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This day in .....

Discussion in 'Break Room' started by NewsBot, Apr 6, 2008.

  1. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    17 July 2014Malaysia Airlines Flight 17, a Boeing 777, crashes near the border of Ukraine and Russia after being shot down. All 298 people on board are killed.

    Malaysia Airlines Flight 17

    Malaysia Airlines Flight 17 (MH17/MAS17)[a] was a scheduled passenger flight from Amsterdam to Kuala Lumpur that was shot down by Russian-controlled forces[4][5][6][7] on 17 July 2014, while flying over eastern Ukraine. All 283 passengers and 15 crew were killed.[8] Contact with the aircraft, a Boeing 777-200ER, was lost when it was about 50 kilometres (31 mi; 27 nmi) from the Ukraine–Russia border, and wreckage from the aircraft fell near Hrabove in Donetsk Oblast, Ukraine, 40 km (25 mi; 22 nmi) from the border.[9] The shoot-down occurred during the war in Donbas over territory controlled by Russian separatist forces.[10]

    The responsibility for investigation was delegated to the Dutch Safety Board (DSB) and the Dutch-led joint investigation team (JIT), who in 2016 reported that the airliner had been downed by a Buk surface-to-air missile launched from pro-Russian separatist-controlled territory in Ukraine.[3][11] The JIT found that the Buk originated from the 53rd Anti-Aircraft Missile Brigade of the Russian Federation[12][13] and had been transported from Russia on the day of the crash, fired from a field in a rebel-controlled area and the launch system returned to Russia afterwards.[1][2][12]

    The findings by the DSB and JIT were consistent with the earlier claims by American and German intelligence sources[14][15] and claims by the Ukrainian government.[16] On the basis of the JIT's conclusions, the governments of the Netherlands and Australia held Russia responsible for the deployment of the Buk installation and began pursuing legal remedies in May 2018.[17][18] The Russian government denied involvement in the shooting down of the airplane,[13][19][20] and its account of how the aircraft was shot down has varied over time.[21] Coverage in Russian media has also differed from that in other countries.[22][23]

    On 17 November 2022, following a trial in absentia in the Netherlands, two Russians and a Ukrainian separatist were found guilty of murdering all 298 people on board flight MH17. The Dutch court also ruled that Russia was in control of the separatist forces fighting in eastern Ukraine at the time.[4]

    This was Malaysia Airlines' second aircraft loss during 2014, after the disappearance of Flight 370 four months prior on 8 March,[24] and is the deadliest airliner shoot-down incident to date.[25]

    1. ^ a b Cite error: The named reference SMH JIT was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    2. ^ a b Cite error: The named reference BBC News 28 September 2016 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    3. ^ a b Cite error: The named reference DSB_Final_Report was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    4. ^ a b Rankin, Jennifer (17 November 2022). "Three men found guilty of murdering 298 people in shooting down of MH17". The Guardian. Retrieved 17 November 2022.
    5. ^ "MH17 – Russian SAM battery named as guilty". Royal Aeronautical Society. Retrieved 16 April 2023.
    6. ^ Tanno, Sophie (17 November 2022). "Dutch court finds two Russians, one Ukrainian separatist guilty over downing of flight MH17". CNN. Archived from the original on 22 November 2022. Retrieved 18 November 2022.
    7. ^ Romein, Daniel (23 February 2016). "MH17 - Potential Suspects and Witnesses from the 53rd Anti-Aircraft Missile Brigade". bellingcat. Retrieved 5 May 2023.
    8. ^ Cite error: The named reference dsb1 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    9. ^ Alexander, Harriet (17 July 2014). "Malaysia Airlines plane crashes on Ukraine-Russia border – live". The Daily Telegraph. Archived from the original on 18 July 2014. Retrieved 17 July 2014.
    10. ^ Higgins, Andrew; Clark, Nicola (9 September 2014). "Malaysian Jet Over Ukraine Was Downed by 'High-Energy Objects,' Dutch Investigators Say". The New York Times.
    11. ^ Weaver, Matthew (13 October 2015). "MH17 crash report: Dutch investigators confirm Buk missile hit plane – live updates". The Guardian. Retrieved 13 October 2015.
    12. ^ a b "MH17 missile owned by Russian brigade, investigators say". BBC News. 24 May 2018.
    13. ^ a b Smith-Spark, Laura; Masters, James (24 May 2018). "Missile that downed MH17 'owned by Russian brigade'". CNN.
    14. ^ Bennett, Brian (22 July 2014). "U.S. officials believe attack against Malaysian plane was mistake". Los Angeles Times.
    15. ^ Tharoor, Ishaan (20 July 2014). "The evidence that may prove pro-Russian separatists shot down MH17". The Washington Post. Retrieved 8 September 2014.
    16. ^ "Yatsenyuk: 'We need to survive first'". Kyiv Post. 22 August 2014.
    17. ^ "MH17: The Netherlands and Australia hold Russia responsible". Government of the Netherlands. 25 May 2018. Retrieved 25 May 2018.
    18. ^ Magnay, Jacquelin; Riordan, Primrose (25 May 2018). "MH17 evidence points to 'rogue state' Russia, Tony Abbott says". The Australian. Bunnik. Archived from the original on 6 December 2020.
    19. ^ "Ukraine crisis: Poroshenko offers rebels more autonomy". BBC News. 10 September 2014. Retrieved 19 September 2014.
    20. ^ Sipalan, Joseph (21 June 2019). "Russians made a 'scapegoat' after MH17 report released, says Malaysia PM". The Sydney Morning Herald. Retrieved 23 June 2019.
    21. ^ Cite error: The named reference Belling1518 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    22. ^ Cite error: The named reference UPI22714 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    23. ^ Cite error: The named reference NR20714 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    24. ^ "Media Statement 7: MH17 Incident". Malaysia Airlines. 19 July 2014. Archived from the original on 20 July 2014. Retrieved 19 July 2014.
    25. ^ Cite error: The named reference reuters was invoked but never defined (see the help page).


    Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

     
  2. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    18 July 1841 – Coronation of Emperor Pedro II of Brazil.

    Pedro II of Brazil

    Dom Pedro II (2 December 1825 – 5 December 1891), nicknamed the Magnanimous (Portuguese: O Magnânimo),[1] was the second and last monarch of the Empire of Brazil, reigning for over 58 years.[a]

    Pedro II was born in Rio de Janeiro, the seventh child of Emperor Dom Pedro I of Brazil and Empress Dona Maria Leopoldina and thus a member of the Brazilian branch of the House of Braganza (Portuguese: Bragança). His father's abrupt abdication and departure to Europe in 1831 left the five-year-old as emperor and led to a grim and lonely childhood and adolescence, obliged to spend his time studying in preparation for rule. His experiences with court intrigues and political disputes during this period greatly affected his later character; he grew into a man with a strong sense of duty and devotion toward his country and his people, yet increasingly resentful of his role as monarch.

    Pedro II inherited an empire on the verge of disintegration, but he turned Brazil into an emerging power in the international arena. The nation grew to be distinguished from its Hispanic neighbors on account of its political stability, freedom of speech, respect for civil rights, vibrant economic growth, and form of government—a functional representative parliamentary monarchy. Brazil was also victorious in the Platine War, the Uruguayan War, and the Paraguayan War, as well as prevailing in several other international disputes and domestic tensions. Pedro II pushed through the abolition of slavery despite opposition from powerful political and economic interests. A savant in his own right, the Emperor established a reputation as a vigorous sponsor of learning, culture, and the sciences, and he won the respect and admiration of people such as Charles Darwin, Victor Hugo, and Friedrich Nietzsche, and was a friend to Richard Wagner, Louis Pasteur, and Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, among others.

    There was no desire for a change in the form of government among most Brazilians, but the Emperor was overthrown in a sudden coup d'état that had almost no support outside a clique of military leaders who desired a form of republic headed by a dictator. Pedro II had become weary of emperorship and despaired over the monarchy's future prospects, despite its overwhelming popular support. He did not allow his ouster to be opposed and did not support any attempt to restore the monarchy. He spent the last two years of his life in exile in Europe, living alone on very little money.

    The reign of Pedro II came to an unusual end—he was overthrown while highly regarded by the people and at the pinnacle of his popularity, and some of his accomplishments were soon brought to naught as Brazil slipped into a long period of weak governments, dictatorships, and constitutional and economic crises. The men who had exiled him soon began to see in him a model for the Brazilian Republic. A few decades after his death, his reputation was restored and his remains were returned to Brazil with celebrations nationwide. Historians have regarded the Emperor in an overwhelmingly positive light and several have ranked him as the greatest Brazilian.

    1. ^ Barman 1999, p. 85.


    Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

     
  3. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    19 July 1553Lady Jane Grey is replaced by Mary I of England as Queen of England after only nine days on the throne.

    Lady Jane Grey

    Lady Jane Grey (c. 1537 – 12 February 1554), also known as Lady Jane Dudley after her marriage[3] and as the "Nine Days' Queen",[6] was an English noblewoman who claimed the throne of England and Ireland from 10 to 19 July 1553.

    Jane was the great-granddaughter of King Henry VII through his daughter, Mary Tudor, and was therefore a grandniece of King Henry VIII, and a first cousin once removed of Edward VI, Mary I and Elizabeth I. She had an excellent humanist education, and a reputation as one of the most learned young women of her day.[7] In May 1553, she married Lord Guildford Dudley, a younger son of Edward VI's chief minister John Dudley, Duke of Northumberland. In June 1553, the dying Edward VI wrote his will, nominating Jane and her male heirs as successors to the Crown, in part because his half-sister Mary was Catholic, while Jane was a committed Protestant and would support the reformed Church of England, whose foundation Edward laid. The will removed his half-sisters, Mary and Elizabeth, from the line of succession on account of their illegitimacy, subverting their claims under the Third Succession Act.

    After Edward's death, Jane was proclaimed queen on 10 July 1553, and awaited coronation in the Tower of London. Support for Mary grew quickly, and most of Jane's supporters abandoned her. The Privy Council of England suddenly changed sides, and proclaimed Mary as queen on 19 July 1553, deposing Jane. Her primary supporter, her father-in-law, the Duke of Northumberland, was accused of treason, and executed less than a month later. Jane was held prisoner in the Tower, and in November 1553 was also convicted of treason, which carried a sentence of death.

    Mary initially spared her life; however, Jane soon became viewed as a threat to the Crown when her father, Henry Grey, 1st Duke of Suffolk, became involved with Wyatt's rebellion against Queen Mary's intention to marry Philip of Spain. Jane and her husband were executed on 12 February 1554. At the time of her execution, Jane was either 16 or 17 years old.

    1. ^ Williamson, David (2010). Kings & Queens. National Portrait Gallery Publications. p. 95. ISBN 978-1-85514-432-3
    2. ^ Ives 2009, p. 36; Florio 1607, p. 68
    3. ^ a b Cite error: The named reference ODNB was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    4. ^ "Lady Jane Grey | Biography, Facts, & Execution". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 10 July 2021.
    5. ^ Cite error: The named reference potter was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    6. ^ Ives 2009, p. 2
    7. ^ Ascham 1863, p. 213
     
  4. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    20 July 1189Richard I of England officially invested as Duke of Normandy.

    Duke of Normandy

    Family tree of the early dukes of Normandy and Norman kings of England

    In the Middle Ages, the duke of Normandy was the ruler of the Duchy of Normandy in north-western France. The duchy arose out of a grant of land to the Viking leader Rollo by the French king Charles the Simple in 911. In 924 and again in 933, Normandy was expanded by royal grant. Rollo's male-line descendants continued to rule it until 1135, and cognatic descendants ruled it until 1204. In 1202 the French king Philip II declared Normandy a forfeited fief and by 1204 his army had conquered it. It remained a French royal province thereafter, still called the Duchy of Normandy, but only occasionally granted to a duke of the royal house as an appanage.

    Despite both the 13th century loss of mainland Normandy, the renunciation of the title by Henry III of England in the Treaty of Paris (1259),[1] and the extinction of the duchy itself in modern-day, republican France, in the Channel Islands the monarch of the United Kingdom is regardless still sometimes informally referred to by the title "Duke of Normandy". This is the title used whether the monarch is a king or a queen.

    1. ^ "The historical background and the 'Lands of the Normans'". The Digital Humanities Institute. University of Sheffield.
     
  5. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    21 July 2005July 2005 London bombings occur.

    21 July 2005 London bombings

    On Thursday, 21 July 2005, four attempted bomb attacks by Islamist extremists disrupted part of London's public transport system as a follow-up attack from the 7 July 2005 London bombings that occurred two weeks earlier. The explosions occurred around midday at Shepherd's Bush, Warren Street and Oval stations on the London Underground, and on London Buses route 26 in Haggerston on Hackney Road. A fifth bomber dumped his device without attempting to set it off.[1][2]

    Connecting lines and stations were closed and evacuated. Metropolitan Police later said the intention was to cause large-scale loss of life, but only the detonators of the bombs exploded, probably causing the popping sounds reported by witnesses, and only one minor injury was reported. The suspects fled the scenes after their bombs failed to explode.

