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This day in .....

Discussion in 'Break Room' started by NewsBot, Apr 6, 2008.

  1. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    13 December 1642Abel Tasman reaches New Zealand.

    Abel Tasman

    Abel Janszoon Tasman (Dutch: [ˈɑbəl ˈjɑnsoːn ˈtɑsmɑn]; 1603 – 10 October 1659) was a Dutch seafarer and explorer, best known for his voyages of 1642 and 1644 in the service of the Dutch East India Company (VOC).

    Born in 1603 in Lutjegast, Netherlands, Tasman started his career as a merchant seaman and became a skilled navigator. In 1633, he joined the VOC and sailed to Batavia, now Jakarta, Indonesia. He participated in several voyages, including one to Japan. In 1642, Tasman was appointed by the VOC to lead an expedition to explore the uncharted regions of the Southern Pacific Ocean. His mission was to discover new trade routes and to establish trade relations with the native inhabitants. After leaving Batavia, Tasman sailed westward to Mauritius, then south to the Roaring Forties, then eastward, and reached the coast of Tasmania, which he named Van Diemen's Land after his patron. He then sailed north east, and discovered the west coast of New Zealand, which he named Staten Landt, but later renamed Nieuw Zeeland after the Dutch province of Zeeland.

    Despite his achievements, Tasman's expedition was not entirely successful. The encounter with the Māori people on the South Island of New Zealand resulted in a violent confrontation, which left four of Tasman's men dead. He returned to Batavia without having made any significant contact with the native inhabitants or establishing any trade relations. Nonetheless, Tasman's expedition paved the way for further exploration and colonization of Australia and New Zealand by the British. Tasman continued to serve the Dutch East India Company until his death in 1659, leaving behind a legacy as one of the greatest explorers of his time.

     
  2. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    14 December 1836 – The Toledo War unofficially ends.

    Toledo War

    The Toledo War (1835–36), also known as the Michigan–Ohio War or the Ohio–Michigan War, was a boundary dispute between the U.S. state of Ohio and the adjoining territory of Michigan over what is now known as the Toledo Strip. Control of the mouth of the Maumee River and the inland shipping opportunities it represented, and the good farmland to the west were seen by both parties as valuable economic assets.

    Poor geographical understanding of the Great Lakes helped produce conflicting state and federal legislation between 1787 and 1805, and varying interpretations of the laws led the governments of Ohio and Michigan to both claim jurisdiction over a 468-square-mile (1,210 km2) region along their border. The situation came to a head when Michigan petitioned for statehood in 1835 and sought to include the disputed territory within its boundaries. Both sides passed legislation attempting to force the other side's capitulation, and Ohio's Governor Robert Lucas and Michigan's 24-year-old "Boy Governor" Stevens T. Mason helped institute criminal penalties for residents submitting to the other's authority. Both states deployed militias on opposite sides of the Maumee River near Toledo, but besides mutual taunting, there was little interaction between the two forces. The single military confrontation of the "war" ended with a report of shots being fired into the air, incurring no casualties. The only blood spilled was the non-fatal stabbing of a law enforcement officer.

    During the summer of 1836, the United States Congress proposed a compromise whereby Michigan gave up its claim to the strip in exchange for its statehood and the remaining three-quarters of the Upper Peninsula. The northern region's mineral wealth later became an economic asset to Michigan, but at the time the compromise was considered a poor deal for the new state, and voters in a statehood convention in September soundly rejected it. But in December, facing a dire financial crisis and pressure from Congress and President Andrew Jackson, the Michigan government called another convention (called the "Frostbitten Convention"), which accepted the compromise, resolving the Toledo War.

     
  3. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    15 December 2001 – The Leaning Tower of Pisa reopens after 11 years and $27,000,000 spent to stabilize it, without fixing its famous lean.

    Leaning Tower of Pisa

    The Leaning Tower of Pisa (Italian: torre pendente di Pisa), or simply the Tower of Pisa (torre di Pisa [ˈtorre di ˈpiːza; ˈpiːsa][1]), is the campanile, or freestanding bell tower, of Pisa Cathedral. It is known for its nearly four-degree lean, the result of an unstable foundation. The tower is one of three structures in the Pisa's Cathedral Square (Piazza del Duomo), which includes the cathedral and Pisa Baptistry.

    The height of the tower is 55.86 metres (183 feet 3 inches) from the ground on the low side and 56.67 m (185 ft 11 in) on the high side. The width of the walls at the base is 2.44 m (8 ft 0 in). Its weight is estimated at 14,500 tonnes (16,000 short tons).[2] The tower has 296 or 294 steps; the seventh floor has two fewer steps on the north-facing staircase.

    The tower began to lean during construction in the 12th century, due to soft ground which could not properly support the structure's weight. It worsened through the completion of construction in the 14th century. By 1990, the tilt had reached 5.5 degrees.[3][4][5] The structure was stabilized by remedial work between 1993 and 2001, which reduced the tilt to 3.97 degrees.[6]

    1. ^ "DiPI Online". Dizionario di Pronuncia Italiana (in Italian). Archived from the original on 30 October 2020. Retrieved 26 December 2020.
    2. ^ "Leaning Tower of Pisa Facts". Leaning Tower of Pisa. Archived from the original on 11 September 2013. Retrieved 5 October 2013.
    3. ^ "Europe | Saving the Leaning Tower". BBC News. 15 December 2001. Archived from the original on 21 September 2013. Retrieved 9 May 2009.
    4. ^ "Tower of Pisa". Archidose.org. 17 June 2001. Archived from the original on 26 June 2009. Retrieved 9 May 2009.
    5. ^ "Leaning Tower of Pisa (tower, Pisa, Italy)". Britannica Online Encyclopedia. Archived from the original on 8 March 2013. Retrieved 9 May 2009.
    6. ^ "Leaning tower of Pisa loses crooked crown". Irish News. Archived from the original on 28 November 2020. Retrieved 10 June 2020.
     
  4. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

  5. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    17 December 1892 – First issue of Vogue is published

    Vogue (magazine)

    Vogue U.S., also known as American Vogue, or simply VOGUE (stylized in all caps), is a monthly fashion and lifestyle magazine that covers style news, including haute couture fashion, beauty, culture, living, and runway. It is part of the global collection of Condé Nast's VOGUE media.

    Headquartered at One World Trade Center in the Financial District of Lower Manhattan, Vogue began in 1892 as a weekly newspaper before becoming a monthly magazine years later. Since its founding, Vogue has featured numerous actors, musicians, models, athletes, and other prominent celebrities. The largest issue published by Vogue magazine was the September 2012 edition featuring Lady Gaga in the cover, which contained 900 pages.

    British Vogue, launched in 1916, was the first international edition, while the Italian version Vogue Italia has been called the top fashion magazine in the world.[2] As of March 2024, there are 28 international editions. 11 of these editions are published by Condé Nast (British Vogue, Vogue China, Vogue France, Vogue Germany, Vogue India, Vogue Japan, Vogue México y Latinoamérica, Vogue Spain, Vogue Taiwan, and Vogue U.S.). The remaining 17 editions are published as licensees of VOGUE.

    1. ^ "Consumer Magazines". Alliance for Audited Media. Archived from the original on January 23, 2017. Retrieved July 5, 2017.
    2. ^ Press, Debbie (2004). Your Modeling Career: You Don't Have to Be a Superstar to Succeed. New York: Allworth Press. ISBN 978-1-58115-359-0. Archived from the original on August 10, 2023. Retrieved February 11, 2018.
     
  6. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    18 December 1966Saturn's moon Epimetheus is discovered by astronomer Richard Walker.

