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8 June 1949 – George Orwell's Nineteen Eighty-Four is published.

Nineteen Eighty-Four

1949 novel by George Orwell

This article is about the 1949 novel by George Orwell. For the year, see 1984. For other uses, see 1984 (disambiguation).

Nineteen Eighty-Four (also published as 1984) is a dystopian novel and cautionary tale by English writer George Orwell. It was published on 8 June 1949 by Secker & Warburg as Orwell's ninth and final book completed in his lifetime. Thematically, it centres on the consequences of totalitarianism, mass surveillance, and repressive regimentation of people and behaviours within society.^[3][4] Orwell, a democratic socialist, modelled the authoritarian state in the novel on the Soviet Union in the era of Stalinism, and Nazi Germany.^[5] More broadly, the novel examines the role of truth and facts within societies and the ways in which they can be manipulated.

The story takes place in an imagined future in an unspecified year believed to be 1984, when much of the world is in perpetual war. Great Britain, now known as Airstrip One, has become a province of the totalitarian superstate Oceania, which is led by Big Brother, a dictatorial leader supported by an intense cult of personality manufactured by the Party's Thought Police. The Party engages in omnipresent government surveillance and, through the Ministry of Truth, historical negationism and constant propaganda to persecute individuality and independent thinking.^[6]

The protagonist, Winston Smith, is a diligent mid-level worker at the Ministry of Truth who secretly hates the Party and dreams of rebellion. Smith keeps a forbidden diary. He begins a sexual relationship with a colleague, Julia, and they learn about a shadowy resistance group called the Brotherhood. However, their contact within the Brotherhood turns out to be a Party agent, and Smith and Julia are arrested. He is subjected to months of psychological manipulation and torture by the Ministry of Love. He ultimately betrays Julia and is released; he finally realises he loves Big Brother.

Nineteen Eighty-Four has become a classic literary example of political and dystopian fiction. It also popularised the term "Orwellian" as an adjective, with many terms used in the novel entering common usage, including "Big Brother", "doublethink", "Thought Police", "thoughtcrime", "Newspeak", and "2 + 2 = 5". Parallels have been drawn between the novel's subject matter and real life instances of totalitarianism, mass surveillance, and violations of freedom of expression, among other themes.^[7][8][9] Orwell described his book as a "satire",^[10] and a display of the "perversions to which a centralised economy is liable," while also stating he believed "that something resembling it could arrive."^[10] Time included the novel on its list of the 100 best English-language novels published from 1923 to 2005,^[11] and it was placed on the Modern Library's 100 Best Novels list, reaching number 13 on the editors' list and number 6 on the readers' list.^[12] In 2003, it was listed at number eight on The Big Read survey by the BBC.^[13]

1. ^ "Nineteen Eighty-Four". knowthyshelf.com. 13 August 2015. Retrieved 11 February 2024.
2. ^ "Classify". OCLC. Archived from the original on 2 February 2019. Retrieved 22 May 2017.
3. ^ Murphy, Bruce (1996). Benét's reader's encyclopedia. New York: Harper Collins. p. 734. ISBN 978-0-06-181088-6. OCLC 35572906.
4. ^ Aaronovitch, David (8 February 2013). "1984: George Orwell's road to dystopia". BBC News. Archived from the original on 24 January 2018. Retrieved 8 February 2013.
5. ^ Lynskey, Dorian. "George Orwell's 1984: Why it still matters". BBC News. Archived from the original on 12 October 2023. Retrieved 7 October 2023 – via YouTube.
6. ^ Chernow, Barbara; Vallasi, George (1993). The Columbia Encyclopedia (5th ed.). Boston: Houghton Mifflin. p. 2030. OCLC 334011745.
7. ^ Crouch, Ian (11 June 2013). "So Are We Living in 1984?". The New Yorker. Archived from the original on 10 September 2023. Retrieved 3 December 2019.
8. ^ Seaton, Jean. "Why Orwell's 1984 could be about now". BBC. Archived from the original on 10 May 2020. Retrieved 3 December 2019.
9. ^ Leetaru, Kalev. "As Orwell's 1984 Turns 70 It Predicted Much of Today's Surveillance Society". Forbes. Archived from the original on 27 March 2023. Retrieved 3 December 2019.
10. ^ ^{a b} "The savage satire of '1984' still speaks to us today". The Independent. 7 June 1999. Archived from the original on 7 January 2023. Retrieved 7 January 2023. Orwell said that his book was a satire – a warning certainly, but in the form of satire.
11. ^ Grossman, Lev (8 January 2010). "Is 1984 one of the All-TIME 100 Best Novels?". Time. Archived from the original on 20 August 2017. Retrieved 29 December 2022.
12. ^ "100 Best Novels « Modern Library". www.modernlibrary.com. Archived from the original on 2 October 2010. Retrieved 29 December 2022.
13. ^ "BBC – The Big Read – Top 100 Books". BBC. Archived from the original on 31 October 2012. Retrieved 29 December 2022.

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9 June 1934 – Donald Duck makes his debut in The Wise Little Hen.

Donald Duck

Disney cartoon character

For other uses, see Donald Duck (disambiguation).

Fictional character

Donald Duck is a cartoon character created by The Walt Disney Company. Donald is an anthropomorphic white duck with a yellow-orange bill, legs, and feet. He typically wears a sailor shirt and cap with a bow tie. Donald is known for his semi-intelligible speech and his mischievous, temperamental, and pompous personality. Along with his friend Mickey Mouse, Donald was included in TV Guide's list of the 50 greatest cartoon characters of all time in 2002,^[5] and has earned a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame. He has appeared in more films than any other Disney character.^[6]

Donald Duck appeared in comedic roles in animated cartoons. Donald's first appearance was in The Wise Little Hen (1934), but it was his second appearance in Orphan's Benefit that same year that introduced him as a temperamental comic foil to Mickey Mouse.^[7] Throughout the next two decades, Donald appeared in over 150 theatrical films, several of which were recognized at the Academy Awards. In the 1930s, he typically appeared as part of a comic trio with Mickey and Goofy and was given his own film series starting with Don Donald (1937). These films introduced Donald's love interest and permanent girlfriend Daisy Duck and often included his three nephews Huey, Dewey, and Louie. After the film Chips Ahoy (1956), Donald appeared primarily in educational films before eventually returning to theatrical animation in Mickey's Christmas Carol (1983). His last appearance in a theatrical film was in Fantasia 2000 (1999). However, since then Donald has appeared in direct-to-video features such as Mickey, Donald, Goofy: The Three Musketeers (2004), television series such as Mickey Mouse Clubhouse (2006–2016), and video games such as QuackShot (1991) and the Kingdom Hearts series.

In addition to animation, Donald is well known worldwide for his appearances in comics. Donald was most famously drawn by Al Taliaferro, Carl Barks, and Don Rosa. Barks, in particular, is credited for greatly expanding the "Donald Duck universe", the world in which Donald lives, and creating many additional characters such as Donald's rich uncle Scrooge McDuck. Donald has been a popular character in Europe, particularly in Nordic countries where his weekly magazine Kalle Anka & C:o was the comics publication with the highest circulation from the 1950s to 2009. In Italy, Donald is a major character in many comics, including a juvenile version named Paperino Paperotto, and a superhero alter ego known as Paperinik (Duck Avenger in the US and Superduck in the UK).

1. ^ "Walt Disney Rare BBC TV Interview Broadcasted 6th July 1959", YouTube, September 14, 2020, retrieved July 27, 2022
2. ^ Anderson, Paul. "THE FAUNTELROY FOLLIES: The Continuing History of Donald Duck". waltdisney.org. Retrieved January 21, 2021.
3. ^ "Did You Know? 8 Genius Facts About Ludwig von Drake". September 22, 2016.
4. ^ Lenburg, Jeff (1999). The Encyclopedia of Animated Cartoons. Checkmark Books. pp. 74–76. ISBN 0-8160-3831-7. Retrieved June 9, 2021.
5. ^ TV Guide's 50 greatest cartoon characters of all time Archived July 16, 2011, at the Wayback Machine. CNN. June 30, 2002, retrieved June 4, 2011.
6. ^ Not including television episodes but including short films, Donald has appeared in 197 films. (Donald Duck at IMDb, retrieved August 15, 2014) The Disney character with the second most film appearances is Mickey Mouse at 167. (Mickey Mouse at IMDb, retrieved August 15, 2014)
7. ^ Maltin, Leonard (1987). Of Mice and Magic: A History of American Animated Cartoons (Revised ed.). Plume. p. 49. ISBN 0-452-25993-2.

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10 June 1947 – Saab produces its first automobile

Saab Automobile

Defunct Swedish car manufacturer (1945-2016)

This article is about the car manufacturer. For the aerospace and defence company, see Saab AB. For other uses, see Saab.

Saab Automobile AB^[1][2] (/sɑːb/) was a car manufacturer that was founded in Sweden in 1945 when its parent company, Saab AB, began a project to design a small automobile. The first production model, the Saab 92, was launched in 1949. In 1968 the parent company merged with Scania-Vabis, and ten years later the Saab 900 was launched, in time becoming Saab's best-selling model. In the mid-1980s the new Saab 9000 model also appeared.

In 1989, the automobile division of Saab-Scania was restructured into an independent company, Saab Automobile AB. The American manufacturer General Motors (GM) took 50 percent ownership. Two well-known models to come out of this period were the Saab 9-3 and the Saab 9-5. Then in 2000, GM exercised its option to acquire the remaining 50 percent. In 2010 GM sold Saab Automobile AB to the Dutch automobile manufacturer Spyker Cars N.V.^[3][4]

After many years establishing a sound engineering reputation and ultimately a luxury price tag, Saab failed to build its customer base beyond its niche following.^[5] After struggling to avoid insolvency throughout 2011, the company petitioned for bankruptcy following the failure of a Chinese consortium to complete a purchase of the company; the purchase had been blocked by the former owner GM, which opposed the transfer of technology and production rights to a Chinese company.^[6] On 13 June 2012, it was announced that a newly formed company called National Electric Vehicle Sweden (NEVS) had bought Saab Automobile's bankrupt estate.^[7] According to "Saab United", the first NEVS Saab 9-3 drove off its pre-production line on 19 September 2013.^[8] Full production restarted on 2 December 2013,^[9] initially the same petrol-powered 9-3 Aero sedans that were built before Saab went bankrupt, and intended to get the car manufacturer's supply chain re-established as it attempted development of a new line of NEVS-Saab products.^[10][11] NEVS lost its license to manufacture automobiles under the Saab name (which the namesake aerospace company still owns) in the summer of 2014 and later produced electric cars based on the Saab 9-3 but under its own new car designation "NEVS".^[12][13]

1. ^ "History and Background: Timeline, Video". US: Saab Group. 1 January 1980. Archived from the original on 23 February 2009. Retrieved 11 February 2009.
2. ^ "The History of Svenska Aeroplan Aktiebolaget or Saab". Saab history. Retrieved 30 January 2010.^{[permanent dead link]}
3. ^ Durrenberger, E. Paul (15 August 2017). Uncertain Times: Anthropological Approaches to Labor in a Neoliberal World. University Press of Colorado. ISBN 978-1-60732-631-1. Archived from the original on 3 September 2023. Retrieved 28 October 2020.
4. ^ "Spyker Cars finalises the purchase of Saab" (PDF) (Press release). Spyker. 23 February 2010. Archived (PDF) from the original on 7 August 2011. Retrieved 17 December 2013.
5. ^ "The People Who Will Miss Saab the Most; With the bankruptcy and impending doom facing Saab, we mourn with the certain, loyal fans that will miss the Swedish auto-maker". US: The Atlantic. 19 December 2011. Archived from the original on 7 November 2019. Retrieved 7 November 2019.
6. ^ "Saab Automobile Files for Bankruptcy" (Press release). Saab Automobile. 19 December 2011. Archived from the original on 7 January 2012. Retrieved 20 December 2011..
7. ^ Zachariasson, Helena (13 June 2012). "Saab har fatt en kopare" [Saab's new owners will hire hundreds]. SVT (in Swedish). SE. Archived from the original on 23 October 2012. Retrieved 20 October 2012.
8. ^ "First Nevs Saab Rolls off Pre-Production Line" (Youtube) (video Posted). Trollhättan: Saab Group. 19 September 2013. Archived from the original on 3 December 2013. Retrieved 6 October 2013.
9. ^ Lönnroth, Valdemar (28 November 2014), "Lööf på plats nar Nevs drar igang produktion" [Lööf in place when Nevs kicks off production], Ttela (in Swedish), SE^{[permanent dead link]}.
10. ^ Gastelu, Gary (2 December 2013). "Saab restarts production". Fox News. Archived from the original on 18 February 2015. Retrieved 21 February 2015.
11. ^ Stoll, John D. (2 December 2013). "Saab Automobile Is Poised to Resume Production". Gasgoo Automotive News. Archived from the original on 21 February 2015. Retrieved 21 February 2015.
12. ^ Saab carmaker NEVS granted creditor protection by court but loses right to use Saab name; Automotive News Europe, 29 August 2014, at europe.autonews.com Archived 15 September 2019 at the Wayback Machine Accessed 8 November 2017
13. ^ "nevs.com: NEVS launches its new trademark". Archived from the original on 14 September 2016.

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11 June 1509 – Henry VIII of England marries Catherine of Aragon.

Catherine of Aragon

Queen of England from 1509 to 1533

Catherine of Aragon (also spelt as Katherine, historical Spanish: Catharina,^[1] now: Catalina; 16 December 1485 – 7 January 1536) was Queen of England as the first wife of King Henry VIII from their marriage on 11 June 1509 until its annulment on 23 May 1533. Born in Spain, she was Princess of Wales while married to Henry's elder brother, Arthur, Prince of Wales, for a short period before his death.

The daughter of Isabella I of Castile and Ferdinand II of Aragon, Catherine was three years old when she was betrothed to Arthur, heir apparent to the English throne. They married in 1501, but Arthur died five months later. Catherine spent years in limbo, and during this time, she held the position of ambassador of the Aragonese crown to England in 1507, the first known female ambassador in European history.^[2] She married Henry shortly after his accession in 1509. For six months in 1513, she served as regent of England while Henry was in France. During that time the English defeated a Scottish invasion at the Battle of Flodden, an event in which Catherine played an important part with an emotional speech about courage and patriotism.^[3]

By 1526, Henry was infatuated with Anne Boleyn and dissatisfied that his marriage to Catherine had produced no surviving sons, leaving their daughter Mary as heir presumptive at a time when there was no established precedent for a woman on the throne. He sought to have their marriage annulled, setting in motion a chain of events that led to England's schism with the Catholic Church. When Pope Clement VII refused to annul the marriage, Henry defied him by assuming supremacy over religious matters in England. In 1533, their marriage was consequently declared invalid and Henry married Anne on the judgement of clergy in England, without reference to the pope. Catherine refused to accept Henry as supreme head of the Church in England and considered herself the king's rightful wife and queen, attracting much popular sympathy.^[4] Despite this, Henry acknowledged her only as dowager princess of Wales. After being banished from court by Henry, Catherine lived out the remainder of her life at Kimbolton Castle, dying there in January 1536 of cancer. The English people held Catherine in high esteem, and her death set off tremendous mourning.^[5] Her daughter Mary would become the first undisputed English queen regnant in 1553.

Catherine commissioned The Education of a Christian Woman by Juan Luis Vives, who dedicated the book, controversial at the time, to the Queen in 1523. Such was Catherine's impression on people that even her adversary Thomas Cromwell said of her, "If not for her sex, she could have defied all the heroes of History."^[6] She successfully appealed for the lives of the rebels involved in the Evil May Day, for the sake of their families,^[7] and also won widespread admiration by starting an extensive programme for the relief of the poor.^[7][8] Catherine was a patron of Renaissance humanism and a friend of the great scholars Erasmus of Rotterdam and Thomas More.^[8]

1. ^ de Villegas, Alonso (1691). Flos sanctorum y historia general en que se escrive la vida de la Virgen Sacratissima ... y las [d]e los santos antiguos... p. 473.
2. ^ Weir 1991, p. 59.
3. ^ Catherine of Aragon, Queen of England.
4. ^ Catherine of Aragon (1485–1536).
5. ^ Lehman 2011, p. 295.
6. ^ Chapuys 1533, p. 737.
7. ^ ^{a b} Deutscher & Bietenholz 1987, p. 283.
8. ^ ^{a b} Catherine of Aragon Biography.

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12 June 1935 – A ceasefire is negotiated between Bolivia and Paraguay, ending the Chaco War

Chaco War

War between Bolivia and Paraguay (1932 to 1935)

The Chaco War (Spanish: Guerra del Chaco, Guarani: Cháko Ñorairõ^[13]) was fought from 1932 to 1935 between Bolivia and Paraguay, over the control of the northern part of the Gran Chaco region (known in Spanish as Chaco Boreal) of South America, which was thought to be rich in oil. The war is also referred to as La Guerra de la Sed (Spanish for "The War of Thirst") in literary circles since it was fought in the semi-arid Chaco. The bloodiest interstate military conflict fought in South America in the 20th century, it was fought between two of its poorest countries, both of which had lost territory to neighbours in 19th-century wars.

