into many particles, which survived as narrow and optically dense rings only in strictly confined zones of maximum stability.

    The mechanism that confines the narrow rings is not well understood. Initially it was assumed that every narrow ring had a pair of nearby shepherd moons corralling it into shape. In 1986 Voyager 2 discovered only one such shepherd pair (Cordelia and Ophelia) around the brightest ring (ε), though the faint ν would later be discovered shepherded between Portia and Rosalind.[2]

    1. ^ Rincon, Paul (Apr 18, 2007). "Uranus rings 'were seen in 1700s'". BBC News. Retrieved 23 January 2012.(re study by Stuart Eves)
    2. ^ Filacchione & Ciarniello (2021) "Rings", Encyclopedia of Geology, 2nd edition, INAF-IAPS, Rome
     
  28. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    11 March 2006Michelle Bachelet is inaugurated as first female president of Chile.

    Michelle Bachelet

    Verónica Michelle Bachelet Jeria[a] (Spanish: [βeˈɾonika miˈʃel βaʃeˈle ˈxeɾja]; born 29 September 1951[2]) is a Chilean politician who served as United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights from 2018 to 2022.[3] She previously served as President of Chile from 2006 to 2010 and from 2014 to 2018 for the Socialist Party of Chile. She is the first woman to hold the Chilean presidency. After leaving the presidency in 2010 and before becoming eligible for re-election, she was appointed as the first executive director of the newly established United Nations Entity for Gender Equality and the Empowerment of Women.[4] In December 2013, Bachelet was re-elected with over 62% of the vote, surpassing the 54% she received in 2006. She was the first President of Chile to be re-elected since 1932.[5] Bachelet, a physician who has studied military strategy at the university level, previously served as the Health Minister and Defense Minister under her predecessor, Ricardo Lagos. She is a separated mother of three and identifies as an agnostic.[6] In addition to her native Spanish, she speaks English fluently and has some proficiency in German, French, and Portuguese.[7][8]

    1. ^ "Austria's Turk appointed UN human rights chief". CNA. 9 September 2022. Retrieved 9 September 2022.[permanent dead link]
    2. ^ "Certficado de Nacimiento" [Birth certificate] (PDF). Dirección Nacional del Registro Civil Nacional de la República de Chile. 3 October 1951. Archived (PDF) from the original on 6 February 2021.
    3. ^ "Michelle Bachelet será la nueva Alta Comisionada de la ONU para los Derechos Humanos" [Michelle Bachelet will be the new UN High Commissioner for Human Rights]. Noticias ONU (in Spanish). 8 August 2018. Archived from the original on 24 January 2021. Retrieved 8 August 2018.
    4. ^ "15 women leading the way for girls' education". www.globalpartnership.org. Archived from the original on 22 March 2019. Retrieved 22 March 2019.
    5. ^ "Michelle Bachelet: primera mujer presidenta y primer presidente reelecto desde 1932" [Michelle Bachelet: first female president and first re-elected president since 1932]. Facebook. 16 December 2013. Archived from the original on 5 March 2016. Retrieved 11 March 2016.
    6. ^ "Bachelet critica a la derecha por descalificarla por ser agnóstica" [Bachelet criticises the political right for discounting her because of her agnosticism] (in Spanish). El Mercurio. 30 December 2005. Archived from the original on 25 December 2014. Retrieved 25 November 2014.
    7. ^ "Biografía Michelle Bachelet" [Michelle Bachelet biography]. Gobierno de Chile (in Spanish). Archived from the original on 12 March 2008. Retrieved 2 February 2007.
    8. ^ "Biographical Sketch: Michelle Bachelet". UN Women. Archived from the original on 28 April 2012. Retrieved 12 May 2012.


    Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

     
  29. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    11 March 2006Michelle Bachelet is inaugurated as first female president of Chile.

    Michelle Bachelet

    Verónica Michelle Bachelet Jeria[a] (Spanish: [βeˈɾonika miˈʃel βaʃeˈle ˈxeɾja]; born 29 September 1951[2]) is a Chilean politician who served as United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights from 2018 to 2022.[3] She previously served as President of Chile from 2006 to 2010 and from 2014 to 2018 for the Socialist Party of Chile. She is the first woman to hold the Chilean presidency. After leaving the presidency in 2010 and before becoming eligible for re-election, she was appointed as the first executive director of the newly established United Nations Entity for Gender Equality and the Empowerment of Women.[4] In December 2013, Bachelet was re-elected with over 62% of the vote, surpassing the 54% she received in 2006. She was the first President of Chile to be re-elected since 1932.[5] Bachelet, a physician who has studied military strategy at the university level, previously served as the Health Minister and Defense Minister under her predecessor, Ricardo Lagos. She is a separated mother of three and identifies as an agnostic.[6] In addition to her native Spanish, she speaks English fluently and has some proficiency in German, French, and Portuguese.[7][8]