    On Friday, 22 July 2005, CCTV images of four suspects wanted in connection with the bombings were released.[3] Two of the men shown in these images were identified by police on Monday, 25 July 2005 as Muktar Said Ibrahim and Yasin Hassan Omar.[4] The resultant manhunt was described by the Metropolitan police commissioner Sir Ian Blair as "the greatest operational challenge ever faced" by the Met.[5] During the manhunt, police misidentified Jean Charles de Menezes as one of the suspected bombers and shot and killed him.[6]

    By 29 July 2005, police had arrested all four of the main bombing suspects from the 21 July attempted bombings. Yasin Hassan Omar was arrested by police on 27 July, in Birmingham. On 29 July, two more suspects were arrested in London. A fourth suspect, Osman Hussein, was arrested in Rome, Italy, and later extradited to the UK.[7][8] Police also arrested numerous other people in the course of their investigations.

    On 9 July 2007, four defendants, Muktar Saáid Ibrahim, 29, Yasin Hassan Omar, 26, Ramzi Mohammed, 25, and Hussain Osman, 28, were found guilty of conspiracy to murder.[9] The four attempted bombers were each sentenced to life imprisonment, with a minimum of 40 years' imprisonment.[10]

    1. ^ "21 July: Attacks, escapes and arrests". BBC News. 11 July 2007. Archived from the original on 7 February 2008.
    2. ^ "Jailed preacher, Mohammed Hamid, who trained 21/7 bombers 'linked'". The Independent. 31 May 2013. Archived from the original on 11 November 2020. Retrieved 27 September 2020. One of the suspects in the murder of Drummer Lee Rigby is believed to have had contact with a 'terrorist instructor' now in prison for running military-style training camps which were used by Islamist extremists including the 21/7 London bombers, The Independent has learnt.
    3. ^ "London alerts: At-a-glance". BBC News. 29 July 2005. Archived from the original on 2 June 2009.
    4. ^ "Timeline: London bombing developments". BBC News. 1 November 2005. Archived from the original on 10 January 2008.
    5. ^ "London alerts: At-a-glance". BBC News. 29 July 2005. (Timeline for 22 July 2005 at 15:31). Archived from the original on 7 July 2015. Retrieved 7 July 2015. Metropolitan Police Commissioner Sir Ian Blair describes the investigation into the London bombings as 'the greatest operational challenge ever faced' by the Met.
    6. ^ "What happened: Death of Jean Charles de Menezes". BBC News. 1 November 2007. Archived from the original on 22 October 2009. Retrieved 5 January 2010.
    7. ^ "Bomb Suspect May Spend Months in Rome". Sky UK. 31 July 2005. Archived from the original on 20 December 2010. Retrieved 13 August 2010.
    8. ^ "Police hold four 21 July suspects". BBC News. 30 July 2005. Archived from the original on 20 September 2007.
    9. ^ "Four guilty over 21/7 bomb plot". BBC News. 10 July 2007. Archived from the original on 29 January 2009. Retrieved 13 August 2010.
    10. ^ Percival, Jenny (11 July 2007). "Patient wait for life behind bars". BBC News. Archived from the original on 27 April 2008.
     
  6. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    22 July 2003 – Members of 101st Airborne of the United States, aided by Special Forces, attack a compound in Iraq, killing Saddam Hussein's sons Uday and Qusay, along with Mustapha Hussein, Qusay's 14-year-old son, and a bodyguard.

    Saddam Hussein

    Saddam Hussein Abd al-Majid al-Tikriti[c] (28 April 1937 – 30 December 2006) was an Iraqi politician and revolutionary who served as the fifth president of Iraq from 1979 to 2003. He also served as prime minister of Iraq from 1979 to 1991 and later from 1994 to 2003. He was a leading member of the revolutionary Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party, and later, the Baghdad-based Ba'ath Party and its regional organization, the Iraqi Ba'ath Party, which espoused Ba'athism, a mix of Arab nationalism and Arab socialism.

    Saddam was born in the village of Al-Awja, near Tikrit in northern Iraq, to a peasant Sunni Arab family.[8] He joined the Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party in 1957, and the Baghdad-based Ba'ath Party, and its regional organization, the Iraqi Ba'ath Party. He played a key role in the 17 July Revolution and was appointed vice president by Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr. During his time as vice president, Saddam nationalised the Iraq Petroleum Company, diversifying the Iraqi economy. He presided over the Second Iraqi–Kurdish War (1974–1975). Following al-Bakr's resignation in 1979, Saddam formally took power, although he had already been the de facto head of Iraq for several years. Positions of power in the country were mostly filled with Sunni Arabs, a minority that made up about a fifth of the population.[9]

    Upon taking office, Saddam instituted the Ba'ath Party Purge. Saddam ordered the 1980 invasion of Iran in a purported effort to capture Iran's Arab-majority Khuzistan province and thwart Iranian attempts to export their own 1979 revolution. The Iran–Iraq War ended after nearly eight years in a ceasefire after a gruelling stalemate that cost somewhere around a million lives and economic losses of $561 billion in Iraq. At the end of the war he carried out the brutal Anfal campaign against Kurds, recognized by Human Rights Watch as an act of genocide. Later, Saddam accused its ally Kuwait of slant-drilling Iraqi oil fields and occupied Kuwait, initiating the Gulf War (1990–1991). Iraq was defeated by a multinational coalition led by the United States. The United Nations subsequently placed sanctions against Iraq. Saddam suppressed the 1991 Iraqi uprisings of the Kurds and Shia Muslims, which sought to gain independence or overthrow the government. Saddam adopted an anti-American stance and established the Faith Campaign, pursuing an Islamist agenda in Iraq. Saddam's rule was marked by numerous human rights abuses, including an estimated 250,000 arbitrary deaths and disappearances.

    In 2003, the United States and its allies invaded Iraq, falsely accusing Saddam of developing weapons of mass destruction and of having ties with al-Qaeda. The Ba'ath Party was banned and Saddam went into hiding. After his capture on 13 December 2003, his trial took place under the Iraqi Interim Government. On 5 November 2006, Saddam was convicted by the Iraqi High Tribunal of crimes against humanity related to the 1982 killing of 148 Iraqi Shi'a and sentenced to death by hanging. He was executed on 30 December 2006.

    Saddam has been accused of running a repressive authoritarian government, which several analysts have described as totalitarian, although the applicability of that label has been contested.

    1. ^ Con Coughlin, Saddam: The Secret Life Pan Books, 2003 (ISBN 978-0-330-39310-2).
    2. ^ "National Progressive Front". Encyclopædia Britannica.
    3. ^ Eur (2002). The Middle East and North Africa 2003. Psychology Press. p. 494. ISBN 978-1-85743-132-2.
    4. ^ من الأرشيف: إذاعة أم المعارك 1991م (in Arabic), retrieved 11 January 2023
    5. ^ Shewchuk, Blair (February 2003). "Saddam or Mr. Hussein?". CBC News. This brings us to the first, and primary, reason many newsrooms use "Saddam" – it's how he's known throughout Iraq and the rest of the Middle East.
    6. ^ Burns, John F. (2 July 2004). "Defiant Hussein Rebukes Iraqi Court for Trying Him". The New York Times. Retrieved 2 July 2004.
    7. ^ "Saddam Hussein". Encyclopædia Britannica. 29 May 2023.
    8. ^ "Saddam Hussein". Oxford Reference. Retrieved 17 December 2023.
    9. ^ Karsh, Efraim; Rautsi, Inari (2002). Saddam Hussein: A Political Biography. Grove Press. p. 38. ISBN 978-0-8021-3978-8.


    Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

     
  7. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    23 July 1903 – The Ford Motor Company sells its first car.

    Ford Motor Company

    Ford Motor Company (commonly known as Ford) is an American multinational automobile manufacturer headquartered in Dearborn, Michigan, United States. It was founded by Henry Ford and incorporated on June 16, 1903. The company sells automobiles and commercial vehicles under the Ford brand, and luxury cars under its Lincoln brand. Ford also owns a 32% stake in China's Jiangling Motors.[7] It also has joint ventures in China (Changan Ford), Taiwan (Ford Lio Ho), Thailand (AutoAlliance Thailand), and Turkey (Ford Otosan). The company is listed on the New York Stock Exchange and is controlled by the Ford family; they have minority ownership but the majority of the voting power.[5][8]

    Ford introduced methods for large-scale manufacturing of cars and large-scale management of an industrial workforce using elaborately engineered manufacturing sequences typified by moving assembly lines; by 1914, these methods were known around the world as Fordism. Ford's former UK subsidiaries Jaguar and Land Rover, acquired in 1989 and 2000, respectively, were sold to the Indian automaker Tata Motors in March 2008. Ford owned the Swedish automaker Volvo from 1999 to 2010.[9] In the third quarter of 2010, Ford discontinued the Mercury brand, under which it had marketed upscale cars in the United States, Canada, Mexico, and the Middle East since 1938.[10]

    Ford is the second-largest U.S.-based automaker (behind General Motors) and the sixth-largest in the world (behind Toyota, Volkswagen Group, Hyundai Motor Group, Stellantis, and General Motors) based on 2022 vehicle production.[11] At the end of 2010, Ford was the fifth-largest automaker in Europe.[12] The company went public in 1956 but the Ford family, through special Class B shares, still retain 40 percent of the voting rights.[5][13] During the financial crisis of 2007–08, the company struggled financially but did not have to be rescued by the federal government, unlike the other two major US automakers.[14][15] Ford Motors has since returned to profitability,[16] and was the eleventh-ranked overall American-based company in the 2018 Fortune 500 list, based on global revenues in 2017 of $156.7 billion.[17] In 2008, Ford produced 5.532 million automobiles[18] and employed about 213,000 employees at around 90 plants and facilities worldwide.

    1. ^ Hyde, Charles K. (June 2005). "National Historic Landmark Nomination – Ford Piquette Avenue Plant" (PDF). National Park Service. p. 11. Archived from the original (PDF) on February 22, 2017. Retrieved August 18, 2017.
    2. ^ "Ford Motor Company 2021 Annual Form 8-K Report" (PDF). cloudfront.net. December 31, 2021. Retrieved February 4, 2022.
    3. ^ "Ford Motor Company 2023 Annual Report (Form 10-K)". U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission. February 7, 2024. Retrieved February 11, 2024.
    4. ^ "Ford Motor Company: Shareholders, managers and business summary". 4-Traders. France. Archived from the original on July 18, 2018. Retrieved May 15, 2016.
    5. ^ a b c Rogers, Christina (May 12, 2016). "Shareholders Again Back Ford Family". The Wall Street Journal. Archived from the original on September 30, 2019. Retrieved September 16, 2016.
    6. ^ Howard, Phoebe Wall (March 2, 2022). "Ford reveals radical plan to restructure automaker into three business units". Detroit Free Press. Retrieved March 3, 2022.
    7. ^ "Jiangling Motors Corporation, Ltd. 2017 Annual Report" (PDF). JMC. pp. 27, 29. Archived from the original (PDF) on April 12, 2019. Retrieved February 1, 2019 – via Sohu.
    8. ^ Muller, Joann (December 2, 2010). "Ford Family's Stake Is Smaller, But They're Richer And Still Firmly In Control". Forbes. Archived from the original on June 20, 2019. Retrieved August 31, 2016.
    9. ^ "Ford Motor Company Completes Sale of Volvo to Geely" (Press release). Ford Motor Company. August 2, 2010. Archived from the original on August 3, 2010. Retrieved August 2, 2010.
    10. ^ Maynard, Micheline (June 2, 2010). "Ford to End Production of Its Mercury Line". The New York Times.
    11. ^ "Worldwide car sales by manufacturer".
    12. ^ "New Passenger Car Registrations by Manufacturer European Union (EU)". ACEA. Archived from the original on September 27, 2011. Retrieved January 28, 2011.
    13. ^ Muller, Joann (March 9, 2014). "William Clay Ford's Legacy Cemented Family's Dynasty". Forbes. Archived from the original on November 16, 2018. Retrieved August 28, 2017.
    14. ^ "Bush announces $17.4 billion auto bailout". Politico. December 19, 2008. Retrieved April 8, 2022.
    15. ^ "Stopgap auto bailout to help GM, Chrysler". CNN Money. December 19, 2008. Retrieved April 8, 2022.
    16. ^ Hammond, Lou Ann (January 13, 2011). "How Ford stayed strong through the financial crisis". Fortune. Archived from the original on July 2, 2018. Retrieved December 20, 2017.
    17. ^ "Ford Motor". Fortune. Archived from the original on August 23, 2019. Retrieved November 9, 2018.
    18. ^ "Ford Motor Company / 2008 Annual Report, Operating Highlights" (PDF). p. 1. Archived from the original (PDF) on April 19, 2011. Retrieved September 19, 2010.
     
  8. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    24 July 1977 – End of a four-day-long Libyan–Egyptian War.

    Libyan–Egyptian War

     
  9. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    25 July 2007Pratibha Patil is sworn in as India's first female president.

    Pratibha Patil

    Prathibha Devisingh Patil (born 19 December 1934) is an Indian politician and lawyer who served as the 12th president of India from 2007 to 2012. She was the first woman to become the president of India. A member of the Indian National Congress, she previously served as the Governor of Rajasthan from 2004 to 2007, and was a member of the Lok Sabha from 1991 to 1996.

     
  10. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    26 July 1814 – The Swedish–Norwegian War begins.

    Swedish–Norwegian War (1814)

     
  11. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    27 July 1694 – A Royal charter is granted to the Bank of England.

    Royal charter

    Charter granted by King George IV in 1827, establishing King's College, Toronto, now the University of Toronto
    Coloured engraving by H. D. Smith, commemorating the grant of a charter in 1829 to King's College, London

    A royal charter is a formal grant issued by a monarch under royal prerogative as letters patent. Historically, they have been used to promulgate public laws, the most famous example being the English Magna Carta (great charter) of 1215, but since the 14th century have only been used in place of private acts to grant a right or power to an individual or a body corporate.[1][2][3] They were, and are still, used to establish significant organisations such as boroughs (with municipal charters), universities and learned societies.