    Epimetheus (moon)

    Epimetheus /ɛpəˈmθəs/ is an inner satellite of Saturn. It is also known as Saturn XI. It is named after the mythological Epimetheus, brother of Prometheus.


    Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

     
  7. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    19 December 1967Harold Holt, the Prime Minister of Australia, is officially presumed dead.

    Harold Holt

    Harold Edward Holt CH (5 August 1908 – 17 December 1967) was an Australian politician and lawyer who served as the 17th prime minister of Australia from 1966 until his disappearance and presumed death in 1967. He held office as leader of the Liberal Party of Australia.

    Holt was born in Sydney and moved to Melbourne in childhood, studying law at the University of Melbourne. Before entering politics he practised law and was a lobbyist for cinema operators. He was first elected to the House of Representatives at the age of 27, becoming a member of parliament (MP) for the division of Fawkner at a by-election in 1935.[2] A member of the United Australia Party (UAP), Holt was made a minister without portfolio in 1939, when his mentor Robert Menzies became prime minister. His tenure in the ministry was interrupted by a brief stint in the Australian Army, which ended when he was recalled to cabinet following the deaths of three ministers in the 1940 Canberra air disaster. The government was defeated in 1941, sending the UAP into opposition, and he joined the new Liberal Party upon its creation in 1945.

    When the Liberals came to office in 1949, Holt became a senior figure in the new government. As Minister for Immigration (1949–1956), he expanded the post-war immigration scheme and relaxed the White Australia policy for the first time. He was also influential as Minister for Labour and National Service (1949–1958), where he handled several industrial relations disputes. Holt was elected deputy leader of the Liberal Party in 1956, and after the 1958 election replaced Arthur Fadden as Treasurer. He oversaw the creation of the Reserve Bank of Australia and the decimal Australian dollar, but was blamed for a credit crunch that almost cost the Coalition the 1961 election. However, the economy soon rebounded and Holt retained his place as Menzies' heir apparent.

    Holt became prime minister in January 1966, elected unopposed as Liberal leader following Menzies' retirement. He fought a general election later that year, winning a landslide victory. The Holt government continued the dismantling of the White Australia policy, amended the constitution to give the federal government responsibility for indigenous affairs, and took Australia out of the sterling area. Holt promoted greater engagement with Asia and the Pacific, and made visits to a number of East Asian countries. His government expanded Australia's involvement in the Vietnam War, and maintained close ties with the United States under President Lyndon B. Johnson. While visiting the White House, Holt proclaimed that he was "all the way with LBJ", a remark which was poorly received at home.

    In December 1967, Holt disappeared while swimming in rough conditions at Cheviot Beach, Victoria. He was presumed dead, although his body was never recovered; his disappearance spawned a number of conspiracy theories. Holt was the third Australian prime minister to die in office. He was succeeded by Country Party leader John McEwen on an interim basis and then by John Gorton. His death was commemorated in a number of ways, among them by the establishment of the Harold Holt Memorial Swimming Centre in Melbourne.

    1. ^ "About Harold Holt". National Archives of Australia. Retrieved 1 November 2019.
    2. ^ "FAWKNER BY-ELECTION". Argus. 18 July 1935. Retrieved 20 October 2023.


    Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

     
  8. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    20 December 1995NATO begins peacekeeping in Bosnia.

    NATO

    The North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO /ˈnt/ NAY-toh; French: Organisation du traité de l'Atlantique nord, OTAN), also called the North Atlantic Alliance, is an intergovernmental military alliance of 32 member states – 30 European and two North American. Established in the aftermath of World War II, the organization implements the North Atlantic Treaty, signed in Washington, D.C., on 4 April 1949.[4][5] NATO is a collective security system: its independent member states agree to defend each other against attacks by third parties. During the Cold War, NATO operated as a check on the threat posed by the Soviet Union. The alliance remained in place after the dissolution of the Soviet Union and the Warsaw Pact and has been involved in military operations in the Balkans, the Middle East, South Asia, and Africa. The organization's motto is animus in consulendo liber (Latin for 'a mind unfettered in deliberation').[6] The organization's strategic concepts include deterrence.[7]

    NATO's main headquarters are located in Brussels, Belgium, while NATO's military headquarters are near Mons, Belgium. The alliance has increased its NATO Response Force deployments in Eastern Europe[8] and the combined militaries of all NATO members include around 3.5 million soldiers and personnel.[9] All member states together cover an area of 25.07 million km² and about 966.88 million people.[10] Their combined military spending as of 2022 constituted around 55 percent of the global nominal total.[11] Moreover, members have agreed to reach or maintain the target defence spending of at least two percent of their GDP by 2024.[12][13]

    NATO formed with twelve founding members and has added new members ten times, most recently when Sweden joined the alliance on 7 March 2024.[14] In addition, NATO currently recognizes Bosnia and Herzegovina, Georgia, and Ukraine as aspiring members.[4] Enlargement has led to tensions with non-member Russia, one of the 18 additional countries participating in NATO's Partnership for Peace programme. Another nineteen countries are involved in institutionalized dialogue programmes with NATO.

    1. ^ "Final Communiqué". www.nato.int. 17 September 1949. Archived from the original on 6 December 2006. Retrieved 2 March 2024. English and French shall be the official languages for the entire North Atlantic Treaty Organization.
    2. ^ NATO (4 April 1949). "The North Atlantic Treaty". NATO. Archived from the original on 14 September 2011. Retrieved 2 March 2024. This Treaty, of which the English and French texts are equally authentic.
    3. ^ "Defence Expenditure of NATO Countries (2014–2023)" (PDF). NATO.
    4. ^ a b "What is NATO?". NATO – Homepage. n.d. Archived from the original on 28 February 2022. Retrieved 3 March 2022.
    5. ^ Cook, Lorne (25 May 2017). "NATO, the world's biggest military alliance, explained". Military Times. Associated Press. Archived from the original on 25 May 2017. Retrieved 3 March 2022.
    6. ^ "Animus in consulendo liber". NATO. Archived from the original on 9 January 2017. Retrieved 23 March 2015.
    7. ^ Szenes, Zoltan. "Reinforcing deterrence: assessing NATO’s 2022 Strategic Concept." Defense & Security Analysis 39.4 (2023): 539-560.
    8. ^ "NATO to accelerate deployment of up to 300,000 soldiers on eastern border". Ukrainska Pravda. Retrieved 14 June 2023.
    9. ^ Batchelor, Tom (9 March 2022). "Where are Nato troops stationed and how many are deployed across Europe?". The Independent. Archived from the original on 8 June 2022. Retrieved 8 June 2022.
    10. ^ "[1]." worlddata.info. Retrieved on March 9, 2024. "Members of the NATO: North Atlantic Treaty Organization."
    11. ^ "World military expenditure reaches new record high as European spending surges". SIPRI. 24 April 2023. Archived from the original on 28 April 2023. Retrieved 29 April 2023.
    12. ^ NATO. "The Wales Declaration on the Transatlantic Bond". NATO. Archived from the original on 10 June 2018. Retrieved 2 March 2024.
    13. ^ Erlanger, Steven (26 March 2014). "Europe Begins to Rethink Cuts to Military Spending". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 29 March 2014. Retrieved 3 April 2014. Last year, only a handful of NATO countries met the target, according to NATO figures, including the United States, at 4.1 percent, and Britain, at 2.4 percent.
    14. ^ "Notification Reference No. 2024-008" (PDF). United States Department of State. 7 March 2024. Retrieved 7 March 2024.
     
  9. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    21 December 1995 – The city of Bethlehem passes from Israeli to Palestinian control.