    1. ^ "Austria's Turk appointed UN human rights chief". CNA. 9 September 2022. Retrieved 9 September 2022.[permanent dead link]
    2. ^ "Certficado de Nacimiento" [Birth certificate] (PDF). Dirección Nacional del Registro Civil Nacional de la República de Chile. 3 October 1951. Archived (PDF) from the original on 6 February 2021.
    3. ^ "Michelle Bachelet será la nueva Alta Comisionada de la ONU para los Derechos Humanos" [Michelle Bachelet will be the new UN High Commissioner for Human Rights]. Noticias ONU (in Spanish). 8 August 2018. Archived from the original on 24 January 2021. Retrieved 8 August 2018.
    4. ^ "15 women leading the way for girls' education". www.globalpartnership.org. Archived from the original on 22 March 2019. Retrieved 22 March 2019.
    5. ^ "Michelle Bachelet: primera mujer presidenta y primer presidente reelecto desde 1932" [Michelle Bachelet: first female president and first re-elected president since 1932]. Facebook. 16 December 2013. Archived from the original on 5 March 2016. Retrieved 11 March 2016.
    6. ^ "Bachelet critica a la derecha por descalificarla por ser agnóstica" [Bachelet criticises the political right for discounting her because of her agnosticism] (in Spanish). El Mercurio. 30 December 2005. Archived from the original on 25 December 2014. Retrieved 25 November 2014.
    7. ^ "Biografía Michelle Bachelet" [Michelle Bachelet biography]. Gobierno de Chile (in Spanish). Archived from the original on 12 March 2008. Retrieved 2 February 2007.
    8. ^ "Biographical Sketch: Michelle Bachelet". UN Women. Archived from the original on 28 April 2012. Retrieved 12 May 2012.


    Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

     
  30. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    12 March 2011 – A reactor at the Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant melts and explodes and releases radioactivity into the atmosphere a day after Japan's earthquake.

    Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant

    The Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant (福島第一原子力発電所, Fukushima Daiichi Genshiryoku Hatsudensho, Fukushima number 1 nuclear power plant) is a disabled nuclear power plant located on a 3.5-square-kilometre (860-acre) site[1] in the towns of Ōkuma and Futaba in Fukushima Prefecture, Japan. The plant suffered major damage from the magnitude 9.1 earthquake and tsunami that hit Japan on March 11, 2011. The chain of events caused radiation leaks and permanently damaged several of its reactors, making them impossible to restart. The working reactors were not restarted after the events.

    First commissioned in 1971, the plant consists of six boiling water reactors. These light water reactors[2] drove electrical generators with a combined power of 4.7 GWe, making Fukushima Daiichi one of the 15 largest nuclear power stations in the world. Fukushima was the first nuclear plant to be designed, constructed, and run in conjunction with General Electric and Tokyo Electric Power Company (TEPCO).[3] The sister nuclear plant Fukushima Daini ("number two"), 12 km (7.5 mi) to the south, is also run by TEPCO. It also suffered serious damage during the tsunami, at the seawater intakes of all four units, but was successfully shut down and brought to a safe state. See the timeline of the Fukushima II nuclear accidents.[4]

    The March 2011 disaster disabled the reactor cooling systems, leading to releases of radioactivity and triggering a 30 km (19 mi) evacuation zone surrounding the plant; the releases continue to this day. On April 20, 2011, the Japanese authorities declared the 20 km (12 mi) evacuation zone a no-go area which may only be entered under government supervision. In November 2011, the first journalists were allowed to visit the plant. They described a scene of devastation in which three of the reactor buildings were destroyed; the grounds were covered with mangled trucks, crumpled water tanks and other debris left by the tsunami; and radioactive levels were so high that visitors were only allowed to stay for a few hours.[5]

    In April 2012, Units 1–4 were shut down. Units 2–4 were shut down on April 19, while Unit 1 was the last of these four units to be shut down on April 20 at midnight.[citation needed] In December 2013 TEPCO decided none of the undamaged units will reopen. In April 2021, the Japanese government approved the discharge of radioactive water, which has been treated to remove radionuclides other than tritium, into the Pacific Ocean over the course of 30 years.[6]

    1. ^ "Tepco site (Japanese). One Week Plant Grounds Course. 福島第一原子力発電所 | PR施設:構内見学コース". April 7, 2011. Archived from the original on April 7, 2011. Retrieved October 27, 2016. 350万平方メートルの広い敷地に = 3.5 km²
    2. ^ "Tokyo Electric Power Co. Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Station". jnes.go.jp. Archived from the original on March 14, 2011. Retrieved March 17, 2011.
    3. ^ "The Asahi Shimbun". Archived from the original on April 7, 2011. Retrieved February 7, 2017.
    4. ^ The Fukushima Daiichi Accident (PDF). Wienna: IAEA – International Atomic Energy Agency. 2015. pp. 131–132. ISBN 978-92-0-107015-9. Retrieved October 12, 2018.
    5. ^ Fackler, Martin (November 12, 2011). "Eyewitness Report: Inside the Wreckage of Japan's Fukushima Nuclear Plant". The Daily Telegraph. Retrieved July 27, 2019.
    6. ^ Cite error: The named reference AP 20210413 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
     
  31. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    13 March 2003 – The journal Nature reports that 350,000-year-old footprints have been found in Italy.