    Charters should be distinguished from royal warrants of appointment, grants of arms and other forms of letters patent, such as those granting an organisation the right to use the word "royal" in their name or granting city status, which do not have legislative effect.[4][5][6][7] The British monarchy has issued over 1,000 royal charters.[5] Of these about 750 remain in existence.

    The earliest charter recorded on the UK government's list was granted to the University of Cambridge by Henry III of England in 1231,[8] although older charters are known to have existed including to the Worshipful Company of Weavers in England in 1150[9] and to the town of Tain in Scotland in 1066.[10] Charters continue to be issued by the British Crown, a recent example being that awarded to the Chartered Institute of Legal Executives (CILEX), and the Chartered Institute of Ergonomics and Human Factors, in 2014.[11]

    1. ^ "Charter". The Supplement to the Penny Cyclopaedia of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge. Vol. 1. Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge. 1845. pp. 331–332.
    2. ^ "Magna Carta 1215". British Library. Retrieved 3 February 2019.
    3. ^ Peter Crooks (July 2015). "Exporting Magna Carta: exclusionary liberties in Ireland and the world". History Ireland. 23 (4).
    4. ^ "Granting arms". College of Arms. Retrieved 3 February 2019.
    5. ^ a b "Royal Charters". Privy Council. Retrieved 31 December 2023.
    6. ^ "Guidance: Applications for Protected Royal Titles" (PDF). royal.uk. Archived (PDF) from the original on 4 May 2017. Retrieved 3 February 2019.
    7. ^ "Chelmsford to receive Letters Patent granting city status". BBC News. 6 June 2012.
    8. ^ "List of chartered bodies". Privy Council. Retrieved 30 January 2019.
    9. ^ "Guide to the Worshipful Company of Weavers Charter 1707". University of Chicago. Retrieved 30 January 2019.
    10. ^ "History and Heritage". Visit Tain. Archived from the original on 30 January 2019. Retrieved 30 January 2019.
    11. ^ "CIEHF Documents". The Chartered Institute of Ergonomics and Human Factors. Retrieved 3 February 2019.
     
  12. Admin2

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    28 July 1896 – The city of Miami, Florida is incorporated.

    Miami

    Miami (/mˈæmi/ my-AM-ee, obscure or dated /mˈæmə/ my-AM-uh), officially the City of Miami, is a coastal metropolis in the U.S. state of Florida and the seat of Miami-Dade County in South Florida. With a population of 442,241 as of the 2020 census,[6] it is the second-most populous city in Florida after Jacksonville. It is the core of the much larger Miami metropolitan area, which, with a population of 6.14 million, is the second-largest metropolitan area in the Southeast after Atlanta, and the ninth-largest in the United States.[9] Miami has the third-largest skyline in the U.S. with over 300 high-rises,[11] 58 of which exceed 491 ft (150 m).[12]

    Miami is a major center and leader in finance, commerce, culture, arts, and international trade.[13][14] Miami's metropolitan area is by far the largest urban economy in Florida, with a gross domestic product of $344.9 billion as of 2017.[15] According to a 2018 UBS study of 77 world cities, Miami is the third-richest city in the U.S. and the third-richest globally in purchasing power.[16] Miami is a majority-minority city with a Hispanic and Latino population of 310,472, or 70.2 percent of the city's population, as of 2020.[17]

    Downtown Miami has among the largest concentrations of international banks in the U.S. and is home to several large national and international companies.[18] The Health District is home to several major University of Miami-affiliated hospital and health facilities, including Jackson Memorial Hospital, the nation's largest hospital with 1,547 beds,[19] and the Leonard M. Miller School of Medicine, the University of Miami's academic medical center and teaching hospital, and others engaged in health-related care and research. PortMiami, the city's seaport, is the busiest cruise port in the world in both passenger traffic and cruise lines.[20] The Miami metropolitan area is the second-most visited city or metropolitan statistical area in the U.S. after New York City, with over 4 million visitors as of 2022.[21] Miami has sometimes been called the "Gateway to Latin America" because of the magnitude of its commercial and cultural ties to the region.[22] In 2022, Miami ranked seventh in the U.S. in business activity, human capital, information exchange, cultural experience, and political engagement.[23]

    1. ^ "Miami: the Capital of Latin America". Time. December 2, 1993. Archived from the original on December 24, 2007.
    2. ^ "US Gazetteer files: 2020". United States Census Bureau. March 25, 2021. Retrieved March 25, 2021.
    3. ^ George, Paul S. (1996). "Miami: Three Hundred Years of History". HistoryMiami. Archived from the original on July 28, 2021. Retrieved May 28, 2021.
    4. ^ Shappee, Nathan D. (1961). "Fort Dallas and the Naval Depot on Key Biscayne, 1836–1926" (PDF). Tequesta. 21: 13–40. Archived from the original (PDF) on August 26, 2021. Retrieved May 28, 2021 – via Florida International University Digital Collections.
    5. ^ "2020 U.S. Gazetteer Files". United States Census Bureau. Retrieved October 31, 2021.
    6. ^ a b "P2: HISPANIC OR LATINO, AND NOT ... - Census Bureau Table". P2 | HISPANIC OR LATINO, AND NOT HISPANIC OR LATINO BY RACE. U.S. Census Bureau. Retrieved March 21, 2023.
    7. ^ "Annual Estimates of the Resident Population for Incorporated Places in Florida: April 1, 2020 to July 1, 2022". Florida. U.S. Census Bureau. May 2023. Retrieved May 27, 2023.
    8. ^ "List of 2020 Census Urban Areas". census.gov. United States Census Bureau. Retrieved January 8, 2023.
    9. ^ a b "2020 Population and Housing State Data". United States Census Bureau. Retrieved August 22, 2021.
    10. ^ "Total Gross Domestic Product for Miami-Fort Lauderdale-West Palm Beach, FL (MSA)". fred.stlouisfed.org.
    11. ^ "US Cities With the Most Skyscrapers". WorldAtlas. February 6, 2018. Retrieved June 18, 2019.
    12. ^ "The Skyscraper Center: Buildings in Miami". skyscrapercenter.com. CTBUH. Retrieved June 18, 2019.
    13. ^ "The World According to GaWC 2008". Globalization and World Cities Study Group and Network, Loughborough University. Retrieved March 3, 2009.
    14. ^ "Inventory of World Cities". Globalization and World Cities (GaWC) Study Group and Network. Archived from the original on October 14, 2013. Retrieved December 1, 2007.
    15. ^ "Gross Domestic Product by Metropolitan Area, 2017" (PDF). Bea.gov. Retrieved October 23, 2018.
    16. ^ "City Mayors: Richest cities in the world". www.citymayors.com. Retrieved June 18, 2019.
    17. ^ "P2: HISPANIC OR LATINO, AND NOT HISPANIC OR LATINO BY RACE". 2020 Census. United States Census Bureau. Retrieved October 10, 2021.
    18. ^ Beyer, Scott. "Welcome To Brickell, Miami's 'Wall Street South'". Forbes. Retrieved June 18, 2019.
    19. ^ "100 of the largest hospitals and health systems in America". Becker's Hospital Review. July 2010.
    20. ^ "PortMiami 2017 Cruise Guide" (PDF).
    21. ^ "US Cities and States Visited by Overseas Travelers". International Trade Administration. September 27, 2023. Retrieved February 20, 2024.
    22. ^ "Florida: Gateway to Latin America and the Caribbean" (PDF). September 2017. Archived (PDF) from the original on July 7, 2021. Retrieved November 29, 2021.
    23. ^ "2019 Global Cities Report". ATKearney.


    Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

     
  13. Admin2

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    29 July 1957 – The International Atomic Energy Agency is established.

    International Atomic Energy Agency

    International Atomic Energy Agency is located in Earth
    Vienna (HQ)
    Vienna (HQ)
    New York
    New York
    Geneva
    Geneva
    Seibersdorf
    Seibersdorf
    Monaco
    Monaco
    Toronto
    Toronto
    Tokyo
    Tokyo
    Trieste
    Trieste
    IAEA's worldwide sites:[3]

    In Europe:

    In North America:

    In Asia:

    • Tokyo – Regional Safeguard Office

    The International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) is an intergovernmental organization that seeks to promote the peaceful use of nuclear energy and to inhibit its use for any military purpose, including nuclear weapons. It was established in 1957 as an autonomous organization within the United Nations system;[4][5] though governed by its own founding treaty, the organization reports to both the General Assembly and the Security Council of the United Nations, and is headquartered at the UN Office at Vienna, Austria.

    The IAEA was created in response to growing international concern toward nuclear weapons, especially amid rising tensions between the foremost nuclear powers, the United States and the Soviet Union.[4] U.S. President Dwight D. Eisenhower's "Atoms for Peace" speech, which called for the creation of an international organization to monitor the global proliferation of nuclear resources and technology, is credited with catalyzing the formation of the IAEA, whose treaty came into force on 29 July 1957 upon U.S. ratification.

    The IAEA serves as an intergovernmental forum for scientific and technical cooperation on the peaceful use of nuclear technology and nuclear power worldwide. It maintains several programs that encourage the development of peaceful applications of nuclear energy, science, and technology; provide international safeguards against misuse of nuclear technology and nuclear materials; and promote and implement nuclear safety (including radiation protection) and nuclear security standards. The organization also conducts research in nuclear science and provides technical support and training in nuclear technology to countries worldwide, particularly in the developing world.[6]

    Following the ratification of the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons in 1968, all non-nuclear powers are required to negotiate a safeguards agreement with the IAEA, which is given the authority to monitor nuclear programs and to inspect nuclear facilities. In 2005, the IAEA and its administrative head, Director General Mohamed ElBaradei, were awarded the Nobel Peace Prize "for their efforts to prevent nuclear energy from being used for military purposes and to ensure that nuclear energy for peaceful purposes is used in the safest possible way".[7]

    1. ^ "List of Member States". www.iaea.org. 8 June 2016.
    2. ^ "Employees & Staff: Strength Through Diversity". www.iaea.org. 16 May 2014.
    3. ^ Cite error: The named reference Offices was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    4. ^ a b "History". IAEA. 8 June 2016. Retrieved 8 September 2022.
    5. ^ IAEA Factsheet, Archived 13 April 2016 at the Wayback Machine, Review Conference of the Parties to the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons (2015)
    6. ^ "International Atomic Energy Agency". Britannica. Retrieved 8 September 2022.
    7. ^ Nations, United. "2005 - International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) and Mohamed ElBaradei". United Nations.
     
  14. Admin2

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    3o July 1626 – An earthquake in Naples, Italy, kills about 10,000 people.

    1626 Naples earthquake

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  15. Admin2

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    31 July 1588 – The Spanish Armada is spotted off the coast of England.

    Spanish Armada

    The Spanish Armada (a.k.a. the Invincible Armada or the Enterprise of England, Spanish: Grande y Felicísima Armada, lit.'Great and Most Fortunate Navy') was a Spanish fleet that sailed from Lisbon in late May 1588, commanded by the Alonso de Guzmán, Duke of Medina Sidonia, an aristocrat without previous naval experience appointed by Philip II of Spain. His orders were to sail up the English Channel, join with the Duke of Parma in Flanders, and escort an invasion force that would land in England and overthrow Elizabeth I. Its purpose was to reinstate Catholicism in England, end support for the Dutch Republic, and prevent attacks by English and Dutch privateers against Spanish interests in the Americas.

    The Spanish were opposed by an English fleet based in Plymouth. Faster and more manoeuvrable than the larger Spanish galleons, they were able to attack the Armada as it sailed up the Channel. Several subordinates advised Medina Sidonia to anchor in The Solent and occupy the Isle of Wight, but he refused to deviate from his instructions to join with Parma. Although the Armada reached Calais largely intact, while awaiting communication from Parma, it was attacked at night by English fire ships and forced to scatter. The Armada suffered further losses in the ensuing Battle of Gravelines, and was in danger of running aground on the Dutch coast when the wind changed, allowing it to escape into the North Sea. Pursued by the English, the Spanish ships returned home via Scotland and Ireland. Up to 24 ships were wrecked along the way before the rest managed to get home. Among the factors contributing to the defeat and withdrawal of the Armada were bad weather conditions and the better employment of naval guns and battle tactics by the English.

    The expedition was the largest engagement of the undeclared Anglo-Spanish War. The following year, England organized a similar large-scale campaign against Spain, known as the "English Armada", and sometimes called the "counter-Armada of 1589", which failed. Three further Spanish armadas were sent against England and Ireland in 1596, 1597, and 1601,[23] but these likewise ended in failure.