During the war, both landlocked countries faced difficulties shipping arms and supplies through neighbouring countries. Bolivia, in particular, faced external trade problems and poor internal communications. Although Bolivia had lucrative mining income and a larger and better-equipped army, a series of factors turned the tide against it, and Paraguay controlled most of the disputed zone when the war had ended.

The peace treaties ultimately granted two-thirds of the disputed territories to Paraguay.

1. ^ Abente, Diego. 1988. Constraints and Opportunities: Prospects for Democratization in Paraguay. Journal of Interamerican Studies and World Affairs.
2. ^ La ayuda argentina al Paraguay en la guerra del Chaco, Todo es Historia magazine, n° 206. julio de 1984, pág. 84 (in Spanish)
3. ^ Atkins, G. Pope (1997) Encyclopedia of the Inter-American System. Greenwood Publishing Group, p. 71. ISBN 0313286000
4. ^ The Gran Chaco War: Fighting for Mirages in the Foothills of the Andes, article from Chandelle Magazine availeable at The World at War site.
5. ^ Baďura, Bohumil (2006) Československé zbraně a diplomacie ve válce o Gran Chaco, p. 35.
6. ^ Hughes, Matthew (April 2005). "Logistics and the Chaco War Bolivia versus Paraguay, 1932–1935". The Journal of Military History. 69 (2): 411–437. doi:10.1353/jmh.2005.0104. S2CID 163055852.
7. ^ ^{a b} Victimario Histórico Militar DE RE MILITARI
8. ^ Marley, David, Wars of the Americas (1998)
9. ^ Dictionary of Twentieth Century World History, by Jan Palmowski (Oxford, 1997)
10. ^ ^{a b} Sienra Zabala, Roberto (2010). Síntesis de la Guerra del Cjhaco. Francisco Aquino Zavala, Concepción (in Spanish)
11. ^ Bruce Farcau, The Chaco War (1991)
12. ^ Singer, Joel David, The Wages of War. 1816–1965 (1972)
13. ^ Mombe’uhára Paraguái ha Boliviaygua Jotopa III, Cháko Ñorairõ rehegua. Secretaría Nacional de Cultura de Paraguay

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13 June 1997 – A jury sentences Timothy McVeigh to death for his part in the 1995 Oklahoma City bombing.

Oklahoma City bombing

1995 domestic terrorist attack in the United States

The Oklahoma City bombing was a domestic terrorist truck bombing of the Alfred P. Murrah Federal Building in Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, United States, on April 19, 1995, the second anniversary of the end to the Waco siege. It also occurred on the same day as the execution of Arkansas white supremacist Richard Snell, who had "predicted" a bombing would take place that day;^[1] despite rumors, it remains unclear if Snell's execution served as a motive for the bombing. The bombing was the deadliest act of terrorism in U.S. history prior to the September 11 attacks in 2001, and remains the deadliest act of domestic terrorism in U.S. history. On April 19, 2000, the Oklahoma City National Memorial was dedicated on the site of the Murrah Federal Building, commemorating the victims of the bombing. Remembrance services are held every year on April 19, at the time of the explosion.

Perpetrated by anti-government extremists Timothy McVeigh and Terry Nichols, the bombing occurred at 9:02 AM and killed 168 people, injured 680, and destroyed more than one-third of the building, which had to be demolished. The blast destroyed or damaged 324 other buildings and caused an estimated $652 million worth of damage.^[2][3][4] Local, state, federal, and worldwide agencies engaged in extensive rescue efforts in the wake of the bombing. The Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) activated 11 of its Urban Search and Rescue Task Forces, consisting of 665 rescue workers.^[5][6]

Within 90 minutes of the explosion, McVeigh was stopped by Oklahoma Highway Patrolman Charlie Hanger for driving without a license plate and arrested for illegal weapons possession.^[7][8] Forensic evidence quickly linked McVeigh and Nichols to the attack; Nichols was arrested,^[9] and within days, both were charged. Michael and Lori Fortier were later identified as accomplices. McVeigh, a veteran of the Gulf War and a sympathizer with the U.S. militia movement, had detonated a Ryder rental truck full of explosives he parked in front of the building. Nichols had assisted with the bomb's preparation. Motivated by his dislike for the U.S. federal government and its handling of Ruby Ridge in 1992 and the Waco siege in 1993, McVeigh timed his attack to coincide with the second anniversary of the fire that ended the siege in Waco.^[10][11] Though not confirmed to be a direct connection to the bombing, Snell previously expressed a desire to blow up the Murrah Federal Building 12 years before the bombing took place.^[12][1]

The official FBI investigation, known as "OKBOMB", involved 28,000 interviews, 3,200 kg of evidence, and nearly one billion pieces of information.^[13] When the FBI raided McVeigh's home, they found a telephone number that led them to a farm where McVeigh had purchased supplies for the bombing.^[14][15][16] The bombers were tried and convicted in 1997. McVeigh was executed by lethal injection on June 11, 2001, at the U.S. federal penitentiary in Terre Haute, Indiana. Nichols was sentenced to life in prison in 2004. In response to the bombing, the U.S. Congress passed the Antiterrorism and Effective Death Penalty Act of 1996, which limited access to habeas corpus in the United States, among other provisions.^[17] It also passed legislation to increase the protection around federal buildings to deter future terrorist attacks.

Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

1. ^ ^{a b} "The Oklahoma City Bomb Trial: The Denver Post Online". extras.denverpost.com. Retrieved March 22, 2024.
2. ^ Oklahoma City Police Department Alfred P. Murrah Federal Building Bombing After Action Report (PDF). Terrorism Info. p. 58. Archived from the original (PDF) on July 3, 2007.
3. ^ "Case Study 30: Preventing glass from becoming a lethal weapon". Safety Solutions Online. Archived from the original on February 13, 2007.
4. ^ Hewitt, Christopher (2003). Understanding Terrorism in America: From the Klan to al Qaeda. Routledge. p. 106. ISBN 978-0-415-27765-5.
5. ^ Cite error: The named reference USDJ2 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
6. ^ "FEMA Urban Search and Rescue (USAR) Summaries" (PDF). Federal Emergency Management Agency. p. 64. Archived from the original (PDF) on September 27, 2006.
7. ^ "Timothy McVeigh is apprehended" (Video, 3 minutes). NBC News Report. April 22, 1995.
8. ^ Ottley, Ted (April 14, 2005). "License Tag Snag". truTV. Archived from the original on August 29, 2011.
9. ^ Cite error: The named reference TerrorFamily was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
10. ^ Feldman, Paul (June 18, 1995). "Militia Groups Growing, Study Says Extremism: Despite negative publicity since Oklahoma bombing, membership has risen, Anti-Defamation League finds". Los Angeles Times. Archived from the original on July 25, 2012. Retrieved April 7, 2010.
11. ^ "McVeigh offers little remorse in letters". The Topeka Capital-Journal. Associated Press. June 10, 2001. Archived from the original on May 27, 2012.
12. ^ Cite error: The named reference may1995 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
13. ^ "Oklahoma City Bombing". Federal Bureau of Investigation. Retrieved April 7, 2023.
14. ^ Serano, Richard. One of Ours: Timothy McVeigh and the Oklahoma City Bombing. pp. 139–141.
15. ^ "Lessons learned, and not learned, 11 years later". NBC News. Associated Press. April 16, 2006.
16. ^ Hamm, Mark S (1997). Apocalypse in Oklahoma. Northeastern University Press. p. vii. ISBN 978-1-55553-300-7.
17. ^ Doyle, Charles (June 3, 1996). "Antiterrorism and Effective Death Penalty Act of 1996: A Summary". FAS. Archived from the original on March 14, 2011.

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14 June 1777 – The Stars and Stripes is adopted by Congress as the Flag of the United States.

Flag of the United States

National flag

"American Flag" redirects here. For other uses, see American Flag (disambiguation).

For the flags of the U.S. states, and the flags of U.S. territories, see Flags of the U.S. states and territories.

For historical and other flags, see List of flags of the United States.

The national flag of the United States, often referred to as the American flag or the U.S. flag, consists of thirteen equal horizontal stripes of red (top and bottom) alternating with white, with a blue rectangle in the canton, referred to as the union and bearing fifty small, white, five-pointed stars arranged in nine offset horizontal rows, where rows of six stars (top and bottom) alternate with rows of five stars. The 50 stars on the flag represent the 50 U.S. states, and the 13 stripes represent the thirteen British colonies that declared independence from Great Britain, which they obtained in their victory in the American Revolutionary War.^[1]

Credit for the term "Stars and Stripes" has been given to the Marquis de Lafayette, a French soldier who volunteered his aid to the Continental Army, led by George Washington, in the Revolutionary War against Britain.^[2]

Nicknames for the flag include the Stars and Stripes,^[3] Old Glory, and The Star-Spangled Banner.

1. ^ Warner, John (1998). "Senate Concurrent Resolution 61" (PDF). U.S. Government Printing Office. Archived (PDF) from the original on May 6, 2009. Retrieved April 5, 2014.
2. ^ "USFlag.org: A website dedicated to the Flag of the United States of America – "OLD GLORY!"". www.usflag.org. Retrieved December 13, 2015.
3. ^ "History of the American Flag". www.infoplease.com. Retrieved December 13, 2015.

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15 June 1936 – First flight of the Vickers Wellington bomber.

Vickers Wellington

British twin-engined, long-range medium bomber

The Vickers Wellington was a British twin-engined, long-range medium bomber. It was designed during the mid-1930s at Brooklands in Weybridge, Surrey. Led by Vickers-Armstrongs' chief designer Rex Pierson; a key feature of the aircraft is its geodetic airframe fuselage structure, which was principally designed by Barnes Wallis. Development had been started in response to Air Ministry Specification B.9/32, issued in the middle of 1932, for a bomber for the Royal Air Force.

This specification called for a twin-engined day bomber capable of delivering higher performance than any previous design. Other aircraft developed to the same specification include the Armstrong Whitworth Whitley and the Handley Page Hampden. During the development process, performance requirements such as for the tare weight changed substantially, and the engine used was not the one originally intended.

Despite the original specification, the Wellington was used as a night bomber in the early years of the Second World War, performing as one of the principal bombers used by Bomber Command. During 1943, it started to be superseded as a bomber by the larger four-engined "heavies" such as the Avro Lancaster. The Wellington continued to serve throughout the war in other duties, particularly as an anti-submarine aircraft with RAF Coastal Command.

The Wellington was the only British bomber that was produced for the duration of the war, and was produced in a greater quantity than any other British-built bomber. The Wellington remained as first-line equipment when the war ended, although it had been increasingly relegated to secondary roles. The Wellington was one of two bombers named after Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington, the other being the Vickers Wellesley.

A larger heavy bomber aircraft designed to Specification B.1/35, the Vickers Warwick, was developed in parallel with the Wellington; the two aircraft shared around 85% of their structural components. Many elements of the Wellington were also re-used in a civil derivative, the Vickers VC.1 Viking.

1. ^ Andrews and Morgan 1988, p. 363.
2. ^ Murray 2012, p. 154.

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16 June 1487 – Battle of Stoke Field, the final engagement of the Wars of the Roses.

Wars of the Roses

Dynastic civil war in England (1455–1487)

For other uses, see Wars of the Roses (disambiguation).

The Wars of the Roses (1455–1487), known at the time and for more than a century after as the Civil Wars, was a series of civil wars fought over control of the English throne in the mid-to-late fifteenth century. These wars were fought between supporters of two rival cadet branches of the royal House of Plantagenet: Lancaster and York. The wars extinguished the last male line of the House of Lancaster in 1471, leading to the Tudor family inheriting the Lancastrian claim to the throne. Following the war and the extinction of the last male line of the House of York in 1485, a politically arranged marriage united the Houses of Lancaster and York, creating a new royal dynasty which inherited the Yorkist claim as well, thereby resolving the conflict.

The Wars of the Roses had their roots in the wake of the Hundred Years' War. After fighting a series of armed conflicts with France, the English monarchy's prestige was weakened by emergent socio-economic troubles.^[f] This weakened prestige unfolded structural problems with bastard feudalism, a system developed by the powerful duchies created by Edward III.^[6] Combined with the mental infirmity and weak rule of King Henry VI, these structural problems revived interest in the Yorkist claim to the throne by Richard of York. Historians disagree over which of these factors was the main catalyst for the wars.^[7] It was also used as a proxy war between France (on the Lancastrian side) and the Burgundian State (on the Yorkist side).

The wars began in 1455 when Richard of York captured Henry at the First Battle of St Albans and was appointed Lord Protector by Parliament, leading to an uneasy peace.^[8] Fighting resumed four years later. Yorkists, led by Richard Neville, 16th Earl of Warwick, often referred to as "Warwick the Kingmaker," captured Henry again at the Battle of Northampton. Richard of York attempted to claim the throne but was dissuaded and was then killed at the Battle of Wakefield. His son Edward inherited his claim. The Yorkists lost custody of Henry after the Second Battle of St Albans but destroyed the Lancastrian army at the Battle of Towton. Edward was formally crowned three months later in June 1461.^[9][10] Resistance to Edward's rule continued but was crushed at the Battle of Hexham in 1464, and a period of relative peace ensued.

In 1464, Edward married Elizabeth Woodville, the widow of a Lancastrian knight, and showed favour to her family. He also reversed Warwick's policy of seeking closer ties with France. Warwick, offended and sidelined, turned against Edward. In 1469, his supporters defeated a Yorkist army at the Battle of Edgcote. He captured and imprisoned Edward shortly afterwards. However, his attempt to replace Edward with his younger brother George of Clarence met with no support and Edward was allowed to resume his rule, seemingly reconciled with Warwick. Within a year, Edward accused Warwick and Clarence of fresh treachery and forced them to flee. In France, Warwick joined forces with Margaret of Anjou and led an invasion of England. When Warwick's younger brother John Neville deserted Edward, Edward in turn was forced to flee to Flanders. Warwick restored Henry VI as king.

Henry's renewed reign was short-lived however. With aid from Burgundy, Edward mounted a counter-invasion. Henry was returned to prison, and Edward defeated and killed Warwick at the Battle of Barnet. He then defeated a Lancastrian army at the Battle of Tewkesbury. Henry's heir, Edward of Westminster, was killed. Henry himself died or was assassinated on Edward's order shortly afterwards.^[11] Edward ruled unopposed, and England enjoyed a period of relative peace until his death twelve years later in 1483.

Edward's twelve-year-old son reigned for 78 days as Edward V until he was deposed by his uncle, Richard III. Richard assumed the throne under a cloud of controversy, particularly the disappearance of Edward IV's two sons, sparking a short-lived but major revolt and triggering a wave of desertions of prominent Yorkists to the Lancastrian cause.^[12] In the midst of the chaos, Henry Tudor, son of Henry VI's half-brother Edmund Tudor and a descendant of Edward III through his mother Lady Margaret Beaufort, returned from exile with an army of English, French, and Breton troops. Henry defeated and killed Richard at Bosworth Field in 1485, assumed the throne as Henry VII, and married Elizabeth of York, the eldest daughter and sole heir of Edward IV, thereby uniting the rival claims.

John de la Pole, 1st Earl of Lincoln then put forward Lambert Simnel as an impostor Edward Plantagenet, a potential claimant to the throne. Lincoln's army was defeated and Lincoln himself killed at Stoke Field in 1487, ending the wars. Henry never faced any further serious internal military threats to his reign. In 1490, Perkin Warbeck claimed to be Richard of Shrewsbury, Edward IV's second son and rival claimant to the throne, but was executed before any rebellion could be launched.^[13]

The House of Tudor ruled England until 1603. The reign of the Tudor dynasty saw the strengthening of the prestige and power of the English monarchy, particularly under Henry VIII and Elizabeth I, and the end of the medieval period in England which subsequently saw the dawn of the English Renaissance.^[1][2][3] Historian John Guy argued that "England was economically healthier, more expansive, and more optimistic under the Tudors" than at any time since the Roman occupation of Britain.^[14]

Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

1. ^ ^{a b} Wagner & Schmid 2011.
2. ^ ^{a b} Guy 1988.
3. ^ ^{a b} McCaffrey 1984.
4. ^ Clodfelter 2017, p. 51.
5. ^ Webster 1998, pp. 39–40.
6. ^ Pollard, A. J. (2001), Pollard, A. J. (ed.), "The Causes of the Wars", The Wars of the Roses, British History in Perspective, London: Macmillan Education UK, pp. 41–67, doi:10.1007/978-1-137-10515-8_4, ISBN 978-1-137-10515-8, OL 6794297M, retrieved 29 July 2021
7. ^ Grummitt 2012, pp. xviii–xxi.
8. ^ Hicks 2008, p. 114.
9. ^ Ross 1997, pp. 37–38.
10. ^ Carpenter 1997, p. 149.
11. ^ Wolffe 1981, p. 347.
12. ^ Hicks 2008, pp. 209–210.
13. ^ Chrimes 1999, pp. 69–70.
14. ^ Guy 1988, p. 32.

