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Discussion in 'Break Room' started by NewsBot, Apr 6, 2008.

  1. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    26 August 1978Papal conclave: Albino Luciani is elected as Pope John Paul I.

    Pope John Paul I

    Pope John Paul I (Latin: Ioannes Paulus I; Italian: Giovanni Paolo I; born Albino Luciani [alˈbiːno luˈtʃaːni]; 17 October 1912 – 28 September 1978) was head of the Catholic Church and sovereign of the Vatican City from 26 August 1978 until his death 33 days later. His reign is among the shortest in papal history, resulting in the most recent year of three popes and the first to occur since 1605. John Paul I remains the most recent Italian-born pope, the last in a succession of such popes that started with Clement VII in 1523.

    Before the August 1978 papal conclave that elected him, he expressed his desire not to be elected, telling those close to him that he would decline the papacy if elected; upon the cardinals' electing him, he felt an obligation to say yes.[4] He was the first pontiff to have a double name, choosing "John Paul" in honour of his two immediate predecessors, John XXIII and Paul VI. He explained that he was indebted to John XXIII and to Paul VI for naming him a bishop and a cardinal, respectively. Furthermore, he was the first pope to add the regnal number "I", designating himself "the First".

    His two immediate successors, John Paul II and Benedict XVI, later recalled the warm qualities of the late pontiff in several addresses. In Italy, he is remembered with the appellatives of Il Papa del Sorriso (transl.The Smiling Pope)[5] and Il Sorriso di Dio (transl. The Smile of God).[6] Time magazine and other publications referred to him as "The September Pope".[7] He is also known in Italy as "Papa Luciani". In his hometown of Canale d'Agordo a museum built and named in his honor is dedicated to his life and brief papacy.

    He was declared a servant of God by his successor, John Paul II, on 23 November 2003, the first step on the road to sainthood. Pope Francis confirmed his heroic virtue on 8 November 2017 and named him as Venerable. Pope Francis presided over the beatification on 4 September 2022.[8][9]

    1. ^ "33-Tage-Papst Johannes Paul I. Seliggesprochen".
    2. ^ "Pope Francis beatifies John Paul I, pope for 33 days".
    3. ^ "The prayer for Pope Luciani". Corriere delle Alpi. 29 September 2015. Retrieved 30 September 2015.
    4. ^ Allen, John (2 November 2012). "Debunking four myths about John Paul I, the 'Smiling Pope'". National Catholic Reporter. Retrieved 28 December 2013.
    5. ^ Seabeck, Raymond; Seabeck, Lauretta (2004). The Smiling Pope, The Life & Teaching of John Paul I. {{cite book}}: |work= ignored (help)
    6. ^ Papa Luciani: Il sorriso di Dio (Pope Luciani: The Smile of God). Radiotelevisione Italia. 2006. Archived from the original on 24 October 2012. Retrieved 21 July 2018. documentary.
    7. ^ "The September Pope". Time. 9 October 1978. Archived from the original on 23 November 2008. Retrieved 3 April 2010.
    8. ^ "33-day 'Smiling Pope' John Paul I beatified at the Vatican". BBC News. 4 September 2022.
    9. ^ "Pope beatifies John Paul I: May he obtain for us the 'smile of the soul'". Vatican News. 4 September 2022.
     
  2. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    26 August 1978Papal conclave: Albino Luciani is elected as Pope John Paul I.

    Pope John Paul I

    Pope John Paul I (Latin: Ioannes Paulus I; Italian: Giovanni Paolo I; born Albino Luciani [alˈbiːno luˈtʃaːni]; 17 October 1912 – 28 September 1978) was head of the Catholic Church and sovereign of the Vatican City from 26 August 1978 until his death 33 days later. His reign is among the shortest in papal history, resulting in the most recent year of three popes and the first to occur since 1605. John Paul I remains the most recent Italian-born pope, the last in a succession of such popes that started with Clement VII in 1523.

    Before the August 1978 papal conclave that elected him, he expressed his desire not to be elected, telling those close to him that he would decline the papacy if elected; upon the cardinals' electing him, he felt an obligation to say yes.[4] He was the first pontiff to have a double name, choosing "John Paul" in honour of his two immediate predecessors, John XXIII and Paul VI. He explained that he was indebted to John XXIII and to Paul VI for naming him a bishop and a cardinal, respectively. Furthermore, he was the first pope to add the regnal number "I", designating himself "the First".

    His two immediate successors, John Paul II and Benedict XVI, later recalled the warm qualities of the late pontiff in several addresses. In Italy, he is remembered with the appellatives of Il Papa del Sorriso (transl.The Smiling Pope)[5] and Il Sorriso di Dio (transl. The Smile of God).[6] Time magazine and other publications referred to him as "The September Pope".[7] He is also known in Italy as "Papa Luciani". In his hometown of Canale d'Agordo a museum built and named in his honor is dedicated to his life and brief papacy.

    He was declared a servant of God by his successor, John Paul II, on 23 November 2003, the first step on the road to sainthood. Pope Francis confirmed his heroic virtue on 8 November 2017 and named him as Venerable. Pope Francis presided over the beatification on 4 September 2022.[8][9]

    1. ^ "33-Tage-Papst Johannes Paul I. Seliggesprochen".
    2. ^ "Pope Francis beatifies John Paul I, pope for 33 days".
    3. ^ "The prayer for Pope Luciani". Corriere delle Alpi. 29 September 2015. Retrieved 30 September 2015.
    4. ^ Allen, John (2 November 2012). "Debunking four myths about John Paul I, the 'Smiling Pope'". National Catholic Reporter. Retrieved 28 December 2013.
    5. ^ Seabeck, Raymond; Seabeck, Lauretta (2004). The Smiling Pope, The Life & Teaching of John Paul I. {{cite book}}: |work= ignored (help)
    6. ^ Papa Luciani: Il sorriso di Dio (Pope Luciani: The Smile of God). Radiotelevisione Italia. 2006. Archived from the original on 24 October 2012. Retrieved 21 July 2018. documentary.
    7. ^ "The September Pope". Time. 9 October 1978. Archived from the original on 23 November 2008. Retrieved 3 April 2010.
    8. ^ "33-day 'Smiling Pope' John Paul I beatified at the Vatican". BBC News. 4 September 2022.
    9. ^ "Pope beatifies John Paul I: May he obtain for us the 'smile of the soul'". Vatican News. 4 September 2022.
     
  3. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    27 August 2011Hurricane Irene strikes the United States east coast, killing 47 and causing an estimated $15.6 billion in damage.

    Hurricane Irene

    Hurricane Irene was a large and destructive tropical cyclone which affected much of the Caribbean and East Coast of the United States during late August 2011. The ninth named storm, first hurricane, and first major hurricane of the 2011 Atlantic hurricane season, Irene originated from a well-defined Atlantic tropical wave that began showing signs of organization east of the Lesser Antilles. Due to development of atmospheric convection and a closed center of circulation, the system was designated as Tropical Storm Irene on August 20, 2011. After intensifying, Irene made landfall in St. Croix as a strong tropical storm later that day. Early on August 21, the storm made a second landfall in Puerto Rico. While crossing the island, Irene strengthened into a Category 1 hurricane. The storm paralleled offshore of Hispaniola, continuing to slowly intensify in the process. Shortly before making four landfalls in the Bahamas, Irene peaked as a 120 mph (190 km/h) Category 3 hurricane.

    Thereafter, the storm slowly leveled off in intensity as it struck the Bahamas and then curved northward after passing east of Grand Bahama. Continuing to weaken, Irene was downgraded to a Category 1 hurricane before making landfall on the Outer Banks of North Carolina on August 27, becoming the first hurricane to make landfall in the United States since Hurricane Ike in 2008. Later that day, the storm re-emerged into the Atlantic from southeastern Virginia. Although Irene remained a hurricane over water, it weakened to a tropical storm while making yet another landfall in the Little Egg Inlet in southeastern New Jersey on August 27. A few hours later, Irene made its ninth and final landfall in Brooklyn, New York City. Early on August 29, Irene transitioned into an extratropical cyclone while striking Vermont, after remaining inland as a tropical cyclone for less than 12 hours.

    Throughout its path, Irene caused widespread destruction and at least 49 deaths. Damage estimates throughout the United States are estimated near $13.5 billion, making Irene one of the costliest hurricanes on record in the country. In addition, monetary losses in the Caribbean and Canada were $830 million and $130 million respectively for a total of nearly $14.2 billion in damage.[1][2]

    1. ^ Fieser, Erza (August 25, 2011). "Hurricane Irene barrels toward US as Caribbean islands take stock of damage". The Christian Science Monitor. Archived from the original on August 26, 2011. Retrieved September 20, 2011.
    2. ^ Telling the Weather Story (PDF) (Report). Insurance Bureau of Canada. June 4, 2012. Archived (PDF) from the original on June 9, 2015. Retrieved July 19, 2015.
     
  4. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    28 August 1810Battle of Grand Port: The French accept the surrender of a British Navy fleet.

    Battle of Grand Port

    The Battle of Grand Port was a naval battle fought on 20–27 August 1810 between squadrons of frigates from the French Navy and the British Royal Navy over possession of the harbour of Grand Port on Île de France (now Mauritius), as part of the Mauritius campaign during the Napoleonic Wars. A British squadron of four frigates sought to blockade the port to prevent its use by the French through the capture of the fortified Île de la Passe at its entrance. This position was seized by a British landing party on 13 August and, when a French squadron under Captain Guy-Victor Duperré approached the bay nine days later, the British commander, Captain Samuel Pym, decided to lure them into coastal waters where his forces could ambush them.

    Four of the five French ships managed to break past the British blockade, taking shelter in the protected anchorage, which was only accessible through a series of complicated routes between reefs and sandbanks that were impassable without an experienced harbour pilot. When Pym ordered his frigates to attack the anchored French on 22 and 23 August, his ships became trapped in the narrow channels of the bay: two were irretrievably grounded; a third, outnumbered by the combined French squadron, was defeated; and a fourth was unable to close to within effective gun range. Although the French ships were also badly damaged, the battle was a disaster for the British: one ship was captured after suffering irreparable damage, the grounded ships were set on fire to prevent their capture by French boarding parties, and the remaining vessel was seized as it left the harbour by the main French squadron from Port Napoleon under Commodore Jacques Hamelin.

    The British defeat is often considered the worst suffered by the Royal Navy during all of the Napoleonic Wars. It left the Indian Ocean and its vital trade convoys exposed to attack from Hamelin's frigates. In response, British authorities sought to reinforce the squadron on Île Bourbon under Commodore Josias Rowley by ordering all available ships to the region, but this piecemeal reinforcement resulted in a series of desperate actions as individual British ships were attacked by the confident and more powerful French squadron. In December an adequate reinforcement was assembled with the provision of a strong battle squadron under Admiral Albemarle Bertie, which rapidly invaded and captured the Île de France.

     
  5. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    29 August 1966The Beatles perform their last concert before paying fans at Candlestick Park in San Francisco.

    The Beatles

    The Beatles were an English rock band formed in Liverpool in 1960, comprising John Lennon, Paul McCartney, George Harrison and Ringo Starr. They are regarded as the most influential band of all time[1] and were integral to the development of 1960s counterculture and the recognition of popular music as an art form.[2] Rooted in skiffle, beat and 1950s rock 'n' roll, their sound incorporated elements of classical music and traditional pop in innovative ways. The band also explored music styles ranging from folk and Indian music to psychedelia and hard rock. As pioneers in recording, songwriting and artistic presentation, the Beatles revolutionized many aspects of the music industry and were often publicized as leaders of the era's youth and sociocultural movements.[3]

    Led by primary songwriters Lennon and McCartney, the Beatles evolved from Lennon's previous group, the Quarrymen, and built their reputation by playing clubs in Liverpool and Hamburg over three years from 1960, initially with Stuart Sutcliffe playing bass. The core trio of Lennon, McCartney and Harrison, together since 1958, went through a succession of drummers, including Pete Best, before inviting Starr to join them in 1962. Manager Brian Epstein moulded them into a professional act, and producer George Martin guided and developed their recordings, greatly expanding their domestic success after they signed with EMI Records and achieved their first hit, "Love Me Do", in late 1962. As their popularity grew into the intense fan frenzy dubbed "Beatlemania", the band acquired the nickname "the Fab Four". Epstein, Martin or another member of the band's entourage was sometimes informally referred to as a "fifth Beatle".

    By early 1964, the Beatles were international stars and had achieved unprecedented levels of critical and commercial success. They became a leading force in Britain's cultural resurgence, ushering in the British Invasion of the United States pop market. They soon made their film debut with A Hard Day's Night (1964). A growing desire to refine their studio efforts, coupled with the challenging nature of their concert tours, led to the band's retirement from live performances in 1966. During this time, they produced albums of greater sophistication, including Rubber Soul (1965), Revolver (1966) and Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band (1967). They enjoyed further commercial success with The Beatles (also known as "the White Album", 1968) and Abbey Road (1969). The success of these records heralded the album era, as albums became the dominant form of record use over singles. These records also increased public interest in psychedelic drugs and Eastern spirituality and furthered advancements in electronic music, album art and music videos. In 1968, they founded Apple Corps, a multi-armed multimedia corporation that continues to oversee projects related to the band's legacy. After the group's break-up in 1970, all principal former members enjoyed success as solo artists, and some partial reunions have occurred. Lennon was murdered in 1980, and Harrison died of lung cancer in 2001. McCartney and Starr remain musically active.

    The Beatles are the best-selling music act of all time, with estimated sales of 600 million units worldwide.[4][5] They are the most successful act in the history of the US Billboard charts,[6] holding the record for most number-one albums on the UK Albums Chart (15), most number-one hits on the US Billboard Hot 100 chart (20), and most singles sold in the UK (21.9 million). The band received many accolades, including seven Grammy Awards, four Brit Awards, an Academy Award (for Best Original Song Score for the 1970 documentary film Let It Be) and fifteen Ivor Novello Awards. They were inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in their first year of eligibility, 1988, and each principal member was individually inducted between 1994 and 2015. In 2004 and 2011, the group topped Rolling Stone's lists of the greatest artists in history. Time magazine named them among the 20th century's 100 most important people.