    Ciampate del Diavolo

    The Ciampate del Diavolo

    The Ciampate del Diavolo (Neapolitan: "Devil's Footprints" or "Devil's Trails") is a locality near the extinct Roccamonfina volcano in northern Campania, Italy. It is named after fossilised footprints preserved in pyroclastic flow deposits that have been dated to around 350,000 years ago. They have been attributed to bipedal hominids, possibly Homo heidelbergensis, which is known to have inhabited the region at the time.

    The footprints comprise three sets of tracks indicating that three hominids made their way down a steep slope on the flank of the volcano, away from the crater. The tracks were preserved under a layer of volcanic ash and were revealed by erosion, probably in the late 18th to early 19th century. Local people attributed the prints to the Devil as they regarded him as the only being capable of walking on lava without harm.[1] They were identified as hominid footprints after archaeologists examined them in 2002 and are the second oldest set of hominid footprints known outside Africa, after the Happisburgh footprints.

    1. ^ Muir, Hazel (March 12, 2003). "Oldest human footprints found on volcano". New Scientist. Retrieved September 15, 2016.
     
  32. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    14 March 1964 – A jury in Dallas finds Jack Ruby guilty of killing Lee Harvey Oswald, the assumed assassin of John F. Kennedy.

    Jack Ruby

    Jack Leon Ruby (born Jacob Leon Rubenstein; c.[1][2] March 25, 1911 – January 3, 1967) was an American nightclub owner who murdered Lee Harvey Oswald on November 24, 1963, two days after Oswald was accused of the assassination of President John F. Kennedy. Ruby shot and mortally wounded Oswald on live television in the basement of Dallas Police Headquarters and was immediately arrested. In a trial, Ruby was found guilty and sentenced to death. The conviction was appealed, and he was to be granted a new trial, but Ruby became ill, was diagnosed with cancer, and died of a pulmonary embolism on January 3, 1967.

    In 1964, the Warren Commission concluded that Ruby acted alone in killing Oswald and that Ruby shot Oswald on impulse and in retaliation for the Kennedy assassination. The commission's findings are challenged by various critics who hypothesize that Ruby was part of a conspiracy surrounding the Kennedy assassination.

    1. ^ a b Birth records were not officially kept in Chicago prior to 1915, and among school records, driver's licenses, and arrest records, there were six different dates, ranging from March to June 1911.
    2. ^ a b Cite error: The named reference dob2 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    3. ^ "Jack Ruby sentenced to death for murdering Lee Harvey Oswald".
     
  33. Admin2

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    15 March 1888 – Start of the Anglo-Tibetan War of 1888.

    Sikkim expedition

    The Sikkim expedition (Chinese: 隆吐山戰役; pinyin: Lóngtǔ Shān Zhànyì; lit. 'Battle of the Longtu Mountain') was an 1888 British military expedition to expel Tibetan forces from the Kingdom of Sikkim. The roots of the conflict lay in British–Tibetan competition for suzerainty over Sikkim.[citation needed]

     
  34. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    16 March 1976 – British Prime Minister Harold Wilson resigns, citing personal reasons.

    Harold Wilson

    James Harold Wilson, Baron Wilson of Rievaulx, KG, OBE, PC, FRS, FSS (11 March 1916 – 24 May 1995) was a British statesman and Labour Party politician who served as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom twice, from October 1964 to June 1970 and again from March 1974 to April 1976. He was the Leader of the Labour Party from 1963 to 1976, and was a Member of Parliament (MP) from 1945 to 1983. Wilson is the only Labour leader to have formed administrations following four general elections.

    Born in Huddersfield, Yorkshire, to a politically active middle-class family, Wilson studied philosophy, politics and economics at Jesus College, Oxford. He was later an economic history lecturer at New College, Oxford, and a research fellow at University College, Oxford. Elected to Parliament in 1945, Wilson was appointed to the Attlee government as a Parliamentary Secretary; he became Secretary for Overseas Trade in 1947, and was elevated to the Cabinet shortly thereafter as President of the Board of Trade. Following Labour's defeat at the 1955 election, Wilson joined the Shadow Cabinet as Shadow Chancellor, and was moved to the role of Shadow Foreign Secretary in 1961. When Labour Leader Hugh Gaitskell died suddenly in January 1963, Wilson won the subsequent leadership election to replace him, becoming Leader of the Opposition.

    Wilson led Labour to a narrow victory at the 1964 election. His first period as prime minister saw a period of low unemployment and relative economic prosperity, although this would later become hindered by significant problems with Britain's external balance of payments. The Wilson government oversaw significant societal changes in the United Kingdom, abolishing both capital punishment and theatre censorship, partially decriminalising male homosexuality in England and Wales, relaxing the divorce laws, limiting immigration, and liberalising birth control and abortion law. In the midst of this programme Wilson called a snap election in 1966, which Labour won with a much increased majority. Wilson's government armed Nigeria during the Biafran War. In 1969, he sent British troops to Northern Ireland.