    1. ^ Mattingly p. 401: "the defeat of the Spanish armada really was decisive"
    2. ^ Parker & Martin p. 5: "an unmitigated disaster"
    3. ^ Vego p. 148: "the decisive defeat of the Spanish armada"
    4. ^ a b Martin & Parker 1999, p. 40.
    5. ^ a b Martin & Parker 1999, p. 65.
    6. ^ a b c d Casado Soto 1991, p. 117.
    7. ^ Kinard, Jeff. Artillery: An Illustrated History of Its Impact. p. 92.
    8. ^ Burke, Peter. The New Cambridge Modern History: Volume 13, Companion Volume.
    9. ^ Martin & Parker 1999, pp. 60–63.
    10. ^ Kamen, Henry (2014). Spain, 1469–1714: A Society of Conflict. Routledge. p. 123.
    11. ^ Martin & Parker 1999, p. 94.
    12. ^ Lewis 1960, p. 184.
    13. ^ John Knox Laughton,State Papers Relating to the Defeat of the Spanish Armada, Anno 1588, printed for the Navy Records Society, MDCCCXCV, Vol. II, pp. 8–9, Wynter to Walsyngham: indicates that the ships used as fire-ships were drawn from those at hand in the fleet and not hulks from Dover.
    14. ^ Bicheno 2012, p. 262.
    15. ^ Lewis 1960, p. 182.
    16. ^ Aubrey N. Newman, David T. Johnson, P.M. Jones (1985) The Eighteenth Century Annual Bulletin of Historical Literature 69 (1), 108 doi:10.1111/j.1467-8314.1985.tb00698.
    17. ^ Casado Soto 1991, p. 122.
    18. ^ Mattingly 2005, p. 426.
    19. ^ Lewis 1960, p. 208.
    20. ^ Gracia Rivas, Manuel: The Medical Services of the ‘’Gran Armada’’, in Rodríguez-Salgado, M. J. and Simon Adams (eds.): "England, Spain and the Gran Armada, 1585–1604". Barnes & Noble, 1991. ISBN 0389209554, p. 212
    21. ^ Lewis 1960, pp. 208–209.
    22. ^ Hanson 2011, p. 563.
    23. ^ Graham 1972, pp. 258–61.
     
  16. Admin2

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    1 August 1936 – The Olympics opened in Berlin with a ceremony presided over by Adolf Hitler.

    1936 Summer Olympics

    The 1936 Summer Olympics (German: Olympische Sommerspiele 1936), officially known as the Games of the XI Olympiad (German: Spiele der XI. Olympiade) and commonly known as Berlin 1936, was an international multi-sport event held from 1 to 16 August 1936 in Berlin, Germany. Berlin won the bid to host the Games over Barcelona at the 29th IOC Session on 26 April 1931. The 1936 Games marked the second and most recent time the International Olympic Committee gathered to vote in a city that was bidding to host those Games. Later rule modifications forbade cities hosting the bid vote from being awarded the games.

    To outdo the 1932 Los Angeles Games, Reichsführer Adolf Hitler had a new 100,000-seat track and field stadium built, as well as six gymnasiums and other smaller arenas. The Games were the first to be televised, with radio broadcasts reaching 41 countries.[2] Filmmaker Leni Riefenstahl was commissioned by the German Olympic Committee to film the Games for $7 million.[2] Her film, titled Olympia, pioneered many of the techniques now common in the filming of sports.

    Hitler saw the 1936 Games as an opportunity to promote his government and ideals of racial supremacy and antisemitism, and the official Nazi Party paper, the Völkischer Beobachter, wrote in the strongest terms that Jews should not be allowed to participate in the Games.[3][4] German Jewish athletes were barred or prevented from taking part in the Games by a variety of methods,[5] although some female swimmers from the Jewish sports club Hakoah Vienna did participate. Jewish athletes from other countries were said to have been sidelined to avoid offending the Nazi regime.[6] Lithuania was expelled from the Olympic Games due to Berlin's position regarding Lithuanian anti-Nazi policy, particularly because of the Trial of Neumann and Sass in Klaipėda, Lithuania, in 1934–1935.[7]

    Total ticket revenues were 7.5 million Reichsmark, for a profit of over one million R.M. The official budget did not include outlays by the city of Berlin (which issued an itemized report detailing its costs of 16.5 million R.M.) or the outlays of the German national government (which did not make its costs public, but is estimated to have spent US$30 million).[8]

    Jesse Owens of the United States won four gold medals in the sprint and long jump events, and became the most successful athlete to compete in Berlin, while Germany was the most successful country overall with 101 medals (38 of them gold); the United States placed a distant second with 57 medals. These were the final Olympic Games under the presidency of Henri de Baillet-Latour. For the next 12 years, no Olympic Games were held due to the immense world disruption caused by the Second World War. The next Olympic Games were held in 1948 (the Winter Games in St. Moritz, Switzerland and then the Summer Games in London, England, United Kingdom).

    1. ^ a b "Factsheet - Opening Ceremony of the Games f the Olympiad" (PDF) (Press release). International Olympic Committee. 13 September 2013. Archived (PDF) from the original on 14 August 2016. Retrieved 22 December 2018.
    2. ^ a b Rader, Benjamin G. "American Sports: From the Age of Folk Games to the Age of Televised Sports" --5th Ed.
    3. ^ Nagorski, Andrew. Hitlerland: American Eyewitnesses to the Nazi Rise to Power. New York: Simon and Schuster, 2012, p. 188.
    4. ^ David Clay Large, Nazi Games: The Olympics of 1936, p. 58.
    5. ^ "The Nazi Olympics Berlin 1936". Ushmm.org. United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. Retrieved 7 October 2016.
    6. ^ "Jewish Athletes – Marty Glickman & Sam Stoller". Ushmm.org. United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. Retrieved 7 October 2016. A controversial move at the Games was the benching of two American Jewish runners, Marty Glickman and Sam Stoller. Both had trained for the 4x100-meter relay, but on the day before the event, they were replaced by Jesse Owens and Ralph Metcalfe, the team's two fastest sprinters. Various reasons were given for the change. The coaches claimed they needed their fastest runners to win the race. Glickman has said that Coach Dean Cromwell and Avery Brundage were motivated by antisemitism and the desire to spare the Führer the embarrassing sight of two American Jews on the winning podium. Stoller did not believe antisemitism was involved, but the 21-year-old described the incident in his diary as the "most humiliating episode" in his life.
    7. ^ "Trial of Neumann and Sass" (PDF).
    8. ^ Zarnowski, C. Frank (Summer 1992). "A Look at Olympic Costs" (PDF). Citius, Altius, Fortius. 1 (1): 16–32. Archived from the original (PDF) on 28 May 2008. Retrieved 24 March 2007.
     
  17. Admin2

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    2 August 1415Thomas Grey, conspirator against King Henry V, beheaded.

    Thomas Grey (1384–1415)

    • From a page move: This is a redirect from a page that has been moved (renamed). This page was kept as a redirect to avoid breaking links, both internal and external, that may have been made to the old page name.
     
  18. Admin2

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    3 August 1795Treaty of Greenville is signed.

    Treaty of Greenville

    The Treaty of Greenville, also known to Americans as the Treaty with the Wyandots, etc., but formally titled A treaty of peace between the United States of America, and the tribes of Indians called the Wyandots, Delawares, Shawanees, Ottawas, Chippewas, Pattawatimas, Miamis, Eel Rivers, Weas, Kickapoos, Piankeshaws, and Kaskaskias was a 1795 treaty between the United States and indigenous nations of the Northwest Territory (now Midwestern United States), including the Wyandot and Delaware peoples, that redefined the boundary between indigenous peoples' lands and territory for European American community settlement.

    It was signed at Fort Greenville,[1] now Greenville, Ohio, on August 3, 1795, following the Native American loss at the Battle of Fallen Timbers a year earlier. It ended the Northwest Indian War in the Ohio Country, limited Indian country to northwestern Ohio, and began the practice of annual payments following the land concessions. The parties to the treaty were a coalition of Native American tribes known as the Western Confederacy, and the United States government represented by General Anthony Wayne and local frontiersmen.

    The treaty became synonymous with the end of the frontier in that part of the Northwest Territory that would become the new state of Ohio.

    1. ^ for Nathanael Greene, a Major General in the Revolutionary War
     
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    4 August 1824 – The Battle of Kos is fought between Turkish and Greek forces.

    Kos

    Kos or Cos (/kɒs, kɔːs/; Greek: Κως [kos]) is a Greek island, which is part of the Dodecanese island chain in the southeastern Aegean Sea. Kos is the third largest island of the Dodecanese by area, after Rhodes and Karpathos; it has a population of 36,986 (2021 census),[2] making it the second most populous of the Dodecanese, after Rhodes.[1] The island measures 42.1 by 11.5 kilometres (26 by 7 miles).[citation needed] Administratively, Kos constitutes a municipality within the Kos regional unit, which is part of the South Aegean region. The principal town of the island and seat of the municipality is the town of Kos.[3]

    1. ^ a b "Απογραφή Πληθυσμού - Κατοικιών 2011. ΜΟΝΙΜΟΣ Πληθυσμός" (in Greek). Hellenic Statistical Authority.
    2. ^ "Αποτελέσματα Απογραφής Πληθυσμού και Κατοικιών, ΕΛΣΤΑΤ 2021" (PDF).
    3. ^ "ΦΕΚ A 87/2010, Kallikratis reform law text" (in Greek). Government Gazette.
     
  20. Admin2

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    5 August 1620 – The Mayflower departs from Southampton, England on its first attempt to reach North America.

    Mayflower

    Mayflower was an English sailing ship that transported a group of English families, known today as the Pilgrims, from England to the New World in 1620. After 10 weeks at sea, Mayflower, with 102 passengers and a crew of about 30, reached what is today the United States, dropping anchor near the tip of Cape Cod, Massachusetts, on November 21 [O.S. November 11], 1620.

    Differing from their contemporary Puritans (who sought to reform and purify the Church of England), the Pilgrims chose to separate themselves from the Church of England, which forced them to pray in private. They believed it was beyond redemption due to its resistance to reform and Roman Catholic past. Starting in 1608, a group of English families left England for the Netherlands, where they could worship freely. By 1620, the community determined to cross the Atlantic for America, which they considered a "new Promised Land", where they would establish Plymouth Colony.[1]: 44 

    The Pilgrims had originally hoped to reach America by early October using two ships, but delays and complications meant they could use only one, Mayflower. Arriving in November, they had to survive unprepared through a harsh winter. As a result, only half of the original Pilgrims survived the first winter at Plymouth. If not for the help of local indigenous peoples to teach them food gathering and other survival skills, all of the colonists might have perished. The following year, those 53 who survived[2] celebrated the colony's first fall harvest along with 90 Wampanoag Native American people,[3] an occasion declared in centuries later the first American Thanksgiving.[4] Before disembarking the Mayflower, the Pilgrims wrote and signed the Mayflower Compact, an agreement that established a rudimentary government, in which each member would contribute to the safety and welfare of the planned settlement. As one of the earliest colonial vessels, the ship has become a cultural icon in the history of the United States.[5]

    1. ^ Cite error: The named reference Fraser was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    2. ^ "Primary Sources for 'The First Thanksgiving' at Plymouth" (PDF). Pilgrim Hall Museum. Retrieved November 26, 2009. The 53 Pilgrims at the First Thanksgiving
    3. ^ Winslow, Edward (1622), Mourt's Relation (PDF), p. 133, retrieved November 20, 2013, many of the Indians coming amongst us, and amongst the rest their greatest king Massasoyt, with some ninetie men, whom for three dayes we entertained and feasted
    4. ^ Weinstein, Allen, and Rubel, David. The Story of America, Agincourt Press Production, (2002) ISBN 0-7894-8903-1 pp. 60–61
    5. ^ Bevan, Richard. "The Mayflower and the Birth of America", Sky History. AETN UK. Accessed on 23 November 2023.
     
  21. Admin2

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    6 August 1825Bolivia gains independence from Spain.

    Bolivia

    Bolivia,[c] officially the Plurinational State of Bolivia,[d] is a landlocked country located in western-central South America. It is bordered by Brazil to the north and east, Paraguay to the southeast, Argentina to the south, Chile to the southwest, and Peru to the west. The seat of government and administrative capital is La Paz, which contains the executive, legislative, and electoral branches of government, while the constitutional capital is Sucre, the seat of the judiciary. The largest city and principal industrial center is Santa Cruz de la Sierra, located on the Llanos Orientales (eastern tropical lowlands), a mostly flat region in the east of the country.

    The sovereign state of Bolivia is a constitutionally unitary state divided into nine departments. Its geography varies as the elevation fluctuates, from the western snow-capped peaks of the Andes to the eastern lowlands, situated within the Amazon basin. One-third of the country is within the Andean mountain range. With an area of 1,098,581 km2 (424,164 sq mi), Bolivia is the fifth-largest country in South America after Brazil, Argentina, Peru and Colombia, and, alongside Paraguay, is one of two landlocked countries in the Americas. It is the 27th largest country in the world, the largest landlocked country in the Southern Hemisphere, and the seventh largest landlocked country on earth, after Kazakhstan, Mongolia, Chad, Niger, Mali, and Ethiopia.

    The country's population, estimated at 12 million,[12] is multiethnic, including Amerindians, Mestizos, Europeans, Asians, Africans and some other mixtures throughout. Spanish is the official and predominant language, although 36 indigenous languages also have official status, of which the most commonly spoken are Guaraní, Aymara, and Quechua.

    Well-before Spanish colonization, the Andean region of Bolivia was part of the great Incan Empire, while the northern and eastern lowlands were inhabited by independent tribes. Spanish conquistadores, arriving from Cusco, Peru, and Asunción, Paraguay, forcibly took control of the region in the 16th century. During the subsequent Spanish colonial period, Bolivia was administered by the Real Audiencia of Charcas. Spain built its empire, in large part, upon the silver that was extracted from Bolivia's mines. After the first call for independence in 1809, sixteen years of fighting would follow before the establishment of the Republic, named for Simón Bolívar.[13] Over the course of the 19th and early 20th centuries, Bolivia lost control of several peripheral territories to neighboring countries, such as Brazil's claiming of the Acre territory, and the War of the Pacific (1879), in which Chile seized the country's Pacific coastal region.