    1. ^ Hasted 2017, p. 425.
    2. ^ Frontani 2007, p. 125.
    3. ^ Frontani 2007, p. 157.
    4. ^ Siggins, Gerard (7 February 2016). "Yeah, Yeah, Yeah! Rare footage of the Beatles's Dublin performance". Irish Independent. Archived from the original on 9 November 2019. Retrieved 1 December 2017.
    5. ^ Hotten, Russell (4 October 2012). "The Beatles at 50: From Fab Four to fabulously wealthy". BBC News. Archived from the original on 12 March 2013. Retrieved 28 January 2013.
    6. ^ "Greatest of All Time Artists". Billboard. Archived from the original on 14 November 2019. Retrieved 21 March 2023.
     
  6. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    30 August 1945 – Hong Kong is liberated from Japan by British Armed Forces.
     
  7. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    31 August 1897Thomas Edison patents the Kinetoscope, the first movie projector.

    Kinetoscope

    Interior view of Kinetoscope with peephole viewer at top of cabinet

    The Kinetoscope is an early motion picture exhibition device, designed for films to be viewed by one person at a time through a peephole viewer window. The Kinetoscope was not a movie projector, but it introduced the basic approach that would become the standard for all cinematic projection before the advent of video: it created the illusion of movement by conveying a strip of perforated film bearing sequential images over a light source with a high-speed shutter. First described in conceptual terms by U.S. inventor Thomas Edison in 1888, it was largely developed by his employee William Kennedy Laurie Dickson between 1889 and 1892. Dickson and his team at the Edison lab in New Jersey also devised the Kinetograph, an innovative motion picture camera with rapid intermittent, or stop-and-go, film movement, to photograph movies for in-house experiments and, eventually, commercial Kinetoscope presentations.

    A Kinetoscope prototype was first semipublicly demonstrated to members of the National Federation of Women's Clubs invited to the Edison laboratory on May 20, 1891. The completed version was publicly unveiled in Brooklyn two years later, and on April 14, 1894, the first commercial exhibition of motion pictures in history took place in New York City, using ten Kinetoscopes. Instrumental to the birth of American movie culture, the Kinetoscope also had a major impact in Europe; its influence abroad was magnified by Edison's decision not to seek international patents on the device, facilitating numerous imitations of and improvements on the technology. In 1895, Edison introduced the Kinetophone, which joined the Kinetoscope with a cylinder phonograph. Film projection, which Edison initially disdained as financially nonviable, soon superseded the Kinetoscope's individual exhibition model. Numerous motion picture systems developed by Edison's firm in later years were marketed with the name Projecting Kinetoscope.

     
  8. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    1 September 1969 – A coup in Libya brings Muammar Gaddafi to power.

    Muammar Gaddafi

    Muammar Muhammad Abu Minyar al-Gaddafi[pron 1] (c. 1942 – 20 October 2011) was a Libyan revolutionary, politician and political theorist who ruled Libya from 1969 until his killing in 2011 by rebel forces. He first served as Revolutionary Chairman of the Libyan Arab Republic from 1969 to 1977 and then as the Brotherly Leader of the Great Socialist People's Libyan Arab Jamahiriya from 1977 to 2011. Initially ideologically committed to Arab nationalism and Arab socialism, Gaddafi later ruled according to his own Third International Theory.

    Born near Sirte, Italian Libya, to a poor Bedouin Arab family, Gaddafi became an Arab nationalist while at school in Sabha, later enrolling in the Royal Military Academy, Benghazi. Within the military, he founded a revolutionary group which deposed the Western-backed Senussi monarchy of Idris in a 1969 coup. Having taken power, Gaddafi converted Libya into a republic governed by his Revolutionary Command Council. Ruling by decree, he deported Libya's Italian population and ejected its Western military bases. Strengthening ties to Arab nationalist governments—particularly Gamal Abdel Nasser's Egypt—he unsuccessfully advocated pan-Arab political union. An Islamic modernist, he introduced sharia as the basis for the legal system and promoted Islamic socialism. He nationalized the oil industry and used the increasing state revenues to bolster the military, fund foreign revolutionaries, and implement social programs emphasizing housebuilding, healthcare and education projects. In 1973, he initiated a "Popular Revolution" with the formation of Basic People's Congresses, presented as a system of direct democracy, but retained personal control over major decisions. He outlined his Third International Theory that year in The Green Book.

    In 1977 Gaddafi transformed Libya into a new socialist state called a Jamahiriya ("state of the masses"). He officially adopted a symbolic role in governance but remained head of both the military and the Revolutionary Committees responsible for policing and suppressing dissent. During the 1970s and 1980s, Libya's unsuccessful border conflicts with Egypt and Chad, support for foreign militants, and alleged responsibility for bombings of Pan Am Flight 103 and UTA Flight 772 left it increasingly isolated on the world stage. A particularly hostile relationship developed with Israel, the United States and the United Kingdom, resulting in the 1986 U.S. bombing of Libya and United Nations–imposed economic sanctions. From 1999, Gaddafi shunned pan-Arabism, and encouraged pan-Africanism and rapprochement with Western nations; he was Chairperson of the African Union from 2009 to 2010. Amid the 2011 Arab Spring, protests against widespread corruption and unemployment broke out in eastern Libya. The situation descended into civil war, in which NATO intervened militarily on the side of the anti-Gaddafist National Transitional Council (NTC). Gaddafi's government was overthrown; he retreated to Sirte only to be captured, tortured and killed by NTC militants.

    A highly divisive figure, Gaddafi dominated Libya's politics for four decades and was the subject of a pervasive cult of personality. He was decorated with various awards and praised for his anti-imperialist stance, support for Arab—and then African—unity, as well as for significant development to the country following the discovery of oil reserves. Conversely, many Libyans strongly opposed Gaddafi's social and economic reforms; he was posthumously accused of various human rights violations. He was condemned by many as a dictator whose authoritarian administration systematically violated human rights and financed global terrorism in the region and abroad.

    1. ^ "Muammar Gaddafi: How He Died". BBC News. 31 October 2011. Archived from the original on 24 March 2016. Retrieved 6 October 2017.
    2. ^ Cite error: The named reference INDtncofficialgov was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    3. ^ Staff (23 August 2011). "Tuesday, 23 August 2011 – 16:19". Libya Live Blog. Al Jazeera. Retrieved 23 August 2011.
    4. ^ Cite error: The named reference taipeitimmes20110826 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    5. ^ "After Much Wrangling, General Assembly Seats National Transitional Council of Libya as Country's Representative for Sixty-Sixth Session". United Nations. 16 September 2011. Archived from the original on 1 June 2022. Retrieved 20 October 2020.
    6. ^ "How are you supposed to spell Muammar Gaddafi/Khadafy/Qadhafi?". The Straight Dope. 1986. Archived from the original on 5 February 2017. Retrieved 5 March 2006.
    7. ^ Gibson, Charles (22 September 2009). "How Many Different Ways Can You Spell 'Gaddafi'". ABC News. Archived from the original on 6 February 2012. Retrieved 22 February 2011.
    8. ^ "Saif Gaddafi on How to Spell His Last Name". The Daily Beast. 1 March 2011. Archived from the original on 6 October 2017. Retrieved 1 September 2011.
    9. ^ Fisher, Max (24 August 2011). "Rebel Discovers Qaddafi Passport, Real Spelling of Leader's Name". The Atlantic. Archived from the original on 5 April 2013. Retrieved 6 October 2017.
    10. ^ Anil Kandangath (25 February 2011). "How Do You Spell Gaddafi's Name?". Doublespeak Blog. Archived from the original on 28 February 2011.
    11. ^ "Google Books Ngram Viewer". books.google.com.
    12. ^ Pereira, Christophe (2008). "Libya". Encyclopedia of Arabic Language and Linguistics. Vol. 3. Brill. pp. 52–58.


    Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).
    Cite error: There are <ref group=pron> tags on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=pron}} template (see the help page).

     
  9. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    2 September 1998Swissair Flight 111 crashes near Peggy's Cove, Nova Scotia; all 229 people onboard are killed.

    Swissair Flight 111

    Approximate location of the crash

    Swissair Flight 111 (SR111/SWR111) was a scheduled international passenger flight from John F. Kennedy International Airport in New York City, United States, to Cointrin Airport in Geneva, Switzerland. The flight was also a codeshare flight with Delta Air Lines.[1] On 2 September 1998, the McDonnell Douglas MD-11 performing this flight, registration HB-IWF, crashed into the Atlantic Ocean southwest of Halifax Stanfield International Airport at the entrance to St. Margarets Bay, Nova Scotia. The crash site was 8 kilometres (5 mi; 4 nmi) from shore, roughly equidistant from the small fishing and tourist communities of Peggy's Cove and Bayswater. All 229 passengers and crew on board the MD-11 were killed, making the crash the deadliest accident in the history of Swissair and the deadliest accident involving the McDonnell Douglas MD-11. It is also the second-deadliest aviation accident to occur in Canada, behind Arrow Air Flight 1285R.

    The search and rescue response, crash recovery operation, and investigation by the Government of Canada took more than four years and cost CA$57 million.[2] The investigation carried out by the Transportation Safety Board of Canada (TSB) concluded that flammable material used in the aircraft's structure allowed a fire to spread beyond the control of the crew, resulting in the crash of the aircraft. Several wide-ranging recommendations were made which were incorporated into newer US Federal Aviation Administration standards.[3]: 253 

    Swissair Flight 111 was one of two ill-fated flights known as the "UN shuttle" (the other being Ethiopian Airlines Flight 302 in 2019) because of its popularity with United Nations officials traveling between the organization's two biggest centers.

    1. ^ Pearlstein, Steven (3 September 1998). "SWISSAIR JET CRASHES OFF NOVA SCOTIA". The Washington Post. Retrieved 18 June 2019.
    2. ^ "Nova: Crash of Flight 111". PBS.org. Archived from the original on 12 September 2006. Retrieved 5 August 2006.
    3. ^ "Aviation Investigation Report, In-Flight Fire Leading to Collision with Water, Swissair Transport Limited McDonnell Douglas MD-11 HB-IWF Peggy's Cove, Nova Scotia 5 nm SW 2 September 1998" (PDF). Transportation Safety Board of Canada. 27 March 2003. A98H0003. Archived (PDF) from the original on 17 October 2013. Retrieved 16 January 2016.
     
  10. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    3 September 1976Viking program: The American Viking 2 spacecraft lands at Utopia Planitia on Mars.

    Viking 2

    The Viking 2 mission was part of the American Viking program to Mars, and consisted of an orbiter and a lander essentially identical to that of the Viking 1 mission.[1] Viking 2 was operational on Mars for 1281 sols (1,316 days; 3 years, 221 days). The Viking 2 lander operated on the surface for 1,316 days, or 1281 sols, and was turned off on April 12, 1980, when its batteries failed. The orbiter worked until July 25, 1978,[1] returning almost 16,000 images in 706 orbits around Mars.[5]

    1. ^ a b c d e f g h Williams, David R. (December 18, 2006). "Viking Mission to Mars". NASA. Retrieved February 2, 2014.
    2. ^ a b "Viking 2 Lander". National Space Science Data Center.
    3. ^ a b Nelson, Jon. "Viking 2". NASA. Retrieved February 2, 2014.
    4. ^ NASA.gov
    5. ^ "Viking 2 Orbiter". National Space Science Data Center. Retrieved August 16, 2019.


    Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

     
  11. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    4 September 1970Salvador Allende is elected President of Chile.

    Salvador Allende

    Salvador Guillermo Allende Gossens[A] (26 June 1908 – 11 September 1973) was a socialist politician[4][5] who served as the 28th president of Chile from 1970 until his death in 1973.[6] As a democratic socialist committed to democracy,[7][8] he has been described as the first Marxist to be elected president in a liberal democracy in Latin America.[9][10][11]

    Allende's involvement in Chilean politics spanned a period of nearly forty years, during which he held various positions including senator, deputy, and cabinet minister. As a life-long committed member of the Socialist Party of Chile, whose foundation he had actively contributed to, he unsuccessfully ran for the national presidency in the 1952, 1958, and 1964 elections. In 1970, he won the presidency as the candidate of the Popular Unity coalition in a close three-way race. He was elected in a run-off by Congress, as no candidate had gained a majority. In office, Allende pursued a policy he called "The Chilean Way to Socialism". The coalition government was far from unanimous. Allende said that he was committed to democracy and represented the more moderate faction of the Socialist Party, while the radical wing sought a more radical course. Instead, the Communist Party of Chile favored a gradual and cautious approach that sought cooperation with Christian democrats,[7] which proved influential for the Italian Communist Party and the Historic Compromise.[12]

    As president, Allende sought to nationalize major industries, expand education, and improve the living standards of the working class. He clashed with the right-wing parties that controlled Congress and with the judiciary. On 11 September 1973, the military moved to oust Allende in a coup d'état supported by the CIA, which initially denied the allegations.[13][14] In 2000, the CIA admitted its role in the 1970 kidnapping of General René Schneider who had refused to use the army to stop Allende's inauguration.[15][16] Declassified documents released in 2023 showed that US president Richard Nixon, his national security advisor Henry Kissinger, and the United States government, which had branded Allende as a dangerous communist,[8] were aware of the military's plans to overthrow Allende's democratically-elected government in the days before the coup d'état.[17]

    As troops surrounded La Moneda Palace, Allende gave his last speech vowing not to resign.[18] Later that day, Allende died by suicide in his office;[19][20][21] the exact circumstances of his death are still disputed.[22][B] Following Allende's death, General Augusto Pinochet refused to return authority to a civilian government, and Chile was later ruled by the Government Junta, ending more than four decades of uninterrupted democratic governance, a period known as the Presidential Republic. The military junta that took over dissolved Congress, suspended the Constitution of 1925, and initiated a program of persecuting alleged dissidents, in which at least 3,095 civilians disappeared or were killed.[24] Pinochet's military dictatorship only ended after the successful internationally-backed 1989 constitutional referendum led to the peaceful Chilean transition to democracy.