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17 June 1944 – Iceland declares independence from Denmark and becomes a republic.

Iceland

Nordic island country in the North Atlantic Ocean

This article is about the country. For other uses, see Iceland (disambiguation).

Iceland (Icelandic: Ísland, pronounced [ˈistlant] ^ⓘ)^[d] is a Nordic island country between the North Atlantic and Arctic Oceans, on the Mid-Atlantic Ridge between North America and Europe. It is linked culturally and politically with Europe and is the region's most sparsely populated country.^[12] Its capital and largest city is Reykjavík, which is home to about 36% of the country's roughly 380,000 residents. The official language of the country is Icelandic.

Located on a rift between tectonic plates, Iceland's geologic activity includes geysers and frequent volcanic eruptions.^[13][14] The interior consists of a volcanic plateau characterised by sand and lava fields, mountains, and glaciers, and many glacial rivers flow to the sea through the lowlands. Iceland is warmed by the Gulf Stream and has a temperate climate, despite a latitude just south of the Arctic Circle. Its high latitude and marine influence keep summers chilly, and most of its islands have a polar climate.

According to the ancient manuscript Landnámabók, the settlement of Iceland began in 874 AD when the Norwegian chieftain Ingólfr Arnarson became the first permanent settler on the island.^[15] In the following centuries, Norwegians, and to a lesser extent other Scandinavians, immigrated to Iceland, bringing with them thralls (i.e., slaves or serfs) of Gaelic origin.

The island was governed as an independent commonwealth under the native parliament, the Althing, one of the world's oldest functioning legislative assemblies. Following a period of civil strife, Iceland acceded to Norwegian rule in the 13th century. In 1397, Iceland followed Norway's integration into the Kalmar Union along with the kingdoms of Denmark and Sweden, coming under de facto Danish rule following its dissolution in 1523. The Danish kingdom introduced Lutheranism by force in 1550,^[16] and Iceland was formally ceded to Denmark in 1814 by the Treaty of Kiel.

Influenced by ideals of nationalism after the French Revolution, Iceland's struggle for independence took form and culminated in the Danish–Icelandic Act of Union in 1918, with the establishment of the Kingdom of Iceland, sharing through a personal union the incumbent monarch of Denmark. During the occupation of Denmark in World War II, Iceland voted overwhelmingly to become a republic in 1944, thus ending the remaining formal ties with Denmark. Although the Althing was suspended from 1799 to 1845, the island republic nevertheless holds a claim to sustaining one of the longest-running parliaments in the world.

Until the 20th century, Iceland relied largely on subsistence fishing and agriculture. Industrialization of the fisheries and Marshall Plan aid following World War II brought prosperity, and Iceland became one of the wealthiest and most developed nations in the world. It became a part of the European Economic Area in 1994; this further diversified the economy into sectors such as finance, biotechnology, and manufacturing.

Iceland has a market economy with relatively low taxes, compared to other OECD countries,^[17] as well as the highest trade union membership in the world.^[18] It maintains a Nordic social welfare system that provides universal health care and tertiary education for its citizens.^[19] Iceland ranks highly in international comparisons of national performance, such as quality of life, education, protection of civil liberties, government transparency, and economic freedom. Iceland has the smallest population of any NATO member and is the only one with no standing army, possessing only a lightly armed coast guard.^[20]

Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

1. ^ "Population by country of citizenship, sex and age (2021)". Statistics Iceland. Retrieved 11 September 2022.
2. ^ Constitution of the Republic of Iceland Archived 22 November 2017 at the Wayback Machine: Article 62, Government of Iceland .
3. ^ "Populations by religious and life stance organizations 1998–2022". Archived from the original on 20 September 2022. Retrieved 20 September 2022.
4. ^ "Ísland er minna en talið var" (in Icelandic). RÚV. 26 February 2015. Archived from the original on 15 March 2015. Retrieved 10 March 2015.
5. ^ "Surface water and surface water change". Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). Archived from the original on 24 March 2021. Retrieved 11 October 2020.
6. ^ "Þjóðskrá". www.skra.is (in Icelandic). Icelandic National Registry. 14 January 2024. Archived from the original on 14 January 2024.
7. ^ ^{a b c d} "World Economic Outlook Database, October 2023 Edition. (Iceland)". International Monetary Fund. 10 October 2023. Retrieved 13 October 2023.
8. ^ "Gini coefficient of equivalised disposable income – EU-SILC survey". ec.europa.eu. Eurostat. Archived from the original on 9 October 2020. Retrieved 9 August 2021.
9. ^ "Human Development Report 2023/2024" (PDF). United Nations Development Programme. 13 March 2024. Archived (PDF) from the original on 13 March 2024. Retrieved 13 March 2024.
10. ^ Emilía Dagný Sveinbjörnsdóttir (2008). "Hvenær var hætt að skipta á milli sumar- og vetrartíma á Íslandi?" (in Icelandic). Vísindavefurinn. Archived from the original on 12 November 2018. Retrieved 7 November 2019.
11. ^ "Tillaga til þingsályktunar um seinkun klukkunnar og bjartari morgna" (in Icelandic). Althing. 2014. Archived from the original on 7 November 2019. Retrieved 7 November 2019.
12. ^ "Statistics Iceland". Government. The National Statistical Institute of Iceland. 14 September 2008. Archived from the original on 2 December 1998. Retrieved 14 September 2008.
13. ^ Rae, Alison. Earthquakes and Volcanoes. Page 9. 2008. "Iceland is the only part of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge that rises above sea-level, and its central volcanic plateau is erupting almost constantly."
14. ^ Philippon, Mélody; Von Hagke, Christoph; E. Reber, Jacqueline. Cutting-Edge Analogue Modeling Techniques Applied to Study Earth Systems. Page 99. 2020. "Iceland is the only place on Earth where a mid-ocean ridge is exposed above sea level, atop the extensional plate boundary separating the North American plate and the Eurasian plate."
15. ^ Cite error: The named reference tomasson was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
16. ^ Jón R. Hjálmarsson (1993). History of Iceland: From the Settlement to the Present Day. Iceland Review.
17. ^ "OECD Tax Database". Oecd.org. Archived from the original on 25 January 2010. Retrieved 26 January 2010.
18. ^ "Industrial relations". ILOSTAT. Archived from the original on 13 August 2019. Retrieved 9 October 2018.
19. ^ Ólafsson, Stefán (12 May 2004). "The Icelandic Welfare State and the Conditions of Children". borg.hi.is. Archived from the original on 18 August 2005. Retrieved 22 April 2010.
20. ^ The Military Balance 2014. The International Institute of Strategic Studies (IISS). 2014.

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18 June 1983 – Space Shuttle program: STS-7, Astronaut Sally Ride becomes the first American woman in space.

Sally Ride

American physicist and astronaut (1951–2012)

Sally Kristen Ride (May 26, 1951 – July 23, 2012) was an American astronaut and physicist. Born in Los Angeles, she joined NASA in 1978, and in 1983 became the first American woman and the third woman to fly in space, after cosmonauts Valentina Tereshkova in 1963 and Svetlana Savitskaya in 1982. She was the youngest American astronaut to have flown in space, having done so at the age of 32.

Ride was a graduate of Stanford University, where she earned a Bachelor of Science degree in physics and a Bachelor of Arts degree in English literature in 1973, a Master of Science degree in 1975, and a Doctor of Philosophy in 1978 (both in physics) for research on the interaction of X-rays with the interstellar medium. She was selected as a mission specialist astronaut with NASA Astronaut Group 8, the first class of NASA astronauts to include women. After completing her training in 1979, she served as the ground-based capsule communicator (CapCom) for the second and third Space Shuttle flights, and helped develop the Space Shuttle's robotic arm. In June 1983, she flew in space on the Space Shuttle Challenger on the STS-7 mission. The mission deployed two communications satellites and the first Shuttle pallet satellite (SPAS-1). Ride operated the robotic arm to deploy and retrieve SPAS-1. Her second space flight was the STS-41-G mission in 1984, also on board Challenger. She spent a total of more than 343 hours in space. She left NASA in 1987.

Ride worked for two years at Stanford University's Center for International Security and Arms Control, then at the University of California, San Diego, primarily researching nonlinear optics and Thomson scattering. She served on the committees that investigated the loss of Challenger and of Columbia, the only person to participate in both. Having been married to astronaut Steven Hawley during her spaceflight years and in a private, long-term relationship with former Women's Tennis Association player Tam O'Shaughnessy, she is the first astronaut known to have been LGBT. She died of pancreatic cancer in 2012.

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19 June 1991 – The Soviet occupation of Hungary ends.

Soviet occupation of Hungary

Redirect to:

• Military occupations by the Soviet Union#Hungary (1944–1991)

• From a page move: This is a redirect from a page that has been moved (renamed). This page was kept as a redirect to avoid breaking links, both internal and external, that may have been made to the old page name.

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20 June 1248 – The University of Oxford receives its Royal charter.

University of Oxford

Collegiate university in Oxford, England

"Oxford University" redirects here. For other uses, see Oxford University (disambiguation).

The University of Oxford is a collegiate research university in Oxford, England. There is evidence of teaching as early as 1096,^[2] making it the oldest university in the English-speaking world and the world's second-oldest university in continuous operation.^[2][11][12] It grew rapidly from 1167, when Henry II banned English students from attending the University of Paris.^[2] After disputes between students and Oxford townsfolk in 1209, some academics fled north-east to Cambridge where they established what became the University of Cambridge.^[13] The two English ancient universities share many common features and are jointly referred to as Oxbridge.^[14]

The University of Oxford is made up of thirty-nine semi-autonomous constituent colleges, four permanent private halls, and a range of academic departments which are organised into four divisions.^[15] Each college is a self-governing institution within the university, controlling its own membership and having its own internal structure and activities. All students are members of a college.^[16] Traditionally, each of Oxford's constituent colleges is associated with another of the colleges in the University of Cambridge, with the only exceptional addition of Trinity College, Dublin.^[17][18] It does not have a main campus, and its buildings and facilities are scattered throughout the city centre. Undergraduate teaching at Oxford consists of lectures, small-group tutorials at the colleges and halls, seminars, laboratory work and occasionally further tutorials provided by the central university faculties and departments. Postgraduate teaching is provided in a predominantly centralised fashion.

Oxford operates the Ashmolean Museum, the world's oldest university museum; Oxford University Press, the largest university press in the world; and the largest academic library system nationwide.^[19] In the fiscal year ending 31 July 2023, the university had a total consolidated income of £2.92 billion, of which £789 million was from research grants and contracts.^[4]

Oxford has educated a wide range of notable alumni, including 30 prime ministers of the United Kingdom and many heads of state and government around the world.^[20] As of October 2022,^[update] 73 Nobel Prize laureates, 4 Fields Medalists, and 6 Turing Award winners have matriculated, worked, or held visiting fellowships at the University of Oxford, while its alumni have won 160 Olympic medals.^[21] Oxford is the home of numerous scholarships, including the Rhodes Scholarship, one of the oldest international graduate scholarship programmes.

1. ^ "The University as a charity". University of Oxford. Archived from the original on 12 January 2016.
2. ^ ^{a b c d} "Introduction and History". University of Oxford. Archived from the original on 20 October 2014. Retrieved 21 October 2014.
3. ^ "Aggregated College Accounts: Consolidated and College Balance Sheets For the year ended 31 July 2023" (PDF). Retrieved 25 February 2024.
4. ^ ^{a b c} "Financial Statements 2022/23" (PDF). University of Oxford. Retrieved 25 February 2024.
5. ^ Colleges (group) £6,387.7M,^[3] University (consolidated) £1,678.0M^[4]
6. ^ "Professor Irene Tracey, CBE, FMedSci". Archived from the original on 19 January 2016. Retrieved 5 January 2023.
7. ^ "Who's working in HE?". HESA. Archived from the original on 29 July 2019. Retrieved 24 February 2023.
8. ^ "University of Oxford – Student Statistics". Tableau Software. Archived from the original on 15 January 2022. Retrieved 7 April 2020.
9. ^ "Student Numbers". University of Oxford. Archived from the original on 15 September 2017. Retrieved 24 February 2023.
10. ^ "The brand colour – Oxford blue". Ox.ac.uk. Archived from the original on 24 May 2013. Retrieved 16 August 2013.
11. ^ Sager, Peter (2005). Oxford and Cambridge: An Uncommon History. p. 36.
12. ^ "The top 50 universities by reputation". Times Higher Education. 3 November 2020. Archived from the original on 24 October 2021. Retrieved 26 November 2020.
13. ^ "Early records". University of Cambridge. 28 January 2013. Archived from the original on 11 October 2013. Retrieved 10 October 2013.
14. ^ "Oxbridge". oed.com (3rd ed.). Oxford University Press. 2005.
15. ^ "Oxford divisions". University of Oxford. Archived from the original on 20 October 2013. Retrieved 26 November 2013.
16. ^ Cite error: The named reference CollegesandHalls was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
17. ^ "The Times & The Sunday Times". www.thetimes.co.uk. 10 February 2024. Retrieved 10 February 2024.
18. ^ "Church of Ireland – A Member of the Anglican Communion". www.ireland.anglican.org. Retrieved 10 February 2024.
19. ^ Cite error: The named reference uls was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
20. ^ Cite error: The named reference Famous was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
21. ^ "Oxford at the Olympics". University of Oxford. Archived from the original on 26 May 2019. Retrieved 26 August 2018.

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21 June 1982 – John Hinckley is found not guilty by reason of insanity for the attempted assassination of U.S. President Ronald Reagan.

John Hinckley Jr.

Attempted assassin of Ronald Reagan (born 1955)

John Warnock Hinckley Jr. (born May 29, 1955) is an American man who attempted to assassinate U.S. President Ronald Reagan as he left the Hilton Hotel in Washington, D.C., on March 30, 1981, two months after Reagan's first inauguration. Using a revolver, Hinckley wounded Reagan, the police officer Thomas Delahanty, the Secret Service agent Tim McCarthy and the White House Press Secretary, James Brady. Brady was left disabled and eventually died from his injuries.

Hinckley was reportedly seeking fame to impress the actress Jodie Foster, with whom he had a fixation. He was found not guilty by reason of insanity and remained under institutional psychiatric care for over three decades.^[3] Public outcry over the verdict led state legislatures and Congress to narrow their respective insanity defenses.

In 2016, a federal judge ruled that Hinckley could be released from psychiatric care as he was no longer considered a threat to himself or others, albeit with many conditions. After 2020, a ruling was issued that Hinckley may showcase his artwork, writings, and music publicly under his own name, rather than anonymously as he had in the past. Since then, he has maintained a YouTube channel for his music. His restrictions were unconditionally lifted in June 2022, over 40 years after the assassination attempt and exactly 40 years after his insanity ruling and start of his commitment to St. Elizabeth's.

1. ^ Pear, Robert (August 25, 1981). "Jury Indicts Hinckley on 13 Counts Based on Shooting of President". The New York Times. Archived from the original on February 2, 2022. Retrieved February 2, 2022.
2. ^ ^{a b} "About John Hinckley". YouTube.
3. ^ "John Hinckley Jr. to begin living full-time in Virginia Sept. 10". Fox News. September 12, 2016. Archived from the original on December 6, 2018. Retrieved December 6, 2018.

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22 June 1942 – Pledge of Allegiance formally adopted by US Congress

Pledge of Allegiance

Loyalty oath to the flag and republic of the U.S.

This article is about the oath spoken to the U.S. flag. For the oath used in U.S. naturalization ceremonies, see Oath of Allegiance (United States). For other uses, see Pledge of Allegiance (disambiguation).