    Bolivia experienced a succession of military and civilian governments until Hugo Banzer led a CIA-supported coup d'état in 1971, replacing the socialist government of Juan José Torres with a military dictatorship. Banzer's regime cracked-down on left-wing and socialist opposition parties, and other perceived forms of dissent, resulting in the torturing and murders of countless Bolivian citizens. Banzer was ousted in 1978 and, twenty years later, returned as the democratically-elected President of Bolivia (1997-2001). Under the 2006–2019 presidency of Evo Morales, the country saw significant economic growth and political stability.

    Modern Bolivia is a charter member of the UN, IMF, NAM,[14] OAS, ACTO, Bank of the South, ALBA, and USAN. Bolivia remains a developing country, and the second-poorest in South America, though it has slashed poverty rates and now has one of the fastest-growing economies on the continent (in terms of GDP). Its main economic resources include agriculture, forestry, fishing, mining, and goods such as textiles and clothing, refined metals, and refined petroleum. Bolivia is very geologically rich, with mines producing tin, silver, lithium, and copper. The country is also known for its production of coca plants and refined cocaine. In 2021, estimated coca cultivation and cocaine production was 39,700 hectares and 317 metric tons, respectively.[15]


    Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

    1. ^ León, Ana María; Herscher, Andrew (2021). "Indigenous Modernities: The Tocapu and Other American Grids". In Hernández, Felipe; Lara, Fernando Luiz (eds.). Spatial Concepts for Decolonizing the Americas. Cambridge Scholars. p. 43. ISBN 978-1-5275-7653-7. Archived from the original on 10 April 2023. Retrieved 18 March 2023.
    2. ^ Galván, Javier A. (2011). Culture and Customs of Bolivia. Abc-Clio. p. xxiii. ISBN 978-0-313-38364-9. Archived from the original on 5 April 2023. Retrieved 18 March 2023.
    3. ^ "Bolivia (Plurinational State of)'s Constitution of 2009, English translation" (PDF). constituteproject.org. Constitute (Oxford University Press). Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 22 March 2022. The symbols of the State are the red, yellow and green tri-color flag; the Bolivian national anthem; the coat of arms; the wiphala; the rosette; the kantuta flower and the patujú flower. (Art. 6 ii)
    4. ^ "Bolivia". The World Factbook (2024 ed.). Central Intelligence Agency. Retrieved 25 March 2017. (Archived 2017 edition)
    5. ^ "National Profiles | World Religion".
    6. ^ "El "arcista" Israel Huaytari es elegido presidente de Diputados en polémica sesión con división en las bancadas". Los Tiempos (in Spanish). 3 November 2023. Archived from the original on 24 December 2023. Retrieved 24 December 2023.
    7. ^ "Bolivia". The World Factbook (2024 ed.). Central Intelligence Agency. Retrieved 22 June 2023.
    8. ^ a b c d "World Economic Outlook Database, October 2023 Edition. (Bolivia)". International Monetary Fund. 10 October 2023. Archived from the original on 31 October 2023. Retrieved 14 October 2023.
    9. ^ "GINI index (World Bank estimate) – Bolivia". World Bank. Archived from the original on 11 August 2018. Retrieved 17 June 2021.
    10. ^ "Human Development Report 2021/2022" (PDF). United Nations Development Programme. 8 September 2022. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 8 September 2022.
    11. ^ "Report for Selected Countries and Subjects". International Monetary Fund. Archived from the original on 27 May 2020. Retrieved 29 August 2020.
    12. ^ "Bolivia". The World Factbook (2024 ed.). Central Intelligence Agency. Retrieved 24 September 2022. (Archived 2022 edition)
    13. ^ "Salem Press". 25 August 2013. Archived from the original on 25 August 2013. Retrieved 23 November 2020.
    14. ^ "Non-Aligned Movement (NAM) – The Nuclear Threat Initiative". The Nuclear Threat Initiative. Archived from the original on 19 October 2021. Retrieved 19 October 2021.
    15. ^ "ONDCP Releases Data on Coca Cultivation and Production in the Andean Region | ONDCP". The White House. 14 July 2022. Archived from the original on 2 October 2023. Retrieved 21 September 2023.
     
  22. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    7 August 1933 – The Simele massacre: The Iraqi government slaughters over 3,000 Assyrians in the village of Simele.

    Simele massacre

    The Simele massacre (Arabic: مذبحة سميل, romanizedmaḏbaḥat Simīl), also known as the Assyrian affair,[8] was committed by the Kingdom of Iraq, led by Bakr Sidqi, during a campaign systematically targeting the Assyrians in and around Simele in August 1933.

    The number of deaths was estimated by British officials at 600.[5] Some Assyrian estimates are higher positing that as many as 6,000 were killed and over 100 Assyrian villages were destroyed and looted.[9][10]

    1. ^ "عضوة الكونغرس الامريكي جان شاكوسكي تصدر بيانا في ذكرى مذبحة سميل التي تعرض لها شعبنا عام 1933". Zowaa (in Arabic). 8 August 2020. Retrieved 19 December 2020.
    2. ^ "Sapra Suryaya" (PDF).
    3. ^ "Search Entry". assyrianlanguages.org. Retrieved 19 December 2020.
    4. ^ Sykes, Percy (1934). "A summary of the history of the Assyrians in 'Iraq, 1918–1933". Journal of the Royal Central Asian Society. 21 (2): 255–268. doi:10.1080/03068373408725306. "At other villages batches of men were killed, the total number aggregating 550."
    5. ^ a b Zubaida 2000: "The total number of Assyrian victims of these events was estimated by British officials at about 600, but Assyrian sources put it at several thousand."
    6. ^ Llewellyn-Jones, Rosie (2019). "The Assyrians in World War One and the 1933 Massacre: New Discoveries in the Rsaa Archives". Asian Affairs. 50 (4): 569–587. doi:10.1080/03068374.2019.1672427. S2CID 211652462. "Nearly 1,000 men, women and children were killed by Iraqi armed forces – and their villages were looted by Kurdish tribesmen."
    7. ^ Cite error: The named reference Stafford168 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    8. ^ Levene 1999, p. 3.
    9. ^ Benjamen, Alda (2022). Assyrians in Modern Iraq: Negotiating Political and Cultural Space. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 17. ISBN 978-1-108-83879-5.
    10. ^ Donabed, Sargon (2010). Iraq and the Assyrian Unimagining: Illuminating Scaled Suffering and a Hierarchy of Genocide from Simele to Anfal. University of Toronto. pp. 69–72.
     
  23. Admin2

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    8 August 1929 – The German airship Graf Zeppelin begins a round-the-world flight.

    LZ 127 Graf Zeppelin

    LZ 127 Graf Zeppelin (Deutsches Luftschiff Zeppelin 127) was a German passenger-carrying hydrogen-filled rigid airship that flew from 1928 to 1937. It offered the first commercial transatlantic passenger flight service. The ship was named after the German airship pioneer Ferdinand von Zeppelin, a count (Graf) in the German nobility. It was conceived and operated by Hugo Eckener, the chairman of Luftschiffbau Zeppelin.

    Graf Zeppelin made 590 flights totalling almost 1.7 million kilometres (over 1 million miles). It was operated by a crew of 36, and could carry 24 passengers. It was the longest and largest airship in the world when it was built. It made the first circumnavigation of the world by airship, and the first nonstop crossing of the Pacific Ocean by air; its range was enhanced by its use of Blau gas as a fuel. It was built using funds raised by public subscription and from the German government, and its operating costs were offset by the sale of special postage stamps to collectors, the support of the newspaper magnate William Randolph Hearst, and cargo and passenger receipts.

    After several long flights between 1928 and 1932, including one to the Arctic, Graf Zeppelin provided a commercial passenger and mail service between Germany and Brazil for five years. When the Nazi Party came to power, the Graf Zeppelin was used as a propaganda tool. The airship was withdrawn from service after the Hindenburg disaster in 1937, and scrapped for military aircraft production in April, 1940.

    1. ^ Lehmann (1937), p. 24.
     
  24. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    9 August 1854Henry David Thoreau publishes Walden.

    Walden

    Walden (/ˈwɔːldən/; first published in 1854 as Walden; or, Life in the Woods) is a book by American transcendentalist writer Henry David Thoreau. The text is a reflection upon the author's simple living in natural surroundings. The work is part personal declaration of independence, social experiment, voyage of spiritual discovery, satire, and—to some degree—a manual for self-reliance.[2]

    Walden details Thoreau's experiences over the course of two years, two months, and two days in a cabin he built near Walden Pond amidst woodland owned by his friend and mentor Ralph Waldo Emerson, near Concord, Massachusetts.

    Thoreau makes precise scientific observations of nature as well as metaphorical and poetic uses of natural phenomena. He identifies many plants and animals by both their popular and scientific names, records in detail the color and clarity of different bodies of water, precisely dates and describes the freezing and thawing of the pond, and recounts his experiments to measure the depth and shape of the bottom of the supposedly "bottomless" Walden Pond.

    1. ^ Alfred, Randy (August 9, 2010). "Aug. 9, 1854: Thoreau Warns, 'The Railroad Rides on Us'". Wired News. Retrieved August 8, 2011.
    2. ^ transcendentalism and social reform by Philip F. Gura, Gilder Lehrman Institute of American History
     
  25. Admin2

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    10 August 1990 – The Magellan space probe reaches Venus.

    Magellan (spacecraft)

    The Magellan spacecraft was a 1,035-kilogram (2,282 lb) robotic space probe launched by NASA of the United States, on May 4, 1989, to map the surface of Venus by using synthetic-aperture radar and to measure the planetary gravitational field.

    The Magellan probe was the first interplanetary mission to be launched from the Space Shuttle, the first one to use the Inertial Upper Stage booster, and the first spacecraft to test aerobraking as a method for circularizing its orbit. Magellan was the fifth successful NASA mission to Venus, and it ended an eleven-year gap in U.S. interplanetary probe launches.

    1. ^ "Magellan". NASA's Solar System Exploration website. Retrieved November 30, 2022.
     
  26. Admin2

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    11 August 1804Francis II assumes the title of first Emperor of Austria.

    Emperor of Austria

    Imperial Standard (from 1867 to 1915)[1]
    Imperial Crown of Austria

    The emperor of Austria (German: Kaiser von Österreich) was the ruler of the Austrian Empire and later the Austro-Hungarian Empire. The hereditary imperial title and office was proclaimed in 1804 by Francis II, Holy Roman Emperor, a member of the House of Habsburg-Lorraine, and continually held by him and his heirs until Charles I relinquished power in 1918.

    The emperors retained the title of Archduke of Austria. The wives of the emperors held the title empress, while other members of the family held the titles of archduke or archduchess.

    1. ^ "Imperial Standard of Austria, Flags of the World".
     
  27. Admin2

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    12 August 1944Waffen-SS troops massacre 560 people in Sant'Anna di Stazzema.

    Waffen-SS

    The Waffen-SS (German: [ˈvafn̩ʔɛsˌʔɛs]; Armed SS) was the combat branch of the Nazi Party's paramilitary Schutzstaffel (SS) organisation. Its formations included men from Nazi Germany, along with volunteers and conscripts from both German-occupied Europe and unoccupied lands.[3] It was disbanded in May 1945.

    The Waffen-SS grew from three regiments to over 38 divisions during World War II, and served alongside the German Army (Heer), Ordnungspolizei (Order Police), and other security units. Originally, it was under the control of the SS Führungshauptamt (SS operational command office) beneath Reichsführer-SS Heinrich Himmler, the head of the SS. With the start of World War II, tactical control was exercised by the Oberkommando der Wehrmacht (OKW, "High Command of the Armed Forces"),[4] with some units being subordinated to the Kommandostab Reichsführer-SS (Command Staff Reichsführer-SS) directly under Himmler's control.[5]

    Initially, in keeping with the racial policy of Nazi Germany, membership was open only to people of Germanic origin (so-called "Aryan ancestry").[6] The rules were partially relaxed in 1940,[7][8] and after the invasion of the Soviet Union in June 1941, Nazi propaganda claimed that the war was a "European crusade against Bolshevism" and subsequently units consisting largely or solely of foreign volunteers and conscripts were also raised.[9] These Waffen-SS units were made up of men mainly from among the nationals of Nazi-occupied Europe. Despite relaxation of the rules, the Waffen-SS was still based on the racist ideology of Nazism, and ethnic Poles (who were viewed as subhumans) were specifically barred from the formations.[10][11][12]

    The Waffen-SS were involved in numerous atrocities.[13] Due to its involvement in the Holocaust, the Porajmos, and numerous war crimes and crimes against the civilian population, including torture,[14] human experimentation,[15][16] kidnapping of children,[17] mass rape,[18] child sexual abuse[19] and mass murder,[20][21] it was declared a criminal organisation by the International Military Tribunal in Nuremberg in 1946. Therefore Waffen-SS members, with the exception of conscripts, who comprised about one third of the membership, were denied many of the rights afforded to military veterans.[22][23][24] In the Federal Republic of Germany, the dissemination of propaganda material and the use of SS symbols are a crime and punishable by Sections 86 and 86a[25] of the German Criminal Code.