    1. ^ "Allende". Collins English Dictionary. HarperCollins. Archived from the original on 27 July 2019. Retrieved 27 July 2019.
    2. ^ "Allende Gossens". Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary. Retrieved 27 July 2019.
    3. ^ "Allende, Isabel". Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English. Longman. Retrieved 20 August 2019.
    4. ^ Patsouras, Louis (2005). Marx in Context. iUniverse. p. 265. In Chile, where a large socialist movement was in place for decades, a socialist, Salvadore Allende, led a popular front electoral coalition, including Communists, to victory in 1970.
    5. ^ Medina, Eden (2014). Cybernetic Revolutionaries: Technology and Politics in Allende's Chile. MIT Press. p. 39. ... in Allende's socialism.
    6. ^ "Profile of Salvador Allende". BBC. 8 September 2003. Archived from the original on 9 July 2017. Retrieved 15 May 2009. Chile's Salvador Allende was murdered in a United States-backed coup on 11 September 1973 — three years earlier he had become Latin America's first democratically-elected Marxist president.
    7. ^ a b Cohen, Youssef (1994). Radicals, Reformers, and Reactionaries: The Prisoner's Dilemma and the Collapse of Democracy in Latin America. Chicago, Illinois: University of Chicago Press. pp. 98118. ISBN 978-0-2261-1271-8. Retrieved 30 August 2023 – via Google Books.
    8. ^ a b Busky, Donald F. (2000). Democratic Socialism: A Global Survey. Greenwood Publishing Group. pp. 195196. ISBN 978-0-275-96886-1. Retrieved 30 August 2023 – via Google Books.
    9. ^ "Chile: The Bloody End of a Marxist Dream". Time. 24 September 1973. ISSN 0040-781X. Retrieved 30 August 2023. Allende's downfall had implications that reached far beyond the borders of Chile. His had been the first democratically elected Marxist government in Latin America.
    10. ^ Mabry, Don (2003). "Chile: Allende's Rise and Fall". Historical Text Archive. Archived from the original on 30 October 2006. Retrieved 30 August 2023.
    11. ^ Ross, Jen (12 December 2006). "Controversial legacy of former Chilean dictator". Christian Science Monitor. ISSN 0882-7729. Archived from the original on 16 May 2008. Retrieved 30 August 2023. Gen. Augusto Pinochet, who overthrew Chile's democratically elected Communist government in a 1973 coup and ruled for 17 years, died Sunday without ever having been condemned for the human rights abuses committed during his rule.
    12. ^ Ayala, Fernando (31 October 2020). "Salvador Allende and the Chilean way to socialism". Meer. Retrieved 30 August 2023.
    13. ^ "Chile: The Bloody End of a Marxist Dream". Time. 24 September 1973. Archived from the original on 25 March 2014. Retrieved 5 August 2014. "Allende's downfall had implications that reached far beyond the borders of Chile. His had been the first democratically elected Marxist government in Latin America. ... Recently, TIME Correspondent Rudolph Rauch visited a group of truckers camped near Santiago who were enjoying a lavish communal meal of steak, vegetables, wine and empanadas (meat pies). 'Where does the money for that come from?' he inquired. 'From the CIA,' the truckers answered laughingly. In Washington, the CIA denied the allegation."
    14. ^ Winn, Peter (2010). "Furies of the Andes". In Grandin & Joseph, Greg & Gilbert (ed.). A Century of Revolution. Durham, NC: Duke University Press. pp. 239–275.
    15. ^ Briscoe, David (20 September 2000). "CIA Admits Involvement in Chile". ABC News. Retrieved 30 August 2023.
    16. ^ Evans, Michael (10 August 2023). "National Security Archive: Chile's Coup at 50: Kissinger Briefed Nixon on Failed 1970 CIA Plot to Block Allende Presidency". H-Net. Retrieved 30 August 2023.
    17. ^ Wilkinson, Tracy (29 August 2023). "Previously classified documents released by U.S. show knowledge of 1973 Chile coup". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved 30 August 2023.
    18. ^ Salvador Allende's Last Speech
    19. ^ "Chilean court confirms Allende suicide - CNN.com". Edition.cnn.com. 11 September 2012. Retrieved 12 September 2012.
    20. ^ "BBC News - Chile inquiry confirms President Allende killed himself". Bbc.co.uk. 19 July 2011. Retrieved 12 September 2012.
    21. ^ "Admite hija de Allende suicidio de su padre". El Universal (in Spanish). Mexico City, Mexico. 17 August 2003. Archived from the original on 14 October 2012.
    22. ^ Davison, Phil (20 June 2009). "Hortensia Bussi De Allende: Widow of Salvador Allende who helped lead opposition to Chile's military dictatorship". The Independent. London. Archived from the original on 1 May 2022. Retrieved 20 April 2010.
    23. ^ "nacion.cl - Restos de Salvador Allende fueron exhumados". Lanacion.cl. 23 May 2011. Archived from the original on 18 December 2014. Retrieved 12 September 2012.
    24. ^ Associated Press in Santiago (8 July 2016). "Former Chilean army chief charged over 1973 killing of activists". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 5 May 2021. Retrieved 31 July 2021.


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  12. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    4 September 1970Salvador Allende is elected President of Chile.

    Salvador Allende

    Salvador Guillermo Allende Gossens[A] (26 June 1908 – 11 September 1973) was a socialist politician[4][5] who served as the 28th president of Chile from 1970 until his death in 1973.[6] As a democratic socialist committed to democracy,[7][8] he has been described as the first Marxist to be elected president in a liberal democracy in Latin America.[9][10][11]

    Allende's involvement in Chilean politics spanned a period of nearly forty years, during which he held various positions including senator, deputy, and cabinet minister. As a life-long committed member of the Socialist Party of Chile, whose foundation he had actively contributed to, he unsuccessfully ran for the national presidency in the 1952, 1958, and 1964 elections. In 1970, he won the presidency as the candidate of the Popular Unity coalition in a close three-way race. He was elected in a run-off by Congress, as no candidate had gained a majority. In office, Allende pursued a policy he called "The Chilean Way to Socialism". The coalition government was far from unanimous. Allende said that he was committed to democracy and represented the more moderate faction of the Socialist Party, while the radical wing sought a more radical course. Instead, the Communist Party of Chile favored a gradual and cautious approach that sought cooperation with Christian democrats,[7] which proved influential for the Italian Communist Party and the Historic Compromise.[12]

    As president, Allende sought to nationalize major industries, expand education, and improve the living standards of the working class. He clashed with the right-wing parties that controlled Congress and with the judiciary. On 11 September 1973, the military moved to oust Allende in a coup d'état supported by the CIA, which initially denied the allegations.[13][14] In 2000, the CIA admitted its role in the 1970 kidnapping of General René Schneider who had refused to use the army to stop Allende's inauguration.[15][16] Declassified documents released in 2023 showed that US president Richard Nixon, his national security advisor Henry Kissinger, and the United States government, which had branded Allende as a dangerous communist,[8] were aware of the military's plans to overthrow Allende's democratically-elected government in the days before the coup d'état.[17]

    As troops surrounded La Moneda Palace, Allende gave his last speech vowing not to resign.[18] Later that day, Allende died by suicide in his office;[19][20][21] the exact circumstances of his death are still disputed.[22][B] Following Allende's death, General Augusto Pinochet refused to return authority to a civilian government, and Chile was later ruled by the Government Junta, ending more than four decades of uninterrupted democratic governance, a period known as the Presidential Republic. The military junta that took over dissolved Congress, suspended the Constitution of 1925, and initiated a program of persecuting alleged dissidents, in which at least 3,095 civilians disappeared or were killed.[24] Pinochet's military dictatorship only ended after the successful internationally-backed 1989 constitutional referendum led to the peaceful Chilean transition to democracy.

    1. ^ "Allende". Collins English Dictionary. HarperCollins. Archived from the original on 27 July 2019. Retrieved 27 July 2019.
    2. ^ "Allende Gossens". Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary. Retrieved 27 July 2019.
    3. ^ "Allende, Isabel". Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English. Longman. Retrieved 20 August 2019.
    4. ^ Patsouras, Louis (2005). Marx in Context. iUniverse. p. 265. In Chile, where a large socialist movement was in place for decades, a socialist, Salvadore Allende, led a popular front electoral coalition, including Communists, to victory in 1970.
    5. ^ Medina, Eden (2014). Cybernetic Revolutionaries: Technology and Politics in Allende's Chile. MIT Press. p. 39. ... in Allende's socialism.
    6. ^ "Profile of Salvador Allende". BBC. 8 September 2003. Archived from the original on 9 July 2017. Retrieved 15 May 2009. Chile's Salvador Allende was murdered in a United States-backed coup on 11 September 1973 — three years earlier he had become Latin America's first democratically-elected Marxist president.
    7. ^ a b Cohen, Youssef (1994). Radicals, Reformers, and Reactionaries: The Prisoner's Dilemma and the Collapse of Democracy in Latin America. Chicago, Illinois: University of Chicago Press. pp. 98118. ISBN 978-0-2261-1271-8. Retrieved 30 August 2023 – via Google Books.
    8. ^ a b Busky, Donald F. (2000). Democratic Socialism: A Global Survey. Greenwood Publishing Group. pp. 195196. ISBN 978-0-275-96886-1. Retrieved 30 August 2023 – via Google Books.
    9. ^ "Chile: The Bloody End of a Marxist Dream". Time. 24 September 1973. ISSN 0040-781X. Retrieved 30 August 2023. Allende's downfall had implications that reached far beyond the borders of Chile. His had been the first democratically elected Marxist government in Latin America.
    10. ^ Mabry, Don (2003). "Chile: Allende's Rise and Fall". Historical Text Archive. Archived from the original on 30 October 2006. Retrieved 30 August 2023.
    11. ^ Ross, Jen (12 December 2006). "Controversial legacy of former Chilean dictator". Christian Science Monitor. ISSN 0882-7729. Archived from the original on 16 May 2008. Retrieved 30 August 2023. Gen. Augusto Pinochet, who overthrew Chile's democratically elected Communist government in a 1973 coup and ruled for 17 years, died Sunday without ever having been condemned for the human rights abuses committed during his rule.
    12. ^ Ayala, Fernando (31 October 2020). "Salvador Allende and the Chilean way to socialism". Meer. Retrieved 30 August 2023.
    13. ^ "Chile: The Bloody End of a Marxist Dream". Time. 24 September 1973. Archived from the original on 25 March 2014. Retrieved 5 August 2014. "Allende's downfall had implications that reached far beyond the borders of Chile. His had been the first democratically elected Marxist government in Latin America. ... Recently, TIME Correspondent Rudolph Rauch visited a group of truckers camped near Santiago who were enjoying a lavish communal meal of steak, vegetables, wine and empanadas (meat pies). 'Where does the money for that come from?' he inquired. 'From the CIA,' the truckers answered laughingly. In Washington, the CIA denied the allegation."
    14. ^ Winn, Peter (2010). "Furies of the Andes". In Grandin & Joseph, Greg & Gilbert (ed.). A Century of Revolution. Durham, NC: Duke University Press. pp. 239–275.
    15. ^ Briscoe, David (20 September 2000). "CIA Admits Involvement in Chile". ABC News. Retrieved 30 August 2023.
    16. ^ Evans, Michael (10 August 2023). "National Security Archive: Chile's Coup at 50: Kissinger Briefed Nixon on Failed 1970 CIA Plot to Block Allende Presidency". H-Net. Retrieved 30 August 2023.
    17. ^ Wilkinson, Tracy (29 August 2023). "Previously classified documents released by U.S. show knowledge of 1973 Chile coup". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved 30 August 2023.
    18. ^ Salvador Allende's Last Speech
    19. ^ "Chilean court confirms Allende suicide - CNN.com". Edition.cnn.com. 11 September 2012. Retrieved 12 September 2012.
    20. ^ "BBC News - Chile inquiry confirms President Allende killed himself". Bbc.co.uk. 19 July 2011. Retrieved 12 September 2012.
    21. ^ "Admite hija de Allende suicidio de su padre". El Universal (in Spanish). Mexico City, Mexico. 17 August 2003. Archived from the original on 14 October 2012.
    22. ^ Davison, Phil (20 June 2009). "Hortensia Bussi De Allende: Widow of Salvador Allende who helped lead opposition to Chile's military dictatorship". The Independent. London. Archived from the original on 1 May 2022. Retrieved 20 April 2010.
    23. ^ "nacion.cl - Restos de Salvador Allende fueron exhumados". Lanacion.cl. 23 May 2011. Archived from the original on 18 December 2014. Retrieved 12 September 2012.
    24. ^ Associated Press in Santiago (8 July 2016). "Former Chilean army chief charged over 1973 killing of activists". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 5 May 2021. Retrieved 31 July 2021.


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  13. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    5 September 1882 – The first United States Labor Day parade is held in New York City.

    Labor Day

    Labor Day is a federal holiday in the United States celebrated on the first Monday of September to honor and recognize the American labor movement and the works and contributions of laborers to the development and achievements of the United States.[1][2][3]

    Beginning in the late 19th century, as the trade union and labor movements grew, trade unionists proposed that a day be set aside to celebrate labor. "Labor Day" was promoted by the Central Labor Union and the Knights of Labor, which organized the first parade in New York City. In 1887, Oregon was the first state of the United States to make it an official public holiday. By the time it became an official federal holiday in 1894, thirty states in the U.S. officially celebrated Labor Day.[4]

    Canada's Labour Day is also celebrated on the first Monday of September. More than 80 other countries celebrate International Workers' Day on May 1, the European holiday of May Day. May Day was chosen by the Second International of socialist and communist parties to commemorate the general labor strike in the United States and events leading to the Haymarket affair, which occurred in Chicago, Illinois, from May 1 – May 4, 1886.[5][6]

    1. ^ U.S. Department of Labor, "Labor Daze – Pride, Chaos and Kegs on Labor's First 'Day'"
    2. ^ Cite error: The named reference labor dept was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    3. ^ "Labor Day 2020". History.com. A&E Television Networks. Retrieved May 16, 2020.
    4. ^ Cite error: The named reference Bridgemens1921 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    5. ^ Philip S. Foner (1986). May Day: A Short History of the International Workers' Holiday, 1886–1986. New York: International Publishers. pp. 41–43. ISBN 0-7178-0624-3.
    6. ^ Rothman, Lily (May 1, 2017). "The Bloody Story of How May Day Became a Holiday for Workers". Time. Retrieved 2018-03-18.
     