The Pledge of Allegiance is a patriotic recited verse that promises allegiance to the flag of the United States and the republic of the United States of America. The first version, with a text different from the one used at present, was written in 1885 by Captain George Thatcher Balch, a Union Army officer in the Civil War who later authored a book on how to teach patriotism to children in public schools.^[5][6][7] In 1892, Francis Bellamy revised Balch's verse as part of a magazine promotion surrounding the World's Columbian Exposition, which celebrated the 400th anniversary of Christopher Columbus' arrival in the Americas. Bellamy, the circulation manager for The Youth's Companion magazine, helped persuade then-president Benjamin Harrison to institute Columbus Day as a national holiday and lobbied Congress for a national school celebration of the day.^[8] The magazine sent leaflets containing part of Bellamy's Pledge of Allegiance to schools across the country and on October 21, 1892, over 10,000 children recited the verse together.^[9]

Bellamy's version of the pledge is largely the same as the one formally adopted by Congress 50 years later, in 1942.^[10] The official name of The Pledge of Allegiance was adopted in 1945. The most recent alteration of its wording came on Flag Day (June 14) in 1954, when the words "under God" were added.^[11]

1. ^ Cite error: The named reference ushistory was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
2. ^ Jones, Jeffrey Owen. "The Man Who Wrote the Pledge of Allegiance Archived January 31, 2018, at the Wayback Machine," Smithsonian Magazine, Nov. 2003. Retrieved June 14, 2018.
3. ^ ^{a b} "The Pledge of Allegiance Archived May 16, 2023, at the Wayback Machine," Celebrating America's Freedoms. n.d. U.S. Dept. of Veterans Affairs. Retrieved June 14, 2018.
4. ^ Cite error: The named reference Pledge was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
5. ^ Kirkpatrick, Melanie. "One Nation, Indivisible". The Wall Street Journal. ISSN 0099-9660. Archived from the original on December 10, 2015. Retrieved November 1, 2015.
6. ^ "Captain and Brevet Lieutenant Colonel George T. Balch, Ordnance Corps Hall of Fame Inductee 2001, U.S. Army Ordnance Corps". www.goordnance.army.mil. Archived from the original on June 6, 2012. Retrieved November 1, 2015.
7. ^ Balch, George Thacher (1890). Methods of teaching patriotism in the public schools: being an extract from an address delivered before the teachers of the Children's Aid Society of the city of New York. Harvard University. New York : D. Van Nostrand Company.
8. ^ Magazine, Smithsonian. "The Man Who Wrote the Pledge of Allegiance". Smithsonian Magazine. Archived from the original on January 31, 2018. Retrieved June 8, 2022.
9. ^ Schaefer-Jacobs, Debbie (October 23, 2017). "I Pledge Allegiance". National Museum of American History. Archived from the original on May 3, 2022. Retrieved June 8, 2022.
10. ^ "Society & Community. Faith in America: The Legal Dilemma". Now with Bill Moyers. PBS. June 29, 2002. Archived from the original on November 12, 2020. Retrieved September 8, 2017.
11. ^ "The Pledge of Allegiance". WVSD.USCourts.gov. United States District Court for the Southern District of West Virginia. Archived from the original on June 30, 2022. Retrieved June 14, 2021.

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23 June 2014 – The last of Syria's declared chemical weapons are shipped out for destruction.

Destruction of Syria's chemical weapons

Part of the Syrian peace process

The destruction of Syria's chemical weapons began on 14 September 2013 after Syria entered into several international agreements which called for the elimination of Syria's chemical weapon stockpiles and set a destruction deadline of 30 June 2014.^[1][2][3] Also on 14 September 2013, Syria acceded to the Chemical Weapons Convention (CWC) and agreed to its provisional application pending its entry into force on 14 October.^{[4][5][6][7][8]} Having acceded to the CWC, the Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons (OPCW) Executive Council on 27 September approved a detailed implementation plan that required Syria to assume responsibility for and follow a timeline for the destruction of Syrian chemical weapons (such as sarin) and Syrian chemical weapon production facilities.^[9] Following the signing of the Framework Agreement on 14 September 2013 and after the OPCW implementation plan, on 27 September the United Nations Security Council unanimously adopted Resolution 2118 which bound Syria to the timetable set out in the OPCW implementation plan. The joint OPCW-UN mission was established to oversee the implementation of the destruction program.

The OPCW began preliminary inspections of Syria's chemical weapons arsenal on 1 October 2013,^[10] and actual destruction began on 6 October.^[11] Under OPCW supervision, Syrian military personnel began "destroying munitions such as missile warheads and aerial bombs and disabling mobile and static mixing and filling units".^[12] The destruction of Syria's declared chemical weapons production, mixing, and filling equipment was successfully completed by 31 October deadline,^[13] but the destruction of chemical weapon stockpiles fell well behind schedule, which had been scheduled for completion by 6 February 2014.^[14] Only on 23 June 2014, were the remaining declared chemicals shipped out of Syria for destruction.^[15] The destruction of the most dangerous chemicals was performed at sea aboard the Cape Ray, a vessel of the United States Maritime Administration's Ready Reserve Force, crewed with U.S. Navy and civilian merchant mariners. The actual destruction operations, performed by a team of U.S. Army civilians and contractors, destroyed 600 metric tons of chemical agents in 42 days.^[16] By 18 August 2014, all of the remaining declared and surrendered chemicals had been destroyed offshore. On 4 January 2016, the OPCW stated that destruction was completed,^[17] though since then the use of chemical weapons on numerous occasions by the Syrian military has been verified.

The agreement by Syria to destroy its chemical weapons arose at a time when the United States and France headed a coalition of countries on the verge of carrying out air strikes on Syria in response to the 21 August 2013 Ghouta chemical-weapon attacks.^[18] To avoid a military intervention, on 14 September 2013, the United States, Russia and Syria agreed to the "Framework for Elimination of Syrian Chemical Weapons".^[5] Chlorine, a common industrial chemical, is outside the scope of the disarmament agreement; however, its use as a poison gas would violate the Chemical Weapons Convention, which Syria joined in 2013. Various parties, including Western governments, have accused Assad of conducting illegal chlorine attacks since 2014.^[19]

Western officials, such as British Ambassador Mark Lyall Grant, had expressed concerns about the completeness of Syria's disclosures, and said the OPCW mission should remain in place following removal of chemical weapons until verification tasks can be completed.^[20] A late disclosure in 2014 regarding Syria's ricin program raised doubts about completeness of the government's declaration of its chemical weapons stockpile,^[21][22] and in early May 2015, OPCW announced that inspectors had found traces of sarin and VX nerve agent at a military research site in Syria that had not been declared previously by the Assad regime.^[23] Syria appeared to bomb Khan Shaykhun with sarin in April 2017.^[24] A chemical attack on Douma on 7 April 2018 that killed at least 49 civilians and injured scores more has been blamed on the Assad government,^[25] though the Syrian government denies these charges. In March 2023, UN Security Council declared Syria's Chemical Weapons disarmament claims "incomplete" and UN Disarmament chief Izumi Nakamitsu stated that Syrian declarations "cannot be considered accurate", violating the Chemical Weapons Convention.^[26]

1. ^ "China Welcomes Russia–U.S. Framework Agreement on Syria: Wang". Bloomberg. 22 September 2013. Archived from the original on 30 September 2013. Retrieved 15 September 2013. China welcomes a framework agreement signed by Russia and the U.S.
2. ^ Spokesperson (14 September 2013). Framework for Elimination of Syrian Chemical Weapons Archived 15 September 2018 at the Wayback Machine. state.gov. Retrieved 14 September 2013.
3. ^ Gordon, Michael R. (14 September 2013). U.S. and Russia Reach Deal to Destroy Syria's Chemical Arms Archived 28 September 2015 at the Wayback Machine. The New York Times. Retrieved 14 September 2013.
4. ^ "Resolution 2118 (2013)" (doc). United Nations. 27 September 2013. p. 1. Archived from the original on 4 July 2017. Retrieved 28 April 2017. Noting that on 14 September 2013, the Syrian Arab Republic deposited with the Secretary-General its instrument of accession to the Convention on the Prohibition of the Development, Production, Stockpiling and Use of Chemical Weapons and on their Destruction (Convention) and declared that it shall comply with its stipulations and observe them faithfully and sincerely, applying the Convention provisionally pending its entry into force for the Syrian Arab Republic
5. ^ ^{a b} "U.S. sanctions Syrian officials for chemical weapons attacks". Reuters. 12 January 2017. Archived from the original on 17 January 2017. Retrieved 28 April 2017.
6. ^ "Depositary Norification" (PDF). United Nations. Archived (PDF) from the original on 21 September 2013. Retrieved 15 September 2013.
7. ^ "Secretary-General Receives Letter from Syrian Government Informing Him President Has Signed Legislative Decree for Accession to Chemical Weapons Convention". United Nations. 12 September 2013. Archived from the original on 20 February 2014. Retrieved 16 April 2018.
8. ^ "OPCW Executive Council Adopts Historic Decision on Destruction of Syria Chemical Weapons". www.opcw.org. OPCW. 27 September 2013. Archived from the original on 30 December 2017. Retrieved 16 April 2018.
9. ^ "EC-M-33/DEC.1 – Decision: Destruction of Syrian Chemical Weapons" (PDF). OPCW. 27 September 2013. Archived (PDF) from the original on 26 March 2017. Retrieved 28 September 2013.
10. ^ Edith M. Lederer, Matthew Lee (27 September 2013). "UN Security Council votes unanimously to secure and destroy Syria's chemical weapons stockpile". The Independent. Retrieved 28 September 2013.
11. ^ Mariam Karouny (6 October 2013). "Destruction of Syrian chemical weapons begins: mission". Reuters. Archived from the original on 7 October 2013. Retrieved 8 October 2013.
12. ^ Mariam Karouny (14 October 2013). "U.N. names envoy to lead Syria chemical weapons mission". Agence France-Presse. Archived from the original on 14 October 2013. Retrieved 14 October 2013.
13. ^ Loveday Morris; Michael Birnbaum (31 October 2013). "Syria has destroyed chemical weapons facilities, international inspectors say". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on 31 October 2013. Retrieved 31 October 2013.
14. ^ Gladstone, Rick (22 February 2014). "Syrians Seek New Delay in Export of Chemical Arms". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 23 February 2014. Retrieved 25 February 2014.
15. ^ Cite error: The named reference BBC last was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
16. ^ "Cape Ray Completes Destruction of Syrian Chemical Agents" (PDF). Marine Engineers' Beneficial Association. M.E.B.A. Telex Times. 21 August 2014. Archived from the original on 29 September 2014. Retrieved 21 August 2014.
17. ^ "OPCW: Destruction of declared Syrian chemical weapons completed". OPCW. 4 January 2016. Archived from the original on 9 May 2018. Retrieved 8 May 2018.
18. ^ "Insight: After chemical horror, besieged Syrian suburb defiant". Reuters. 4 October 2013. Archived from the original on 24 September 2015. Retrieved 30 June 2017.
19. ^ Deutsch, Anthony (10 September 2014). "UK blames Assad regime after watchdog documents chlorine attacks". Reuters. Archived from the original on 4 February 2016. Retrieved 26 February 2017.
20. ^ "Syria, Western powers disagree on progress of chemical-weapons mission". The Globe and Mail. Reuters. 23 April 2014. Retrieved 8 May 2014.
21. ^ Mike Corder (17 September 2011). "Syria had ricin program: OPCW document". The Daily Star. Associated Press. Archived from the original on 20 September 2014. Retrieved 21 September 2013.
22. ^ "Chemical weapons watchdog says Syria declared program to produce ricin". Fox News. 19 September 2014. Archived from the original on 12 November 2014. Retrieved 5 November 2014.
23. ^ Deutsch, Anthony (9 May 2015). "Exclusive: Weapons inspectors find undeclared sarin and VX traces in Syria – diplomats". Yahoo! News. Reuters. Archived from the original on 13 May 2015. Retrieved 9 May 2015.
24. ^ "Sarin used in Syria attack, says watchdog". BBC News. 20 April 2017. Archived from the original on 17 July 2018. Retrieved 13 January 2018.
25. ^ "Haley says Russia's hands are 'covered in the blood of syrian children' - CNNPolitics". 9 April 2018. Archived from the original on 10 April 2018. Retrieved 10 April 2018.
26. ^ "Security Council Deems Syria's Chemical Weapon's Declaration Incomplete". United Nations: Meetings Coverage and Press Releases. 6 March 2023. Archived from the original on 17 May 2023.

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24 June 1622 – Battle of Macau: The Dutch attempt but fail to capture Macau.

Battle of Macau

1622 battle of the Dutch-Portuguese War

The Battle of Macau in 1622 was a conflict of the Dutch–Portuguese War fought in the Portuguese settlement of Macau, in southeastern China. The Portuguese, outnumbered and without adequate fortification, managed to repel the Dutch in a much-celebrated victory on 24 June after a three-day battle. The battle is the only major engagement that was fought between two European powers on the Chinese mainland.^[1]

1. ^ Boxer, C. R., Fidalgos in the Far East, 1550–1770. Martinus Nijhoff (The Hague), 1948. p. 86

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24 June 1622 – Battle of Macau: The Dutch attempt but fail to capture Macau.

Battle of Macau

1622 battle of the Dutch-Portuguese War

The Battle of Macau in 1622 was a conflict of the Dutch–Portuguese War fought in the Portuguese settlement of Macau, in southeastern China. The Portuguese, outnumbered and without adequate fortification, managed to repel the Dutch in a much-celebrated victory on 24 June after a three-day battle. The battle is the only major engagement that was fought between two European powers on the Chinese mainland.^[1]

1. ^ Boxer, C. R., Fidalgos in the Far East, 1550–1770. Martinus Nijhoff (The Hague), 1948. p. 86

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24 June 1622 – Battle of Macau: The Dutch attempt but fail to capture Macau.

Battle of Macau

1622 battle of the Dutch-Portuguese War

The Battle of Macau in 1622 was a conflict of the Dutch–Portuguese War fought in the Portuguese settlement of Macau, in southeastern China. The Portuguese, outnumbered and without adequate fortification, managed to repel the Dutch in a much-celebrated victory on 24 June after a three-day battle. The battle is the only major engagement that was fought between two European powers on the Chinese mainland.^[1]

1. ^ Boxer, C. R., Fidalgos in the Far East, 1550–1770. Martinus Nijhoff (The Hague), 1948. p. 86

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24 June 1622 – Battle of Macau: The Dutch attempt but fail to capture Macau.

Battle of Macau

1622 battle of the Dutch-Portuguese War

The Battle of Macau in 1622 was a conflict of the Dutch–Portuguese War fought in the Portuguese settlement of Macau, in southeastern China. The Portuguese, outnumbered and without adequate fortification, managed to repel the Dutch in a much-celebrated victory on 24 June after a three-day battle. The battle is the only major engagement that was fought between two European powers on the Chinese mainland.^[1]

1. ^ Boxer, C. R., Fidalgos in the Far East, 1550–1770. Martinus Nijhoff (The Hague), 1948. p. 86

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24 June 1622 – Battle of Macau: The Dutch attempt but fail to capture Macau.

Battle of Macau

1622 battle of the Dutch-Portuguese War

The Battle of Macau in 1622 was a conflict of the Dutch–Portuguese War fought in the Portuguese settlement of Macau, in southeastern China. The Portuguese, outnumbered and without adequate fortification, managed to repel the Dutch in a much-celebrated victory on 24 June after a three-day battle. The battle is the only major engagement that was fought between two European powers on the Chinese mainland.^[1]

1. ^ Boxer, C. R., Fidalgos in the Far East, 1550–1770. Martinus Nijhoff (The Hague), 1948. p. 86

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24 June 1622 – Battle of Macau: The Dutch attempt but fail to capture Macau.

Battle of Macau

1622 battle of the Dutch-Portuguese War

The Battle of Macau in 1622 was a conflict of the Dutch–Portuguese War fought in the Portuguese settlement of Macau, in southeastern China. The Portuguese, outnumbered and without adequate fortification, managed to repel the Dutch in a much-celebrated victory on 24 June after a three-day battle. The battle is the only major engagement that was fought between two European powers on the Chinese mainland.^[1]

1. ^ Boxer, C. R., Fidalgos in the Far East, 1550–1770. Martinus Nijhoff (The Hague), 1948. p. 86

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25 June 1948 – The Berlin airlift begins.

Berlin Blockade

USSR blockade of Berlin, 1948–1949

"Operation Vittles" redirects here. For the 1948 American short documentary film, see Operation Vittles (film).

The Berlin Blockade (24 June 1948 – 12 May 1949) was one of the first major international crises of the Cold War. During the multinational occupation of post–World War II Germany, the Soviet Union blocked the Western Allies' railway, road, and canal access to the sectors of Berlin under Western control. The Soviets offered to drop the blockade if the Western Allies withdrew the newly introduced Deutsche Mark from West Berlin.