    1. ^ Neitzel & Welzer 2012, p. 290.
    2. ^ McConnell, Winder, ed. (1998). A Companion to the Nibelungenlied. Boydell & Brewer. p. 1. ISBN 978-1-57113-151-5. Retrieved 20 May 2022.
    3. ^ Stein 2002, pp. xxiv, xxv, 150, 153.
    4. ^ Stein 2002, p. 23.
    5. ^ Marrus 1989, p. 459.
    6. ^ Stackelberg 2002, p. 116.
    7. ^ Langer & Rudowski 2008, p. 263.
    8. ^ Król 2006, pp. 452, 545.
    9. ^ Müller & Ueberschär 1997, p. 244.
    10. ^ Borodziej 1985a.
    11. ^ Król 2006, p. 452.
    12. ^ Borodziej 1985, p. 86.
    13. ^ Spajić 2010, p. 9.
    14. ^ Serena, Katie (27 November 2017). "Meet The Nazi Who Even Other Nazis Thought Was Cruel And Depraved". All That's Interesting. Retrieved 17 February 2024.
    15. ^ "Timeline of Dachau". www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org. Retrieved 17 February 2024.
    16. ^ Wynne Parry (21 February 2014). "Did Nazis Study Insects for Use in Biological Warfare?". livescience.com. Retrieved 17 February 2024.
    17. ^ "Stolen Children". www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org. Retrieved 17 February 2024.
    18. ^ "Holocaust". Women’s Media Center. Retrieved 17 February 2024.
    19. ^ Ghert-Zand, Renee (15 April 2015). "Holocaust film reveals long-hushed child sex abuse". The Times of Israel. Retrieved 17 February 2024.
    20. ^ "Einsatzgruppen". www.holocaustresearchproject.org. Retrieved 17 February 2024.
    21. ^ "Operation Reinhard". encyclopedia.ushmm.org. Retrieved 17 February 2024.
    22. ^ Laar 2005.
    23. ^ "Nuremberg Trial Proceedings, Volume 22 'Two Hundred and Seventeenth Day: Monday, 30 September 1946'". Avalon Project. Lillian Goldman Law Library.
    24. ^ McDonald & Swaak-Goldman 2000, p. 695.
    25. ^ Stegbauer, Andreas (2007). "The Ban of Right-Wing Extremist Symbols According to Section 86a of the German Criminal Code". German Law Journal. 8 (2): 173–184. doi:10.1017/S2071832200005496. ISSN 2071-8322. S2CID 140437188.
     
  28. Admin2

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    13 August 1905 – Norwegians vote to end the union with Sweden.

    Norwegian union dissolution referendum, 1905

    • From a page move: This is a redirect from a page that has been moved (renamed). This page was kept as a redirect to avoid breaking links, both internal and external, that may have been made to the old page name.
     
  29. Admin2

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    14 August 2007 – The Kahtaniya bombings kills at least 334 people.

    2007 Yazidi communities bombings

     
  30. Admin2

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    15 August 1483Pope Sixtus IV consecrates the Sistine Chapel.

    Sistine Chapel

    The Sistine Chapel (/ˌsɪsˈtn ˈæpəl/; Latin: Sacellum Sixtinum; Italian: Cappella Sistina [kapˈpɛlla siˈstiːna]) is a chapel in the Apostolic Palace, the pope's official residence in Vatican City. Originally known as the Cappella Magna ('Great Chapel'), the chapel takes its name from Pope Sixtus IV, who had it built between 1473 and 1481. Since that time, the chapel has served as a place of both religious and functionary papal activity. Today, it is the site of the papal conclave, the process by which a new pope is selected. The fame of the Sistine Chapel lies mainly in the frescoes that decorate the interior, most particularly the Sistine Chapel ceiling and The Last Judgment, both by Michelangelo.

    During the reign of Sixtus IV, a team of Renaissance painters that included Sandro Botticelli, Pietro Perugino, Pinturicchio, Domenico Ghirlandaio and Cosimo Rosselli, created a series of frescos depicting the Life of Moses and the Life of Christ, offset by papal portraits above and trompe-l'œil drapery below. These paintings were completed in 1482, and on 15 August 1483 Sixtus IV celebrated the first mass in the Sistine Chapel for the Feast of the Assumption, at which ceremony the chapel was consecrated and dedicated to the Virgin Mary.[3][4]

    Between 1508 and 1512, under the patronage of Pope Julius II, Michelangelo painted the chapel's ceiling, a project that changed the course of Western art and is regarded as one of the major artistic accomplishments of human civilization.[5][6] In a different political climate, after the Sack of Rome, he returned and, between 1535 and 1541, painted The Last Judgment for Popes Clement VII and Paul III.[7] The fame of Michelangelo's paintings has drawn multitudes of visitors to the chapel ever since they were revealed five hundred years ago. According to recent studies, the Sistine Chapel is influenced by the thought of Joachim of Fiore. The monk and philosopher thus influenced the vision and the iconographic project for the representation of the Last Judgment. Michelangelo's frescoes with an eschatological theme are therefore an artistic development of the various Joachim writings of the 12th century about the apocalypse and the last days.[8]

    1. ^ a b c Cite error: The named reference EHT2006_313 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    2. ^ Vatican City, Whc.unesco.org, archived from the original on 25 December 2017, retrieved 9 August 2011
    3. ^ Pietrangeli 1986, p. 28
    4. ^ Monfasani, John (1983), "A Description of the Sistine Chapel under Pope Sixtus IV", Artibus et Historiae, 4 (7), IRSA s.c.: 9–18, doi:10.2307/1483178, ISSN 0391-9064, JSTOR 1483178, archived from the original on 1 August 2015, retrieved 7 March 2009.
    5. ^ Gardner, Helen (1970) Art through the Ages, p. 469, Harcourt, Brace and World. ISBN 978-0-15-508315-8
    6. ^ Robert Coughlan, The World of Michelangelo, Time-Life International, (1966) p. 116
    7. ^ Robert Coughlan, p. 127
    8. ^ "Gioacchino da Fiore ispirò Michelangelo". November 2012. Archived from the original on 4 August 2023. Retrieved 4 August 2023.
     
  31. Admin2

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    16 August 1960Cyprus gains its independence from the United Kingdom.

    Cyprus

    Cyprus[f] (/ˈsprəs/ ), officially the Republic of Cyprus,[g] is an island country in the eastern Mediterranean Sea, north of the Sinai Peninsula, south of the Anatolian Peninsula, and west of the Levant. It is geographically a part of West Asia, but its cultural ties and geopolitics are overwhelmingly Southeast European. Cyprus is the third-largest and third-most populous island in the Mediterranean.[12][13] It is east of Greece, north of Egypt, south of Turkey, and west of Lebanon and Syria. Its capital and largest city is Nicosia. The northeast portion of the island is de facto governed by the self-declared Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus.

    The earliest known human activity on the island dates to around the 10th millennium BC. Archaeological remains include the well-preserved ruins from the Hellenistic period such as Salamis and Kourion, and Cyprus is home to some of the oldest water wells in the world.[14] Cyprus was settled by Mycenaean Greeks in two waves in the 2nd millennium BC. As a strategic location in the Eastern Mediterranean, it was subsequently occupied by several major powers, including the empires of the Assyrians, Egyptians and Persians, from whom the island was seized in 333 BC by Alexander the Great. Subsequent rule by Ptolemaic Egypt, the Classical and Eastern Roman Empire, Arab caliphates for a short period, the French Lusignan dynasty and the Venetians was followed by over three centuries of Ottoman rule between 1571 and 1878 (de jure until 1914).[15]

    Cyprus was placed under the United Kingdom's administration based on the Cyprus Convention in 1878 and was formally annexed by the UK in 1914. The future of the island became a matter of disagreement between the two prominent ethnic communities, Greek Cypriots, who made up 77% of the population in 1960, and Turkish Cypriots, who made up 18% of the population. From the 19th century onwards, the Greek Cypriot population pursued enosis, union with Greece, which became a Greek national policy in the 1950s.[16][17] The Turkish Cypriot population initially advocated the continuation of the British rule, then demanded the annexation of the island to Turkey, and in the 1950s, together with Turkey, established a policy of taksim, the partition of Cyprus and the creation of a Turkish polity in the north.[18]

    Following nationalist violence in the 1950s, Cyprus was granted independence in 1960.[19] The crisis of 1963–64 brought further intercommunal violence between the two communities, displaced more than 25,000 Turkish Cypriots into enclaves[20]: 56–59 [21] and brought the end of Turkish Cypriot representation in the republic. On 15 July 1974, a coup d'état was staged by Greek Cypriot nationalists[22][23] and elements of the Greek military junta[citation needed] in an attempt at enosis. This action precipitated the Turkish invasion of Cyprus on 20 July,[24] which led to the capture of the present-day territory of Northern Cyprus and the displacement of over 150,000 Greek Cypriots[25][26] and 50,000 Turkish Cypriots.[27] A separate Turkish Cypriot state in the north was established by unilateral declaration in 1983; the move was widely condemned by the international community, with Turkey alone recognising the new state. These events and the resulting political situation are matters of a continuing dispute.

    Cyprus is a major tourist destination in the Mediterranean.[28][29][30] With an advanced,[31] high-income economy and a very high Human Development Index,[32][33] Cyprus ranked 28th in the Global Innovation Index in 2023.[34] The Republic of Cyprus has been a member of the Commonwealth since 1961 and was a founding member of the Non-Aligned Movement until it joined the European Union on 1 May 2004.[35] On 1 January 2008, the Republic of Cyprus joined the eurozone.[36]

    1. ^ "National Anthem". www.presidency.gov.cy. Archived from the original on 13 August 2011. Retrieved 3 June 2015.
    2. ^ "Cyprus". Global Religious Future. Pew Research Center. Archived from the original on 17 July 2014. Retrieved 13 July 2021.
    3. ^ Cite error: The named reference CIA2019 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    4. ^ "Cyprus". The World Factbook (2024 ed.). Central Intelligence Agency. Retrieved 29 April 2022. (Archived 2022 edition)
    5. ^ "World Population Prospects 2022". United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division. Retrieved 17 July 2022.
    6. ^ "World Population Prospects 2022: Demographic indicators by region, subregion and country, annually for 1950-2100" (XSLX) ("Total Population, as of 1 July (thousands)"). United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division. Retrieved 17 July 2022.
    7. ^ "Census of Population and Housing 2021, Preliminary Results by District, Municipality/Community". Nicosia: Statistical Service of Cyprus. 4 August 2023. Retrieved 4 August 2023.
    8. ^ "World Population Prospects: The 2012 Revision, DB02: Stock Indicators". United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division. New York. 2013. Archived from the original on 7 May 2015. Retrieved 18 June 2015.
    9. ^ a b c d "World Economic Outlook Database, October 2023". Washington, D.C.: International Monetary Fund. 5 October 2023. Retrieved 18 October 2023.
    10. ^ "Gini coefficient of equivalised disposable income – EU-SILC survey". Luxembourg: Eurostat. 28 June 2023. Retrieved 10 August 2023.
    11. ^ "Human Development Report 2023/2024" (PDF). United Nations Development Programme. 13 March 2024. Archived (PDF) from the original on 13 March 2024. Retrieved 13 March 2024.
    12. ^ "Biggest Islands In The Mediterranean Sea By Area". WorldAtlas. Archived from the original on 12 May 2018. Retrieved 11 May 2018.
    13. ^ "The Most Populated Islands In The Mediterranean Sea". WorldAtlas. Archived from the original on 12 May 2018. Retrieved 11 May 2018.
    14. ^ "Stone Age wells found in Cyprus". BBC News. 25 June 2009. Archived from the original on 5 October 2013. Retrieved 31 July 2009.
    15. ^ "Treaty of Lausanne". Archived from the original on 12 January 2013. Retrieved 7 October 2014.
    16. ^ Faustmann, Hubert; Ker-Lindsay, James (2008). The Government and Politics of Cyprus. Peter Lang. p. 48. ISBN 978-3-03911-096-4.
    17. ^ Mirbagheri, Farid (2009). Historical Dictionary of Cyprus. Scarecrow Press. p. 25. ISBN 9780810862982.
    18. ^ Trimikliniotis, Nicos (2012). Beyond a Divided Cyprus: A State and Society in Transformation. Palgrave Macmillan. p. 104. ISBN 978-1-137-10080-1.
    19. ^ Cite error: The named reference independence was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    20. ^ Cite error: The named reference Hoffmeister 2006 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    21. ^ Cite error: The named reference Intercommunal Violence was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    22. ^ Mallinson, William (2005). Cyprus: A Modern History. I. B. Tauris. p. 81. ISBN 978-1-85043-580-8.
    23. ^ "website". BBC News. 4 October 2002. Archived from the original on 26 July 2004. Retrieved 25 October 2009.
    24. ^ Eyal Benvenisti (23 February 2012). The International Law of Occupation. Oxford University Press. p. 191. ISBN 978-0-19-958889-3. Archived from the original on 10 September 2015. Retrieved 20 June 2015.
    25. ^ Barbara Rose Johnston, Susan Slyomovics. Waging War, Making Peace: Reparations and Human Rights (2009), American Anthropological Association Reparations Task Force, p. 211 Archived 12 April 2016 at the Wayback Machine
    26. ^ Morelli, Vincent. Cyprus: Reunification Proving Elusive (2011), DIANE Publishing, p. 10 Archived 13 April 2016 at the Wayback Machine
    27. ^ Borowiec, Andrew. Cyprus: A Troubled Island (2000), Greenwood Publishing Group, p. 125 Archived 12 April 2016 at the Wayback Machine
    28. ^ Lesley Pender; Richard Sharpley (2005). The Management of Tourism. SAGE. p. 273. ISBN 978-0-7619-4022-7. Archived from the original on 10 September 2015. Retrieved 20 June 2015.
    29. ^ Richard Sharpley (16 May 2012). Tourism Development and the Environment: Beyond Sustainability?. Routledge. p. 296. ISBN 978-1-136-57330-9. Archived from the original on 18 September 2015. Retrieved 20 June 2015.
    30. ^ Sharpley, Richard; Telfer, David John (2002). Tourism and Development: Concepts and Issues. Channel View Publications. p. 334. ISBN 978-1-873150-34-4. Archived from the original on 18 September 2015. Retrieved 22 July 2015.
    31. ^ "World Economic Outlook Database May 2001". International Monetary Fund. Archived from the original on 26 July 2011. Retrieved 28 June 2011.
    32. ^ "Country and Lending Groups". World Bank. Archived from the original on 18 March 2011. Retrieved 11 May 2010.
    33. ^ "Human Development Index (HDI)–2011 Rankings". United Nations Development Programme. Archived from the original on 12 January 2013. Retrieved 4 November 2011.
    34. ^ WIPO. "Global Innovation Index 2023, 15th Edition". www.wipo.int. Retrieved 23 October 2023.
    35. ^ "The Non-Aligned Movement: Background Information". Non-Aligned Movement. 21 September 2001. Archived from the original on 9 February 2016. Retrieved 19 January 2010.
    36. ^ "Human Development Index (HDI)–2011 Rankings". Stanford University. Archived from the original on 3 April 2015. Retrieved 17 November 2019.


    Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

     
  32. Admin2

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    17 August 2005 – The first forced evacuation of settlers, as part of Israeli disengagement from Gaza, starts.

    Israeli disengagement from Gaza

    Map of the Gaza Strip in May 2005, a few months prior to the Israeli withdrawal. The major settlement blocs were the blue-shaded regions of this map.

    In 2005, 21 Israeli settlements in the Gaza Strip were unilaterally dismantled and Israeli settlers and army evacuated from inside the Gaza Strip, redeploying its military along the border.[1]

    The disengagement was proposed in 2003 by Prime Minister Ariel Sharon, adopted by the government in June 2004, and approved by the Knesset in February 2005 as the Disengagement Plan Implementation Law.[2] It was implemented in August 2005 and completed in September 2005. The settlers who refused to accept government compensation packages and voluntarily vacate their homes prior to the August 15, 2005, deadline were evicted by Israeli security forces over a period of several days.[3] The eviction of all residents, demolition of the residential buildings and evacuation of associated security personnel from the Gaza Strip was completed by September 12, 2005.[4] The eviction and dismantlement of the four settlements in the northern West Bank was completed ten days later. Eight thousand Jewish settlers from the 21 settlements in the Gaza Strip were relocated.

    The United Nations, international human rights organizations and many legal scholars regard the Gaza Strip to still be under military occupation by Israel,[5] while Israel and other scholars dispute this.

    The military met heavy resistance and riots from settlers while pulling out. Two far-right Israelis burned themselves alive in protest of the withdrawal.[6][7]

    1. ^ Sara M. Roy (2016). The Gaza Strip. Institute for Palestine Studies USA, Incorporated. pp. xxiii. ISBN 978-0-88728-321-5.
    2. ^ "Knesset Approves Disengagement Implementation Law (February 2005)". www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org.
    3. ^ "Jewish Settlers Receive Hundreds of Thousands in Compensation for Leaving Gaza". Democracy Now. August 16, 2005. Archived from the original on May 9, 2007. Retrieved May 5, 2007.
    4. ^ "Demolition of Gaza Homes Completed". Ynetnews.com. September 1, 2005. Retrieved May 5, 2007.
    5. ^ Cite error: The named reference occ was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    6. ^ "For the Land She Loved to Death". Haaretz. Retrieved February 16, 2024.
    7. ^ וייס, אפרת (September 6, 2005). "מת מפצעיו הצעיר שהצית עצמו בגלל ההתנתקות". Ynet (in Hebrew). Retrieved February 16, 2024.
     
  33. Admin2

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    18 August 1868 – French astronomer Pierre Janssen discovers helium.

    Pierre Janssen

    Jules Janssen; photograph by Nadar (date unknown)
    Photo taken by Janssen, from the Meudon observatory, of Renard and Krebs' La France dirigible (1885)

    Pierre Jules César Janssen (22 February 1824 – 23 December 1907), usually known as Jules Janssen, was a French astronomer who, along with English scientist Joseph Norman Lockyer, is credited with discovering the gaseous nature of the solar chromosphere, and with some justification the element helium.

     
  34. Admin2

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    19 August 1934 – The first All-American Soap Box Derby is held in Dayton, Ohio.

    Soap Box Derby

    The 85th running of the FirstEnergy All-American Soap Box Derby Championship in Akron, Ohio in 2023. Photos (top to bottom) show the three official divisions: Stock, Super Stock and Masters.

    The Soap Box Derby is a youth-oriented soap box car racing program which has been running in the United States since 1934. Proclaimed "the greatest amateur racing event in the world", the program culminates each July at the FirstEnergy All-American Soap Box Derby World Championship held at Derby Downs in Akron, Ohio, with winners from their local communities travelling from across the US, Canada, Germany and Japan to compete. 2024 will mark the 86th running of the All-American since its inception in 1934 in Dayton, Ohio, having missed four years (1942–1945) during World War II and one (2020) during the COVID pandemic. Cars competing in the program race downhill, propelled by gravity alone.

    The Soap Box Derby expanded quickly across the US from the very beginning, bolstered largely by a generous financial campaign by its national sponsor, Chevrolet Motor Company. At the same time there was enthusiastic support from coast to coast of numerous local newspapers that published aggressively during the summer months when races were held, with stories boasting of their own community races and of their Champion travelling to Akron with dreams of capturing a National title and hometown glory. In 1936 the All-American had its own purpose-built track constructed at what is now Derby Downs, with some communities across America following suit with tracks of their own.

    Its greatest years occurred during the fifties and sixties when viewer turnout at the All-American reached 100,000 spectators, and racer participation was at an all-time high. From the very beginning, technical and car-design innovation happened rapidly, so Derby officials drafted ways of governing the sport so that it did not become too hazardous as speed records were being challenged. At Derby Downs the track length was shortened twice to slow the cars down.

    The seventies brought significant changes, beginning with the introduction of girls to the sport in 1971. The following year Chevrolet dropped its sponsorship, sending Derby Downs into a tailspin that threatened its very future. Racer enrollment plummeted the following year. In 1973 a scandal hit Derby Downs with the discovery that their World Champion had cheated, and was thus disqualified, further exacerbating an uncertain future. In 1975 Karren Stead won the World Championship, the first of many girls that would go on to claim the title. Finally there was Derby's decision to divide the competition with the introduction of the Junior Division kit cars in 1976.

    As fiscal challenges continued, the Derby instituted new guidelines by redrafting the Official race divisions into three: Stock, Super Stock and Masters. With them came the prefabricated fiber glass kit racers which kids could now purchase, this to appeal to a new generation of racers uncomfortable with constructing their own cars from scratch, as well as to help Derby effectively meet its financial obligations. Leading into the 21st century the Soap Box Derby has continued to expand with the inclusion of the Rally Program racers at the All-American in 1993, the creation of the Ultimate Speed Challenge in 2004 and the Legacy Division in 2019.

     
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    20 August 1866President Andrew Johnson formally declares the American Civil War over.

    American Civil War

    The American Civil War (April 12, 1861 – May 26, 1865; also known by other names) was a civil war in the United States between the Union[e] ("the North") and the Confederacy ("the South"), which had been formed by states that had seceded from the Union. The central cause of the war was the dispute over whether slavery would be permitted to expand into the western territories, leading to more slave states, or be prevented from doing so, which many believed would place slavery on a course of ultimate extinction.[17]

    Decades of political controversy over slavery were brought to a head by the victory in the 1860 U.S. presidential election of Abraham Lincoln, who opposed slavery's expansion into the western territories. Seven southern slave states responded to Lincoln's victory by seceding from the United States and forming the Confederacy. The Confederacy seized U.S. forts and other federal assets within their borders. The war began when on April 12, 1861, Confederate troops fired on Fort Sumter in South Carolina's Charleston Harbor. A wave of enthusiasm for war swept over both North and South, as recruitment soared. The states in the undecided border region had to choose sides, although Kentucky declared it was neutral. Four more southern states seceded after the war began and, led by Confederate President Jefferson Davis, the Confederacy asserted control over about a third of the U.S. population in eleven states. Four years of intense combat, mostly in the South, ensued.

    During 1861–1862 in the Western Theater, the Union made significant permanent gains—though in the Eastern Theater the conflict was inconclusive. The abolition of slavery became a Union war goal on January 1, 1863, when Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation, which declared all slaves in rebel states to be free, which applied to more than 3.5 million of the 4 million enslaved people in the country. To the west, the Union first destroyed the Confederacy's river navy by the summer of 1862, then much of its western armies, and seized New Orleans. The successful 1863 Union siege of Vicksburg split the Confederacy in two at the Mississippi River, while Confederate General Robert E. Lee's incursion north failed at the Battle of Gettysburg. Western successes led to General Ulysses S. Grant's command of all Union armies in 1864. Inflicting an ever-tightening naval blockade of Confederate ports, the Union marshaled resources and manpower to attack the Confederacy from all directions. This led to the fall of Atlanta in 1864 to Union General William Tecumseh Sherman, followed by his March to the Sea. The last significant battles raged around the ten-month Siege of Petersburg, gateway to the Confederate capital of Richmond. The Confederates abandoned Richmond, and on April 9, 1865, Lee surrendered to Grant following the Battle of Appomattox Court House, setting in motion the end of the war. Lincoln lived to see this victory but on April 14, he was assassinated.

    Appomattox is often referred to symbolically as the end of the war, although arguably there are several different dates for the war's conclusion. Lee's surrender to Grant set off a wave of Confederate surrenders——the last military department of the Confederacy, the Department of the Trans-Mississippi disbanded on May 26. By the end of the war, much of the South's infrastructure was destroyed. The Confederacy collapsed, slavery was abolished, and four million enslaved black people were freed. The war-torn nation then entered the Reconstruction era in an attempt to rebuild the country, bring the former Confederate states back into the United States, and grant civil rights to freed slaves.

    The Civil War is one of the most extensively studied and written about episodes in U.S. history. It remains the subject of cultural and historiographical debate. Of particular interest is the persisting myth of the Lost Cause of the Confederacy. The American Civil War was among the first wars to use industrial warfare. Railroads, the telegraph, steamships, the ironclad warship, and mass-produced weapons were all widely used during the war. In total, the war left between 620,000 and 750,000 soldiers dead, along with an undetermined number of civilian casualties, making the Civil War the deadliest military conflict in American history.[f] The technology and brutality of the Civil War foreshadowed the coming World Wars.


    Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

    1. ^ Blair, William A. (2015). "Finding the Ending of America's Civil War". The American Historical Review. 120 (5). Oxford University Press: 1753–1766. doi:10.1093/ahr/120.5.1753. JSTOR 43697075. Retrieved July 29, 2022. Pennsylvania State University Professor William A. Blair wrote at pages 313–14: "the sheer weight of scholarship has leaned toward portraying the surrenders of the Confederate armies as the end of the war."; The New York Times: "End of the Rebellion; The Last Rebel Army Disbands. Kirby Smith Surrenders the Land and Naval Forces Under His Command. The Confederate Flag Disappears from the Continent. The Era of Peace Begins. Military Prisoners During the War to be Discharged. Deserters to be Released from Confinement. [Official.] From Secretary Stanton to Gen. Dix". The New York Times. United States Department of War. May 29, 1865. Retrieved July 29, 2022.; United States Civil War Centennial Commission Robertson, James I. Jr. (1963). The Civil War. Washington, D.C.: Civil War Centennial Commission. OCLC 299955768. At p. 31, Professor James I. Robertson Jr. of Virginia Tech University and Executive Director of the U. S. Civil War Centennial Commission wrote, "Lee's surrender left Johnston with no place to go. On April 26, near Durham, N. C., the Army of Tennessee laid down its arms before Sherman's forces. With the surrender of isolated forces in the Trans-Mississippi West on May 4, 11, and 26, the most costly war in American history came to an end."
    2. ^ Among the many other contemporary sources and later historians citing May 26, 1865, the date that the surrender of the last significant Confederate force in the trans-Mississippi department was agreed upon, or citing simply the surrender of the Confederate armies, as the end date for the American Civil War hostilities are George Templeton Strong, who was a prominent New York lawyer; a founder, treasurer, and member of the Executive Committee of United States Sanitary Commission throughout the war; and a diarist. A diary excerpt is published in Gienapp, William E., ed. The Civil War and Reconstruction: A Documentary Collection. New York: W.W. Norton & Co., 2001, pp. 313–314 ISBN 978-0-393-97555-0. A footnote in Gienapp shows the excerpt was taken from an edited version of the diaries by Allan Nevins and Milton Halsey Thomas, eds., The Diary of George Templeton Strong, vol. 2 (New York: The McMillan Company), pp. 600–601, which differs from the volume and page numbers of the original diaries; the actual diary is shown at https://digitalcollections.nyhistory.org/islandora/object/nyhs%3A55249 Archived November 16, 2022, at the Wayback Machine, the page in Strong's original handwriting is shown at that web page, it is Volume 4, pp. 124–125: diary entries for May 23 (continued)-June 7, 1865 of the original diaries; Horace Greeley, The American Conflict: A History of the Great Rebellion in the United States, 1860–'65. Volume II. Hartford: O. D. Case & Company, 1866. OCLC 936872302. p. 757: "Though the war on land ceased, and the Confederate flag utterly disappeared from this continent with the collapse and dispersion of Kirby Smith's command...."; John William Draper, History of the American Civil War. [1] Volume 3. New York: Harper & Brothers, 1870. OCLC 830251756. Retrievfootnoed July 28, 2022. p. 618: "On the 26th of the same month General Kirby Smith surrendered his entire command west of the Mississippi to General Canby. With this, all military opposition to the government ended."; Jefferson Davis. The Rise And Fall Of The Confederate Government. Volume II. New York: D. Appleton and Company, 1881. OCLC 1249017603. p. 630: "With General E. K. Smith's surrender the Confederate flag no longer floated on the land; p. 663: "When the Confederate soldiers laid down their arms and went home, all hostilities against the power of the Government of the United States ceased."; Ulysses S. Grant Personal Memoirs of U. S. Grant. Volume 2. [2] New York: Charles L. Webster & Company, 1886. OCLC 255136538. p. 522: "General E. Kirby Smith surrendered the trans-Mississippi department on the 26th of May, leaving no other Confederate army at liberty to continue the war."; Frederick H. Dyer A compendium of the War of the Rebellion. [3] Des Moines, IA: Dyer Publishing Co., 1908. OCLC 8697590. Full entry on last Table of Contents page (unnumbered on download): "Alphabetical Index of Campaigns, Battles, Engagements, Actions, Combats, Sieges, Skirmishes, Reconnaissances, Scouts and Other Military Events Connected with the "War of the Rebellion" During the Period of Actual Hostilities, From April 12, 1861, to May 26, 1865"; Nathaniel W. Stephenson, The Day of the Confederacy, A Chronicle of the Embattled South, Volume 30 in The Chronicles Of America Series. [4] New Haven: Yale University Press; Toronto: Glasgow, Brook & Co.; London: Oxford University Press, 1919. p. 202: "The surrender of the forces of the Trans-Mississippi on May 26, 1865, brought the war to a definite conclusion."; Bruce Catton. The Centennial History of the Civil War. Vol. 3, Never Call Retreat. Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1965. p. 445. "and on May 26 he [E. Kirby Smith] surrendered and the war was over"; and Gary W. Gallagher, Stephen D. Engle, Robert K. Krick & Joseph T. Glatthaar, foreword by James M. McPherson. The American Civil War: This Mighty Scourge of War. New York: Osprey Publishing, Ltd., 2003 ISBN 978-1-84176-736-9. p. 308: "By 26 May, General Edward Kirby Smith had surrendered the Rebel forces in the trans-Mississippi west. The war was over."
    3. ^ a b c "Facts". National Park Service.
    4. ^ "Size of the Union Army in the American Civil War" Archived April 16, 2017, at the Wayback Machine: Of which 131,000 were in the Navy and Marines, 140,000 were garrison troops and home defense militia, and 427,000 were in the field army.
    5. ^ Long 1971, p. 705.
    6. ^ "The war of the rebellion: a compilation of the official records of the Union and Confederate armies; Series 4 – Volume 2" Archived July 25, 2017, at the Wayback Machine, United States War Dept., 1900.
    7. ^ a b c Fox, William F. Regimental losses in the American Civil War Archived May 25, 2017, at the Wayback Machine (1889).
    8. ^ a b c "DCAS Reports – Principal Wars, 1775–1991". dcas.dmdc.osd.mil.
    9. ^ Chambers & Anderson 1999, p. 849.
    10. ^ Rhodes, James Ford (1893). History of the United States from the Compromise of 1850. Harvard University. New York, Harper & Bros. pp. 507–508.
    11. ^ Rhodes, James Ford (1893). History of the United States from the Compromise of 1850. Harvard University. New York, Harper & Bros. pp. 507–508.
    12. ^ Cite error: The named reference StatsWarCost was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    13. ^ James Downs, "Colorblindness in the demographic death toll of the Civil War" Archived January 19, 2018, at the Wayback Machine. Oxford University Press blog, April 13, 2012. "The rough 19th century estimate was that 60,000 former slaves died from the epidemic, but doctors treating black patients often claimed that they were unable to keep accurate records due to demands on their time and the lack of manpower and resources. The surviving records only include the number of black patients whom doctors encountered; tens of thousands of other slaves had no contact with army doctors, leaving no records of their deaths." 60,000 documented plus 'tens of thousands' undocumented gives a minimum of 80,000 slave deaths.
    14. ^ Toward a Social History of the American Civil War Exploratory Essays, Cambridge University Press, 1990, p. 4.
    15. ^ Cite error: The named reference recounting was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    16. ^ James Downs, "Colorblindness in the demographic death toll of the Civil War" Archived January 19, 2018, at the Wayback Machine. Oxford University Press blog, April 13, 2012. "An 2 April 2012 New York Times article, 'New Estimate Raises Civil War Death Toll', reports that a new study ratchets up the death toll from an estimated 650,000 to a staggering 850,000 people. As horrific as this new number is, it fails to reflect the mortality of former slaves during the war. If former slaves were included in this figure, the Civil War death toll would likely be over a million casualties ...".
    17. ^ "The Declaration of Causes of Seceding States. Primary Sources". American Battlefield Trust. 2023. Retrieved December 30, 2023.
     
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    22 August 1972Rhodesia is expelled by the IOC for its racist policies.

    Rhodesia

    Rhodesia (/rˈdʒə/ roh-DEE-zhə, /rˈdʃə/ roh-DEE-shə;[2] Shona: Rodizha), officially from 1970 the Republic of Rhodesia,[3] was an unrecognised state in Southern Africa from 1965 to 1979, equivalent in territory to modern Zimbabwe. Rhodesia was the de facto successor state to the British colony of Southern Rhodesia, which had been self-governing since achieving responsible government in 1923. A landlocked nation, Rhodesia was bordered by South Africa to the south, Bechuanaland (later Botswana) to the southwest, Zambia (formerly Northern Rhodesia) to the northwest, and Mozambique (a Portuguese province until 1975) to the east. From 1965 to 1979, Rhodesia was one of two independent states on the African continent governed by a white minority of European descent and culture, the other being South Africa.

    In the late 19th century, the territory north of the Transvaal was chartered to the British South Africa Company, led by Cecil Rhodes. Rhodes and his Pioneer Column marched north in 1890, acquiring a huge block of territory that the company would rule until the early 1920s. In 1923, the company's charter was revoked, and Southern Rhodesia attained self-government and established a legislature. Between 1953 and 1963, Southern Rhodesia was joined with Northern Rhodesia and Nyasaland in the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland.

    The rapid decolonisation of Africa in the late 1950s and early 1960s alarmed a significant proportion of Southern Rhodesia's white population. In an effort to delay the transition to black majority rule, the predominantly white Southern Rhodesian government issued its own Unilateral Declaration of Independence (UDI) from the United Kingdom on 11 November 1965. The new nation, identified simply as Rhodesia, initially sought recognition as an autonomous realm within the Commonwealth of Nations, but reconstituted itself as a republic in 1970.

    Following the declaration of independence, the United Nations Security Council passed a resolution that called upon all states not to grant recognition to Rhodesia. Two African nationalist parties, the Zimbabwe African People's Union (ZAPU) and Zimbabwe African National Union (ZANU), launched an armed insurgency against the government upon UDI, sparking the Rhodesian Bush War. Growing war weariness, diplomatic pressure, and an extensive trade embargo imposed by the United Nations prompted Rhodesian prime minister Ian Smith to concede to majority rule in 1978. However, elections and a multiracial provisional government, with Smith succeeded by moderate Abel Muzorewa, failed to appease international critics or halt the war. By December 1979 Muzorewa had secured an agreement with ZAPU and ZANU, allowing Rhodesia to briefly revert to colonial status pending new elections under British supervision. ZANU secured an electoral victory in 1980, and the country achieved internationally recognised independence in April 1980 as Zimbabwe.

    Rhodesia's largest cities were Salisbury (its capital city, now known as Harare) and Bulawayo. Prior to 1970, the unicameral Legislative Assembly was predominantly white, with a small number of seats reserved for black representatives. Following the declaration of a republic in 1970, this was replaced by a bicameral Parliament, with a House of Assembly and a Senate. The bicameral system was retained in Zimbabwe after 1980. Aside from its racial franchise, Rhodesia observed a fairly conventional Westminster system inherited from the United Kingdom, with a President acting as ceremonial head of state, while a Prime Minister headed the Cabinet as head of government.

    1. ^ West, Michael O. (18 December 2008). ""Equal Rights for all Civilized Men"" (PDF). International Review of Social History. 37 (3): 382. doi:10.1017/S0020859000111344. S2CID 145609588.
    2. ^ Chambers, Allied (1998). The Chambers Dictionary. Allied Publishers. p. 1416. ISBN 978-81-86062-25-8.
    3. ^ "46. Rhodesia/Zimbabwe (1964-present)". uca.edu.
     
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    23 August 1305Sir William Wallace is executed for high treason at Smithfield, London.

    William Wallace

    Sir William Wallace (Scottish Gaelic: Uilleam Uallas, pronounced [ˈɯʎam ˈuəl̪ˠəs̪]; Norman French: William le Waleys;[2] c. 1270[3] – 23 August 1305) was a Scottish knight who became one of the main leaders during the First War of Scottish Independence.[4]

    Along with Andrew Moray, Wallace defeated an English army at the Battle of Stirling Bridge in September 1297. He was appointed Guardian of Scotland and served until his defeat at the Battle of Falkirk in July 1298. In August 1305, Wallace was captured in Robroyston, near Glasgow, and handed over to King Edward I of England, who had him hanged, drawn and quartered for high treason and crimes against English civilians.

    Since his death, Wallace has obtained a legendary status beyond his homeland. He is the protagonist of Blind Harry's 15th-century epic poem The Wallace and the subject of literary works by Jane Porter and Sir Walter Scott, and of the Academy Award-winning film Braveheart.

    1. ^ "Info". wallace.scran.ac.uk. Archived from the original on 16 May 2021. Retrieved 12 June 2021.
    2. ^ Stevenson, Joseph (1841). Documents illustrative of Sir William Wallace: his life and times. Printed for the Maitland club. p. 173. Retrieved 1 September 2013 – via New York Public Library and Internet Archive.
    3. ^ "Sir William Wallace, Scottish hero". Britannica.com. Retrieved 18 April 2015.
    4. ^ "William Wallace (c. 1270–1305)". BBC History. 3 August 2007. Retrieved 4 April 2010.
     
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    24 August 1944 – World War II: Allied troops begin the attack on Paris.

    Liberation of Paris

    The liberation of Paris (French: libération de Paris) was a military battle that took place during World War II from 19 August 1944 until the German garrison surrendered the French capital on 25 August 1944. Paris had been occupied by Nazi Germany since the signing of the Armistice of 22 June 1940, after which the Wehrmacht occupied northern and western France.

    The liberation began when the French Forces of the Interior—the military structure of the French Resistance—staged an uprising against the German garrison upon the approach of the US Third Army, led by General George S. Patton. On the night of 24 August, elements of General Philippe Leclerc de Hauteclocque's 2nd French Armored Division made their way into Paris and arrived at the Hôtel de Ville shortly before midnight. The next morning, 25 August, the bulk of the 2nd Armored Division and US 4th Infantry Division and other allied units entered the city. Dietrich von Choltitz, commander of the German garrison and the military governor of Paris, surrendered to the French at the Hôtel Le Meurice, the newly established French headquarters. General Charles de Gaulle of the French Army arrived to assume control of the city as head of the Provisional Government of the French Republic.

    1. ^ a b "Libération de Paris [Liberation of Paris]" Archived 19 March 2009 at the Wayback Machine (in French). (PDF format).
    2. ^ "The Lost Evidence – Liberation of Paris". History.
     
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    25 August 1835 – The first Great Moon Hoax article is published in The New York Sun, announcing the discovery of life and civilization on the Moon.

    Great Moon Hoax

    A lithograph of the hoax's "ruby amphitheater", as printed in The Sun

    The "Great Moon Hoax", also known as the "Great Moon Hoax of 1835" was a series of six articles published in The Sun (a New York newspaper), beginning on August 25, 1835, about the supposed discovery of life and civilization on the Moon. The discoveries were falsely attributed to Sir John Herschel and his fictitious companion Andrew Grant.[1]

    The story was advertised on August 21, 1835, as an upcoming feature allegedly reprinted from The Edinburgh Courant.[2] The first in a series of six was published four days later on August 25. These articles were never retracted, however on September 16, 1835, The Sun admitted the articles were in fact fabricated.[3]

    1. ^ Vida, István Kornél (2012). "The "Great Moon Hoax" of 1835". Hungarian Journal of English and American Studies. 18 (1/2): 431–441. JSTOR 43488485.
    2. ^ Maliszewski, Paul. "Paper Moon", Wilson Quarterly. Winter 2005. p. 26.
    3. ^ ""The Great Moon Hoax" is published in the "New York Sun" | August 25, 1835". HISTORY. Retrieved 2023-11-29.
     

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