  14. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    6 September 1968Swaziland becomes independent

    Swaziland

    Redirect to:

     
  15. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    7 September 1921 – In Atlantic City, New Jersey, the first Miss America Pageant, a two-day event, is held.

    Miss America

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    Preview warning: Page using Template:Infobox organization with unknown parameter "hq_location_country"

    Miss America is an annual competition that is open to women from the United States between the ages of 18 and 28.[1] Originating in 1921 as a "bathing beauty revue",[2] the contest is now judged on these competition segments with the following scoring percentages: Private Interview (30%) – a 10-minute press conference-style interview with a panel of judges, On Stage Question (10%) – answering of a judge's question while onstage, Talent or HER Story (20%) – a performance talent or 90 second speech, Health and Fitness (20%) – contestants demonstrate physical fitness onstage while dressed in athletic wear, and Evening Gown (20%) – contestants model evening-wear onstage.[3][4][5]

    The previous year's titleholder crowns the winner. The current Miss America is Madison Marsh of Colorado, who was crowned Miss America 2024 on January 14, 2024. She will crown her successor at Miss America 2025.

    1. ^ "Become a Participant". Retrieved June 12, 2023.
    2. ^ Cite error: The named reference early was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    3. ^ "Areas of Competition". Miss District of Columbia Scholarship Organization. Retrieved June 13, 2023.
    4. ^ "Miss Delegates". Miss Vermont Scholarship Organization. July 29, 2016. Retrieved June 13, 2023.
    5. ^ "Learn How to Become a Miss Contestant In the Miss Wisconsin Pageant". Miss Wisconsin. Retrieved June 13, 2023.
     
  16. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    8 September 1946 – A 95.6% vote in favor of abolishing the monarchy in Bulgaria.

    Bulgaria

    Bulgaria (/bʌlˈɡɛəriə, bʊl-/ ; Bulgarian: България, romanizedBŭlgariya), officially the Republic of Bulgaria,[a] is a country in Southeast Europe. Located west of the Black Sea and south of the Danube river, Bulgaria is bordered by Greece and Turkey to the south, Serbia and North Macedonia to the west, and Romania to the north. It covers a territory of 110,994 square kilometres (42,855 sq mi) and is the 16th largest country in Europe. Sofia is the nation's capital and largest city; other major cities include Burgas, Plovdiv, and Varna.

    One of the earliest societies in the lands of modern-day Bulgaria was the Neolithic Karanovo culture, which dates back to 6,500 BC. In the 6th to 3rd century BC the region was a battleground for ancient Thracians, Persians, Celts and Macedonians; stability came when the Roman Empire conquered the region in AD 45. After the Roman state splintered, tribal invasions in the region resumed. Around the 6th century, these territories were settled by the early Slavs. The Bulgars, led by Asparuh, attacked from the lands of Old Great Bulgaria and permanently invaded the Balkans in the late 7th century. They established the First Bulgarian Empire, victoriously recognised by treaty in 681 AD by the Byzantine Empire. It dominated most of the Balkans and significantly influenced Slavic cultures by developing the Cyrillic script. The First Bulgarian Empire lasted until the early 11th century, when Byzantine emperor Basil II conquered and dismantled it. A successful Bulgarian revolt in 1185 established a Second Bulgarian Empire, which reached its apex under Ivan Asen II (1218–1241). After numerous exhausting wars and feudal strife, the empire disintegrated and in 1396 fell under Ottoman rule for nearly five centuries.

    The Russo-Turkish War of 1877–78 resulted in the formation of the third and current Bulgarian state. Many ethnic Bulgarians were left outside the new nation's borders, which stoked irredentist sentiments that led to several conflicts with its neighbours and alliances with Germany in both world wars. In 1946, Bulgaria came under the Soviet-led Eastern Bloc and became a socialist state. The ruling Communist Party gave up its monopoly on power after the revolutions of 1989 and allowed multiparty elections. Bulgaria then transitioned into a democracy and a market-based economy. Since adopting a democratic constitution in 1991, Bulgaria has been a unitary parliamentary republic composed of 28 provinces, with a high degree of political, administrative, and economic centralisation.

    Bulgaria has an upper-middle-income economy, ranking 68th in the Human Development Index. Its market economy is part of the European Single Market and is largely based on services, followed by industry—especially machine building and mining—and agriculture. The country faces a demographic crisis; its population peaked at 9 million in 1989, and has since decreased to 6.4 million as of 2023. Bulgaria is a member of the European Union, NATO, and the Council of Europe. It is also a founding member of the OSCE and has taken a seat on the United Nations Security Council three times.

    1. ^ "Constitution of the Republic of Bulgaria". National Assembly of the Republic of Bulgaria. Archived from the original on 19 August 2019. Retrieved 30 August 2020.
    2. ^ a b "Преброяване 2021: Етнокултурна характеристика на населението" [2021 Census: Ethnocultural characteristics of the population] (PDF). National Statistical Institute of Bulgaria. Archived (PDF) from the original on 24 November 2022.
    3. ^ Penin, Rumen (2007). Природна география на България [Natural Geography of Bulgaria] (in Bulgarian). Bulvest 2000. p. 18. ISBN 978-954-18-0546-6.
    4. ^ "Field listing: Area". The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency. Archived from the original on 31 January 2014. Retrieved 9 October 2018.
    5. ^ a b c d "World Economic Outlook Database, October 2023 Edition. (Bulgaria)". IMF.org. International Monetary Fund. 10 October 2023. Archived from the original on 17 October 2023. Retrieved 11 October 2023.
    6. ^ "Gini coefficient of equivalised disposable income – EU-SILC survey". ec.europa.eu. Eurostat. Archived from the original on 20 March 2019. Retrieved 25 November 2023.
    7. ^ "Human Development Report 2021/2022" (PDF). United Nations Development Programme. 8 September 2022. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 8 September 2022.


    Cite error: There are <ref group=note> tags on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=note}} template (see the help page).
    Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

     
  17. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    8 September 1946 – A 95.6% vote in favor of abolishing the monarchy in Bulgaria.

    Bulgaria

    Bulgaria (/bʌlˈɡɛəriə, bʊl-/ ; Bulgarian: България, romanizedBŭlgariya), officially the Republic of Bulgaria,[a] is a country in Southeast Europe. Located west of the Black Sea and south of the Danube river, Bulgaria is bordered by Greece and Turkey to the south, Serbia and North Macedonia to the west, and Romania to the north. It covers a territory of 110,994 square kilometres (42,855 sq mi) and is the 16th largest country in Europe. Sofia is the nation's capital and largest city; other major cities include Burgas, Plovdiv, and Varna.

    One of the earliest societies in the lands of modern-day Bulgaria was the Neolithic Karanovo culture, which dates back to 6,500 BC. In the 6th to 3rd century BC the region was a battleground for ancient Thracians, Persians, Celts and Macedonians; stability came when the Roman Empire conquered the region in AD 45. After the Roman state splintered, tribal invasions in the region resumed. Around the 6th century, these territories were settled by the early Slavs. The Bulgars, led by Asparuh, attacked from the lands of Old Great Bulgaria and permanently invaded the Balkans in the late 7th century. They established the First Bulgarian Empire, victoriously recognised by treaty in 681 AD by the Byzantine Empire. It dominated most of the Balkans and significantly influenced Slavic cultures by developing the Cyrillic script. The First Bulgarian Empire lasted until the early 11th century, when Byzantine emperor Basil II conquered and dismantled it. A successful Bulgarian revolt in 1185 established a Second Bulgarian Empire, which reached its apex under Ivan Asen II (1218–1241). After numerous exhausting wars and feudal strife, the empire disintegrated and in 1396 fell under Ottoman rule for nearly five centuries.

    The Russo-Turkish War of 1877–78 resulted in the formation of the third and current Bulgarian state. Many ethnic Bulgarians were left outside the new nation's borders, which stoked irredentist sentiments that led to several conflicts with its neighbours and alliances with Germany in both world wars. In 1946, Bulgaria came under the Soviet-led Eastern Bloc and became a socialist state. The ruling Communist Party gave up its monopoly on power after the revolutions of 1989 and allowed multiparty elections. Bulgaria then transitioned into a democracy and a market-based economy. Since adopting a democratic constitution in 1991, Bulgaria has been a unitary parliamentary republic composed of 28 provinces, with a high degree of political, administrative, and economic centralisation.

    Bulgaria has an upper-middle-income economy, ranking 68th in the Human Development Index. Its market economy is part of the European Single Market and is largely based on services, followed by industry—especially machine building and mining—and agriculture. The country faces a demographic crisis; its population peaked at 9 million in 1989, and has since decreased to 6.4 million as of 2023. Bulgaria is a member of the European Union, NATO, and the Council of Europe. It is also a founding member of the OSCE and has taken a seat on the United Nations Security Council three times.

    1. ^ "Constitution of the Republic of Bulgaria". National Assembly of the Republic of Bulgaria. Archived from the original on 19 August 2019. Retrieved 30 August 2020.
    2. ^ a b "Преброяване 2021: Етнокултурна характеристика на населението" [2021 Census: Ethnocultural characteristics of the population] (PDF). National Statistical Institute of Bulgaria. Archived (PDF) from the original on 24 November 2022.
    3. ^ Penin, Rumen (2007). Природна география на България [Natural Geography of Bulgaria] (in Bulgarian). Bulvest 2000. p. 18. ISBN 978-954-18-0546-6.
    4. ^ "Field listing: Area". The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency. Archived from the original on 31 January 2014. Retrieved 9 October 2018.
    5. ^ a b c d "World Economic Outlook Database, October 2023 Edition. (Bulgaria)". IMF.org. International Monetary Fund. 10 October 2023. Archived from the original on 17 October 2023. Retrieved 11 October 2023.
    6. ^ "Gini coefficient of equivalised disposable income – EU-SILC survey". ec.europa.eu. Eurostat. Archived from the original on 20 March 2019. Retrieved 25 November 2023.
    7. ^ "Human Development Report 2021/2022" (PDF). United Nations Development Programme. 8 September 2022. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 8 September 2022.


    Cite error: There are <ref group=note> tags on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=note}} template (see the help page).
    Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

     
  18. Admin2

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    9 September 1990 Massacre of 184 Tamil civilians by the Sri Lankan Army in Batticaloa District.

    1990 Batticaloa massacre

    The 1990 Batticaloa massacre, also known as the Sathurukondan massacre (Tamil: சத்துருக்கொண்டான் படுகொலை), was a massacre of at least 184 minority Sri Lankan Tamil refugees, including infants, from three villages in the Batticaloa District by the Sri Lankan Army on September 9, 1990.[1][2][3][4][5] Although the government instituted two investigations, no one was ever charged.

    1. ^ "The massacre at Sathurukondan: 9th September 1990 – Report 8". UTHR. Archived from the original on 29 April 2009. Retrieved 8 September 2011.
    2. ^ "Chapter 45: War continues with brutality". Asia Times. Archived from the original on 22 July 2002. Retrieved 8 September 2011.
    3. ^ "Batticaloa massacre victims remembered". Tamilnet. Retrieved 8 September 2011.
    4. ^ "Towards reconciliation". Dailynews. Retrieved 8 September 2011.
    5. ^ "World Report 2000: Sri Lanka". Human Rights Watch. Retrieved 8 September 2011.
     
  19. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    10 September 846Elias Howe is granted a patent for the sewing machine.

    Sewing machine

    Diagram of a modern sewing machine
    Animation of a modern sewing machine as it stitches

    A sewing machine is a machine used to sew fabric and materials together with thread. Sewing machines were invented during the first Industrial Revolution to decrease the amount of manual sewing work performed in clothing companies. Since the invention of the first sewing machine, generally considered to have been the work of Englishman Thomas Saint in 1790,[1] the sewing machine has greatly improved the efficiency and productivity of the clothing industry.

    Home sewing machines are designed for one person to sew individual items while using a single stitch type at a time. In a modern sewing machine, the process of stitching has been automated, so that the fabric easily glides in and out of the machine. Early sewing machines were powered by either constantly turning a flywheel handle or with a foot-operated treadle mechanism. Electrically-powered machines were later introduced.

    Industrial sewing machines, by contrast to domestic machines, are larger, faster, and more varied in their size, cost, appearance, and tasks.

    1. ^ A brief history of the sewing machine, ISMACS.
     
  20. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    11 September 2008 – A major Channel Tunnel fire broke out on a freight train, resulting in the closure of part of the tunnel for 6 months.

    2008 Channel Tunnel fire

    On 11 September 2008, a France-bound Eurotunnel Shuttle train carrying heavy goods vehicles (HGVs) and their drivers caught fire while travelling through the Channel Tunnel. The fire lasted for sixteen hours and reached temperatures of up to 1,000 °C (1,830 °F).[1]

    Of the 32 people aboard the train, 14 suffered minor injuries, including smoke inhalation, and were taken to the hospital. When the fire was reported, the tunnel was immediately shut to all services except emergency traffic. The undamaged south tunnel reopened on 13 September; a freight train entered the tunnel at Folkestone at 00:08 BST and limited service began, with trains travelling in turn in alternating directions in the south tunnel. By the end of September, two-thirds of the north tunnel had reopened. Full service resumed in February 2009, after the completion of repairs costing €60 million.

    The fire was the third to force the tunnel's closure since its opening in 1994,[2] the first being the 1996 Channel Tunnel fire, the second an August 2006 fire that broke out on a truck aboard a HGV Shuttle, shutting the tunnel down for several hours.

    1. ^ Rayner, Gordon; Millward, David; Simpson, Aislinn (11 September 2008). "Channel Tunnel closed after freight train fire". The Daily Telegraph. London. Archived from the original on 12 September 2008. Retrieved 11 September 2008.
    2. ^ "How the 2008 fire changed Channel Tunnel history". KentOnline. 5 May 2009. Archived from the original on 28 May 2009. Retrieved 20 May 2009.
     