The Western Allies organised the Berlin Airlift (German: Berliner Luftbrücke, lit. "Berlin Air Bridge") from 26 June 1948 to 30 September 1949 to carry supplies to the people of West Berlin, a difficult feat given the size of the city and the population.^[1][2] American and British air forces flew over Berlin more than 250,000 times, dropping necessities such as fuel and food, with the original plan being to lift 3,475 tons of supplies daily. By the spring of 1949, that number was often met twofold, with the peak daily delivery totalling 12,941 tons.^[3] Among these was the work of the later concurrent Operation Little Vittles in which candy-dropping aircraft dubbed "raisin bombers" generated much goodwill among German children.^[4]

Having initially concluded there was no way the airlift could work, the Soviets found its continued success an increasing embarrassment. On 12 May 1949, the USSR lifted the blockade of West Berlin, due to economic issues in East Berlin, although for a time the Americans and British continued to supply the city by air as they were worried that the Soviets would resume the blockade and were only trying to disrupt western supply lines. The Berlin Airlift officially ended on 30 September 1949 after fifteen months. The US Air Force had delivered 1,783,573 tons (76.4% of total) and the RAF 541,937 tons (23.3% of total),^{[nb 1]} totalling 2,334,374 tons, nearly two-thirds of which was coal, on 278,228 flights to Berlin. In addition Canadian, Australian, New Zealand and South African air crews assisted the RAF during the blockade.^[5]: 338 The French also conducted flights, but only to provide supplies for their military garrison.^[6]

American C-47 and C-54 transport airplanes, together, flew over 92,000,000 miles (148,000,000 km) in the process, almost the distance from Earth to the Sun.^[7] British transports, including Handley Page Haltons and Short Sunderlands, flew as well. At the height of the airlift, one plane reached West Berlin every thirty seconds.^[8]

Seventeen American and eight British aircraft crashed during the operation.^[9] A total of 101 fatalities were recorded as a result of the operation, including 40 Britons and 31 Americans,^[8] mostly due to non-flying accidents.

The Berlin Blockade served to highlight the competing ideological and economic visions for postwar Europe. It played a major role in aligning West Berlin with the United States and Britain as the major protecting powers,^[10] and in drawing West Germany into the NATO orbit several years later in 1955.

1. ^ Journey Across Berlin (1961). Universal Newsreel. 1957. Retrieved 22 February 2012.
2. ^ Air Force Story, The Cold War, 1948–1950 (1953). Universal Newsreel. 1953. Retrieved 22 February 2012.
3. ^ The American People: Creating a Nation and a Society. New York: Pearson Longman, 2008. p. 828.
4. ^ Smoler, Fredric (April/May 2003). "Where Berlin and America Meet Archived 28 August 2008 at the Wayback Machine" American Heritage. Retrieved 29 July 2010.
5. ^ "5 – National Security". South Africa: a country study. Federal Research Division, Library of Congress. 1997. ISBN 0-8444-0796-8.
6. ^ Jacques Bariéty (1994). "La France et la crise internationale du blocus de Berlin". Histoire, économie et société; Volume 13; numéro 1. pp. 29–44. Retrieved 11 June 2017.
7. ^ Berlin Airlift: Logistics, Humanitarian Aid, and Strategic Success Archived 16 January 2007 at the Wayback Machine, Major Gregory C. Tine, Army Logistician
8. ^ ^{a b} Cite error: The named reference turner27 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
9. ^ Tunner 1964, p. 218
10. ^ Daum, Andreas W. (2000). "America's Berlin, 1945‒2000: Between Myths and Visions". In Trommler, Frank (ed.). Berlin: The New Capital in the East (PDF). The American Institute for Contemporary German Studies, Johns Hopkins University. pp. 49–73. Retrieved 2 March 2021.

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26 June 1906 – The first Grand Prix motor racing event held.

1906 French Grand Prix

Motor race held at Le Mans

Motor car race

The 1906 Grand Prix de l'Automobile Club de France, commonly known as the 1906 French Grand Prix, was a motor race held on 26 and 27 June 1906, on closed public roads outside the city of Le Mans. The Grand Prix was organised by the Automobile Club de France (ACF) at the prompting of the French automobile industry as an alternative to the Gordon Bennett races, which limited each competing country's number of entries regardless of the size of its industry. France had the largest automobile industry in Europe at the time, and in an attempt to better reflect this the Grand Prix had no limit to the number of entries by any particular country. The ACF chose a 103.18-kilometre (64.11 mi) circuit, composed primarily of dust roads sealed with tar, which would be lapped six times on both days by each competitor, a combined race distance of 1,238.16 kilometres (769.36 mi). Lasting for more than 12 hours overall, the race was won by Ferenc Szisz driving for the Renault team. FIAT driver Felice Nazzaro finished second, and Albert Clément was third in a Clément-Bayard.

Paul Baras of Brasier set the fastest lap of the race on his first lap. He held on to the lead until the third lap, when Szisz took over first position, defending it to the finish. Hot conditions melted the road tar, which the cars kicked up into the faces of the drivers, blinding them and making the racing treacherous. Punctures were common; tyre manufacturer Michelin introduced a detachable rim with a tyre already affixed, which could be quickly swapped onto a car after a puncture, saving a significant amount of time over manually replacing the tyre. This helped Nazzaro pass Clément on the second day, as the FIAT—unlike the Clément-Bayard—made use of the rims.

Renault's victory contributed to an increase in sales for the French manufacturer in the years following the race. Despite being the second to carry the title, the race has become known as the first Grand Prix. The success of the 1906 French Grand Prix prompted the ACF to run the Grand Prix again the following year, and the German automobile industry to organise the Kaiserpreis, the forerunner to the German Grand Prix, in 1907.

1. ^ Hodges (1967), pp. 2–3.

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27 June 1950 – The United States decides to send troops to fight in the Korean War.

Korean War

1950–1953 North-South Korea war

For other conflicts and wars involving Korea, see List of Korean battles. For the conflict from 1945 to the present, see Korean conflict.

The Korean War was fought between North Korea and South Korea from 1950 to 1953. It began on 25 June 1950 when North Korea invaded South Korea and ceased after an armistice on 27 July 1953. The north was supported by China and the Soviet Union while the south was supported by United Nations (UN) forces^[c] led by the United States.

When World War II ended in 1945, Korea, which had been a Japanese colony for 35 years, was temporarily divided by the United States and the Soviet Union along the 38th parallel.^[d] Due to Cold War tensions, however, each half became a sovereign state. North Korea was led by Kim Il Sung, and the First Republic of Korea in the south was led by Syngman Rhee. Both claimed to be the sole legitimate government of all of Korea and neither accepted the 38th parallel as permanent.

The two sides were engaged in border skirmishes, while the South also suppressed an uprising in Jeju (April 1948 - May 1949) abetted by Pyongyang.^[35][36][37] On 25 June 1950, the north's Korean People's Army (KPA) invaded below the 38th parallel.^[38][39] In the absence of the Soviet Union,^[c] the United Nations Security Council denounced the attack and recommended countries to repel the KPA under the United Nations Command.^[41] UN forces would eventually include twenty one countries, with the United States providing around 90% of the military personnel.^[42][43]

After the first two months of war, the South Korean army (ROKA) and its allies were nearly defeated, holding onto only the Pusan Perimeter. In September 1950, however, UN forces landed at Incheon, cutting off KPA troops and supply lines. They invaded North Korea in October 1950 and advanced towards the Yalu River—the border with China. On 19 October 1950, the Chinese People's Volunteer Army (PVA) crossed the Yalu and entered the war.^[38] UN forces retreated from North Korea following PVA's first and second offensive. Communist forces captured Seoul again in January 1951 before losing it. Following the abortive Chinese spring offensive, they were pushed back to the 38th parallel, and the final two years turned into a war of attrition.

The combat ended on 27 July 1953 when the Korean Armistice Agreement was signed, allowing the exchange of prisoners and the creation of the Korean Demilitarized Zone (DMZ). The conflict displaced milions of people, inflicted around 3 million fatalities and a larger proportion of civilian deaths than World War II or the Vietnam War. Alleged war crimes include the killing of suspected communists by the South Korean government and the torture and starvation of prisoners of war by the North Koreans.^{[citation needed]} North Korea became one of the most heavily bombed countries in history.^[44] Virtually all of Korea's major cities were destroyed.^[45] No peace treaty was ever signed, making this a frozen conflict.^[46][47]

1. ^ Kim, Heesu (1996). Anglo-American Relations and the Attempts to Settle the Korean Question 1953–1960 (PDF) (Thesis). London School of Economics and Political Science. p. 213. Archived (PDF) from the original on 10 April 2017. Retrieved 9 April 2017.
2. ^ "Italian Red Cross Hospital". Archived from the original on 22 August 2012. Retrieved 2 June 2012.
3. ^ "6.25전쟁 당시 대한민국에 도움의 손길 내밀었던 이탈리아". Newsis. 26 August 2016. Archived from the original on 7 July 2023. Retrieved 12 April 2021.
4. ^ "독일, 62년만에 6.25 전쟁 의료지원국에 포함…총 6개국으로 늘어". 헤럴드경제. 22 June 2018. Retrieved 4 April 2021.
5. ^ 임, 성호 (19 June 2020). "[6.25전쟁 70년] 이역만리 한국서 수백만명 살리고 의술 전파까지". Yeonhap News. Retrieved 4 April 2021.
6. ^ Young, Sam Ma (2010). "Israel's Role in the UN during the Korean War" (PDF). Israel Journal of Foreign Affairs. 4 (3): 81–89. doi:10.1080/23739770.2010.11446616. S2CID 219293462. Archived from the original (PDF) on 24 August 2015.
7. ^ ^{a b} Morris-Suzuki, Tessa (29 July 2012). "Post-War Warriors: Japanese Combatants in the Korean War". The Asia-Pacific Journal: Japan Focus. 10 (31).
8. ^ Whan-woo, Yi (16 September 2019). "Pakistan's Defense Day rekindles Korean War relief aid". The Korea Times. Archived from the original on 27 November 2020. Retrieved 2 May 2020.
9. ^ "Uruguay's little-known but important role in the Korean War". Korea.net. 10 February 2022. Retrieved 4 September 2022.
10. ^ Edles, Laura Desfor (1998). Symbol and Ritual in the New Spain: the transition to democracy after Franco. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. p. 32. ISBN 978-0521628853.
11. ^ Cite error: The named reference rozhlas cz was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
12. ^ ^{a b} Edwards, Paul M. (2006). Korean War Almanac. Almanacs of American wars. New York: Infobase Publishing. p. 528. ISBN 978-0816074679. Archived from the original on 4 July 2017.
13. ^ Kocsis, Piroska (2005). "Magyar orvosok Koreában (1950–1957)" [Hungarian physicians in Korea (1950–1957)]. ArchivNet: XX. századi történeti források (in Hungarian). Budapest: Magyar Országos Levéltár. Archived from the original on 10 May 2017. Retrieved 22 November 2016.
14. ^ "Romania's "Fraternal Support" to North Korea during the Korean War, 1950–1953". Wilson Centre. December 2011. Archived from the original on 21 February 2013. Retrieved 24 January 2013.
15. ^ Birtle, Andrew J. (2000). The Korean War: Years of Stalemate. U.S. Army Center of Military History. p. 34. Retrieved 21 August 2021.
16. ^ Millett, Allan Reed, ed. (2001). The Korean War, Volume 3. Korea Institute of Military History. U of Nebraska Press. p. 692. ISBN 978-0803277960. Retrieved 16 February 2013. Total Strength 602,902 troops
17. ^ Kane, Tim (27 October 2004). "Global U.S. Troop Deployment, 1950–2003". Reports. The Heritage Foundation. Archived from the original on 28 January 2013. Retrieved 15 February 2013.
    Ashley Rowland (22 October 2008). "U.S. to keep troop levels the same in South Korea". Stars and Stripes. Archived from the original on 12 May 2013. Retrieved 16 February 2013.
    Colonel Tommy R. Mize, United States Army (12 March 2012). "U.S. Troops Stationed in South Korea, Anachronistic?" (PDF). United States Army War College. Defense Technical Information Center. Archived from the original on 8 April 2013. Retrieved 16 February 2013.
    Louis H. Zanardi; Barbara A. Schmitt; Peter Konjevich; M. Elizabeth Guran; Susan E. Cohen; Judith A. McCloskey (August 1991). "Military Presence: U.S. Personnel in the Pacific Theater" (PDF). Reports to Congressional Requesters. United States General Accounting Office. Archived from the original (PDF) on 15 June 2013. Retrieved 15 February 2013.
18. ^ ^{a b c d e f g} USFK Public Affairs Office. "USFK United Nations Command". United States Forces Korea. United States Department of Defense. Archived from the original on 11 July 2016. Retrieved 29 July 2016. Republic of Korea – 590,911
    Colombia – 1,068
    United States – 302,483
    Belgium – 900
    United Kingdom – 14,198
    South Africa – 826
    Canada – 6,146
    Netherlands – 819
    Turkey – 5,453
    Luxembourg – 44
    Australia – 2,282
    Philippines – 1,496
    New Zealand – 1,385
    Thailand – 1,204^{[clarification needed]}
    Ethiopia – 1,271
    Greece – 1,263
    France – 1,119
19. ^ Rottman, Gordon L. (2002). Korean War Order of Battle: United States, United Nations, and Communist Ground, Naval, and Air Forces, 1950–1953. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 126. ISBN 978-0275978358. Retrieved 16 February 2013. A peak strength of 14,198 British troops was reached in 1952, with over 40,000 total serving in Korea.
    "UK-Korea Relations". British Embassy Pyongyang. Foreign and Commonwealth Office. 9 February 2012. Retrieved 16 February 2013. When war came to Korea in June 1950, Britain was second only to the United States in the contribution it made to the UN effort in Korea. 87,000 British troops took part in the Korean conflict, and over 1,000 British servicemen lost their lives^{[permanent dead link]}
    Jack D. Walker. "A Brief Account of the Korean War". Information. Republic of Korea Ministry of National Defense Institute for Military History. Retrieved 17 February 2013. Other countries to furnish combat troops, with their peak strength, were: United States (302,483), United Kingdom (14,198), Canada (6,146), Turkey (5,455), Australia (2,282), Thailand (2,274), Philippines (1,496), New Zealand (1,389), France (1,185), Colombia (1,068), Ethiopia (1,271), Greece (1,263), Belgium (900), Netherlands (819), Republic of South Africa (826), Luxembourg (52)
20. ^ "Land of the Morning Calm: Canadians in Korea 1950–1953". Veterans Affairs Canada. Government of Canada. 7 January 2013. Archived from the original on 23 March 2013. Retrieved 22 February 2013. Peak Canadian Army strength in Korea was 8,123 all ranks.
21. ^ ^{a b c d e f g h i j k} Cite error: The named reference ROK Web was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
22. ^ ^{a b c} Edwards, Paul M. (2006). Korean War Almanac. Almanacs of American wars. Infobase Publishing. p. 517. ISBN 978-0816074679. Retrieved 22 February 2013.
23. ^ Ramachandran, D. p (19 March 2017). "The doctor-heroes of war". The Hindu – via www.thehindu.com.
24. ^ Fact Sheet: America's Wars". U.S. Department of Veteran Affairs, Washington D.C., May 2017.
25. ^ 19만7056명 첫 全數조사 “젊은사람들 내 뒤에서 ‘얼마나 죽였길래’ 수군수군 이젠 훈장 안 달고 다녀…세상이 야속하고 나 스스로 비참할 뿐”
26. ^ The Statistics of the Korean War - ROK Ministry of National Defense Institute for Military History, 2014 (E-BOOK) Archived 9 July 2023 at the Wayback Machine (in Korean)
27. ^ The Statistics of the Korean War - ROK Ministry of National Defense Institute for Military History, 2014 (PDF) Archived 11 January 2021 at the Wayback Machine (in Korean)
28. ^ Shrader, Charles R. (1995). Communist Logistics in the Korean War. Issue 160 of Contributions in Military Studies. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 90. ISBN 978-0313295096. Retrieved 17 February 2013. NKPA strength peaked in October 1952 at 266,600 men in eighteen divisions and six independent brigades.
29. ^ Zhang 1995, p. 257.
30. ^ Xiaobing, Li (2009). A History of the Modern Chinese Army Lexington: University Press of Kentucky. p. 105: "By December 1952, the Chinese forces in Korea had reached a record high of 1.45 million men, including fifty-nine infantry divisions, ten artillery divisions, five antiaircraft divisions, and seven tank regiments. CPVF numbers remained stable until the armistice agreement was signed in July 1953."
31. ^ ^{a b} Kolb, Richard K. (1999). "In Korea we whipped the Russian Air Force". VFW Magazine. 86 (11). Retrieved 17 February 2013. Soviet involvement in the Korean War was on a large scale. During the war, 72,000 Soviet troops (among them 5,000 pilots) served along the Yalu River in Manchuria. At least 12 air divisions rotated through. A peak strength of 26,000 men was reached in 1952.^{[permanent dead link]}
32. ^ Cite error: The named reference xu was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
33. ^ Cite error: The named reference Cumings p. 35 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
34. ^ Cite error: The named reference Lewy pp. 450-453 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
35. ^ "The creation of an independent South Korea became UN policy in early 1948. Southern communists opposed this, and by autumn partisan warfare had spread throughout Korean provinces below the 38th parallel. The newly formed Republic of Korea Army (ROKA) in the south and the North Korean border constabulary as well as the Korean People's Army (KPA) in the north engaged in a limited border war." Millett (PHD), Allan. "Korean War". britannica.com. Archived from the original on 24 April 2016. Retrieved 21 April 2016.
36. ^ Cumings 2005, pp. 247–53.
37. ^ Stueck 2002, p. 71.
38. ^ ^{a b} Cite error: The named reference Devine 2007 819-821 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
39. ^ Lee, Steven Hugh (14 June 2014). "The Korean War in History and Historiography". The Journal of American-East Asian Relations. 21 (2): 185–206. doi:10.1163/18765610-02102010. Historian Kim Hakjoon argues that the many telegrams that Moscow and P'yǒngyang exchanged from January to June 1950, and, more important, the secret meetings between Stalin and Kim [Il Sung] in Moscow in April and Mao and Kim in Beijing during May, confirmed that the three Communist leaders were responsible for starting the Korean War on the morning of 25 June 1950.
40. ^ White, James D. (31 July 1950). "Soviet Union Ending Boycott of United Nation [sic] Because War in Korea Getting Bit Too Hot". Walla Walla Union-Bulletin/Associated Press. No. 106. Walla Walla, Washington. p. 9 – via NewspaperArchive.
41. ^ Derek W. Bowett, United Nations Forces: A Legal Study of United Nations Practice, Stevens, London, 1964, pp. 29–60
42. ^ Pembroke, Michael (2018). Korea: Where the American Century Began. Hardie Grant Books. p. 141.
43. ^ "United Nations Command > History > 1950–1953: Korean War (Active Conflict)". www.unc.mil. Retrieved 5 November 2020.
44. ^ Fisher, Max (3 August 2015). "Americans have forgotten what we did to North Korea". Vox. Retrieved 18 October 2021.
45. ^ Robinson, Michael E (2007). Korea's Twentieth-Century Odyssey. Honolulu, HI: University of Hawaii Press. pp. 119-120. ISBN 978-0824831745.
46. ^ He, Kai; Feng, Huiyun (2013). Prospect Theory and Foreign Policy Analysis in the Asia Pacific: Rational Leaders and Risky Behavior. Routledge. p. 50. ISBN 978-1135131197. Archived from the original on 4 July 2017.
47. ^ Li, Narangoa; Cribb, Robert (2014). Historical Atlas of Northeast Asia, 1590–2010: Korea, Manchuria, Mongolia, Eastern Siberia. Columbia University Press. p. 194. ISBN 978-0231160704. Archived from the original on 4 July 2017.