    Bethlehem

    Bethlehem (/ˈbɛθlɪhɛm/; Arabic: بيت لحم, Bayt Laḥm, pronunciation; Hebrew: בֵּית לֶחֶם Bēṯ Leḥem) is a city in the Israeli-occupied West Bank of the State of Palestine, located about ten kilometres (six miles) south of Jerusalem. It is the capital of the Bethlehem Governorate, and has a population of approximately 25,000 people.[3][4] The city's economy is largely tourist-driven; international tourism peaks around and during Christmas, when Christians embark on a pilgrimage to the Church of the Nativity, revered as the location of the Nativity of Jesus.[5][6]

    The earliest-known mention of Bethlehem is in the Amarna correspondence of ancient Egypt, dated to 1350–1330 BCE, when the town was inhabited by the Canaanites. In the Hebrew Bible, the period of the Israelites is described; it identifies Bethlehem as the birthplace of David.[7] In the New Testament, the city is identified as the birthplace of Jesus of Nazareth. Under the Roman Empire, the city of Bethlehem was destroyed by Hadrian, but later rebuilt by Helena, and her son, Constantine the Great, who commissioned the Church of the Nativity in 327 CE. In 529, the Church of the Nativity was heavily damaged by Samaritans involved in the Samaritan revolts; following the victory of the Byzantine Empire, it was rebuilt by Justinian I.

    Amidst the Muslim conquest of the Levant, Bethlehem became part of Jund Filastin in 637. Muslims continued to rule the city until 1099, when it was conquered by the Crusaders, who replaced the local Christian Greek Orthodox clergy with Catholic ones. In the mid-13th century, Bethlehem's walls were demolished by the Mamluk Sultanate. However, they were rebuilt by the Ottoman Empire in the 16th century, following the Ottoman–Mamluk War.[8] After the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire at the end of World War I, it became part of Mandatory Palestine until 1948, when it was annexed by Jordan during the 1948 Arab–Israeli War. During the 1967 Six Day War, Bethlehem was occupied by Israel along with the rest of the West Bank. Since the Oslo Accords between Israel and the Palestinian National Authority, Bethlehem has been designated as part of Area A of the West Bank, nominally rendering it as being under Palestinian control.[8] Movement around the city is limited due to the Israeli West Bank barrier.

    While it was historically a city of Arab Christians, Bethlehem now has a majority of Arab Muslims; it is still home to a significant community of Palestinian Christians, however it has dwindled significantly, mostly due to difficulties resulting from living under the Israeli occupation.[9] Presently, Bethlehem has become encircled by dozens of Israeli settlements, which significantly hinder the ability of Palestinians in the city to openly access their land and livelihoods, which has contributed to the exodus of Palestinians.[10]

    1. ^ "Members of the Municipal Council". Bethlehem municipality. Archived from the original on October 20, 2018. Retrieved August 2, 2018.
    2. ^ Preliminary Results of the Population, Housing and Establishments Census, 2017 (PDF). Palestinian Central Bureau of Statistics (PCBS) (Report). State of Palestine. February 2018. pp. 64–82. Retrieved October 24, 2023.
    3. ^ Amara, 1999, p. 18 Archived May 29, 2021, at the Wayback Machine.
    4. ^ Brynen, 2000, p. 202 Archived May 29, 2021, at the Wayback Machine.
    5. ^ Kaufman, David; Katz, Marisa S. (April 16, 2006). "In the West Bank, Politics and Tourism Remain Bound Together Inextricably – New York Times". The New York Times. Archived from the original on June 15, 2013. Retrieved January 22, 2008.
    6. ^ "Places to Visit In & Around Bethlehem". Bethlehem Hotel. Archived from the original on December 3, 2013. Retrieved November 29, 2013.
    7. ^ 2 Chronicles 11:5–6 (Note: Though v. 6 is frequently translated to say simply that Rehoboam built the city, the Hebrew phrase in v. 5, just prior, וַיִּ֧בֶן עָרִ֛ים לְמָצ֖וֹר wayyiḇen ‘ārîm lemāṣôr means "(and) he built cities into fortresses". Verse 5 is cited by at least one prominent Hebrew lexicon in illustration of this fact. See Koehler, L., Baumgartner, W., Richardson, M. E. J., & Stamm, J. J., The Hebrew and Aramaic Lexicon of the Old Testament (electronic edition; Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1994–2000), entry for the pertinent root בנה bnh, p. 139. Def. 3 reads as follows: "—3. with לְ to develop buildings: עָרִים לְמָצוֹר cities into fortresses 2C[hronicles] 11:5".)
    8. ^ a b "History and Mithology of Bethlehem". Bethlehem Municipality. Archived from the original on January 13, 2008. Retrieved January 22, 2008.
    9. ^ Cite error: The named reference AJ1 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    10. ^ Cite error: The named reference :0 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
     
  10. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    22 December 1937 – The Lincoln Tunnel opens to traffic in New York City.

    Lincoln Tunnel

    The Lincoln Tunnel is an approximately 1.5-mile-long (2.4 km) tunnel under the Hudson River, connecting Weehawken, New Jersey, to the west with Midtown Manhattan in New York City to the east. It carries New Jersey Route 495 on the New Jersey side and unsigned New York State Route 495 on the New York side. It was designed by Ole Singstad and named after Abraham Lincoln. The tunnel consists of three vehicular tubes of varying lengths, with two traffic lanes in each tube. The center tube contains reversible lanes, while the northern and southern tubes exclusively carry westbound and eastbound traffic, respectively.

    The Lincoln Tunnel was originally proposed in the late 1920s and early 1930s as the Midtown Hudson Tunnel. The tubes of the Lincoln Tunnel were constructed in stages between 1934 and 1957. Construction of the central tube, which originally lacked sufficient funding due to the Great Depression, started in 1934 and it opened in 1937. The northern tube started construction in 1936, was delayed due to World War II-related material shortages, and opened in 1945. Although the original plans for the Lincoln Tunnel called for two tubes, a third tube to the south of the existing tunnels was planned in 1950 due to high traffic demand on the other two tubes. The third tube started construction in 1954, with the delay attributed to disputes over tunnel approaches, and opened in 1957. Since then, the Lincoln Tunnel has undergone a series of gradual improvements, including changes to security and tolling methods.

    The Lincoln Tunnel is one of two automobile tunnels built under the Hudson River, the other being the Holland Tunnel between Jersey City, New Jersey, and Lower Manhattan. The Lincoln Tunnel is also one of six tolled crossings in the New York area owned by the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey. The tolls on each crossing are only collected in the New York-bound direction. As of 2016, both directions of the tunnel carry a combined average of 112,995 vehicular crossings every day. The tunnel is part of New Jersey Route 495 on the western half of the river, and New York State Route 495 on the eastern half of the river. However, the New York state highway designation is not signed, and its use is inconsistent in official documents.

    1. ^ "New York City Bridge Traffic Volumes" (PDF). New York City Department of Transportation. 2016. p. 11. Archived (PDF) from the original on March 11, 2018. Retrieved March 16, 2018.
    2. ^ a b c d Cite error: The named reference Port Authority of New York and New Jersey was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    3. ^ Cite error: The named reference traffic-restrictions was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
     
  11. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    23 December 1893 – The opera Hansel and Gretel by Engelbert Humperdinck is first performed.

    Hansel and Gretel (opera)

    Hansel and Gretel (German: Hänsel und Gretel) is an opera by nineteenth-century composer Engelbert Humperdinck, who described it as a Märchenoper (fairy-tale opera). The libretto was written by Humperdinck's sister, Adelheid Wette, based on the Grimm brothers' fairy tale "Hansel and Gretel". It is much admired for its folk music-inspired themes, one of the most famous being the "Abendsegen" ("Evening Benediction") from act 2.