  21. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    12 September 490 BCBattle of Marathon: The conventionally accepted date for the Battle of Marathon. The Athenians and their Plataean allies, defeat the first Persian invasion force of Greece

    Battle of Marathon

    The Battle of Marathon took place in 490 BC during the first Persian invasion of Greece. It was fought between the citizens of Athens, aided by Plataea, and a Persian force commanded by Datis and Artaphernes. The battle was the culmination of the first attempt by Persia, under King Darius I, to subjugate Greece. The Greek army inflicted a crushing defeat on the more numerous Persians, marking a turning point in the Greco-Persian Wars.

    The first Persian invasion was a response to Athenian involvement in the Ionian Revolt, when Athens and Eretria sent a force to support the cities of Ionia in their attempt to overthrow Persian rule. The Athenians and Eretrians had succeeded in capturing and burning Sardis, but they were then forced to retreat with heavy losses. In response to this raid, Darius swore to burn down Athens and Eretria. According to Herodotus, Darius had his bow brought to him and then shot an arrow "upwards towards heaven", saying as he did so: "Zeus, that it may be granted me to take vengeance upon the Athenians!" Herodotus further writes that Darius charged one of his servants to say "Master, remember the Athenians" three times before dinner each day.[6]

    At the time of the battle, Sparta and Athens were the two largest city-states in Greece. Once the Ionian revolt was finally crushed by the Persian victory at the Battle of Lade in 494 BC, Darius began plans to subjugate Greece. In 490 BC, he sent a naval task force under Datis and Artaphernes across the Aegean, to subjugate the Cyclades, and then to make punitive attacks on Athens and Eretria. Reaching Euboea in mid-summer after a successful campaign in the Aegean, the Persians proceeded to besiege and capture Eretria. The Persian force then sailed for Attica, landing in the bay near the town of Marathon. The Athenians, joined by a small force from Plataea, marched to Marathon, and succeeded in blocking the two exits from the plain of Marathon. The Athenians also sent a message to the Spartans asking for support. When the messenger arrived in Sparta, the Spartans were involved in a religious festival and gave this as a reason for not coming to help the Athenians.

    The Athenians and their allies chose a location for the battle, with marshes and mountainous terrain, that prevented the Persian cavalry from joining the Persian infantry. Miltiades, the Athenian general, ordered a general attack against the Persian forces, composed primarily of missile troops. He reinforced his flanks, luring the Persians' best fighters into his center. The inward wheeling flanks enveloped the Persians, routing them. The Persian army broke in panic towards their ships, and large numbers were slaughtered. The defeat at Marathon marked the end of the first Persian invasion of Greece, and the Persian force retreated to Asia. Darius then began raising a huge new army with which he meant to completely subjugate Greece; however, in 486 BC, his Egyptian subjects revolted, indefinitely postponing any Greek expedition. After Darius died, his son Xerxes I restarted the preparations for a second invasion of Greece, which finally began in 480 BC.

    The Battle of Marathon was a watershed in the Greco-Persian wars, showing the Greeks that the Persians could be beaten; the eventual Greek triumph in these wars can be seen to have begun at Marathon. The battle also showed the Greeks that they were able to win battles without the Spartans, as Sparta was seen as the major military force in Greece. This victory was overwhelmingly won by the Athenians, and Marathon raised Greek esteem of them. The following two hundred years saw the rise of the Classical Greek civilization, which has been enduringly influential in Western society, and so the Battle of Marathon is often seen as a pivotal moment in Mediterranean and European history, and is often celebrated today.

    1. ^ Plutarch, Cam. 19, 3; p. 139 http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Camillus*.html
    2. ^ Briant, Pierre (2002). From Cyrus to Alexander: A History of the Persian Empire. Eisenbrauns. p. 158. ISBN 9781575061207.
    3. ^ a b Dougherty, Martin, J., 100 Battles: Decisive Battles that Shaped the World, Parragon, p. 12
    4. ^ "Pausanias, Description of Greece, Boeotia, chapter 4, section 2". www.perseus.tufts.edu.
    5. ^ Krentz, Peter, The Battle of Marathon (Yale Library of Military History), Yale Univ Press, (2010) p. 98
    6. ^ Herodotus Book 5: Terpsichore, 105 Archived 2013-12-11 at the Wayback Machine "...he inquired into who the Athenians were; and when he had been informed, he asked for his bow, and having received it and placed an arrow upon the string, he discharged it upwards towards heaven, and as he shot into the air he said: "Zeus, that it may be granted me to take vengeance upon the Athenians!" Having so said he charged one of his attendants, that when dinner was set before the king he should say always three times: "Master, remember the Athenians."
     
  22. Admin2

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    13 September 1906 – First flight of a fixed-wing aircraft in Europe.

    Fixed-wing aircraft

    A Boeing 737 airliner is an example of a fixed-wing aircraft
    The fixed wings of a delta-shaped kite are not rigid

    A fixed-wing aircraft is a heavier-than-air flying machine, such as an airplane, which is capable of flight using aerodynamic lift. Fixed-wing aircraft are distinct from rotary-wing aircraft (in which a rotor mounted on a spinning shaft generates lift), and ornithopters (in which the wings oscillate rapidly to generate lift). The wings of a fixed-wing aircraft are not necessarily rigid; kites, hang gliders, variable-sweep wing aircraft and airplanes that use wing morphing are all classified as fixed-wing aircraft.

    Gliding fixed-wing aircraft, including free-flying gliders of various kinds and tethered kites, can use moving air to gain altitude. Powered fixed-wing aircraft (airplanes) that gain forward thrust from an engine include powered paragliders, powered hang gliders and some ground effect vehicles. Most fixed-wing aircraft are operated by a pilot, but some are specifically designed to be unmanned and controlled either remotely or autonomously (using onboard computers).

     
  23. Admin2

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    14 September 1975 – The first American saint, Elizabeth Ann Seton, is canonized by Pope Paul VI.

    Elizabeth Ann Seton

    Elizabeth Ann Bayley Seton SC (August 28, 1774 – January 4, 1821) was a Catholic religious sister in the United States and an educator, known as a founder of the country's parochial school system. Born in New York and reared as an Episcopalian, she married and had five children with her husband William Seton. Two years after his death, she converted to Catholicism in 1805.

    Seton established the first Catholic girls' school in the nation in Emmitsburg, Maryland. There she also founded the first American congregation of religious sisters, the Sisters of Charity.

    After her death, Seton was the first person born in what would become the United States to be canonized by the Catholic Church (September 14, 1975).[1][2][3]

    1. ^ "The Life of Saint Elizabeth Ann Seton". National Shrine of Saint Elizabeth Ann Seton. January 20, 2016. Retrieved January 5, 2020.
    2. ^ Rothman, Lily (July 6, 2016). "How Mother Cabrini Became the First American Saint". Time. Retrieved March 4, 2020.
    3. ^ Frances Xavier Cabrini was the first American citizen to be canonized; she was born in Sant'Angelo Lodigiano, in the Lombard Province of Lodi, Italy (then part of the Austrian Empire).
     
  24. Admin2

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    15 September 2008Lehman Brothers files for Chapter 11 bankruptcy, the largest bankruptcy filing in U.S. history.

    Lehman Brothers

    Lehman Brothers Inc. (/ˈlmən/ LEE-mən) was an American global financial services firm founded in 1850.[2] Before filing for bankruptcy in 2008, Lehman was the fourth-largest investment bank in the United States (behind Goldman Sachs, Morgan Stanley, and Merrill Lynch), with about 25,000 employees worldwide.[3][4] It was doing business in investment banking, equity, fixed-income and derivatives sales and trading (especially U.S. Treasury securities), research, investment management, private equity, and private banking. Lehman was operational for 158 years from its founding in 1850 until 2008.[5]

    On September 15, 2008, Lehman Brothers filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy protection following the exodus of most of its clients, drastic declines in its stock price, and the devaluation of assets by credit rating agencies. The collapse was largely due to Lehman's involvement in the subprime mortgage crisis and its exposure to less liquid assets.[6][7][8] Lehman's bankruptcy filing was the largest in US history,[9] and is thought to have played a major role in the unfolding of the financial crisis of 2007–2008. The market collapse also gave support to the "too big to fail" doctrine.[10]

    After Lehman Brothers filed for bankruptcy, global markets immediately plummeted. The following day, major British bank Barclays announced its agreement to purchase, subject to regulatory approval, a significant and controlling interest in Lehman's North American investment-banking and trading divisions, along with its New York headquarters building.[11][12] On September 20, 2008, a revised version of that agreement was approved by U.S. Bankruptcy Court Judge James M. Peck.[13] The next week, Nomura Holdings announced that it would acquire Lehman Brothers' franchise in the Asia-Pacific region, including Japan, Hong Kong and Australia,[14] as well as Lehman Brothers' investment banking and equities businesses in Europe and the Middle East. The deal became effective on October 13, 2008.[15]

    1. ^ "History of the Lehman Brothers". Harvard University Library-Lehman Brothers Collection. Retrieved December 1, 2010.
    2. ^ Cite error: The named reference Bernhard5 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    3. ^ "Lehman Brothers declares bankruptcy". HISTORY. Retrieved July 6, 2020.
    4. ^ Wiggins, Rosalind; Piontek, Thomas; Metrick, Andrew (October 1, 2014). "The Lehman Brothers Bankruptcy A: Overview" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on June 1, 2021. Retrieved July 6, 2020.
    5. ^ Melvyn Dubofsky (2013). The Oxford Encyclopedia of American Busgle.com/books?id=D-NMAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA470. Oxford University Press. pp. 470–. ISBN 978-0-19-973881-6.
    6. ^ Michael P. Malloy (2010). Anatomy of a Meltdown: A Dual Financial Biography of the Subprime Mortgage Crisis. Wolters Kluwer Law & Business. ISBN 978-0-7355-9458-6.
    7. ^ Asli Yüksel Mermod; Samuel O. Idowu (August 29, 2013). Corporate Social Responsibility in the Global Business World. Springer Science & Business Media. pp. 124–. ISBN 978-3-642-37620-7.
    8. ^ Williams, Mark (April 12, 2010). Uncontrolled Risk. McGraw-Hill Education. ISBN 978-0071638296.
    9. ^ Mamudi, Sam (September 15, 2005). "Lehman folds with record $613 billion debt". Marketwatch.
    10. ^ Williams, Mark (April 12, 2010). Uncontrolled Risk. McGraw-Hill Education. p. 178. ISBN 978-0071638296.
    11. ^ "Barclays announces agreement to acquire Lehman Brothers North American investment banking and capital markets businesses" (Press release). Barclays PLC. September 17, 2008. Archived from the original on December 13, 2013. Retrieved September 17, 2008.
    12. ^ "Barclays buys core Lehman assets". BBC News. September 17, 2008.
    13. ^ "Judge approves $1.3 billion Lehman deal". BBC News. September 20, 2008.
    14. ^ "Nomura to acquire Lehman Brothers' Asia Pacific franchise" (Press release). Nomura Holdings. September 22, 2008. Retrieved February 15, 2012.
    15. ^ "Nomura to close acquisition of Lehman Brothers' Europe and Middle East investment banking and equities businesses on October 13" (Press release). Nomura Holdings. October 6, 2008. Retrieved February 15, 2012.
     
  25. Admin2

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    16 September 1620Pilgrims set sail from England on the Mayflower.

    Mayflower

    Mayflower was an English sailing ship that transported a group of English families, known today as the Pilgrims, from England to the New World in 1620. After 10 weeks at sea, Mayflower, with 102 passengers and a crew of about 30, reached what is today the United States, dropping anchor near the tip of Cape Cod, Massachusetts, on November 21 [O.S. November 11], 1620.

    Differing from their contemporary Puritans (who sought to reform and purify the Church of England), the Pilgrims chose to separate themselves from the Church of England, which forced them to pray in private. They believed it was beyond redemption due to its resistance to reform and Roman Catholic past. Starting in 1608, a group of English families left England for the Netherlands, where they could worship freely. By 1620, the community determined to cross the Atlantic for America, which they considered a "new Promised Land", where they would establish Plymouth Colony.[1]: 44 

    The Pilgrims had originally hoped to reach America by early October using two ships, but delays and complications meant they could use only one, Mayflower. Arriving in November, they had to survive unprepared through a harsh winter. As a result, only half of the original Pilgrims survived the first winter at Plymouth. If not for the help of local indigenous peoples to teach them food gathering and other survival skills, all of the colonists might have perished. The following year, those 53 who survived[2] celebrated the colony's first fall harvest along with 90 Wampanoag Native American people,[3] an occasion declared in centuries later the first American Thanksgiving.[4] Before disembarking the Mayflower, the Pilgrims wrote and signed the Mayflower Compact, an agreement that established a rudimentary government, in which each member would contribute to the safety and welfare of the planned settlement. As one of the earliest colonial vessels, the ship has become a cultural icon in the history of the United States.[5]

    1. ^ Cite error: The named reference Fraser was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    2. ^ "Primary Sources for 'The First Thanksgiving' at Plymouth" (PDF). Pilgrim Hall Museum. Retrieved November 26, 2009. The 53 Pilgrims at the First Thanksgiving
    3. ^ Winslow, Edward (1622), Mourt's Relation (PDF), p. 133, retrieved November 20, 2013, many of the Indians coming amongst us, and amongst the rest their greatest king Massasoyt, with some ninetie men, whom for three dayes we entertained and feasted
    4. ^ Weinstein, Allen, and Rubel, David. The Story of America, Agincourt Press Production, (2002) ISBN 0-7894-8903-1 pp. 60–61
    5. ^ Bevan, Richard. "The Mayflower and the Birth of America", Sky History. AETN UK. Accessed on 23 November 2023.
     
  26. Admin2

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    17th September 1794 – The Battle of Sprimont is fought.