    After losing the 1970 election to Edward Heath's Conservatives, Wilson chose to remain in the Labour leadership, and spent four years back in the role of Leader of the Opposition before leading Labour through the February 1974 election, which resulted in a hung parliament. Wilson was appointed prime minister for a second time; he called a snap election in October 1974, which gave Labour a small majority. During his second term as prime minister, Wilson oversaw the referendum that confirmed the UK's membership of the European Communities.

    In March 1976 he suddenly announced his resignation as prime minister. Wilson remained in the House of Commons until retiring in 1983, when he was elevated to the House of Lords as Lord Wilson of Rievaulx. Historians evaluate Wilson in terms of leading the Labour Party through difficult political issues with considerable skill. Wilson's reputation was low when he left office and was still poor in 2016.[1] Key issues he faced included the role of public ownership, membership of the European Communities, and how to avoid committing British troops to the Vietnam War.[2] His stated ambitions of substantially improving Britain's long-term economic performance, applying technology more democratically, and reducing inequality went to some extent unfulfilled.[3]

    1. ^ Andrew S. Crines and Kevin Hickson, eds., Harold Wilson: The Unprincipled Prime Minister?: A Reappraisal of Harold Wilson (Biteback Publishing, 2016) p. 311.
    2. ^ Goodman, Geoffrey (1 July 2005). "Harold Wilson obituary". The Guardian. London. Archived from the original on 14 June 2018. Retrieved 10 April 2014.
    3. ^ Ben Pimlott, Harold Wilson (1992), pp. 604–605, 648, 656, 670–677, 689.
     
  35. Admin2

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    17 March 1963Mount Agung erupted on Bali killing more than 1,100 people.

    Mount Agung

    Mount Agung (Indonesian: Gunung Agung; Balinese: ᬕᬸᬦᬸᬂ​ᬅᬕᬸᬂ) is an active volcano in Bali, Indonesia, southeast of Mount Batur volcano, also in Bali.[4] It is the highest point on Bali, and dominates the surrounding area, influencing the climate, especially rainfall patterns. From a distance, the mountain appears to be perfectly conical. From the peak of the mountain, it is possible to see the peak of Mount Rinjani on the nearby island of Lombok, to the east, although both mountains are frequently covered in clouds. Agung is a stratovolcano, with a large and deep crater. Its most recent eruptions occurred from 2017–2019.[3]

    1. ^ a b c "Mountains of the Indonesian Archipelago". Peaklist.org. Retrieved 27 November 2017.
    2. ^ "Parwata Agung, Indonesia". Peakbagger.com. Retrieved 27 November 2017.
    3. ^ a b "Agung". Global Volcanism Program. Smithsonian Institution. Retrieved 2018-06-29.
    4. ^ Geiger, Harri; Troll, Valentin R.; Jolis, Ester M.; Deegan, Frances M.; Harris, Chris; Hilton, David R.; Freda, Carmela (2018-07-12). "Multi-level magma plumbing at Agung and Batur volcanoes increases risk of hazardous eruptions". Scientific Reports. 8 (1): 10547. Bibcode:2018NatSR...810547G. doi:10.1038/s41598-018-28125-2. ISSN 2045-2322. PMC 6043508. PMID 30002471.
     
  36. Admin2

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    18 March 1850American Express is founded by Henry Wells and William Fargo.

    American Express

    American Express Company (Amex) is an American bank holding company and multinational financial services corporation that specializes in payment cards. It is headquartered at 200 Vesey Street, also known as American Express Tower, in the Battery Park City neighborhood of Lower Manhattan. Amex cards are primarily categorized in the order of Green, Gold, Platinum, and Black (Centurion), with a higher rank indicating a higher priority level.[6] The Amex logo, adopted in 1958, is a gladiator or centurion and appears on traveler's checks, charge cards and credit cards.[7]

    Amex is the fourth-largest card network globally based on purchase volume, behind China UnionPay, Visa, and Mastercard. 133.3 million Amex cards were in force worldwide as of December 31, 2022, with an average annual spend per card member of US$23,496. That year, Amex handled over 1.6 trillion in purchase volume on its network.[2] Amex is one of the largest US banks, and is ranked 77th on the Fortune 500[8] and 28th on the list of the most valuable brands by Forbes.[9] In 2023, it was ranked 63rd in the Forbes Global 2000.[10] Amex also owns a direct bank.

    Founded in 1850 as a freight forwarding company, Amex introduced financial and travel services during the early 1900s. It developed its first paper charge card in 1958, gold card in 1966, green card in 1969, platinum card in 1984, and Centurion Card in 1999. The "Don't Leave Home Without It" advertising campaign was introduced in 1975 and renewed in 2005. In the 1980s, Amex acquired and then divested a stake in Shearson.[11] In the 1990s, it discontinued cutting interchange fees for merchants who exclusively accepted Amex cards and expanded market share through targeted marketing campaigns. Amex converted into a bank holding company during the 2007–2008 financial crisis. Amex began operating airport lounges in 2013, offering access to certain cardholders.