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28 June 1846 – Adolphe Sax patents the saxophone

Adolphe Sax

Belgian musical instrument inventor (1814–1894)

Antoine-Joseph "Adolphe" Sax (French: [ɑ̃twan ʒozɛf adɔlf saks]; 6 November 1814 – 7 February 1894)^[a] was a Belgian inventor and musician who invented the saxophone in the early 1840s, patenting it in 1846. He also invented the saxotromba, saxhorn and saxtuba, and redesigned the bass clarinet in a fashion still used to the present day. He played the flute and clarinet.
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29 June 2007 – Apple Inc. releases its first mobile phone, the iPhone.

IPhone

Line of smartphones by Apple Inc.

For other uses, see IPhone (disambiguation).

The iPhone is a line of smartphones produced by Apple Inc. that use Apple's own iOS mobile operating system. The first-generation iPhone was announced by then–Apple CEO Steve Jobs on January 9, 2007. Since then, Apple has annually released new iPhone models and iOS updates. As of November 1, 2018, more than 2.2 billion iPhones had been sold. As of 2023, the iPhone accounts for 20% of global smartphone sales, making it number 1 in the world for smartphone market sales.^[3]

The iPhone was the first mobile phone to use multi-touch technology.^[4] Since the iPhone's launch, it has gained larger screen sizes, video-recording, waterproofing, and many accessibility features. Up to the iPhone 8 and 8 Plus, iPhones had a single button on the front panel, with the iPhone 5s and later integrating a Touch ID fingerprint sensor.^[5] Since the iPhone X, iPhone models have switched to a nearly bezel-less front screen design with Face ID facial recognition, and app switching activated by gestures. Touch ID is still used for the budget iPhone SE series.

The iPhone is one of the two largest smartphone platforms in the world alongside Android, and is a large part of the luxury market. The iPhone has generated large profits for Apple, making it one of the world's most valuable publicly traded companies. The first-generation iPhone was described as a "revolution" for the mobile phone industry and subsequent models have also garnered praise.^[6] The iPhone has been credited with popularizing the smartphone and slate form factor, and with creating a large market for smartphone apps, or "app economy". As of January 2017^[update], Apple's App Store contained more than 2.2 million applications for the iPhone.

1. ^ "32 iPhone User Statistics: Sales, Usage & Revenue (2024)". Demandsage. January 11, 2024. Archived from the original on February 18, 2024. Retrieved February 17, 2024.
2. ^ "iPhone 14 Pro Max vs iPhone SE (third generation) vs iPhone 13". Apple Inc. Archived from the original on October 3, 2022. Retrieved October 3, 2013.
3. ^ "Apple overtakes Samsung as number 1 smartphone manufacturer". Reuters. Retrieved March 6, 2024.{{cite news}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
4. ^ Merchant, Brian (June 22, 2017). The One Device: The Secret History of the iPhone. Transworld. ISBN 978-1-4735-4254-9.
5. ^ "A New Touch for iPhone". AllThingsD. Archived from the original on April 23, 2022. Retrieved January 5, 2024.
6. ^ Egan, Timothy (July 7, 2017). "Opinion | The Phone Is Smart, but Where's the Big Idea?". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on October 3, 2022. Retrieved October 3, 2022.

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30 June 2013 – Nineteen firefighters die controlling a wildfire in Yarnell, Arizona.

Yarnell Hill Fire

2013 wildfire in Arizona

The Yarnell Hill Fire was a wildfire near Yarnell, Arizona, ignited by dry lightning on June 28, 2013. On June 30, it overran and killed 19 members of the Granite Mountain Hotshots. Just one of the hotshots on the crew survived—he was posted as a lookout on the fire and was not with the others when the fire overtook them. The Yarnell Hill Fire was one of the deadliest U.S. wildfires since the 1991 Oakland Hills fire, which killed 25 people, and the deadliest wildland fire for U.S. firefighters since the 1933 Griffith Park fire, which killed 29 "impromptu" civilian firefighters drafted on short notice to help battle that Los Angeles area fire.

Yarnell also killed more firefighters than any incident since 9/11. The Yarnell Hill Fire is the sixth-deadliest American firefighter disaster in history, the deadliest wildfire ever in the state of Arizona, and (at least until 2014) was "the most-publicized event in wildland firefighting history."^[3][4]

The tragedy is primarily attributed to an extreme and sudden shift in weather patterns, causing the fire to intensify and cut off the firefighters route as they were escaping. The victims were killed by the intense heat and flames of the fire. Other factors that contributed to the tragedy include the terrain surrounding the escape route, which may have blocked the victims' view of the fire front and limited situational awareness, and problems with radio communications.^[5]

1. ^ "Yarnell Hill Fire". Inciweb. Retrieved September 6, 2016.
2. ^ "Yarnell Hill Fire damage claims total $662 million". Arizona Capitol Times.
3. ^ Ryman, Anne; Ruelas, Richard; Goth, Brenna; O%27Connor, Erin; Walsh, Jim; Woodfill, D.S. (July 9, 2013). "Damage shocks Yarnell fire evacuees as they return home". USA Today. Retrieved July 21, 2013.{{cite news}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
4. ^ Dickman, Kyle (October 30, 2018). "What We Learned from the Yarnell Hill Fire Deaths". Outside.
5. ^ Cite error: The named reference investigation-report was invoked but never defined (see the help page).

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1 July 1863 – American Civil War: The Battle of Gettysburg begins.

Battle of Gettysburg

1863 battle of the American Civil War

For other uses, see Battle of Gettysburg (disambiguation).

The Battle of Gettysburg (locally /ˈɡɛtɪsbɜːrɡ/ ^ⓘ)^[14] was a three-day battle in the American Civil War fought between Union and Confederate forces between July 1 and July 3, 1863, in and around Gettysburg, Pennsylvania. The battle, which was won by the Union, is widely considered the Civil War's turning point, ending the Confederacy's aspirations to establish an independent nation. It was the Civil War's bloodiest battle, claiming over 50,000 combined casualties over three days.^[15]

In the Battle of Gettysburg, Union Major General George Meade's Army of the Potomac defeated attacks by Confederate General Robert E. Lee's Army of Northern Virginia, halting Lee's invasion of the north and forcing his retreat.^{[fn 1][16]}

After his success at Chancellorsville in Virginia in May 1863, Lee led his army through the Shenandoah Valley to begin his second invasion of the north, known as the Gettysburg Campaign. With his army in high spirits, Lee intended to shift the focus of the summer campaign from war-ravaged Northern Virginia and hoped to influence northern politicians to give up their prosecution of the war by penetrating as far as Harrisburg, Pennsylvania, or even Philadelphia. Prodded by President Abraham Lincoln, Major General Joseph Hooker moved his army in pursuit, but was relieved of command just three days before the battle and replaced by Meade.

Elements of the two armies initially collided at Gettysburg on July 1, 1863, as Lee urgently concentrated his forces there, his objective being to engage the Union army and destroy it. Low ridges to the northwest of town were defended initially by a Union cavalry division under Brigadier General John Buford, and soon reinforced with two corps of Union infantry. However, two large Confederate corps assaulted them from the northwest and north, collapsing the hastily developed Union lines, sending the defenders retreating through the streets of the town to the hills just to the south.^[17] On the second day of battle, most of both armies had assembled. The Union line was laid out in a defensive formation resembling a fishhook. In the late afternoon of July 2, Lee launched a heavy assault on the Union left flank, and fierce fighting raged at Little Round Top, the Wheatfield, Devil's Den, and the Peach Orchard. On the Union right, Confederate demonstrations escalated into full-scale assaults on Culp's Hill and Cemetery Hill. All across the battlefield, despite significant losses, the Union defenders held their lines.

On the third day of battle, fighting resumed on Culp's Hill, and cavalry battles raged to the east and south, but the main event was a dramatic infantry assault by around 12,000 Confederates against the center of the Union line on Cemetery Ridge, known as Pickett's Charge. The charge was repelled by Union rifle and artillery fire, at great loss to the Confederate army. Setting out on the Fourth of July, Lee led his army on the torturous retreat from the north. Between 46,000 and 51,000 soldiers from both armies were casualties in the three-day battle, the most costly in US history.

On November 19, President Lincoln used the dedication ceremony for the Gettysburg National Cemetery to honor the fallen Union soldiers and redefine the purpose of the war in his historic Gettysburg Address.

1. ^ Coddington, p. 573. See the discussion regarding historians' judgment on whether Gettysburg should be considered a decisive victory.
2. ^ Official Records, Series I, Volume XXVII, Part 1, pages 155–168 Archived July 24, 2017, at the Wayback Machine
3. ^ Official Records, Series I, Volume XXVII, Part 2, pages 283–291 Archived July 24, 2017, at the Wayback Machine
4. ^ Official Records, Series I, Volume XXVII, Part 1, page 151 Archived July 24, 2017, at the Wayback Machine
5. ^ Coddington, p. 673, references the official number of the Union Army forces but says the number could have been in the "neighborhood" of 115,000. Busey and Martin, p. 125: "Engaged strength" at the battle was 93,921. Eicher, p. 503, gives a similar number of 93,500. Sears, p. 539 quotes the official number of just over 104,000 but with reinforcements of another 8,000 men about to arrive.
6. ^ "Gettysburg Staff Ride" (PDF). army.mil. Retrieved 28 March 2024.
7. ^ Busey and Martin, p. 260, state that Confederate "engaged strength" at the battle was 71,699; McPherson, p. 648, lists the Confederate strength at the start of the campaign as 75,000, while Eicher, p. 503 gives a lower number of 70,200. Noting that Confederate returns often did not include officers, Coddington, p. 676 states that estimated Confederate strength of 75,000 is "a conservative one". Confederate Captain John Esten Cooke in A Life of Gen. Robert E. Lee, New York: D. Appleton, 1871, p. 328, gives the number of the entire Confederate force "at about eighty thousand". Sears, p. 149 states that eyewitnesses observed the Confederate force to be about 100,000 but, although Meade used this in making his battle plans, it was an overcount of about 20 percent.
8. ^ Official Records, Series I, Volume XXVII, Part 1, page 187 Archived July 24, 2017, at the Wayback Machine
9. ^ Busey and Martin, p. 125.
10. ^ Busey and Martin, p. 260, cite 23,231 total (4,708 killed;12,693 wounded;5,830 captured/missing).
    See the section on casualties for a discussion of alternative Confederate casualty estimates, which have been cited as high as 28,000.
11. ^ Official Records, Series I, Volume XXVII, Part 2, pages 338–346 Archived July 24, 2017, at the Wayback Machine
12. ^ Wynstra, p. 81
13. ^ Symonds, pp. 53, 57
14. ^ Robert D. Quigley, Civil War Spoken Here: A Dictionary of Mispronounced People, Places and Things of the 1860s (Collingswood, NJ: C. W. Historicals, 1993), p. 68. ISBN 0-9637745-0-6.
15. ^ "Gettysburg" at Battlefields
16. ^ Rawley, p. 147; Sauers, p. 827; Gallagher, Lee and His Army, p. 83; McPherson, p. 665; Eicher, p. 550. Gallagher and McPherson cite the combination of Gettysburg and Vicksburg as the turning point. Eicher uses the arguably related expression, "High-water mark of the Confederacy".
17. ^ Eicher, David J. (2001), The Longest Night: A Military History of the Civil War, New York: Simon & Schuster, pp. 515–517, ISBN 978-0-684-84944-7

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2 July 1698 – Thomas Savery patents the first steam engine.

Steam engine

Engine that uses steam to perform mechanical work

For the railway engine, see steam locomotive. For the steam turbine, see steam turbine.

"Steam machine" and "Steam-powered" redirect here. For the video game distribution service, see Steam (service). For other uses, see Steam machine (disambiguation).

A steam engine is a heat engine that performs mechanical work using steam as its working fluid. The steam engine uses the force produced by steam pressure to push a piston back and forth inside a cylinder. This pushing force can be transformed, by a connecting rod and crank, into rotational force for work. The term "steam engine" is most commonly applied to reciprocating engines as just described, although some authorities have also referred to the steam turbine and devices such as Hero's aeolipile as "steam engines". The essential feature of steam engines is that they are external combustion engines,^[1] where the working fluid is separated from the combustion products. The ideal thermodynamic cycle used to analyze this process is called the Rankine cycle. In general usage, the term steam engine can refer to either complete steam plants (including boilers etc.), such as railway steam locomotives and portable engines, or may refer to the piston or turbine machinery alone, as in the beam engine and stationary steam engine.

As noted, steam-driven devices such as the aeolipile were known in the first century AD, and there were a few other uses recorded in the 16th century. In 1606 Jerónimo de Ayanz y Beaumont patented his invention of the first steam-powered water pump for draining mines.^[2] Thomas Savery is considered the inventor of the first commercially used steam powered device, a steam pump that used steam pressure operating directly on the water. The first commercially successful engine that could transmit continuous power to a machine was developed in 1712 by Thomas Newcomen. James Watt made a critical improvement in 1764, by removing spent steam to a separate vessel for condensation, greatly improving the amount of work obtained per unit of fuel consumed. By the 19th century, stationary steam engines powered the factories of the Industrial Revolution. Steam engines replaced sails for ships on paddle steamers, and steam locomotives operated on the railways.

Reciprocating piston type steam engines were the dominant source of power until the early 20th century. The efficiency of stationary steam engine increased dramatically until about 1922.^[3] The highest Rankine Cycle Efficiency of 91% and combined thermal efficiency of 31% was demonstrated and published in 1921 and 1928.^[4] Advances in the design of electric motors and internal combustion engines resulted in the gradual replacement of steam engines in commercial usage. Steam turbines replaced reciprocating engines in power generation, due to lower cost, higher operating speed, and higher efficiency.^[5] Note that small scale steam turbines are much less efficient than large ones.^[6]

Large reciprocating piston steam engines are still being manufactured in Germany.^[7]

Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

1. ^ American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language (4th ed.). Houghton Mifflin Company. 2000.
2. ^ "Who Invented the Steam Engine?". Live Science. 19 March 2014.
3. ^ Mierisch, Robert Charles (May 2018). "The History and Future of High Efficiency Steam Engines" (PDF). EHA Magazine. 2 (8): 24–25 – via engineersaustralia.org.au.
4. ^ Gebhardt, G.F. (1928). Steam Power Plant Engineering (6th ed.). USA: John Wiley and Sons, Inc. p. 405.
5. ^ Cite error: The named reference Wiser was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
6. ^ Green, Don (1997). Perry's Chemical Engineers' Handbook (7th ed.). USA: McGraw-Hill. pp. 29–24. ISBN 0-07-049841-5.
7. ^ "Spilling Products". www.spilling.de. 5 October 2023. Retrieved 5 October 2023.