    Battle of Sprimont

    The Battle of Sprimont, or Battle of the Ourthe (18 Sep 1794), was a battle during the War of the First Coalition between a corps of the French revolutionary Army of Sambre-and-Meuse under General Jean-Baptiste Jourdan, and the left wing of an Austrian army under the François Sebastien Charles Joseph de Croix, Count of Clerfayt. The battle was fought to outflank and force the Austrian army away from their defensive line on the Meuse river, and was a French victory.

     
  27. Admin2

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    18 September 1809 – The Royal Opera House in London opens.

    Royal Opera House

    The Royal Opera House (ROH) is a historic opera house and major performing arts venue in Covent Garden, central London. The large building is often referred to as simply Covent Garden, after a previous use of the site. It is the home of The Royal Opera, The Royal Ballet, and the Orchestra of the Royal Opera House. The first theatre on the site, the Theatre Royal (1732), served primarily as a playhouse for the first hundred years of its history. In 1734, the first ballet was presented. A year later, the first season of operas, by George Frideric Handel, began. Many of his operas and oratorios were specifically written for Covent Garden and had their premieres there.

    The current building is the third theatre on the site, following disastrous fires in 1808 and 1856 to previous buildings.[2] The façade, foyer, and auditorium date from 1858, but almost every other element of the present complex dates from an extensive reconstruction in the 1990s. The main auditorium seats 2,256 people, making it the third largest in London, and consists of four tiers of boxes and balconies and the amphitheatre gallery. The proscenium is 14.80 metres (48 ft 7 in) wide, with the stage of the same depth and 12.20 metres (40 ft 0 in) high. The main auditorium is a Grade I listed building.[3]

    1. ^ Historic England (9 January 1970). "The Royal Opera House (1066392)". National Heritage List for England. Retrieved 9 July 2015.
    2. ^ "11 Secrets of London's Royal Opera House". Londonist. 16 February 2017.
    3. ^ "Royal Opera House (London)" Archived 23 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine description on theatrestrust.org.uk Retrieved 10 May 2013
     
  28. Admin2

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    19 September 1952 – The United States bars Charlie Chaplin from re-entering the country after a trip to England.

    Charlie Chaplin

    Sir Charles Spencer Chaplin KBE (16 April 1889 – 25 December 1977) was an English comic actor, filmmaker, and composer who rose to fame in the era of silent film. He became a worldwide icon through his screen persona, the Tramp, and is considered one of the film industry's most important figures. His career spanned more than 75 years, from childhood in the Victorian era until a year before his death in 1977, and encompassed both adulation and controversy.

    Chaplin's childhood in London was one of poverty and hardship. His father was absent and his mother struggled financially—he was sent to a workhouse twice before age nine. When he was 14, his mother was committed to a mental asylum. Chaplin began performing at an early age, touring music halls and later working as a stage actor and comedian. At 19, he was signed to the Fred Karno company, which took him to the United States. He was scouted for the film industry and began appearing in 1914 for Keystone Studios. He soon developed the Tramp persona and attracted a large fanbase. He directed his own films and continued to hone his craft as he moved to the Essanay, Mutual, and First National corporations. By 1918, he was one of the world's best-known figures.

    In 1919, Chaplin co-founded the distribution company United Artists, which gave him complete control over his films. His first feature-length film was The Kid (1921), followed by A Woman of Paris (1923), The Gold Rush (1925), and The Circus (1928). He initially refused to move to sound films in the 1930s, instead producing City Lights (1931) and Modern Times (1936) without dialogue. His first sound film was The Great Dictator (1940), which satirised Adolf Hitler. The 1940s were marked with controversy for Chaplin, and his popularity declined rapidly. He was accused of communist sympathies, and some members of the press and public were scandalised by his involvement in a paternity suit and marriages to much younger women. An FBI investigation was opened, and Chaplin was forced to leave the U.S. and settle in Switzerland. He abandoned the Tramp in his later films, which include Monsieur Verdoux (1947), Limelight (1952), A King in New York (1957), and A Countess from Hong Kong (1967).

    Chaplin wrote, directed, produced, edited, starred in, and composed the music for most of his films. He was a perfectionist, and his financial independence enabled him to spend years on the development and production of a picture. His films are characterised by slapstick combined with pathos, typified in the Tramp's struggles against adversity. Many contain social and political themes, as well as autobiographical elements. He received an Honorary Academy Award for "the incalculable effect he has had in making motion pictures the art form of this century" in 1972, as part of a renewed appreciation for his work. He continues to be held in high regard, with The Gold Rush, City Lights, Modern Times, and The Great Dictator often ranked on lists of the greatest films.

     
  29. Admin2

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    20 September 1854Battle of Alma: British and French troops defeat Russians in Crimea.

    Battle of Alma

    Redirect to:

    • From a page move: This is a redirect from a page that has been moved (renamed). This page was kept as a redirect to avoid breaking links, both internal and external, that may have been made to the old page name.
     
  30. Admin2

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    21 September 1942 – The Boeing B-29 Superfortress makes its maiden flight.

    Boeing B-29 Superfortress

    Boeing assembly line at Wichita, Kansas (1944)

    The Boeing B-29 Superfortress is an American four-engined propeller-driven heavy bomber, designed by Boeing and flown primarily by the United States during World War II and the Korean War. Named in allusion to its predecessor, the B-17 Flying Fortress, the Superfortress was designed for high-altitude strategic bombing, but also excelled in low-altitude night incendiary bombing, and in dropping naval mines to blockade Japan. B-29s dropped the atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki, the only aircraft ever to drop nuclear weapons in combat.

    One of the largest aircraft of World War II, the B-29 was designed with state-of-the-art technology, which included a pressurized cabin, dual-wheeled tricycle landing gear, and an analog computer-controlled fire-control system that allowed one gunner and a fire-control officer to direct four remote machine gun turrets. The $3 billion cost of design and production (equivalent to $49 billion in 2022),[3] far exceeding the $1.9 billion cost of the Manhattan Project, made the B-29 program the most expensive of the war.[4][5] The B-29 remained in service in various roles throughout the 1950s, being retired in the early 1960s after 3,970 had been built. A few were also used as flying television transmitters by the Stratovision company. The Royal Air Force flew the B-29 with the service name Washington from 1950 to 1954 when the jet-powered Canberra entered service.

    The B-29 was the progenitor of a series of Boeing-built bombers, transports, tankers, reconnaissance aircraft, and trainers. For example, the re-engined B-50 Superfortress Lucky Lady II became the first aircraft to fly around the world non-stop, during a 94-hour flight in 1949. The Boeing C-97 Stratofreighter airlifter, which was first flown in 1944, was followed in 1947 by its commercial airliner variant, the Boeing Model 377 Stratocruiser. This bomber-to-airliner derivation was similar to the B-17/Model 307 evolution. In 1948, Boeing introduced the KB-29 tanker, followed in 1950 by the Model 377-derivative KC-97. A line of outsized-cargo variants of the Stratocruiser is the Guppy / Mini Guppy / Super Guppy, which remain in service with NASA and other operators. The Soviet Union produced 847 Tupolev Tu-4s, an unlicensed reverse-engineered copy of the B-29. Twenty B-29s remain as static displays, but only two, FIFI and Doc, still fly.[6]

    1. ^ LeMay and Yenne 1988, p. 60.
    2. ^ "Boeing B-29." Boeing. Retrieved: 5 August 2010.
    3. ^ 1634–1699: McCusker, J. J. (1997). How Much Is That in Real Money? A Historical Price Index for Use as a Deflator of Money Values in the Economy of the United States: Addenda et Corrigenda (PDF). American Antiquarian Society. 1700–1799: McCusker, J. J. (1992). How Much Is That in Real Money? A Historical Price Index for Use as a Deflator of Money Values in the Economy of the United States (PDF). American Antiquarian Society. 1800–present: Federal Reserve Bank of Minneapolis. "Consumer Price Index (estimate) 1800–". Retrieved 29 February 2024.
    4. ^ O'Brien, Phillips Payson (2015). How the War Was Won (First ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 47–48. ISBN 978-1-107-01475-6.
    5. ^ "B-29 Superfortress, U.S. Heavy Bomber". The Pacific War Online Encyclopedia. Kent G. Budge. Retrieved 1 April 2018.
    6. ^ Waller, Staff Sgt. Rachel (17 July 2016). "B-29 'Doc' takes to the skies from McConnell". McConnell AFB. Retrieved 3 January 2024.
     
  31. Admin2

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    22 September 1991 – The Dead Sea Scrolls are made available to the public for the first time by the Huntington Library.

    Dead Sea Scrolls

    The Dead Sea Scrolls, also called the Qumran Caves Scrolls, are a set of ancient Jewish manuscripts from the Second Temple period. They were discovered over a period of 10 years, between 1946 and 1956, at the Qumran Caves near Ein Feshkha in the West Bank, on the northern shore of the Dead Sea. Dating from the 3rd century BCE to the 1st century CE,[1] the Dead Sea Scrolls are considered to be a keystone in the history of archaeology with great historical, religious, and linguistic significance because they include the oldest surviving manuscripts of entire books later included in the biblical canons, along with extra-biblical and deuterocanonical manuscripts that preserve evidence of the diversity of religious thought in late Second Temple Judaism. At the same time, they cast new light on the emergence of Christianity and of Rabbinic Judaism.[2] Almost all of the 15,000 scrolls and scroll fragments are held in the Shrine of the Book at the Israel Museum, located in the city of Jerusalem. The Israeli government's custody of the Dead Sea Scrolls is disputed by Jordan and the Palestinian Authority on territorial, legal, and humanitarian grounds—they were mostly discovered following the Jordanian annexation of the West Bank and were acquired by Israel after Jordan lost the 1967 Arab–Israeli War[3]—whilst Israel's claims are primarily based on historical and religious grounds, given their significance in Jewish history and in the heritage of Judaism.[4]

    Many thousands of written fragments have been discovered in the Dead Sea area. They represent the remnants of larger manuscripts damaged by natural causes or through human interference, with the vast majority holding only small scraps of text. However, a small number of well-preserved and near-intact manuscripts have survived—fewer than a dozen among those from the Qumran Caves.[1] Researchers have assembled a collection of 981 different manuscripts (discovered in 1946/1947 and in 1956) from 11 caves,[5] which lie in the immediate vicinity of the Hellenistic Jewish settlement at the site of Khirbet Qumran in the eastern Judaean Desert, in the West Bank.[6] The caves are located about 1.5 kilometres (1 mi) west of the northwestern shore of the Dead Sea, whence they derive their name. Archaeologists have long associated the scrolls with the ancient Jewish sect known as the Essenes, although some recent interpretations have challenged this connection and argue that priests in Jerusalem, or Zadokites, or other unknown Jewish groups wrote the scrolls.[7][8]

    Most of the manuscripts are written in Hebrew, with some written in Aramaic (for example the Son of God Text; in different regional dialects, including Nabataean) and a few in Greek.[9] Discoveries from the Judaean Desert add Latin (from Masada) and Arabic (from Khirbet al-Mird).[10] Most of the texts are written on parchment, some on papyrus, and one on copper.[11] Though scholarly consensus dates the Dead Sea Scrolls to between the 3rd century BCE and the 1st century CE,[12] there are manuscripts from associated Judaean Desert sites that are dated to as early as the 8th century BCE and as late as the 11th century CE.[12] Bronze coins found at the same sites form a series beginning with John Hyrcanus, a ruler of the Hasmonean Kingdom (in office 135–104 BCE), and continuing until the period of the First Jewish–Roman War (66–73 CE), supporting the paleography and radiocarbon dating of the scrolls.[13]

    Owing to the poor condition of some of the scrolls, scholars have not identified all of their texts. The identified texts fall into three general groups:

    1. About 40% are copies of texts from Hebrew scriptures.
    2. Approximately another 30% are texts from the Second Temple period that ultimately were not canonized in the Hebrew Bible, like the Book of Enoch, the Book of Jubilees, the Book of Tobit, the Wisdom of Sirach, Psalms 152–155, etc.
    3. The remainder (roughly 30%) are sectarian manuscripts of previously unknown documents that shed light on the rules and beliefs of a particular sect or groups within greater Judaism, like the Community Rule, the War Scroll, the Pesher on Habakkuk, and The Rule of the Blessing.[14]
    1. ^ a b "The Digital Dead Sea Scrolls: Nature and Significance". Israel Museum Jerusalem. Retrieved 4 November 2023.
    2. ^ "Dead Sea Scrolls | Definition, Discovery, History, & Facts | Britannica". www.britannica.com. Retrieved 17 November 2021.
    3. ^ Lash, Mordechay; Goldstein, Yossi; Shai, Itzhaq (2020). "Underground-Archaeological Research in the West Bank, 1947–1968: Management, Complexity, and Israeli Involvement". Bulletin of the History of Archaeology. 30. doi:10.5334/bha-650. S2CID 229403120.
    4. ^ Duhaime, Bernard; Labadie, Camille (18 September 2020). "Intersections and Cultural Exchange: Archaeology, Culture, International Law and the Legal Travels of the Dead Sea Scrolls". Canada's Public Diplomacy. Palgrave Macmillan Series in Global Public Diplomacy. Cham: Springer International Publishing. p. 146. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-62015-2_6. ISBN 978-3-319-62014-5. ISSN 2731-3883. S2CID 236757632. Thus, the Palestinian Authority and Jordan base their claims on territorial aspects (places of discovery of the scrolls), humanitarian (illegal deprivation following the occupation of East Jerusalem by Israel) and legal (they claim to have proof of purchase of several scrolls) while, for its part, Israel's claims are primarily based in religious notions, invoking the sacred history of the Jewish people and recalling that the scrolls discovered in Qumran are, for the majority, the oldest known copies of biblical texts and are therefore of fundamental importance for the historical and religious heritage of Judaism.
    5. ^ "Hebrew University Archaeologists Find 12th Dead Sea Scrolls Cave". The Hebrew University of Jerusalem. Archived from the original on 2 June 2017. Retrieved 7 June 2017.
    6. ^ Donahue, Michelle Z. (10 February 2017). "New Dead Sea Scroll Find May Help Detect Forgeries". nationalgeographic.com. Archived from the original on 15 June 2018. Retrieved 19 November 2017.
    7. ^ Ofri, Ilani (13 March 2009). "Scholar: The Essenes, Dead Sea Scroll 'authors,' never existed". Ha'aretz. Archived from the original on 6 January 2018. Retrieved 26 May 2017.
    8. ^ Golb, Norman (5 June 2009). "On the Jerusalem Origin of the Dead Sea Scrolls" (PDF). University of Chicago Oriental Institute. Archived (PDF) from the original on 10 June 2010. Retrieved 11 May 2010.
    9. ^ Vermes, Geza (1977). The Dead Sea Scrolls. Qumran in Perspective. London: Collins. p. 15. ISBN 978-0002161428.
    10. ^ "Languages and Scripts". Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library. Retrieved 1 November 2023.
    11. ^ McCarthy, Rory (27 August 2008). "From papyrus to cyberspace". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 22 December 2016. Retrieved 17 December 2016.
    12. ^ a b "The Digital Library: Introduction". Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library. Retrieved 1 November 2023.
    13. ^ Leaney, A. R. C. From Judaean Caves: The Story of the Dead Sea Scrolls. p. 27, Religious Education Press, 1961.
    14. ^ Abegg, Jr., Martin; Flint, Peter; Ulrich, Eugene (2002). The Dead Sea Scrolls Bible: The Oldest Known Bible Translated for the First Time into English. San Francisco: Harper. pp. xiv–xvii. ISBN 0060600640. Retrieved 24 November 2023.
     