    The idea for the opera was proposed to Humperdinck by his sister, who approached him about writing music for songs that she had written for her children for Christmas based on "Hansel and Gretel". After several revisions, the musical sketches and the songs were turned into a full-scale opera.

    Humperdinck composed Hansel and Gretel in Frankfurt in 1891 and 1892.[1] The opera was first performed in the Hoftheater in Weimar on 23 December 1893, conducted by Richard Strauss. It has been associated with Christmas since its earliest performances and today it is still most often performed at Christmas time.

    1. ^ Plaque: Scheffelstraße 1, Frankfurt am Main: "In this house in the years 1891 and 1892 Engelbert Humperdinck composed the opera Hänsel und Gretel"
     
  12. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    24 December 1865 – The Ku Klux Klan is formed.

    Ku Klux Klan

    The Ku Klux Klan (/ˌk klʌks ˈklæn, ˌkj-/),[c] commonly shortened to the KKK or the Klan, is the name of several historical and current American white supremacist, far-right terrorist organizations and hate groups. According to historian Fergus Bordewich, the Klan was "the first organized terror movement in American history."[39][40] Their primary targets at various times have been African Americans, as well as Jews and Catholics.

    Three separate Klans have existed in three non-overlapping time periods. Each comprised local chapters with little or no central direction. Each has advocated extremist reactionary positions such as white nationalism, anti-immigration and—especially in later iterations—Nordicism, antisemitism, anti-Catholicism, Prohibition, right-wing populism, anti-communism, homophobia, anti-atheism, and Islamophobia. The first Klan, founded by Confederate veterans in the late 1860s,[41] would assault and murder politically active Black people and their allies in the South. The second iteration of the Klan originated in the late 1910s, and was the first to use cross burnings and white hooded robes. The KKK of the 1920s had a nationwide membership in the millions and reflected a cross-section of the native-born white population.[42] The third Klan formed in the mid 20th century, largely as a reaction to the growing civil rights movement. It committed murders and bombings to achieve its aims. All three movements have called for the "purification" of American society, and are all considered far-right extremist organizations. In each era, membership was secret and estimates of the total were highly exaggerated by both friends and enemies.

    The first Klan, established in the wake of the Civil War, was a defining organization of the Reconstruction era. Federal law enforcement began taking action against it around 1871. The Klan sought to overthrow Republican state governments in the South, especially by using voter intimidation and targeted violence against African-American leaders. The Klan was organized into numerous independent chapters across the Southern United States. Each chapter was autonomous and highly secretive about membership and plans. Members made their own, often colorful, costumes: robes, masks and pointed hats, designed to be terrifying and to hide their identities.

    The second Klan started in 1915 as a small group in Georgia. It suddenly started to grow after 1920 and flourished nationwide in the early and mid-1920s, including urban areas of the Midwest and West. Taking inspiration from D. W. Griffith's 1915 silent film The Birth of a Nation, which mythologized the founding of the first Klan, it employed marketing techniques and a popular fraternal organization structure. Rooted in local Protestant communities, it sought to maintain white supremacy, often took a pro-Prohibition stance, and it opposed Jews, while also stressing its opposition to the alleged political power of the pope and the Catholic Church. This second Klan flourished both in the south and northern states; it was funded by initiation fees and selling its members a standard white costume. The chapters did not have dues. It used K-words which were similar to those used by the first Klan, while adding cross burnings and mass parades to intimidate others. It rapidly declined in the latter half of the 1920s.

    The third and current manifestation of the KKK emerged after 1950, in the form of localized and isolated groups that use the KKK name. They have focused on opposition to the civil rights movement, often using violence and murder to suppress activists. This manifestation is classified as a hate group by the Anti-Defamation League and the Southern Poverty Law Center.[43] As of 2016, the Anti-Defamation League puts total KKK membership nationwide at around 3,000, while the Southern Poverty Law Center puts it at 6,000 members total.[44]

    The second and third incarnations of the Ku Klux Klan made frequent references to a false mythologized perception of America's "Anglo-Saxon" blood, hearkening back to 19th-century nativism.[45] Although members of the KKK swear to uphold "Christian morality", Christian denominations widely denounce them.[46]