    Amex had a 4.61% worldwide market share by payment volume in 2022, compared to 38.73% for Visa and 24% for Mastercard. While American Express credit cards are accepted at 99% of U.S. merchants that accept credit cards (Costco being the notable exception), they are much less accepted in Europe and Asia.[12][13]

    1. ^ "AXP Financials". nasdaq.com. SEC EDGAR Online. 2022.
    2. ^ a b "US SEC: Form 10-K American Express Company". U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission. February 9, 2024.
    3. ^ Grossman, Peter Z. (2006) [1987]. "2". American Express: The Unofficial History of the People Who Built the Great Financial Empire (Reprint). New York, USA: Beard Books. ISBN 1-58798-283-8.
    4. ^ Loomis, Noel M. (1968). Wells Fargo. New York: Clarkson N. Potter, Inc.
    5. ^ "Dow Jones Industrial Average". CNN. Archived from the original on October 14, 2013.
    6. ^ "'Level Up' Your Understanding of Amex Card Levels". www.americanexpress.com. Retrieved November 28, 2023.
    7. ^ "American Express Logo Review". Company Logos. 2008. Archived from the original on September 20, 2010. The initial trademark of 1958 described the gladiator in the American Express logo as a gladiator on a shield whereas the current American Express website lists the logo character as a Gladiator Head Design. However, there are many who believe that the gladiator is a centurion ...
    8. ^ "American Express". Fortune.
    9. ^ "Forbes Rankings - The World's Most Valuable Brands". Forbes.
    10. ^ "The Global 2000 2023". Forbes. Archived from the original on January 29, 2024. Retrieved February 7, 2024.
    11. ^ "COMPANY NEWS; AMERICAN EXPRESS FINISHES LEHMAN BROTHERS SPINOFF". The New York Times. June 1, 1994.
    12. ^ Houlis, AnnaMarie (September 15, 2023). "Is American Express Accepted Everywhere?". Forbes.
    13. ^ "Pay with Plastic or Cash?". Rick Steves.
     
  37. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    19 March 1962 – Algerian War of Independence ends.

    Algerian War

    The Algerian War (also known as the Algerian Revolution or the Algerian War of Independence)[nb 1] was a major armed conflict between France and the Algerian National Liberation Front (FLN) from 1954 to 1962, which led to Algeria winning its independence from France.[33] An important decolonization war, it was a complex conflict characterized by guerrilla warfare and war crimes. The conflict also became a civil war between the different communities and within the communities.[34] The war took place mainly on the territory of Algeria, with repercussions in metropolitan France.

    Effectively started by members of the National Liberation Front (FLN) on 1 November 1954, during the Toussaint Rouge ("Red All Saints' Day"), the conflict led to serious political crises in France, causing the fall of the Fourth Republic (1946–58), to be replaced by the Fifth Republic with a strengthened presidency. The brutality of the methods employed by the French forces failed to win hearts and minds in Algeria, alienated support in metropolitan France, and discredited French prestige abroad.[35][36] As the war dragged on, the French public slowly turned against it[37] and many of France's key allies, including the United States, switched from supporting France to abstaining in the UN debate on Algeria.[38] After major demonstrations in Algiers and several other cities in favor of independence (1960)[39][40] and a United Nations resolution recognizing the right to independence,[41] Charles de Gaulle, the first president of the Fifth Republic, decided to open a series of negotiations with the FLN. These concluded with the signing of the Évian Accords in March 1962. A referendum took place on 8 April 1962 and the French electorate approved the Évian Accords. The final result was 91% in favor of the ratification of this agreement[42] and on 1 July, the Accords were subject to a second referendum in Algeria, where 99.72% voted for independence and just 0.28% against.[43]

    The planned French withdrawal led to a state crisis. This included various assassination attempts on de Gaulle as well as some attempts at military coups. Most of the former were carried out by the Organisation armée secrète (OAS), an underground organization formed mainly from French military personnel supporting a French Algeria, which committed a large number of bombings and murders both in Algeria and in the homeland to stop the planned independence.

    The war caused the deaths of between 400,000 and 1,500,000 Algerians,[44][28][26] 25,600 French soldiers,[20]: 538  and 6,000 Europeans. War crimes committed during the war included massacres of civilians, rape, and torture; the French destroyed over 8,000 villages and relocated over 2 million Algerians to concentration camps.[45][46] Upon independence in 1962, 900,000 European-Algerians (Pieds-noirs) fled to France within a few months in fear of the FLN's revenge. The French government was unprepared to receive such a vast number of refugees, which caused turmoil in France. The majority of Algerian Muslims who had worked for the French were disarmed and left behind, as the agreement between French and Algerian authorities declared that no actions could be taken against them.[47] However, the Harkis in particular, having served as auxiliaries with the French army, were regarded as traitors and many were murdered [fr] by the FLN or by lynch mobs, often after being abducted and tortured.[20]: 537 [48] About 20,000 Harki families (around 90,000 people) managed to flee to France,[49] some with help from their French officers acting against orders, and today they and their descendants form a significant part of the population of Algerians in France.