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    23 September 1980Bob Marley plays what would be his last concert in Pittsburgh.

    Bob Marley

    Robert Nesta Marley OM (6 February 1945 – 11 May 1981) was a Jamaican reggae singer, guitarist, and songwriter. Considered one of the pioneers of the genre, Marley fused elements of reggae, ska, and rocksteady in his music and was renowned for his distinctive vocal and songwriting style.[2][3] Marley's contribution to music increased the visibility of Jamaican music worldwide and made him a global figure in popular culture.[4][5] Over the course of his career, Marley became known as a Rastafarian icon, and he infused his music with a sense of spirituality.[6] He is also considered a global symbol of Jamaican music and culture and identity, and was controversial in his outspoken support for democratic social reforms.[7][8] He also supported legalisation of cannabis, and advocated for Pan-Africanism.[9] In 1976, Marley survived an assassination attempt in his home, which was thought to be politically motivated.[10]

    Born in Nine Mile, Jamaica, Marley began his professional musical career in 1963, after forming the group Teenagers with Peter Tosh and Bunny Wailer, which, after several name changes, would become the Wailers. The group released its debut studio album The Wailing Wailers in 1965, which contained the single "One Love", a reworking of "People Get Ready"; the song was popular worldwide, and established the group as a rising figure in reggae.[11] The Wailers released an additional eleven studio albums, and after signing to Island Records, the band's name became Bob Marley and the Wailers. While initially employing louder instrumentation and singing, the group began engaging in rhythmic-based song construction in the late 1960s and early 1970s, which coincided with Marley's conversion to Rastafari. Around this time, Marley relocated to London, and the group embodied their musical shift with the release of the album The Best of The Wailers (1971).[12]

    The group started to gain international attention after signing to Island, and touring in support of the albums Catch a Fire and Burnin' (both 1973). Following the disbandment of the Wailers a year later, Marley carried on under the band's name.[13] The album Natty Dread (1974) received positive reception. In 1975, following the global popularity of Eric Clapton's version of Marley's "I Shot the Sheriff",[14] Marley had his international breakthrough with his first hit outside Jamaica, with a live version of "No Woman, No Cry", from the Live! album.[15] This was followed by his breakthrough album in the United States, Rastaman Vibration (1976), which reached the Top 50 of the Billboard Soul Charts.[16] A few months after the album's release, Marley survived an assassination attempt at his home in Jamaica, which prompted him to permanently relocate to London. During his time in London he recorded the album Exodus (1977); it incorporated elements of blues, soul, and British rock and enjoyed widespread commercial and critical success. In 1977, Marley was diagnosed with acral lentiginous melanoma; he died as a result of the illness in 1981, shortly after baptism into the Ethiopian Orthodox Church. His fans around the world expressed their grief, and he received a state funeral in Jamaica.

    The greatest hits album Legend was released in 1984, and became the best-selling reggae album of all time.[17] Marley also ranks as one of the best-selling music artists of all time, with estimated sales of more than 75 million records worldwide.[18] He was posthumously honoured by Jamaica soon after his death with a designated Order of Merit by his nation. In 1994, he was posthumously inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame. Rolling Stone ranked him No. 11 on its list of the 100 Greatest Artists of All Time.[19] and No. 98 on its list of the 200 Greatest Singers of All Time.[20] His other achievements include a Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award, a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame, and induction into the Black Music & Entertainment Walk of Fame.

    1. ^ Freed, Kenneth (13 February 1995). "Bob Marley Festival Spreads Some 'Rastaman Vibration' : Anniversary: Jamaica concert marks the 50th birthday of the late reggae icon and poet-musician". Los Angeles Times. Archived from the original on 2 August 2019. Retrieved 1 August 2019.
    2. ^ Samuels, A.J. (20 April 2012). "Bob Marley: Anatomy of an Icon". Archived from the original on 31 May 2020. Retrieved 10 October 2017.
    3. ^ "'Marley' – a new view of a cultural icon". www.youthlinkjamaica.com. Archived from the original on 10 October 2017. Retrieved 10 October 2017.
    4. ^ "7 Fascinating Facts About Bob Marley". Archived from the original on 10 October 2017. Retrieved 10 October 2017.
    5. ^ Toynbee, Jason (8 May 2013). Bob Marley: Herald of a Postcolonial World. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 1969–. ISBN 978-0-7456-5737-0. Archived from the original on 12 October 2013. Retrieved 23 August 2013.
    6. ^ Masouri, Jon (11 November 2009). Wailing Blues – The Story of Bob Marley's Wailers. Music Sales Group. ISBN 978-0-85712-035-9. Archived from the original on 12 October 2013. Retrieved 7 September 2013.
    7. ^ "Bob Marley". Los Gatos Library. Retrieved 24 February 2024.
    8. ^ mauzy (31 January 2020). "Bob Marley Day celebration is Feb. 6". OHIO News. Retrieved 24 February 2024.
    9. ^ Soni, Varun (2 July 2010). "Bob Marley's Spiritual Legacy". huffingtonpost.com. Archived from the original on 2 October 2017. Retrieved 11 July 2017.
    10. ^ Gane-McCalla, Casey (2016). Inside the CIA's Secret War in Jamaica. Los Angeles, Calif: Over the Edge Books. ISBN 978-1-944082-07-9. OCLC 1105632241.[page needed]
    11. ^ Gooden, Lou (2003). Reggae Heritage: Jamaica's Music History, Culture & Politic. AuthorHouse. pp. 293–. ISBN 978-1-4107-8062-1. Retrieved 25 August 2013.
    12. ^ Lee, Bunny (23 August 2013). "Interview". Reggae Vibes (Interview). Interviewed by Peter I. Archived from the original on 24 September 2015. Retrieved 23 August 2013.
    13. ^ Barrett, Aston "Family Man" (19 February 2013). "Interview". Pure Guitar. Archived from the original on 6 December 2013. Retrieved 23 August 2013.
    14. ^ Paul Sexton (14 September 2021). "Eric Clapton's 'I Shot The Sheriff': E.C. Takes Bob Marley To The World". udiscovermusic.,
    15. ^ Cite error: The named reference Inc.1975 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    16. ^ Cite error: The named reference Inc.1976 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    17. ^ Mcateer, Amberly (15 October 2014). "Deadly profitable: The 13 highest-earning dead celebrities". The Globe and Mail. Archived from the original on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 21 October 2014.
    18. ^ Meschino, Patricia (6 October 2007). "'Exodus' Returns". Billboard. Nielsen Business Media, Inc. p. 42. ISSN 0006-2510. Retrieved 23 August 2013.
    19. ^ Cite error: The named reference :1 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    20. ^ "The 200 Greatest Singers of All Time". Rolling Stone. 1 January 2023. Retrieved 14 June 2023.
     
  33. Admin2

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    24 September 1948 – The Honda Motor Company is founded.

    Honda

    Honda Motor Co., Ltd. (本田技研工業株式会社, Honda Giken Kōgyō Kabushiki gaisha, lit.'Honda Institute of Technology and Industry Company', IPA: [honda] ; /ˈhɒndə/) is a Japanese public multinational conglomerate manufacturer of automobiles, motorcycles, and battery-powered equipment, headquartered in Minato, Tokyo, Japan.

    Honda has been the world's largest motorcycle manufacturer since 1959,[4][5] reaching a production of 400 million by the end of 2019.[6] It is also the world's largest manufacturer of internal combustion engines measured by volume, producing more than 14 million internal combustion engines each year.[7] Honda became the second-largest Japanese automobile manufacturer in 2001.[8][9] In 2015, Honda was the eighth largest automobile manufacturer in the world.[10]

    Honda was the first Japanese automobile manufacturer to release a dedicated luxury brand, Acura, in 1986. Aside from their core automobile and motorcycle businesses, Honda also manufactures garden equipment, marine engines, personal watercraft, power generators, and other products. Since 1986, Honda has been involved with artificial intelligence/robotics research and released their ASIMO robot in 2000. They have also ventured into aerospace with the establishment of GE Honda Aero Engines in 2004 and the Honda HA-420 HondaJet, which began production in 2012. Honda has two joint-ventures in China: Dongfeng Honda and GAC Honda.

    In 2013, Honda invested about 5.7% (US$6.8 billion) of its revenues into research and development.[11] Also in 2013, Honda became the first Japanese automaker to be a net exporter from the United States, exporting 108,705 Honda and Acura models, while importing only 88,357.[12]

    1. ^ "About Honda (as of June 21, 2023)". Retrieved 5 January 2024.
    2. ^ a b c d e "2022 Fiscal Year Consolidated Financial Results" (PDF). Honda IR. 13 May 2022. Archived from the original (PDF) on 6 September 2022. Retrieved 5 September 2022.
    3. ^ "2022 Financial Results (Form 20-F)" (PDF). Honda IR. 22 June 2022. Archived from the original (PDF) on 22 July 2022. Retrieved 5 September 2022.
    4. ^ Grant, Robert M.; Neupert, Kent E. (2003). Cases in contemporary strategy analysis (3rd ed.). Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 1-4051-1180-1.
    5. ^ Johnson, Richard Alan (2005). Six men who built the modern auto industry. MotorBooks International. p. 52. ISBN 0-7603-1958-8.
    6. ^ "Honda is celebrating the production of 400 million motorcycles". hondanews.eu. Retrieved 29 May 2020.
    7. ^ Miller, Edward (18 April 2008). "First Motorcycle Airbag Earns Takata and Honda 2008 Automotive News Pace Innovation Partnership Award". Honda.com. Archived from the original on 8 March 2009. Retrieved 28 July 2009.
    8. ^ "Harga Honda Mobilio". Mobilio. Archived from the original on 10 September 2014. Retrieved 22 November 2009.
    9. ^ "The History of Honda". Cars-directory.net. Retrieved 22 November 2009.
    10. ^ "World motor vehicle production OICA correspondents survey without double counts world ranking of manufacturers year 2011" (PDF). Retrieved 29 May 2020.
    11. ^ Le top 20 des entreprises les plus innovantes du monde, Challenges, 22 October 2013
    12. ^ Ross, Jeffrey N. (29 January 2014). "Honda is first Japanese carmaker to be a net-exporter from US". autoblog. Retrieved 25 July 2014.
     
  34. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    25 September 1066 – The Battle of Stamford Bridge marks the end of the Viking invasions of England.

    Battle of Stamford Bridge

    The Battle of Stamford Bridge (Old English: Gefeoht æt Stanfordbrycge) took place at the village of Stamford Bridge, East Riding of Yorkshire, in England, on 25 September 1066, between an English army under King Harold Godwinson and an invading Norwegian force led by King Harald Hardrada and the English king's brother Tostig Godwinson. After a bloody battle, both Hardrada and Tostig, along with most of the Norwegians, were killed. Although Harold Godwinson repelled the Norwegian invaders, his army was defeated by the Normans at Hastings less than three weeks later. The battle has traditionally been presented as symbolising the end of the Viking Age, although major Scandinavian campaigns in Britain and Ireland occurred in the following decades, such as those of King Sweyn Estrithson of Denmark in 1069–1070 and King Magnus Barefoot of Norway in 1098 and 1102–1103.

    1. ^ "The Battle of Stamford Bridge, 1066".
    2. ^ Cite error: The named reference Anglo-Saxon Chronicles, p. 199 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    3. ^ While the initial invasion force required 300 longships to carry 10,000 troops (Jones, Charles (2011). Finding Fulford. London: WritersPrintShop. pp. 202–203), only 24 ships, or 8% of the fleet, were needed to carry back the survivors after Stamford Bridge ("Anglo-Saxon Chronicles", p. 199).
     
  35. Admin2

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    26 September 1905Albert Einstein publishes his first paper on the special theory of relativity.

    Special relativity

    Albert Einstein around 1905, the year his "Annus Mirabilis papers" were published. These included Zur Elektrodynamik bewegter Körper, the paper founding special relativity.

    In physics, the special theory of relativity, or special relativity for short, is a scientific theory of the relationship between space and time. In Albert Einstein's 1905 treatment, the theory is presented as being based on just two postulates:[p 1][1][2]

    1. The laws of physics are invariant (identical) in all inertial frames of reference (that is, frames of reference with no acceleration).
    2. The speed of light in vacuum is the same for all observers, regardless of the motion of light source or observer.

    The first postulate was first formulated by Galileo Galilei (see Galilean invariance).


    Cite error: There are <ref group=p> tags on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=p}} template (see the help page).

    1. ^ Griffiths, David J. (2013). "Electrodynamics and Relativity". Introduction to Electrodynamics (4th ed.). Pearson. Chapter 12. ISBN 978-0-321-85656-2.
    2. ^ Jackson, John D. (1999). "Special Theory of Relativity". Classical Electrodynamics (3rd ed.). John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Chapter 11. ISBN 0-471-30932-X.
     