    1. ^ "Historical Flags of Our Ancestors – Flags of Extremism – Part 1 (a-m)". www.loeser.us. Archived from the original on January 12, 2021. Retrieved December 2, 2022.
    2. ^ McVeigh, Rory. "Structural Incentives for Conservative Mobilization: Power Devaluation and the Rise of the Ku Klux Klan, 1915–1925". Social Forces, Vol. 77, No. 4 (June 1999), p. 1463.
    3. ^ "Ku Klux Klan". Southern Poverty Law Center. Archived from the original on July 23, 2013. Retrieved February 7, 2013.
    4. ^ Blow, Charles M. (January 7, 2016). "Gun Control and White Terror" Archived March 4, 2022, at the Wayback Machine. The New York Times. Retrieved March 3, 2022.
    5. ^ Al-Khattar, Aref M. (2003). Religion and terrorism: an interfaith perspective. Westport, Connecticut: Praeger. pp. 21, 30, 55.
    6. ^ Michael, Robert, and Philip Rosen. Dictionary of antisemitism from the earliest times to the present. Lanham, Maryland: Scarecrow Press, 1997, p. 267.[ISBN missing]
    7. ^ Barkun, pp. 60–85.
    8. ^ Pegram 2011, pp. 47–88.
    9. ^ Dibranco, Alex (February 3, 2020). "The Long History of the Anti-Abortion Movement's Links to White Supremacists". The Nation. Archived from the original on June 2, 2020. Retrieved June 9, 2020. In 1985, the KKK began creating wanted posters listing personal information for abortion providers (doxing before the Internet age) ... Groups like the Confederate Knights of the Ku Klux Klan trafficked in rhetoric that mirrored that of the anti-abortion movement—with an anti-Semitic twist: 'More than ten million white babies have been murdered through Jewish-engineered legalized abortion since 1973 here in America and more than a million per year are being slaughtered this way.'
    10. ^ "Ku Klux Klan distributes homophobic, antisemitic flyers targeting school board in Virginia". Archived from the original on July 1, 2021. Police in Virginia are investigating a series of violently antisemitic and homophobic flyers targeting a local school board that were distributed by a white supremacist group affiliated with the Ku Klux Klan (KKK). Flyers denouncing the school board in Fairfax, Va., as 'Jew-inspired, communist, queer-loving sex fiends violating the words of the Holy Bible' were discovered on Wednesday
    11. ^ "Ku Klux Klan rallies against homosexuals in Lancaster". United Press International. August 24, 1991. Archived from the original on July 4, 2021.
    12. ^ "Ku Klux Klan supports Alabama chief Justice Rory Moore's attempts to stop gay marriage". Independent. February 13, 2015. Archived from the original on July 5, 2021.
    13. ^ "Ku Klux Klan distributes anti-transgender fliers in at least 1 Alabama neighborhood". May 24, 2016. Archived from the original on September 12, 2020. Retrieved September 12, 2020.
    14. ^ "KKK Allegedly Threatens Gay Political Candidate in Florida". NBC News. August 31, 2017. Archived from the original on September 12, 2020. Retrieved September 12, 2020.
    15. ^ "Ku Klux Klan plans rally to support anti-gay counseling student". LGBTQ Nation. October 5, 2010. Archived from the original on July 13, 2022. Retrieved September 12, 2020.
    16. ^ "KKK to Floridians: End AIDS by 'bashing gays'". LGBTQ Nation. November 23, 2015. Archived from the original on September 12, 2020. Retrieved September 12, 2020.
    17. ^ "Ku Klux Klan Rallies In Ellijay, GA – Condemns Homosexuals, Illegal Immigrants, Black Americans and Others". September 13, 2010. Archived from the original on October 24, 2020. Retrieved September 12, 2020.
    18. ^ "KKK members protest LGBTQ pride march in Florence". June 13, 2017. Archived from the original on September 12, 2020. Retrieved September 12, 2020.
    19. ^ "Ku Klux Klan plans rally to support anti-gay counseling student". LGBTQ Nation. October 5, 2010. Archived from the original on July 13, 2022. Retrieved October 5, 2010.
    20. ^ "Mississippi KKK leader defends post-Orlando anti-gay leaflets". CBS News. June 22, 2016. Archived from the original on July 28, 2022. Retrieved June 22, 2016.
    21. ^ "Klan leader calls for death for homosexuals". Tampa Bay Times. July 13, 1992. Archived from the original on July 28, 2022. 50 Klansmen, skinheads and supporters proclaimed gays and lesbians should receive the death penalty.
    22. ^ "Ku Klux Klan Revived in South; Leader Says Organization Will Fight "kikes"". Jewish Telegraph Agency. United States. December 11, 1945. Archived from the original on June 21, 2023. A report to the World-Telegram today from Atlanta, Georgia, says that the Ku Klux Klan has resumed functioning there, with all its trappinge burning crosses, hoods and other KKK rituals – and quotes Grand Dragon Samuel Greens as stating that "we are not fighting Jews because of their religion. We are fighting the kikes, and-there are as many kikes among the Protestants as among the Jews." Active in the Klan revival is J.B.Stoner of Chattanooga who last year sent a petition to Congress reading: "I request, urge and petition you to pass a resolution recognizing the fact that the Jews are children of the devil and that, consequently, they constitute a grave danger to the United States of America."
    23. ^ "Anti-Semitic and racist KKK fliers dropped in Philadelphia suburb". The Times of Israel. Archived from the original on November 2, 2020. Retrieved September 12, 2020.
    24. ^ "KKK drops antisemitic fliers in Florida to recruit members". October 18, 2017. Archived from the original on October 30, 2020. Retrieved September 12, 2020.
    25. ^ "KKK Flyers Threatening Blacks And Jews Found In Florida". The Forward. October 10, 2017. Archived from the original on October 21, 2020. Retrieved September 12, 2020.
    26. ^ "Antisemitic, racist KKK fliers dropped in Cherry Hill, NJ". Jewish Ledger. October 16, 2018. Archived from the original on October 30, 2020. Retrieved September 12, 2020.
    27. ^ "Racist, antisemitic fliers dropped in Virginia neighborhood before MLK Day". January 16, 2018. Archived from the original on June 12, 2021.
    28. ^ "Ku Klux Klan extends antisemitic campaign to Argentina". Jewish Telegraph Agency. March 20, 2015. Archived from the original on July 28, 2022.
    29. ^ Laats, Adam (2012). "Red Schoolhouse, Burning Cross: The Ku Klux Klan of the 1920s and Educational Reform". History of Education Quarterly. 52 (3): 323–350. doi:10.1111/j.1748-5959.2012.00402.x. ISSN 0018-2680. JSTOR 23251451. S2CID 142780437. Archived from the original on December 25, 2022. Retrieved December 25, 2022.
    30. ^ "Kingdom". Time. January 17, 1927. ISSN 0040-781X. Archived from the original on December 25, 2022. Retrieved December 25, 2022.
    31. ^ "Ku Klux Klan Ledgers | History Colorado". www.historycolorado.org. Archived from the original on December 25, 2022. Retrieved December 25, 2022.
    32. ^ "Principles and Purposes of the Knights of the Ku Klux Klan". 1920. Archived from the original on November 27, 2022. Retrieved December 25, 2022.
    33. ^ Kristin Dimick. "The Ku Klux Klan and the Anti-Catholic School Bills of Washington and Oregon". Archived from the original on May 14, 2022.
    34. ^ Philip N. Racine (1973). "The Ku Klux Klan, Anti-Catholicism, and Atlanta's Board of Education, 1916–1927". The Georgia Historical Quarterly. Georgia Historical Society. 57 (1): 63–75. JSTOR 40579872. Archived from the original on July 28, 2022.
    35. ^ Christine K. Erickson. The Boys in Butte: The Ku Klux Klan confronts the Catholics, 1923–1929 (MA thesis). University of Montana. Archived from the original on July 28, 2022.
    36. ^ "Ku Klux Klan Fliers Promoting Islamophobia Found In Washington State Neighborhood". March 2, 2015. Archived from the original on October 20, 2020. Retrieved September 12, 2020.
    37. ^ "Alabama KKK actively recruiting to 'fight the spread of Islam'". December 10, 2015. Archived from the original on November 15, 2020. Retrieved September 12, 2020.
    38. ^ "In the Army and the Klan, he hated Muslims". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on July 13, 2022. Retrieved June 5, 2018.
    39. ^ Fergus Bordewich. (2023). Klan War: Ulysses S Grant and the Battle to Save Reconstruction. Penguin Random House
    40. ^ "The Untold Story of Grant vs. the KKK: A Deep Dive with Historian Fergus M. Bordewich". YouTube. Retrieved November 17, 2023.
    41. ^ "Ku Klux Klan Established". Civil War on the Western Border: The Missouri-Kansas Conflict, 1855-1865. Digital History, Kansas City Public Library. Archived from the original on January 26, 2023. Retrieved January 26, 2023.
    42. ^ "See the rise of the KKK in the U.S., 1915-1940". Mapping the Second Ku Klux Klan, 1915-1940. Archived from the original on October 13, 2016. Retrieved March 31, 2023.
    43. ^ Both the Anti-Defamation League Archived October 3, 2012, at the Wayback Machine and the Southern Poverty Law Center Archived February 19, 2010, at the Wayback Machine include it in their lists of hate groups. See also Brian Levin, "Cyberhate: A Legal and Historical Analysis of Extremists' Use of Computer Networks in America", in Perry, Barbara (ed.), Hate and Bias Crime: A Reader Archived April 7, 2023, at the Wayback Machine, Routledge, 2003, p. 112.
    44. ^ "At 150, KKK sees opportunities in US political trends". Archived from the original on July 1, 2016. Retrieved July 2, 2016.
    45. ^ Newton 2001.
    46. ^ Perlmutter, Philip (1999). Legacy of Hate: A Short History of Ethnic, Religious, and Racial Prejudice in America. M. E. Sharpe. p. 170. ISBN 978-0765604064. Kenneth T. Jackson, in his The Ku Klux Klan in the City 1915–1930, reminds us that 'virtually every' Protestant denomination denounced the KKK, but that most KKK members were not 'innately depraved or anxious to subvert American institutions', but rather believed their membership in keeping with 'one-hundred percent Americanism' and Christian morality.


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  13. Admin2

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    25 December 1559Pope Pius IV is elected.

    Pope Pius IV

    Pope Pius IV (Italian: Pio IV; 31 March 1499 – 9 December 1565), born Giovanni Angelo Medici, was head of the Catholic Church and ruler of the Papal States from 25 December 1559 to his death, in December 1565. Born in Milan, his family considered itself a branch of the House of Medici and used the same coat of arms. Although modern historians have found no proof of this connection, the Medici of Florence recognized the claims of the Medici of Milan in the early 16th century.[1][2]

    Pope Paul III appointed Medici Archbishop of Ragusa, and sent him on diplomatic missions to the Holy Roman Empire and Hungary. He presided over the final session of the Council of Trent. His nephew, Cardinal Charles Borromeo, was a close adviser. As pope, Pius IV initiated a number of building projects in Rome, including one to improve the water supply.