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3 July 1844 – The last pair of great auks is killed.

Great auk

Extinct flightless seabird from the North Atlantic

The great auk (Pinguinus impennis) is a species of flightless alcid that became extinct in the mid-19th century. It was the only modern species in the genus Pinguinus. It is not closely related to the Southern Hemisphere birds now known as penguins, which were discovered later by Europeans and so named by sailors because of their physical resemblance to the great auk, which were called penguins.

It bred on rocky, remote islands with easy access to the ocean and a plentiful food supply, a rarity in nature that provided only a few breeding sites for the great auks. When not breeding, they spent their time foraging in the waters of the North Atlantic, ranging as far south as northern Spain and along the coastlines of Canada, Greenland, Iceland, the Faroe Islands, Norway, Ireland, and Great Britain.

The bird was 75 to 85 centimetres (30 to 33 inches) tall and weighed about 5 kilograms (11 pounds), making it the largest alcid to survive into the modern era, and the second-largest member of the alcid family overall (the prehistoric Miomancalla was larger).^[6] It had a black back and a white belly. The black beak was heavy and hooked, with grooves on its surface. During summer, great auk plumage showed a white patch over each eye. During winter, the great auk lost these patches, instead developing a white band stretching between the eyes. The wings were only 15 cm (6 in) long, rendering the bird flightless. Instead, the great auk was a powerful swimmer, a trait that it used in hunting. Its favourite prey were fish, including Atlantic menhaden and capelin, and crustaceans. Although agile in the water, it was clumsy on land. Great auk pairs mated for life. They nested in extremely dense and social colonies, laying one egg on bare rock. The egg was white with variable brown marbling. Both parents participated in the incubation of the egg for around six weeks before the young hatched. The young left the nest site after two to three weeks, although the parents continued to care for it.

The great auk was an important part of many Native American cultures, both as a food source and as a symbolic item. Many Maritime Archaic people were buried with great auk bones. One burial discovered included someone covered by more than 200 great auk beaks, which are presumed to be the remnants of a cloak made of great auks' skins. Early European explorers to the Americas used the great auk as a convenient food source or as fishing bait, reducing its numbers. The bird's down was in high demand in Europe, a factor that largely eliminated the European populations by the mid-16th century. Scientists soon began to realize that the great auk was disappearing and it became the beneficiary of many early environmental laws, but these proved ineffectual.

Its growing rarity increased interest from European museums and private collectors in obtaining skins and eggs of the bird. On 3 June 1844, the last two confirmed specimens were killed on Eldey, off the coast of Iceland, ending the last known breeding attempt. Later reports of roaming individuals being seen or caught are unconfirmed. A report of one great auk in 1852 is considered by some to be the last sighting of a member of the species. The great auk is mentioned in several novels, and the scientific journal of the American Ornithological Society was named The Auk (now Ornithology) in honour of the bird until 2021.

1. ^ Finlayson, Clive (2011). Avian survivors: The History and Biogeography of Palearctic Birds. Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 157. ISBN 978-1408137314.
2. ^ BirdLife International (2021). "Pinguinus impennis". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2021: e.T22694856A205919631. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2021-3.RLTS.T22694856A205919631.en. Retrieved 19 November 2021.
3. ^ "NatureServe Explorer 2.0". explorer.natureserve.org. Retrieved 31 March 2022.
4. ^ Grieve, Symington (1885). The Great Auk, or Garefowl: Its history, archaeology, and remains. Thomas C. Jack, London. ISBN 978-0665066245.
5. ^ Parkin, Thomas (1894). The Great Auk, or Garefowl. J.E. Budd, Printer. Retrieved 14 May 2010.
6. ^ Smith, N (2015). "Evolution of body mass in the Pan-Alcidae (Aves, Charadriiformes): the effects of combining neontological and paleontological data". Paleobiology. 42 (1): 8–26. Bibcode:2016Pbio...42....8S. doi:10.1017/pab.2015.24. S2CID 83934750.

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4 July 1187 – The Crusades: Battle of Hattin: Saladin defeats Guy of Lusignan, King of Jerusalem.

Battle of Hattin

1187 Saladin victory over the Crusaders

Not to be confused with the Battle of the Horns of Hama, Saladin's 1175 victory over the Zengids.

The Battle of Hattin took place on 4 July 1187, between the Crusader states of the Levant and the forces of the Ayyubid sultan Saladin. It is also known as the Battle of the Horns of Hattin, due to the shape of the nearby extinct volcano of that name.

The Muslim armies under Saladin captured or killed the vast majority of the Crusader forces, removing their capability to wage war.^[16] As a direct result of the battle, Muslims once again became the eminent military power in the Holy Land, re-capturing Jerusalem and most of the other Crusader-held cities and castles.^[16] These Christian defeats prompted the Third Crusade, which began two years after the Battle of Hattin.

1. ^ Nicolle (2011). pp. 22-23, 27, 29, 52.
2. ^ Nicolle (2011). pp. 22, 23.
3. ^ Konstam 2004, p. 133
4. ^ ^{a b} Riley-Smith 2005, p. 110
5. ^ Nicolle (1993). p. 59.
6. ^ Nicolle (1993). p. 61.
7. ^ Madden 2005
8. ^ ^{a b} Waterson (2010), p. 126
9. ^ Konstam 2004, p. 119
10. ^ France 2015, p. 82.
11. ^ Tibble 2018, p. 317.
12. ^ France 2015, pp. 102–103.
13. ^ Richard (1999). p. 207.
14. ^ Newby (1992).Battle of Hattin
15. ^ France 2015, p. 120.
16. ^ ^{a b} Madden 2000

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5 July 1811 – Venezuela declares independence from Spain.
5 July 1884 – Germany takes possession of Cameroon.

 

6 July 1483 – Richard III is crowned King of England.

Richard III of England

King of England from 1483 to 1485

"Richard III" redirects here. For other uses, see Richard III (disambiguation).

"Richard of Gloucester" redirects here. For other uses, see Richard of Gloucester (disambiguation).

Richard III (2 October 1452 – 22 August 1485) was King of England from 26 June 1483 until his death in 1485. He was the last king of the Plantagenet dynasty and its cadet branch the House of York. His defeat and death at the Battle of Bosworth Field, the last decisive battle of the Wars of the Roses, marked the end of the Middle Ages in England.

Richard was created Duke of Gloucester in 1461 after the accession of his brother Edward IV. In 1472, he married Anne Neville, daughter of Richard Neville, 16th Earl of Warwick and widow of Edward of Westminster, son of Henry VI. He governed northern England during Edward's reign, and played a role in the invasion of Scotland in 1482. When Edward IV died in April 1483, Richard was named Lord Protector of the realm for Edward's eldest son and successor, the 12-year-old Edward V. Before arrangements were complete for Edward V's coronation, scheduled for 22 June 1483, the marriage of his parents was declared bigamous and therefore invalid. Now officially illegitimate, Edward and his siblings were barred from inheriting the throne. On 25 June, an assembly of lords and commoners endorsed a declaration to this effect, and proclaimed Richard as the rightful king. He was crowned on 6 July 1483. Edward and his younger brother Richard of Shrewsbury, Duke of York, called the "Princes in the Tower", disappeared from the Tower of London around August 1483. Accusations were circulating that they had been murdered on King Richard's orders, even before the Tudor dynasty became the established rulers two years later.^{[citation needed]}

There were two major rebellions against Richard during his reign. In October 1483, an unsuccessful revolt was led by staunch allies of Edward IV and Richard's former ally, Henry Stafford, 2nd Duke of Buckingham. Then, in August 1485, Henry Tudor and his uncle, Jasper Tudor, landed in Wales with a contingent of French troops, and marched through Pembrokeshire, recruiting soldiers. Henry's forces defeated Richard's army near the Leicestershire town of Market Bosworth. Richard was slain, making him the last English king to die in battle. Henry Tudor then ascended the throne as Henry VII.

Richard's corpse was taken to the nearby town of Leicester and buried without ceremony. His original tomb monument is believed to have been removed during the English Reformation, and his remains were wrongly thought to have been thrown into the River Soar. In 2012, an archaeological excavation was commissioned by Philippa Langley with the assistance of the Richard III Society on the site previously occupied by Grey Friars Priory. The University of Leicester identified the human skeleton found at the site as that of Richard III as a result of radiocarbon dating, comparison with contemporary reports of his appearance, identification of trauma sustained at Bosworth and comparison of his mitochondrial DNA with that of two matrilineal descendants of his sister Anne. He was reburied in Leicester Cathedral in 2015.

1. ^ Carson, Ashdown-Hill, Johnson, Johnson & Langley, p. 8.

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7 July 1770 – The Battle of Larga between the Russian Empire and the Ottoman Empire takes place.

Battle of Larga

1770 battle of the Russo-Turkish War (1768–1774)

The Battle of (the) Larga was fought between 65,000 Crimean Tatars and 15,000 Ottomans under Qaplan II Giray against 38,000 Russians under Field-Marshal Rumyantsev on the banks of the Larga River, a tributary of the Prut River, in Moldavia (now in Moldova), for eight hours on 7 July 1770. It was fought on the same day as Battle of Chesma, a key naval engagement of the Russo-Turkish War, 1768–1774.

The battle was a decisive victory for the Russians who captured 33 Turkish cannons and the vast enemy camp. For this victory, Rumyantsev was awarded the Order of Saint George of the 1st degree. Two weeks later, the Russians scored an even greater victory in the Battle of Kagul.

1. ^ The Prince of Princes - Page 83 by S Sebag Montefiore - Biography & Autobiography

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8 July 1889 – The first issue of The Wall Street Journal is published.

The Wall Street Journal

American business daily newspaper

"WSJ" redirects here. For other uses, see WSJ (disambiguation).

The Wall Street Journal (WSJ), also referred to simply as the Journal, is an American business and economic-focused international daily newspaper based in New York City.^[2] The Journal is published six days a week by Dow Jones & Company, a division of News Corp. The newspaper is published in broadsheet format and online. The Journal has been printed continuously since its inception on July 8, 1889,^[3] and is regarded as a newspaper of record, particularly in terms of business and financial news.^[4][5][6] The newspaper has won 39 Pulitzer Prizes, the most recent in 2023.^[7][8][9]

The Wall Street Journal is the second-largest newspaper in the United States by circulation, with a print circulation of around 654,000 and 3 million digital subscribers as of 2022.^[1] The Journal publishes the luxury news and lifestyle magazine WSJ, which was originally launched as a quarterly but expanded to 12 issues in 2014. An online version was launched in 1995, which has been accessible only to subscribers since it began.^[10] The editorial pages of the Journal are typically center-right in their positions,^{[11][12][13][14]} while the newspaper itself maintains commitment to journalistic standards in its reporting.^[11]

1. ^ ^{a b} "News Corporation 2022 Annual Report on Form 10-K". U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission. August 12, 2022. Archived from the original on June 24, 2021. Retrieved June 30, 2023.
2. ^ "Business & Finance News". The Wall Street Journal. Retrieved October 1, 2020.
3. ^ "The Wall Street Journal Strengthens Its International Editions; Repositions To Better Serve Global Business Leaders and Advertisers". Business Wire (Press release). May 8, 2005. Retrieved September 29, 2020.
4. ^ Caulfield, Mike (January 8, 2017), "National Newspapers of Record", Web Literacy for Student Fact-Checkers, Self-published, retrieved September 13, 2020
5. ^ Doctor, Ken (December 3, 2015). "On The Washington Post and the 'newspaper of record' epithet". Politico Media. Retrieved September 13, 2020.
6. ^ Library, Gelman. "Research Guides: Newspaper Research: Current Newspapers". libguides.gwu.edu. Retrieved September 13, 2020.
7. ^ "dowjones.com: The Wall Street Journal". Archived from the original on December 9, 2022. Retrieved August 28, 2018.
8. ^ "National Reporting". The Pulitzer Prizes. 2022. Retrieved August 3, 2022. 2019 – Staff of The Wall Street Journal: For uncovering President Trump's secret payoffs to two women during his campaign who claimed to have had affairs with him, and the web of supporters who facilitated the transactions, triggering criminal inquiries and calls for impeachment.
9. ^ "2023 Pulitzer Prizes Winners & Finalists". www.pulitzer.org.
10. ^ "WSJ.com". www.wsj.com. Retrieved August 31, 2022.
11. ^ ^{a b} Yochai Benkler; Robert Faris; Hal Roberts (2018). Network Propaganda: Manipulation, Disinformation, and Radicalization in American Politics. Oxford University Press. pp. 353–354. ISBN 978-0-19-092364-8. One of our clearest and starkest findings is the near disappearance of center-right media. There is the Wall Street Journal, with its conservative editorial page but continued commitment to journalistic standards in its reporting; and to some extent The Hill plays a center-right role. Both sites appear in the center of the partisan landscape according to our data because readers on the right did not pay attention to these sites any more than readers on the left did.
12. ^ Ember, Sydney (March 22, 2017). "Wall Street Journal Editorial Harshly Rebukes Trump". The New York Times. Archived from the original on March 22, 2017.
13. ^ Bowden, John (January 11, 2019). "Wall Street Journal editorial: Conservatives 'could live to regret' Trump emergency declaration". The Hill.
14. ^ Vernon, Pete (March 22, 2017). "Unpacking WSJ's 'watershed' Trump editorial". Columbia Journalism Review. ISSN 0010-194X. Archived from the original on June 21, 2017.

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9 July 1877 – The inaugural Wimbledon Championships begins.

The Championships, Wimbledon

Redirect to:

• Wimbledon Championships

• From a page move: This is a redirect from a page that has been moved (renamed). This page was kept as a redirect to avoid breaking links, both internal and external, that may have been made to the old page name.

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10 July 1553 – Lady Jane Grey takes the throne of England.

Lady Jane Grey

Claimant to the English throne in 1553

"Jane Grey" redirects here. For other uses, see Jane Grey (disambiguation).

Lady Jane Grey (c. 1537 – 12 February 1554), also known as Lady Jane Dudley after her marriage^[3] and as the "Nine Days' Queen",^[6] was an English noblewoman who claimed the throne of England and Ireland from 10 to 19 July 1553.

Jane was the great-granddaughter of King Henry VII through his daughter, Mary Tudor, and was therefore a grandniece of King Henry VIII, and a first cousin once removed of Edward VI, Mary I and Elizabeth I. She had an excellent humanist education, and a reputation as one of the most learned young women of her day.^[7] In May 1553, she married Lord Guildford Dudley, a younger son of Edward VI's chief minister John Dudley, Duke of Northumberland. In June 1553, the dying Edward VI wrote his will, nominating Jane and her male heirs as successors to the Crown, in part because his half-sister Mary was Catholic, while Jane was a committed Protestant and would support the reformed Church of England, whose foundation Edward laid. The will removed his half-sisters, Mary and Elizabeth, from the line of succession on account of their illegitimacy, subverting their claims under the Third Succession Act.

After Edward's death, Jane was proclaimed queen on 10 July 1553, and awaited coronation in the Tower of London. Support for Mary grew quickly, and most of Jane's supporters abandoned her. The Privy Council of England suddenly changed sides, and proclaimed Mary as queen on 19 July 1553, deposing Jane. Her primary supporter, her father-in-law, the Duke of Northumberland, was accused of treason, and executed less than a month later. Jane was held prisoner in the Tower, and in November 1553 was also convicted of treason, which carried a sentence of death.

Mary initially spared her life; however, Jane soon became viewed as a threat to the Crown when her father, Henry Grey, 1st Duke of Suffolk, became involved with Wyatt's rebellion against Queen Mary's intention to marry Philip of Spain. Jane and her husband were executed on 12 February 1554. At the time of her execution, Jane was either 16 or 17 years old.

1. ^ Williamson, David (2010). Kings & Queens. National Portrait Gallery Publications. p. 95. ISBN 978-1-85514-432-3
2. ^ Ives 2009, p. 36; Florio 1607, p. 68
3. ^ ^{a b} Cite error: The named reference ODNB was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
4. ^ "Lady Jane Grey | Biography, Facts, & Execution". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 10 July 2021.
5. ^ Cite error: The named reference potter was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
6. ^ Ives 2009, p. 2
7. ^ Ascham 1863, p. 213

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11 July 1740 – Pogrom: Jews are expelled from Little Russia.

Pogrom

Violent attack on an ethnic or religious group, usually Jews

For the racehorse, see Pogrom (horse). For the volcano in the Aleutian Islands, see Pogromni Volcano.