  36. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    26 September 1905Albert Einstein publishes his first paper on the special theory of relativity.

    Special relativity

    Albert Einstein around 1905, the year his "Annus Mirabilis papers" were published. These included Zur Elektrodynamik bewegter Körper, the paper founding special relativity.

    In physics, the special theory of relativity, or special relativity for short, is a scientific theory of the relationship between space and time. In Albert Einstein's 1905 treatment, the theory is presented as being based on just two postulates:[p 1][1][2]

    1. The laws of physics are invariant (identical) in all inertial frames of reference (that is, frames of reference with no acceleration).
    2. The speed of light in vacuum is the same for all observers, regardless of the motion of light source or observer.

    The first postulate was first formulated by Galileo Galilei (see Galilean invariance).


    Cite error: There are <ref group=p> tags on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=p}} template (see the help page).

    1. ^ Griffiths, David J. (2013). "Electrodynamics and Relativity". Introduction to Electrodynamics (4th ed.). Pearson. Chapter 12. ISBN 978-0-321-85656-2.
    2. ^ Jackson, John D. (1999). "Special Theory of Relativity". Classical Electrodynamics (3rd ed.). John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Chapter 11. ISBN 0-471-30932-X.
     
  37. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    27 September 2014Eruption of Mount Ontake in Japan occurs.

    2014 Mount Ontake eruption

    A volcanic eruption of Mount Ontake (御嶽山, Ontake-san) took place on September 27, 2014, killing 63 people. Mount Ontake is a volcano located on the Japanese island of Honshu around 100 kilometres (62 mi) northeast of Nagoya and around 200 km (120 mi) west of Tokyo. It was the first fatal volcanic eruption in Japan since the 1991 eruption at Mount Unzen,[3][4][5] and the deadliest volcanic eruption in Japan since Torishima killed an estimated 150 people in 1902.

    1. ^ a b c "Ontakesan". Global Volcanism Program. Smithsonian Institution. Retrieved 2019-01-13.
    2. ^ "Helium anomaly preceded Mount Ontake eruption". Atmosphere and Ocean Research Institute, University of Tokyo. August 24, 2015. Archived from the original on September 26, 2019. Retrieved September 26, 2019.
    3. ^ "Japan volcano: 31 hikers feared dead after sudden eruption of Mount Ontake". The Independent. Archived from the original on 2017-09-03. Retrieved 2017-09-19.
    4. ^ "31 Feared Dead in Japan Volcano Eruption". The Daily Beast. Archived from the original on 2014-09-27. Retrieved 2014-09-28.
    5. ^ "Rescuers find 30 dead of 'cardiac arrest' near summit of volcano". IB Times. Archived from the original on 2014-10-06. Retrieved 2014-09-28.
     
  38. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    28 September 1928 – Sir Alexander Fleming notices a bacteria-killing mold growing in his laboratory, discovering what later became known as penicillin.

    Alexander Fleming

    Sir Alexander Fleming FRS FRSE FRCS[1] (6 August 1881 – 11 March 1955) was a Scottish physician and microbiologist, best known for discovering the world's first broadly effective antibiotic substance, which he named penicillin. His discovery in 1928 of what was later named benzylpenicillin (or penicillin G) from the mould Penicillium rubens has been described as the "single greatest victory ever achieved over disease".[3][4] For this discovery, he shared the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1945 with Howard Florey and Ernst Boris Chain.[5][6][7]

    He also discovered the enzyme lysozyme from his nasal discharge in 1922, and along with it a bacterium he named Micrococcus lysodeikticus, later renamed Micrococcus luteus.

    Fleming was knighted for his scientific achievements in 1944.[8] In 1999, he was named in Time magazine's list of the 100 Most Important People of the 20th century. In 2002, he was chosen in the BBC's television poll for determining the 100 Greatest Britons, and in 2009, he was also voted third "greatest Scot" in an opinion poll conducted by STV, behind only Robert Burns and William Wallace.

    1. ^ a b Colebrook, L. (1956). "Alexander Fleming 1881–1955". Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society. 2: 117–126. doi:10.1098/rsbm.1956.0008. JSTOR 769479. S2CID 71887808.
    2. ^ Cite error: The named reference NobelPrizeBio was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    3. ^ Cite error: The named reference :4 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    4. ^ Ligon, B. Lee (2004). "Sir Alexander Fleming: Scottish researcher who discovered penicillin". Seminars in Pediatric Infectious Diseases. 15 (1): 58–64. doi:10.1053/j.spid.2004.02.002. PMID 15175996.
    5. ^ "Alexander Fleming Biography". Les Prix Nobel. The Nobel Foundation. 1945. Archived from the original on 30 January 2011. Retrieved 27 March 2011.
    6. ^ Hugh, T. B. (2002). "Howard Florey, Alexander Fleming and the fairy tale of penicillin". The Medical Journal of Australia. 177 (1): 52–53, author 53 53. doi:10.5694/j.1326-5377.2002.tb04643.x. PMID 12436980. S2CID 222048204.
    7. ^ Cruickshank, Robert (1955). "Sir Alexander Fleming, F.R.S". Nature. 175 (4459): 355–6. Bibcode:1955Natur.175..663C. doi:10.1038/175663a0. PMC 1023893. PMID 13271592.
    8. ^ McIntyre, N. (2007). "Sir Alexander Fleming". Journal of Medical Biography. 15 (4): 234. doi:10.1258/j.jmb.2007.05-72. PMID 18615899. S2CID 77187550.
     
  39. Admin2

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    29 September 1911 – Italy declares war on the Ottoman Empire.

    Italo-Turkish War

    The Italo-Turkish or Turco-Italian War (Turkish: Trablusgarp Savaşı, "Tripolitanian War", Italian: Guerra di Libia, "War of Libya") was fought between the Kingdom of Italy and the Ottoman Empire from 29 September 1911, to 18 October 1912. As a result of this conflict, Italy captured the Ottoman Tripolitania Vilayet, of which the main sub-provinces were Fezzan, Cyrenaica, and Tripoli itself. These territories became the colonies of Italian Tripolitania and Cyrenaica, which would later merge into Italian Libya.

    During the conflict, Italian forces also occupied the Dodecanese islands in the Aegean Sea. Italy agreed to return the Dodecanese to the Ottoman Empire in the Treaty of Ouchy[9] in 1912. However, the vagueness of the text, combined with subsequent adverse events unfavourable to the Ottoman Empire (the outbreak of the Balkan Wars and World War I), allowed a provisional Italian administration of the islands, and Turkey eventually renounced all claims on these islands in Article 15 of the 1923 Treaty of Lausanne.[10]

    The war is considered a precursor of the First World War. Members of the Balkan League, seeing how easily Italy defeated the Ottomans[11] and motivated by incipient Balkan nationalism, attacked the Ottoman Empire in October 1912, starting the First Balkan War a few days before the end of the Italo-Turkish War.[12]

    The Italo-Turkish War saw numerous technological changes, most notably the use of airplanes in combat. On 23 October 1911, an Italian pilot, Capitano Carlo Piazza, flew over Turkish lines on the world's first aerial reconnaissance mission,[13] and on 1 November, the first aerial bomb was dropped by Sottotenente Giulio Gavotti, on Turkish troops in Libya, from an early model of Etrich Taube aircraft.[14] The Turks, using rifles, were the first to shoot down an airplane.[15] Another use of new technology was a network of wireless telegraphy stations established soon after the initial landings.[16] Guglielmo Marconi, the inventor of wireless telegraphy, came to Libya to conduct experiments with the Italian Corps of Engineers.

    1. ^ Erik Goldstein (2005). Wars and Peace Treaties: 1816 to 1991. Routledge. p. 37. ISBN 978-1134899128.
    2. ^ a b Translated and Compiled from the Reports of the Italian General Staff, "The Italo-Turkish War (1911–12)" (Franklin Hudson Publishing Company, 1914), p. 15
    3. ^ a b The History of the Italian-Turkish War, William Henry Beehler, pp. 13–36
    4. ^ a b Spencer C. Tucker; Priscilla Mary Roberts. World War I: A Student Encyclopedia. p. 946.
    5. ^ a b c Emigrant nation: the making of Italy abroad, Mark I. Choate, Harvard University Press, 2008, ISBN 0-674-02784-1, p. 176.
    6. ^ Translated and Compiled from the Reports of the Italian General Staff, "The Italo-Turkish War (1911–12)" (Franklin Hudson Publishing Company, 1914), p. 82
    7. ^ Lyall, Jason (2020). "Divided Armies": Inequality and Battlefield Performance in Modern War. Princeton University Press. p. 278.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
    8. ^ Spencer Tucker, Priscilla Mary Roberts: World War I: A Student Encyclopedia, ABC-CLIO, 2005, ISBN 1-85109-879-8, p. 946.
    9. ^ "Treaty of Lausanne, October, 1912". www.mtholyoke.edu. Archived from the original on 25 October 2021. Retrieved 25 March 2018.
    10. ^ "Treaty of Lausanne - World War I Document Archive". wwi.lib.byu.edu. Retrieved 25 March 2018.
    11. ^ Jean-Michel Rabaté (2008). 1913: The Cradle of Modernism. Wiley-Blackwell. p. 7. ISBN 978-0-470-69147-2. Realizing how easily the Italians had defeated the Ottomans, the members of the Balkan League attacked the empire before the war with Italy was over
    12. ^ Stanton, Andrea L. (2012). Cultural Sociology of the Middle East, Asia, and Africa: An Encyclopedia. Sage. p. 310. ISBN 978-1412981767.
    13. ^ Maksel, Rebecca. "The World's First Warplane". airspacemag.com. Retrieved 25 March 2018.
    14. ^ U.S. Centennial of Flight Commission: Aviation at the Start of the First World War Archived 2012-10-09 at the Wayback Machine
    15. ^ James D. Crabtree: On air defense, ISBN 0275947920, Greenwood Publishing Group, p. 9
    16. ^ Wireless telegraphy in the Italo-Turkish War
     
  40. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    30 September 1949 – The Berlin Airlift ends.

    Berlin Blockade

    The Berlin Blockade (24 June 1948 – 12 May 1949) was one of the first major international crises of the Cold War. During the multinational occupation of post–World War II Germany, the Soviet Union blocked the Western Allies' railway, road, and canal access to the sectors of Berlin under Western control. The Soviets offered to drop the blockade if the Western Allies withdrew the newly introduced Deutsche Mark from West Berlin.

    The Western Allies organised the Berlin Airlift (German: Berliner Luftbrücke, lit. "Berlin Air Bridge") from 26 June 1948 to 30 September 1949 to carry supplies to the people of West Berlin, a difficult feat given the size of the city and the population.[1][2] American and British air forces flew over Berlin more than 250,000 times, dropping necessities such as fuel and food, with the original plan being to lift 3,475 tons of supplies daily. By the spring of 1949, that number was often met twofold, with the peak daily delivery totalling 12,941 tons.[3] Among these was the work of the later concurrent Operation Little Vittles in which candy-dropping aircraft dubbed "raisin bombers" generated much goodwill among German children.[4]

    Having initially concluded there was no way the airlift could work, the Soviets found its continued success an increasing embarrassment. On 12 May 1949, the USSR lifted the blockade of West Berlin, due to economic issues in East Berlin, although for a time the Americans and British continued to supply the city by air as they were worried that the Soviets would resume the blockade and were only trying to disrupt western supply lines. The Berlin Airlift officially ended on 30 September 1949 after fifteen months. The US Air Force had delivered 1,783,573 tons (76.4% of total) and the RAF 541,937 tons (23.3% of total),[nb 1] totalling 2,334,374 tons, nearly two-thirds of which was coal, on 278,228 flights to Berlin. In addition Canadian, Australian, New Zealand and South African air crews assisted the RAF during the blockade.[5]: 338  The French also conducted flights, but only to provide supplies for their military garrison.[6]

    American C-47 and C-54 transport airplanes, together, flew over 92,000,000 miles (148,000,000 km) in the process, almost the distance from Earth to the Sun.[7] British transports, including Handley Page Haltons and Short Sunderlands, flew as well. At the height of the airlift, one plane reached West Berlin every thirty seconds.[8]

    Seventeen American and eight British aircraft crashed during the operation.[9] A total of 101 fatalities were recorded as a result of the operation, including 40 Britons and 31 Americans,[8] mostly due to non-flying accidents.

    The Berlin Blockade served to highlight the competing ideological and economic visions for postwar Europe. It played a major role in aligning West Berlin with the United States and Britain as the major protecting powers,[10] and in drawing West Germany into the NATO orbit several years later in 1955.

    1. ^ Journey Across Berlin (1961). Universal Newsreel. 1957. Retrieved 22 February 2012.
    2. ^ Air Force Story, The Cold War, 1948–1950 (1953). Universal Newsreel. 1953. Retrieved 22 February 2012.
    3. ^ The American People: Creating a Nation and a Society. New York: Pearson Longman, 2008. p. 828.
    4. ^ Smoler, Fredric (April/May 2003). "Where Berlin and America Meet Archived 28 August 2008 at the Wayback Machine" American Heritage. Retrieved 29 July 2010.
    5. ^ "5 – National Security". South Africa: a country study. Federal Research Division, Library of Congress. 1997. ISBN 0-8444-0796-8.
    6. ^ Jacques Bariéty (1994). "La France et la crise internationale du blocus de Berlin". Histoire, économie et société; Volume 13; numéro 1. pp. 29–44. Retrieved 11 June 2017.
    7. ^ Berlin Airlift: Logistics, Humanitarian Aid, and Strategic Success Archived 16 January 2007 at the Wayback Machine, Major Gregory C. Tine, Army Logistician
    8. ^ a b Cite error: The named reference turner27 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    9. ^ Tunner 1964, p. 218
    10. ^ Daum, Andreas W. (2000). "America's Berlin, 1945‒2000: Between Myths and Visions". In Trommler, Frank (ed.). Berlin: The New Capital in the East (PDF). The American Institute for Contemporary German Studies, Johns Hopkins University. pp. 49–73. Retrieved 2 March 2021.


    Cite error: There are <ref group=nb> tags on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=nb}} template (see the help page).

     

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