    1. ^ a b Windrow, Martin; Chappell, Mike (1997). The Algerian War 1954–62. Osprey Publishing. p. 11. ISBN 9781855326583.
    2. ^ Introduction to Comparative Politics, by Mark Kesselman, Joel Krieger, William Joseph, page 108
    3. ^ Alexander Cooley, Hendrik Spruyt. Contracting States: Sovereign Transfers in International Relations. Page 63.
    4. ^ George Bernard Noble. Christian A. Herter: The American Secretaries of State and Their Diplomacy. Page 155.
    5. ^ Robert J. C. Young (12 October 2016). Postcolonialism: An Historical Introduction. Wiley. p. 300. ISBN 978-1-118-89685-3. the French lost their Algerian empire in military and political defeat by the FLN, just as they lost their empire in China in defeat by Giap and Ho Chi Minh.
    6. ^ R. Aldrich (10 December 2004). Vestiges of Colonial Empire in France. Palgrave Macmillan UK. p. 156. ISBN 978-0-230-00552-5. For the [French] nation as a whole, commemoration of the Franco-Algerian War is complicated since it ended in defeat (politically, if not strictly militarily) rather than victory.
    7. ^ Alec G. Hargreaves (2005). Memory, Empire, and Postcolonialism: Legacies of French Colonialism. Lexington Books. p. 1. ISBN 978-0-7391-0821-5. The death knell of the French empire was sounded by the bitterly fought Algerian war of independence, which ended in 1962.
    8. ^ "The French defeat in the war effectively signaled the end of the French Empire". Jo McCormack (2010). Collective Memory: France and the Algerian War (1954–1962).
    9. ^ Paul Allatson; Jo McCormack (2008). Exile Cultures, Misplaced Identities. Rodopi. p. 117. ISBN 978-90-420-2406-9. The Algerian War came to an end in 1962, and with it closed some 130 years of French colonial presence in Algeria (and North Africa). With this outcome, the French Empire, celebrated in pomp in Paris in the Exposition coloniale of 1931 ... received its decisive death blow.
    10. ^ Yves Beigbeder (2006). Judging War Crimes And Torture: French Justice And International Criminal Tribunals And Commissions (1940–2005). Martinus Nijhoff Publishers. p. 35. ISBN 978-90-04-15329-5. The independence of Algeria in 1962, after a long and bitter war, marked the end of the French Empire.
    11. ^ France's Colonial Legacies: Memory, Identity and Narrative. University of Wales Press. 15 October 2013. p. 111. ISBN 978-1-78316-585-8. The difficult relationship which France has with the period of history dominated by the Algerian war has been well documented. The reluctance, which ended only in 1999, to acknowledge 'les évenements' as a war, the shame over the fate of the harki detachments, the amnesty covering many of the deeds committed during the war and the humiliation of a colonial defeat which marked the end of the French empire are just some of the reasons why France has preferred to look towards a Eurocentric future, rather than confront the painful aspects of its colonial past.
    12. ^ Ottaway, David; Ottaway, Marina (25 March 2022). Algeria: The Politics of a Socialist Revolution. Univ of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-35711-2.
    13. ^ Stora, Benjamin (2004). Algeria 1830-2000: A Short History. p. 101. ISBN 0-8014-8916-4.
    14. ^ General Faivre, Les combatants musulmans de la guerre d'Algérie, L'Harmattan, 1995, p.125
    15. ^ Major Gregory D. Peterson, The French Experience in Algeria, 1954–62: Blueprint for U.S. Operations in Iraq, p.33
    16. ^ "Algérie : Une guerre d'appelés". Le Figaro. 19 March 2012.
    17. ^ Travis, Hannibal (2013). Genocide, Ethnonationalism, and the United Nations: Exploring the Causes of Mass Killing Since 1945. Routledge. p. 137.
    18. ^ Martin S. Alexander; Martin Evans; J. F. V. Keiger (2002). "The 'War without a Name', the French Army and the Algerians: Recovering Experiences, Images and Testimonies". Algerian War and the French Army, 1954-62: Experiences, Images, Testimonies (PDF). Palgrave Macmillan. p. 6. ISBN 978-0333774564. The Algerian Ministry of War Veterans gives the figure of 152,863 FLN killed.
    19. ^ Katherine Draper (2013). "Why a War Without a Name May Need One: Policy-Based Application of International Humanitarian Law in the Algerian War" (PDF). Texas International Law Journal. 48 (3): 576. Archived from the original (PDF) on 7 November 2016. The Algerian Ministry of War Veterans calculates 152,863 Front de Libération Nationale (FLN) deaths (French sources), and although the death toll among Algerian civilians may never be accurately known estimate of 1,500,000 to 2,000,000 were killed.
    20. ^ a b c d e Horne, Alistair (1978). A Savage War of Peace: Algeria 1954–1962. New York Review of Books. p. 358. ISBN 9781590172186.
    21. ^ "Déclaration de M. Emmanuel Macron, président de la République, sur le 60ème anniversaire des accords d'Évian et la guerre d'Algérie, à Paris le 19 mars 2022".
    22. ^ Stapleton, T.J. (2013). A Military History of Africa. ABC-CLIO. pp. 1–272. ISBN 9780313395703. Retrieved 13 January 2017.
    23. ^ Encyclopedia of Violence, Peace and Conflict: Po – Z, index. 3, Academic Press, 1999 (ISBN 9780122270109, lire en ligne [archive]), p. 86.
    24. ^ Crandall, R., America's Dirty Wars: Irregular Warfare from 1776 to the War on Terror, Cambridge University Press, 2014 (ISBN 9781139915823, lire en ligne [archive]), p. 184.
    25. ^ From "Algeria: War of independence". Mass Atrocity Endings.:

      He also argues that the least controversial of all the numbers put forward by various groups are those concerning the French soldiers, where government numbers are largely accepted as sound. Most controversial are the numbers of civilians killed. On this subject, he turns to the work of Meynier, who, citing French army documents (not the official number) posits the range of 55,000–60,000 deaths. Meynier further argues that the best number to capture the harkis deaths is 30,000. If we add to this, the number of European civilians, which government figures posit as 2,788.

      Meynier's work cited was: Meynier, Gilbert. "Histoire intérieure du FLN. 1954–1962".

    26. ^ a b Rummel, Rudolph J. "STATISTICS OF DEMOCIDE Chapter 14 THE HORDE OF CENTI-KILO MURDERERS Estimates, Calculations, And Sources". Table 14.1 B; row 664.
    27. ^ Rummel, Rudolph J. "STATISTICS OF DEMOCIDE Chapter 14 THE HORDE OF CENTI-KILO MURDERERS Estimates, Calculations, And Sources". Table 14.1 B; row 694.
    28. ^ a b c "France remembers the Algerian War, 50 years on". 16 March 2012.
    29. ^ Cutts, M.; Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (2000). The State of the World's Refugees, 2000: Fifty Years of Humanitarian Action. Oxford University Press. p. 38. ISBN 9780199241040. Retrieved 13 January 2017. Referring to Evans, Martin. 2012. Algeria: France's Undeclared War. New York: Oxford University Press.
    30. ^ Hobson, Faure L. (2009). "The Migration of Jews from Algeria to France: An Opportunity for French Jews to Recover Their Independence in the Face of American Judaism in Postwar France?". Archives Juives. 42 (2): 67–81. doi:10.3917/aj.422.0067.
    31. ^ Cite error: The named reference Fabien was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    32. ^ "Algeria – The Revolution and Social Change". countrystudies.us. Retrieved 13 January 2017.
    33. ^ Matthew James Connelly (2002). A Diplomatic Revolution: Algeria's Fight for Independence and the Origins of the Post-cold War Era. Oxford University Press. pp. 263–277. ISBN 978-0-19-514513-7. The Algerians' victory enabled the French to become free--free from their colonial charges, and free from the United States....... Although France was obviously eager to get out, it had to accept the terms of its defeat.

      Robert Malley (20 November 1996). The Call From Algeria: Third Worldism, Revolution, and the Turn to Islam. University of California Press. p. 81. ISBN 978-0-520-91702-6. Then, in 1962, came the FLN's victory in Algeria, a defining moment in the history of the Third Worldism, for the battle had lasted so long, had been so violent, and had been won by a movement so acutely aware of its international dimension.

      Ruud van Dijk; William Glenn Gray; Svetlana Savranskaya (13 May 2013). Encyclopedia of the Cold War. Routledge. p. 16. ISBN 978-1-135-92311-2. During this war of independence, Algeria was at the center of world politics. The FLN's victory made the country one of the most prominent in the Third World during the 1960s and 1970s.
    34. ^ Guy Pervillé, Pour une histoire de la guerre d´Algérie, chap. "Une double guerre civile", Picard, 2002, pp.132–139
    35. ^ Keith Brannum. "The Victory Without Laurels: The French Military Tragedy in Algeria (1954–1962)" (PDF). University of North Carolina Asheville. Archived from the original (PDF) on 26 October 2014.
    36. ^ Irwin M. Wall (20 July 2001). France, the United States, and the Algerian War. University of California Press. pp. 68–69. ISBN 9780520925687.
    37. ^ Benjamin Stora (2004). Algeria, 1830-2000: A Short History. Cornell University Press. p. 87. ISBN 0-8014-8916-4.
    38. ^ Mathilde Von Bulow (22 August 2016). West Germany, Cold War Europe and the Algerian War. Cambridge University Press. p. 170. ISBN 978-1-107-08859-7.
    39. ^ Stora, Benjamin (2004). Algeria, 1830-2000: A Short History. Cornell University Press. ISBN 978-0801489167.
    40. ^ Pervillé, G. (2012). Les accords d'Evian (1962): Succès ou échec de la réconciliation franco-algérienne (1954–2012). Armand Colin. ISBN 9782200281977. Retrieved 13 January 2017.
    41. ^ "Document officiel des Nations Unies". un.org. Retrieved 13 January 2017.
    42. ^ "référendum 1962 Algérie". france-politique.fr. Retrieved 13 January 2017.
    43. ^ "Proclamation des résultats du référendum d'autodétermination du 1er juillet 1962" (PDF). Journal Officiel de l'État Algérien. 6 July 1962. Retrieved 8 April 2009.
    44. ^ "Ombres et lumières de la révolution algérienne". Le Monde diplomatique (in French). 1 November 1982. Retrieved 9 February 2018.
    45. ^ Kevin Shillington (2013). Encyclopedia of African History 3-Volume Set. Routledge. p. 60. ISBN 978-1-135-45670-2. The Algerian war for independence had lasted eight years. More than 8,000 villages had been destroyed in the fighting. Some three million people were displaced, and more than one million Algerians and some 10,000 colons lost their lives.
    46. ^ Cite error: The named reference Aoudjit was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    47. ^ Évian accords, Chapitre II, partie A, article 2
    48. ^ See http://www.aljazeera.com/news/2015/05/qa-happened-algeria-harkis-150531082955192.html and Pierre Daum's "The Last Taboo: Harkis Who Stayed in Algeria After 1962". November 2017
    49. ^ Ghosh, Palash (2 April 2012). "France-Algeria: 50 Years After Independence, What Happened To The Harkis?". International Business Times.