A pogrom^[a] is a violent riot incited with the aim of massacring or expelling an ethnic or religious group, particularly Jews.^[1] The term entered the English language from Russian to describe 19th- and 20th-century attacks on Jews in the Russian Empire (mostly within the Pale of Settlement). Similar attacks against Jews which also occurred at other times and places became known retrospectively as pogroms.^[2] Sometimes the word is used to describe publicly sanctioned purgative attacks against non-Jewish groups. The characteristics of a pogrom vary widely, depending on the specific incident, at times leading to, or culminating in, massacres.^{[3][4][5][6][7][8][9]}

Significant pogroms in the Russian Empire included the Odessa pogroms, Warsaw pogrom (1881), Kishinev pogrom (1903), Kiev pogrom (1905), and Białystok pogrom (1906). After the collapse of the Russian Empire in 1917, several pogroms occurred amidst the power struggles in Eastern Europe, including the Lwów pogrom (1918) and Kiev pogroms (1919). The most significant pogrom which occurred in Nazi Germany was the 1938 Kristallnacht. At least 91 Jews were killed, a further thirty thousand arrested and subsequently incarcerated in concentration camps,^[10] a thousand synagogues burned, and over seven thousand Jewish businesses destroyed or damaged.^[11][12] Notorious pogroms of World War II included the 1941 Farhud in Iraq, the July 1941 Iași pogrom in Romania – in which over 13,200 Jews were killed – as well as the Jedwabne pogrom in German-occupied Poland. Post-World War II pogroms included the 1945 Tripoli pogrom, the 1946 Kielce pogrom, the 1947 Aleppo pogrom, and the 1955 Istanbul pogrom. In 1984 Sikh massacre, 3,000 Sikhs were killed brutally in the orderly pogrom.^[13] In 2008, two attacks in the Occupied West Bank by Israeli Jewish settlers on Palestinian Arabs were labeled as pogroms by then-Prime Minister Ehud Olmert.^[14] In 2023 a Wall Street Journal editorial referred to the 2023 Hamas attack on Israel as a pogrom.^[15]

Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

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2. ^ Cite error: The named reference Brass was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
3. ^ Cite error: The named reference WileyBlackwell was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
4. ^ Cite error: The named reference Klier58 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
5. ^ Cite error: The named reference international was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
6. ^ Cite error: The named reference Engel was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
7. ^ Cite error: The named reference books1 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
8. ^ Cite error: The named reference books2 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
9. ^ Klier, John (2010). "Pogroms". The YIVO Encyclopedia of Jews in Eastern Europe. YIVO Institute for Jewish Research. The common usage of the term pogrom to describe any attack against Jews throughout history disguises the great variation in the scale, nature, motivation and intent of such violence at different times.
10. ^ Cite error: The named reference Atlantic was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
11. ^ Cite error: The named reference Berenbaum2005p49 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
12. ^ Cite error: The named reference Gilbert30 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
13. ^ Bedi, Rahul (1 November 2009). "Indira Gandhi's death remembered". BBC. Archived from the original on 2 November 2009. Retrieved 2 November 2009. The 25th anniversary of Indira Gandhi's assassination revives stark memories of some 3,000 Sikhs killed brutally in the orderly pogrom that followed her killing
14. ^ Koutsoukis, Jason (15 September 2008). "Settlers attack Palestinian village". The Sydney Morning Herald. Archived from the original on 5 April 2023. Retrieved 14 November 2023. 'As a Jew, I was ashamed at the scenes of Jews opening fire at innocent Arabs in Hebron. There is no other definition than the term "pogrom" to describe what I have seen.'
15. ^ "Opinion | Hamas Puts Its Pogrom on Video". The Wall Street Journal. 27 October 2023.

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12 July 2006 – Lebanon-Israel war begins.

2006 Lebanon War

Armed conflict primarily between Israel and Hezbollah

For other wars in Lebanon, see Lebanon War.

The 2006 Lebanon War, also called the 2006 Israel–Hezbollah War^[39] and known in Lebanon as the July War^[1] (Arabic: حرب تموز, Ḥarb Tammūz) and in Israel as the Second Lebanon War (Hebrew: מלחמת לבנון השנייה, Milhemet Levanon HaShniya),^[40] was a 34-day military conflict in Lebanon, northern Israel and the Golan Heights. The principal parties were Hezbollah paramilitary forces and the Israel Defense Forces (IDF). The conflict started on 12 July 2006, and continued until a United Nations-brokered ceasefire went into effect in the morning on 14 August 2006, though it formally ended on 8 September 2006 when Israel lifted its naval blockade of Lebanon. Due to unprecedented Iranian military support to Hezbollah before and during the war,^[41] some consider it the first round of the Iran–Israel proxy conflict, rather than a continuation of the Arab–Israeli conflict.^[42]

The conflict was precipitated by the 2006 Hezbollah cross-border raid. On 12 July 2006, Hezbollah fighters fired rockets at Israeli border towns as a diversion for an anti-tank missile attack on two armored Humvees patrolling the Israeli side of the border fence.^[43] The ambush left three soldiers dead. Two Israeli soldiers were captured and taken by Hezbollah to Lebanon.^[43][44] Five more were killed in Lebanon, in a failed rescue attempt. Hezbollah demanded the release of Lebanese prisoners held by Israel in exchange for the release of the abducted soldiers.^[45] Israel refused and responded with airstrikes and artillery fire on targets in Lebanon. Israel attacked both Hezbollah military targets and Lebanese civilian infrastructure, including Beirut's Rafic Hariri International Airport.^[46] The IDF launched a ground invasion of Southern Lebanon. Israel also imposed an air-and-naval blockade.^[47] Hezbollah then launched more rockets into northern Israel and engaged the IDF in guerrilla warfare from hardened positions.^[48]

The conflict is believed to have killed between 1,191 and 1,300 Lebanese people,^{[49][50][51][52]} and 165 Israelis.^[53] It severely damaged Lebanese civil infrastructure, and displaced approximately one million Lebanese^[54] and 300,000–500,000 Israelis.^[55][56][57]

On 11 August 2006, the United Nations Security Council unanimously approved United Nations Security Council Resolution 1701 (UNSCR 1701) in an effort to end the hostilities. The resolution, which was approved by both the Lebanese and Israeli governments the following days, called for disarmament of Hezbollah, for withdrawal of the IDF from Lebanon, and for the deployment of the Lebanese Armed Forces and an enlarged United Nations Interim Force in Lebanon (UNIFIL) in the south. UNIFIL was given an expanded mandate, including the ability to use force to ensure that their area of operations was not used for hostile activities, and to resist attempts by force to prevent them from discharging their duties.^[58] The Lebanese Army began deploying in Southern Lebanon on 17 August 2006. The blockade was lifted on 8 September 2006.^[59] On 1 October 2006, most Israeli troops withdrew from Lebanon, although the last of the troops continued to occupy the border-straddling village of Ghajar.^[60] In the time since the enactment of UNSCR 1701 both the Lebanese government and UNIFIL have stated that they will not disarm Hezbollah.^[61][62][63] The remains of the two captured soldiers, whose fates were unknown, were returned to Israel on 16 July 2008 as part of a prisoner exchange. Hezbollah claimed the war was a "Divine Victory",^[64] while Israel considered the war a failure and a missed opportunity.^[65]

1. ^ ^{a b c} Cite error: The named reference DailyStarTimeline was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
2. ^ Herbert Docena (17 August 2006). "Amid the bombs, unity is forged". Asia Times. Archived from the original on 31 August 2006. Retrieved 25 November 2011. The LCP ... has itself been very close to Hezbollah and fought alongside it in the frontlines in the south. According to Hadadeh, at least 12 LCP members and supporters died in the fighting.{{cite news}}: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link)
3. ^ "PFLP claims losses in IDF strike on Lebanon base". The Jerusalem Post. Associated Press. 6 August 2006. Archived from the original on 3 February 2012.
4. ^ Klein, Aaron (27 July 2006). "Iranian soldiers join Hizbullah in fighting". Ynet. Archived from the original on 20 September 2019. Retrieved 22 May 2019.
5. ^ Worth, Robert F. (15 November 2006). "U.N. Says Somalis Helped Hezbollah Fighters". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 26 October 2023. More than 700 Islamic militants from Somalia traveled to Lebanon in July to fight alongside Hezbollah in its war against Israel, a United Nations report says. The militia in Lebanon returned the favor by providing training and — through its patrons Iran and Syria — weapons to the Islamic alliance struggling for control of Somalia, it adds.
6. ^ "Report: Over 700 Somalis fought with Hizbullah". The Jerusalem Post. 15 November 2006. Retrieved 26 October 2023.
7. ^ Uzi Rubin. The Rocket Campaign against Israel during the 2006 Lebanon War. p. 12. The Begin-Sadat Center for Strategic Studies Bar-Ilan University
8. ^ "Shadowy Iran commander Qassem Soleimani gives rare interview on 2006 Israel-Hezbollah war". 2 October 2019.
9. ^ "General Soleimani Reveals Untold Facts of 2006 Lebanon War". 2 October 2019.
10. ^ "Soleimani Reveals Details of Role He Played in the 2006 Israel-Hezbollah War". Asharq AL-awsat.
11. ^ "روایت شهید "مغنیه" از نقش راهبردی سردار سلیمانی در جنگ ۳۳ روزه". 21 December 2020.
12. ^ "Israel captures guerillas in Hezbollah hospital raid", USA Today, Beirut: reprinted from the Associated Press, 2 August 2006, retrieved 12 September 2015
13. ^ "Some 30,000 Israeli troops in Lebanon – army radio". Yahoo! News. Reuters. 13 August 2006. Archived from the original on 15 February 2008.
14. ^ Blanford, Nicholas (11 August 2006). "Hizbullah's resilience built on years of homework". The Christian Science Monitor. Retrieved 23 January 2012.
15. ^ Harel and Issacharoff, p. 172
16. ^ "The Final Winograd Commission report, pp. 598–610" (PDF) (in Hebrew). Archived from the original (PDF) on 28 September 2013. Retrieved 23 September 2013. 628 wounded according to Northern Command medical census of 9 November 2006 (The Final Winograd Commission Report, page 353)
17. ^ Cite error: The named reference books.google.com was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
18. ^ Rolling Thunder: A Century of tank Warfare (Pen and Sword, 14 November 2013), by Philip Kaplan, page 172
19. ^ Cordesman & Sullivan 2007, p. 110"Only 5–6 of all types represented a lasting vehicle kill"
20. ^ "Hezbollah Defies Israeli Pressure". BBC News. 21 July 2006.
21. ^ Egozi, Arie (1 August 2006). "Israeli Air Power Falls Short As Offensive in Southern Lebanon Fails To Halt Hezbollah Rocket Attacks". Flight International. Archived from the original on 4 December 2008.
22. ^ Hizbullah shoots down helicopter in southern Lebanon Hanan Greenberg Published: 08.12.06, 23:01, ynetnews
23. ^ Crash grounds Israel helicopters Page last updated at 09:04 GMT, Thursday, 11 September 2008
24. ^ Exclusive: Photos of navy ship hit during war revealed. YnetNews. 10.11.07
25. ^ "Striking Deep Into Israel, Hamas Employs an Upgraded Arsenal" by Mark Mazzetti, The New York Times, 31 December 2008.
26. ^ "State snubbed war victim, family says". ynetnews.com. 30 August 2007. Archived from the original on 2 June 2008. Retrieved 13 July 2008.
27. ^ BBC News Online (8 March 2007). "PM 'says Israel pre-planned war'". Retrieved 9 March 2007.
28. ^ "The Final Winograd Commission report, pp. 598–610" (PDF) (in Hebrew). Archived from the original (PDF) on 28 September 2013. Retrieved 23 September 2013.
29. ^ ^{a b} See Casualties of the 2006 Lebanon War#Foreign civilian casualties in Israel and Casualties of the 2006 Lebanon War#Foreign civilian casualties in Lebanon for a complete and adequately sourced list
30. ^ "Lebanon – Amnesty International Report 2007". Human Rights in Lebanese Republic. Amnesty International. Archived from the original on 17 February 2015.
31. ^ Why They Died: Civilian Casualties in Lebanon during the 2006 War, Human Rights Watch, September 2007
32. ^ Gross, Michael; Gross, Michael L. (2010). Moral Dilemmas of Modern War: Torture, Assassination, and Blackmail in an Age of Asymmetric Conflict. Cambridge University Press. p. 171. ISBN 978-0-521-86615-6.
33. ^ Israel/Lebanon: Out of all proportion – civilians bear the brunt of the war, Amnesty International, November 2006.
34. ^ "Implementation of General Assembly Resolution 60/251 of March 2006 entitled "Human Rights Council"" (PDF). United Nations Human Rights Council. 23 November 2006. Archived from the original (PDF) on 17 June 2013.
35. ^ McRae, D.M.; De Mestral, A.L.C. (2010). The Canadian Yearbook of International Law. UBC Press. ISBN 9780774859172.
36. ^ SIPRI Yearbook 2007: Armaments, Disarmament, And International Security, Oxford University Press, page 69.
37. ^ Yearbook of International Humanitarian Law:Volume 9; Volume 2006. T.M.C Asser Press. 2006. ISBN 978-90-6704-269-7.
38. ^ "United Nations Interim Force in Lebanon (UNIFIL)". United Nations. 6 August 2009. Archived from the original on 10 December 2010. Retrieved 16 January 2011.
39. ^ Arkin, William M. (July 2007). "Divining Victory: Airpower in the 2006 Israel–Hezbollah War". Maxwell Air Force Base, Alabama: Air University Press. Archived from the original on 8 December 2015.
40. ^ See, e.g., Yaakov Katz, "Halutz officers discuss war strategy," The Jerusalem Post, 5 September 2006, p. 2
41. ^ "Iranian complicity in the present Lebanese crisis-July–Aug 2006". Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs. 15 August 2006. Retrieved 16 October 2013.
42. ^ Zisser, Eyal (May 2011). "Iranian Involvement in Lebanon" (PDF). Military and Strategic Affairs. 3 (1). Archived from the original (PDF) on 17 November 2016. Retrieved 8 December 2015.
43. ^ ^{a b} "Clashes spread to Lebanon as Hezbollah raids Israel". International Herald Tribune. 12 July 2006. Archived from the original on 29 January 2009.
44. ^ "Israel buries soldiers recovered in prisoner swap". ABC News. ABC News (Australian Broadcasting Corporation). 18 July 2008. Retrieved 16 January 2011.
45. ^ Myre, Greg; Erlanger, Steven (13 July 2006). "Israelis Enter Lebanon After Attacks". The New York Times.
46. ^ "Israeli warplanes hit Beirut suburb". CNN. 14 July 2006. Retrieved 25 November 2011.
47. ^ Cody, Edward (24 August 2006). "Lebanese Premier Seeks U.S. Help in Lifting Blockade". The Washington Post. Retrieved 25 November 2011.
48. ^ Urquhart, Conal (11 August 2006). "Computerised weaponry and high morale". The Guardian. London. Archived from the original on 30 August 2006. Retrieved 8 October 2006.
49. ^ "Cloud of Syria's war hangs over Lebanese cleric's death". The Independent. Archived from the original on 2 April 2019. Retrieved 20 September 2014.
50. ^ Reuters, 12 September 2006; Al-Hayat (London), 13 September 2006
51. ^ "Country Report—Lebanon," The Economist Intelligence Unit, no. 4 (2006), pp. 3–6.
52. ^ "Lebanon Death Toll Hits 1,300", by Robert Fisk, 17 August 2006, The Independent
53. ^ Israel Vs. Iran: The Shadow War, by Yaakov Katz, (NY 2012), page 17
54. ^ "Lebanon Under Siege". Lebanon Higher Relief Council. 2007. Archived from the original on 27 December 2007.
55. ^ Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs (12 July 2006). "Hizbullah attacks northern Israel and Israel's response"; retrieved 5 March 2007.
56. ^ "Middle East crisis: Facts and Figures". BBC News. 31 August 2006. Archived from the original on 19 July 2008. Retrieved 13 July 2008.
57. ^ "Israel says it will relinquish positions to Lebanese army". USA Today. 15 August 2006. Retrieved 25 November 2011.
58. ^ "Lebanon: UN peacekeepers lay out rules of engagement, including use of force". UN News Centre. 3 October 2006. Retrieved 25 November 2011.
59. ^ Pannell, Ian (9 September 2006). "Lebanon breathes after the blockade". BBC News. Retrieved 13 July 2008.
60. ^ "UN peacekeepers: Israeli troops still in Lebanon". CNN. Retrieved 20 September 2014.
61. ^ Spiegel Online (16 August 2006). "Who Will Disarm Hezbollah?". Retrieved 10 January 2007.
62. ^ People's Daily Online (19 August 2006). "Indonesia refuses to help disarm Hezbollah in Lebanon". Retrieved 10 January 2007.
63. ^ "UN commander says his troops will not disarm Hezbollah". International Herald Tribune. 18 September 2006. Archived from the original on 14 February 2007.
64. ^ Hassan Nasrallah (22 September 2006). "Sayyed Nasrallah Speech on the Divine Victory Rally in Beirut on 22-09-2006". al-Ahed magazine. Retrieved 10 August 2020.
65. ^ "English Summary of the Winograd Commission Report". The New York Times. 30 January 2008. Retrieved 10 August 2020.

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