    1. ^ "Treccani - la cultura italiana | Treccani, il portale del sapere".
    2. ^ "The List of Popes." The Catholic Encyclopedia. Vol. 12. New York: Robert Appleton Company, 1911. 4 September 2014
     
  14. Admin2

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    26 December 1805 – Austria and France sign the Treaty of Pressburg.

    Peace of Pressburg (1805)

    Contemporary print advertising the Peace of Pressburg

    The Peace of Pressburg[a] was signed in Pressburg (today Bratislava) on 26 December 1805 between French Emperor Napoleon Bonaparte and Holy Roman Emperor Francis II, as a consequence of the French victory over the Russians and Austrians at the Battle of Austerlitz (2 December). A truce was agreed on 4 December, and negotiations for the treaty began. The treaty was signed by Johann I Joseph, Prince of Liechtenstein, and the Hungarian Count Ignác Gyulay for the Austrian Empire and Charles Maurice de Talleyrand for France.

    Beyond the clauses establishing "peace and amity" and the Austrian withdrawal from the Third Coalition, the treaty also mandated substantial territorial concessions by the Austrian Empire. The French gains of the previous treaties of Campo Formio and Lunéville were reiterated, while recent Austrian acquisitions in Italy and southern Germany were ceded to France and Bavaria, respectively. The scattered Austrian holdings in Swabia were passed to French allies – the King of Württemberg, and the Elector of Baden – while Bavaria received Tyrol and Vorarlberg. Austrian claims on those German states were renounced without exception. Venetia, Istria, and Dalmatia were incorporated into the Kingdom of Italy, of which Napoleon had become king earlier that year. The Principality of Lucca and Piombino was recognized as independent from the Holy Empire. Augsburg, previously an independent Free Imperial City, was ceded to Bavaria. As a minor compensation, the Austrian Empire annexed the Electorate of Salzburg, which had been under Habsburg rule since 1803. The elector, the Austrian Emperor's brother, was compensated with the Grand Duchy of Würzburg.

    The Primate's Palace, where the Peace of Pressburg was signed

    Francis II also recognized the kingly titles assumed by the Electors of Bavaria and Württemberg, which foreshadowed the end of the Holy Roman Empire. Within months of the signing of the treaty and after a new entity, the Confederation of the Rhine, had been created by Napoleon, Francis II renounced his title as Holy Roman Emperor. An indemnity of 40 million francs to France was also provided for in the treaty.[1]

    Some remaining territorial issues, including the effective establishment of the new border along the Isonzo river, were finally resolved by the Treaty of Fontainebleau (October 10, 1807).[2]


    Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

    1. ^ Phillipson, Coleman (2008). Termination of War and Treaties of Peace. The Lawbook Exchange. p. 273. ISBN 9781584778608.
    2. ^ Siemann 2019, p. 225-226.
     
  15. Admin2

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    27 December 1945 – The International Monetary Fund is created with the signing of an agreement by 29 nations.

    International Monetary Fund

    The International Monetary Fund (IMF) is a major financial agency of the United Nations, and an international financial institution funded by 190 member countries, with headquarters in Washington, D.C. It is regarded as the global lender of last resort to national governments, and a leading supporter of exchange-rate stability. Its stated mission is "working to foster global monetary cooperation, secure financial stability, facilitate international trade, promote high employment and sustainable economic growth, and reduce poverty around the world."[1][9] Established on December 27, 1945[10] at the Bretton Woods Conference, primarily according to the ideas of Harry Dexter White and John Maynard Keynes, it started with 29 member countries and the goal of reconstructing the international monetary system after World War II. It now plays a central role in the management of balance of payments difficulties and international financial crises.[11] Through a quota system, countries contribute funds to a pool from which countries can borrow if they experience balance of payments problems. As of 2016, the fund had SDR 477 billion (about US$667 billion).[10]

    The IMF works to stabilize and foster the economies of its member countries by its use of the fund, as well as other activities such as gathering and analyzing economic statistics and surveillance of its members' economies.[12][13] IMF funds come from two major sources: quotas and loans. Quotas, which are pooled funds from member nations, generate most IMF funds. The size of members' quotas increase according to their economic and financial importance in the world. The quotas are increased periodically as a means of boosting the IMF's resources in the form of special drawing rights.[14]

    The current managing director (MD) and chairwoman of the IMF is Bulgarian economist Kristalina Georgieva, who has held the post since October 1, 2019.[15] Indian-American economist Gita Gopinath, previously the chief economist, was appointed as first deputy managing director, effective January 21, 2022.[16] Pierre-Olivier Gourinchas was appointed chief economist on January 24, 2022.[17]

    1. ^ a b c "About the IMF". International Monetary Fund. Archived from the original on 16 October 2012. Retrieved 14 October 2012.
    2. ^ "IMF Members' Quotas and Voting Power, and IMF Board of Governors". IMF. 17 October 2020.
    3. ^ Boughton 2001, p. 7 n.5.
    4. ^ "First Deputy Managing Director Geoffrey Okamoto to Leave IMF, Gita Gopinath to Be IMF's New First Deputy Managing Director". International Monetary Fund.
    5. ^ "IMF Managing Director Names Pierre-Olivier Gourinchas as IMF Economic Counsellor and Head of Research Department". International Monetary Fund.
    6. ^ "Factsheet: The IMF and the World Bank". International Monetary Fund. 21 September 2015. Archived from the original on 3 June 2004. Retrieved 1 December 2015.
    7. ^ "About the IMF Overview". International Monetary Fund. Retrieved 1 August 2017.
    8. ^ "IMF Executive Board Approves FY 2022–FY 2024 Medium-Term Budget". International Monetary Fund. 27 May 2021. Retrieved 9 April 2022.
    9. ^ "Articles of Agreement, International Monetary Fund" (PDF). International Monetary Fund. 2011. Archived (PDF) from the original on 4 November 2011.
    10. ^ a b "The IMF at a Glance". International Monetary Fund. Retrieved 15 December 2016.
    11. ^ Lipscy, Phillip Y. (2015). "Explaining Institutional Change: Policy Areas, Outside Options, and the Bretton Woods Institutions". American Journal of Political Science. 59 (2): 341–356. doi:10.1111/ajps.12130.
    12. ^ Schlefer, Jonathan (10 April 2012). "There is No Invisible Hand". Harvard Business Review. Harvard Business Publishing – via hbr.org.
    13. ^ Escobar, Arturo (1980). "Power and Visibility: Development and the Invention and Management of the Third World". Cultural Anthropology. 3 (4): 428–443. doi:10.1525/can.1988.3.4.02a00060.
    14. ^ "IMF Quotas". International Monetary Fund. Retrieved 4 February 2020.
    15. ^ Crutsinger, Martin (25 September 2019). "Economist who grew up in communist Bulgaria is new IMF chief". APNews.com. Associated Press. Retrieved 18 June 2020.
    16. ^ "First Deputy Managing Director Geoffrey Okamoto to Leave IMF, Gita Gopinath to Be IMF's New First Deputy Managing Director". IMF. Retrieved 4 February 2022.
    17. ^ "IMF Managing Director Names Pierre-Olivier Gourinchas as IMF Economic Counsellor and Head of Research Department". IMF. Retrieved 4 February 2022.
     