    Cite error: There are <ref group=nb> tags on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=nb}} template (see the help page).

     
  38. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    20 March 1915Albert Einstein publishes his general theory of relativity.

    General relativity

    Slow motion computer simulation of the black hole binary system GW150914 as seen by a nearby observer, during 0.33 s of its final inspiral, merge, and ringdown. The star field behind the black holes is being heavily distorted and appears to rotate and move, due to extreme gravitational lensing, as spacetime itself is distorted and dragged around by the rotating black holes.[1]

    General relativity, also known as the general theory of relativity and Einstein's theory of gravity, is the geometric theory of gravitation published by Albert Einstein in 1915 and is the current description of gravitation in modern physics. General relativity generalises special relativity and refines Newton's law of universal gravitation, providing a unified description of gravity as a geometric property of space and time or four-dimensional spacetime. In particular, the curvature of spacetime is directly related to the energy and momentum of whatever matter and radiation are present. The relation is specified by the Einstein field equations, a system of second order partial differential equations.

    Newton's law of universal gravitation, which describes classical gravity, can be seen as a prediction of general relativity for the almost flat spacetime geometry around stationary mass distributions. Some predictions of general relativity, however, are beyond Newton's law of universal gravitation in classical physics. These predictions concern the passage of time, the geometry of space, the motion of bodies in free fall, and the propagation of light, and include gravitational time dilation, gravitational lensing, the gravitational redshift of light, the Shapiro time delay and singularities/black holes. So far, all tests of general relativity have been shown to be in agreement with the theory. The time-dependent solutions of general relativity enable us to talk about the history of the universe and have provided the modern framework for cosmology, thus leading to the discovery of the Big Bang and cosmic microwave background radiation. Despite the introduction of a number of alternative theories, general relativity continues to be the simplest theory consistent with experimental data.

    Reconciliation of general relativity with the laws of quantum physics remains a problem, however, as there is a lack of a self-consistent theory of quantum gravity. It is not yet known how gravity can be unified with the three non-gravitational forces: strong, weak and electromagnetic.

    Einstein's theory has astrophysical implications, including the prediction of black holes—regions of space in which space and time are distorted in such a way that nothing, not even light, can escape from them. Black holes are the end-state for massive stars. Microquasars and active galactic nuclei are believed to be stellar black holes and supermassive black holes. It also predicts gravitational lensing, where the bending of light results in multiple images of the same distant astronomical phenomenon. Other predictions include the existence of gravitational waves, which have been observed directly by the physics collaboration LIGO and other observatories. In addition, general relativity has provided the base of cosmological models of an expanding universe.

    Widely acknowledged as a theory of extraordinary beauty, general relativity has often been described as the most beautiful of all existing physical theories.[2]

    1. ^ "GW150914: LIGO Detects Gravitational Waves". Black-holes.org. Retrieved 18 April 2016.
    2. ^ Cite error: The named reference :0 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
     
  39. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    21 March 1788A fire in New Orleans leaves most of the town in ruins.

    Great New Orleans Fire (1788)

    Great New Orleans Fire (1788): map showing area in flames, behind Plaza de Armas (Jackson Square) to Burgundy Street.

    The Great New Orleans Fire (1788) (Spanish: Gran Incendio de Nueva Orleans, French: Grand incendie de La Nouvelle-Orléans) was a fire that destroyed 856 of the 1,100 structures in New Orleans, Louisiana (New Spain), on March 21, 1788, spanning the south central Vieux Carré from Burgundy to Chartres Street, almost to the Mississippi River front buildings. An additional 212 buildings were destroyed in a later citywide fire, on December 8, 1794.

     
  40. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    22 March 1978 – Karl Wallenda of The Flying Wallendas dies after falling off a tight-rope between two hotels in San Juan, Puerto Rico.

    Karl Wallenda

    Karl Wallenda (/wɔːˈlɛndə/; January 21, 1905 – March 22, 1978) was a German-American high wire artist. He was the founder of The Flying Wallendas, a daredevil circus troupe whose members performed dangerous stunts far above the ground, often without a safety net.

     

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