  16. Admin2

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    28 December 1973 – The Endangered Species Act is passed in the United States.

    Endangered Species Act of 1973

    The Endangered Species Act of 1973 (ESA or "The Act"; 16 U.S.C. § 1531 et seq.) is the primary law in the United States for protecting and conserving imperiled species. Designed to protect critically imperiled species from extinction as a "consequence of economic growth and development untempered by adequate concern and conservation", the ESA was signed into law by President Richard Nixon on December 28, 1973. The Supreme Court of the United States described it as "the most comprehensive legislation for the preservation of endangered species enacted by any nation".[1] The purposes of the ESA are two-fold: to prevent extinction and to recover species to the point where the law's protections are not needed. It therefore "protect[s] species and the ecosystems upon which they depend" through different mechanisms. For example, section 4 requires the agencies overseeing the Act to designate imperiled species as threatened or endangered. Section 9 prohibits unlawful ‘take,’ of such species, which means to "harass, harm, hunt..." Section 7 directs federal agencies to use their authorities to help conserve listed species. The Act also serves as the enacting legislation to carry out the provisions outlined in The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES).[2] The Supreme Court found that "the plain intent of Congress in enacting" the ESA "was to halt and reverse the trend toward species extinction, whatever the cost."[1] The Act is administered by two federal agencies, the United States Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS) and the National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS).[3] FWS and NMFS have been delegated by the Act with the authority to promulgate any rules and guidelines within the Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) to implement its provisions.

    1. ^ a b "Tennessee Valley Authority v. Hill", 437 U.S. 153 (1978) Retrieved 24 November 2015. Public Domain This article incorporates public domain material from websites or documents of the United States Government.
    2. ^ U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. "International Affairs: CITES" Retrieved on 29 January 2020.Public Domain This article incorporates public domain material from websites or documents of the United States Fish and Wildlife Service.
    3. ^ Summary of the Endangered Species Act | Laws & Regulations | US EPA
     
  17. Admin2

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    29 December 2003 – The last known speaker of Akkala Sami dies, rendering the language extinct.

    Akkala Sami language

    Redirect to:

     
  18. Admin2

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    30 December 2006Madrid–Barajas Airport is bombed.

    2006 Madrid–Barajas Airport bombing

    On December 30, 2006, a van bomb exploded in the Terminal 4 parking area at the Madrid–Barajas Airport in Spain, killing two and injuring 52. On January 9, 2007, the Basque nationalist and separatist organisation ETA claimed responsibility for the attack. The attack, one of the most powerful carried out by ETA, damaged the airport terminal and destroyed the entire parking structure. The bombing ended a nine-month ceasefire declared by the armed organisation and prompted the government to halt plans for negotiations with the organisation. Despite the attack, ETA claimed that the ceasefire was still in place and regretted the death of civilians. The organisation eventually announced the end of the ceasefire in June 2007.

    Ordered and planned by then head of commandos Miguel Garikoitz Aspiazu Rubina alias Txeroki, the attack was carried out by the "commando Elurra", whose members were arrested in early 2008 and sentenced for the attack in May 2010. Txeroki was arrested in November 2008 and was condemned to prison in 2011.

     
  19. Admin2

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    31 December 2004 – The official opening of Taipei 101, the tallest skyscraper at that time in the world, standing at a height of 509 metres (1,670 ft).

    Taipei 101

    Taipei 101 (Chinese: 台北101; pinyin: Táiběi 101; stylized in all caps),[1] formerly known as the Taipei World Financial Center, is a skyscraper in Taipei, Taiwan. It is owned by Taipei Financial Center Corporation. The building was officially classified as the world's tallest from its opening on 31 December 2004 (in time to celebrate New Year's Eve). However, the Burj Khalifa surpassed Taipei 101 in 2009. Upon completion, it became the world's first skyscraper to exceed a height of half a kilometer (about 0.3 miles). As of 2023, Taipei 101 is the tallest building in Taiwan and the eleventh tallest building in the world.[11][12]

    The elevators of Taipei 101 that transport passengers from the 5th to the 89th floor in 37 seconds (attaining 60.6 km/h (37.7 mph)) set speed records.[11][a] In 2011, Taipei 101 was awarded a Platinum certificate rating under the LEED certification system for energy efficiency and environmental design, becoming the tallest and largest green building in the world.[13] The structure regularly appears as an icon of Taipei in international media, and the Taipei 101 fireworks displays are a regular feature of New Year's Eve broadcasts and celebrations.

    Taipei 101's postmodernist architectural style evokes traditional Asian aesthetics in a modern structure employing industrial materials. Its design incorporates a number of features that enable the structure to withstand the Pacific Ring of Fire's earthquakes and the region's tropical storms. The tower houses offices, restaurants, shops, and indoor and outdoor observatories. The tower is adjoined by a multilevel shopping mall that has the world's largest ruyi symbol as an exterior feature.

    1. ^ a b c d Cite error: The named reference skyscraperCenter was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    2. ^ a b c Cite error: The named reference Report13 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    3. ^ "Taipei 101, Taipei". SkyscraperPage.com. Archived from the original on 5 September 2015. Retrieved 14 November 2023.
    4. ^ a b "TAIPEI 101 – The Skyscraper Center". skyscrapercenter.com. Archived from the original on 16 March 2015. Retrieved 26 July 2015.
    5. ^ 2001-10: Wins the contract for Taipei 101 (101 levels, 508 meters), then the world's tallest building. History - Company - Samsung C&T Archived 28 September 2022 at the Wayback Machine
    6. ^ "Building Taipei 101". 18 January 2013. Archived from the original on 14 July 2020. Retrieved 30 April 2020.
    7. ^ "Samsung C&T". Lakhta Center. Archived from the original on 30 November 2020. Retrieved 30 April 2020.
    8. ^ Cite error: The named reference emporis was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    9. ^ "Taipei 101". SkyscraperPage.. Retrieved 25 March 2015.
    10. ^ Taipei 101 at Structurae. Retrieved 25 March 2015.
    11. ^ a b "World's fastest elevator: In Taiwan, the skyscraper's elevator travels at 60 km/h". Toronto Star. 23 January 2013. Archived from the original on 23 October 2022. Retrieved 8 March 2017.
    12. ^ "The 100 Tallest Completed Buildings in the world in 2023 - The Skyscraper Center". www.skyscrapercenter.com. Archived from the original on 18 October 2017. Retrieved 30 October 2023.
    13. ^ "Taipei 101 receives top certification from green rating council - Taipei Times". www.taipeitimes.com. 29 July 2011. Archived from the original on 16 December 2023. Retrieved 15 December 2023.


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  20. Admin2

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    1 January 1651Charles II is crowned King of Scotland.

    Charles II of England

    Charles II (29 May 1630 – 6 February 1685)[c] was King of Scotland from 1649 until 1651 and King of England, Scotland, and Ireland from the 1660 Restoration of the monarchy until his death in 1685.

    Charles II was the eldest surviving child of Charles I of England, Scotland and Ireland and Henrietta Maria of France. After Charles I's execution at Whitehall on 30 January 1649, at the climax of the English Civil War, the Parliament of Scotland proclaimed Charles II king on 5 February 1649. However, England entered the period known as the English Interregnum or the English Commonwealth, with a government led by Oliver Cromwell. Cromwell defeated Charles II at the Battle of Worcester on 3 September 1651, and Charles fled to mainland Europe. Cromwell became Lord Protector of England, Scotland and Ireland. Charles spent the next nine years in exile in France, the Dutch Republic and the Spanish Netherlands. A political crisis after Cromwell's death in 1658 resulted in the restoration of the monarchy in 1660, and Charles was invited to return to Britain. On 29 May 1660, his 30th birthday, he was received in London to public acclaim. After 1660, all legal documents stating a regnal year did so as if he had succeeded his father as king in 1649.

    Charles's English parliament enacted the Clarendon Code, to shore up the position of the re-established Church of England. Charles acquiesced to these new laws even though he favoured a policy of religious tolerance. The major foreign policy issue of his early reign was the Second Anglo-Dutch War. In 1670, he entered into the Treaty of Dover, an alliance with his cousin, King Louis XIV of France. Louis agreed to aid him in the Third Anglo-Dutch War and pay him a pension, and Charles secretly promised to convert to Catholicism at an unspecified future date. Charles attempted to introduce religious freedom for Catholics and Protestant dissenters with his 1672 Royal Declaration of Indulgence, but the English Parliament forced him to withdraw it. In 1679, Titus Oates's fabrication of a supposed Popish Plot sparked the Exclusion Crisis when it was revealed that Charles's brother and heir presumptive, James, Duke of York, had become a Catholic. The crisis saw the birth of the pro-exclusion Whig and anti-exclusion Tory parties. Charles sided with the Tories and, after the discovery of the Rye House Plot to murder Charles and James in 1683, some Whig leaders were executed or forced into exile. Charles dissolved the English Parliament in 1681 and ruled alone until his death in 1685.

    Following his restoration, Charles became known for his affability and friendliness, and for allowing his subjects easy access to his person. However, he also showed an almost impenetrable reserve, especially concerning his political agendas. His court gained a reputation for moral laxity.[1] Charles's marriage to Catherine of Braganza produced no surviving children, but the king acknowledged at least 12 illegitimate children by various mistresses. He was succeeded by his brother James.


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    1. ^ Fraser 1979, pp. 361–363.
     
  21. Admin2

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    2 January 1967Ronald Reagan sworn in as Governor of California

    Ronald Reagan

    Ronald Wilson Reagan (/ˈrɡən/ RAY-gən; February 6, 1911 – June 5, 2004) was an American politician and actor who served as the 40th president of the United States from 1981 to 1989. A member of the Republican Party, his presidency constituted the Reagan era, and he is considered one of the most prominent conservative figures in American history.

    Reagan graduated from Eureka College in 1932 and began to work as a sports broadcaster in Iowa. In 1937, he moved to California, and became a well-known film actor there. From 1947 to 1952, Reagan served as the president of the Screen Actors Guild. During the 1950s, he worked in television and spoke for General Electric. From 1959 to 1960, he again served as the Screen Actors Guild's president. In 1964, "A Time for Choosing" gave Reagan attention as a new conservative figure. He was elected governor of California in 1966. During his governorship, he raised taxes, turned the state budget deficit into a surplus, and cracked down harshly on university protests. After challenging and losing to incumbent president Gerald Ford in the 1976 Republican presidential primaries, Reagan won the Republican nomination and then a landslide victory over incumbent Democratic president Jimmy Carter in the 1980 presidential election.

    In his first term, Reagan implemented "Reaganomics", which involved economic deregulation and cuts in both taxes and government spending during a period of stagflation. He escalated an arms race and transitioned Cold War policy away from détente with the Soviet Union. Reagan also ordered the invasion of Grenada in 1983. Additionally, he survived an assassination attempt, fought public-sector labor unions, expanded the war on drugs, and was slow to respond to the AIDS epidemic in the United States, which began early in his presidency. In the 1984 presidential election, he defeated former vice president Walter Mondale in another landslide victory. Foreign affairs dominated Reagan's second term, including the 1986 bombing of Libya, the Iran–Iraq War, the secret and illegal sale of arms to Iran to fund the Contras, and a more conciliatory approach in talks with Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev that culminated in the Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty.

    Reagan left the presidency in 1989 with the American economy having seen a significant reduction of inflation, the unemployment rate having fallen, and the United States having entered its then-longest peacetime expansion. At the same time, the national debt had nearly tripled since 1981 as a result of his cuts in taxes and increased military spending, despite cuts to domestic discretionary spending. Reagan's policies also helped contribute to the end of the Cold War and the end of Soviet communism.[7] Alzheimer's disease hindered Reagan post-presidency, and his physical and mental capacities rapidly deteriorated, ultimately leading to his death in 2004. Historians and scholars have typically ranked him among the middle to upper tier of American presidents, and his post-presidential approval ratings by the general public are usually high.[8]

    1. ^ Holmes 2020, p. 210.
    2. ^ Oliver, Myrna (October 11, 1995). "Robert H. Finch, Lt. Gov. Under Reagan, Dies : Politics: Leader in California GOP was 70. He also served in Nixon's Cabinet and as President's special counselor and campaign manager". Los Angeles Times. Archived from the original on December 26, 2022. Retrieved April 4, 2020.
    3. ^ Chang, Cindy (December 25, 2016). "Ed Reinecke, who resigned as California's lieutenant governor after a perjury conviction, dies at 92". Los Angeles Times. Archived from the original on December 26, 2022. Retrieved April 4, 2020.
    4. ^ South, Garry (May 21, 2018). "California's lieutenant governors rarely move up to the top job". San Francisco Chronicle. Archived from the original on December 26, 2022. Retrieved April 4, 2020.
    5. ^ The Chairman's Report – 1968: To the Members of the Republican National Committee Jan. 16–17, 1969. Republican National Committee. January 1969. p. 41. Retrieved January 16, 2023.
    6. ^ Synergy, Volumes 13–30. Bay Area Reference Center. 1969. p. 41. Retrieved January 16, 2023. Governor Raymond Shafer of Pennsylvania was elected on December 13 to succeed Governor Ronald Reagan as Chairman of the Republican Governors Association.
    7. ^ "Ronald Reagan". Encyclopædia Britannica. June 9, 2023. Retrieved June 27, 2023.
    8. ^ "Retrospective Approval of Presidents". Gallup, Inc. July 17, 2023. Retrieved August 23, 2023.
     
  22. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    3 January 1925Benito Mussolini announces he is taking dictatorial powers over Italy.

    Benito Mussolini

    Benito Amilcare Andrea Mussolini (UK: /ˌmʊsəˈlni, ˌmʌs-/, US: /ˌms-/, Italian: [beˈniːto aˈmilkare anˈdrɛːa mussoˈliːni]; 29 July 1883 – 28 April 1945) was an Italian dictator who founded and led the National Fascist Party (PNF). He was Prime Minister of Italy from the March on Rome in 1922 until his deposition in 1943, as well as Duce of Italian fascism from the establishment of the Italian Fasces of Combat in 1919 until his summary execution in 1945 by Italian partisans. As dictator of Italy and principal founder of fascism, Mussolini inspired and supported the international spread of fascist movements during the inter-war period.

    Mussolini was originally a socialist politician and a journalist at the Avanti! newspaper. In 1912, he became a member of the National Directorate of the Italian Socialist Party (PSI), but he was expelled from the PSI for advocating military intervention in World War I, in opposition to the party's stance on neutrality. In 1914, Mussolini founded a newspaper, Il Popolo d'Italia, and served in the Royal Italian Army during the war until he was wounded and discharged in 1917. Mussolini denounced the PSI, his views now centering on Italian nationalism instead of socialism, and later founded the fascist movement which came to oppose egalitarianism and class conflict, instead advocating "revolutionary nationalism" transcending class lines. On 31 October 1922, following the March on Rome (28–30 October), Mussolini was appointed prime minister by King Victor Emmanuel III, becoming the youngest individual to hold the office up to that time. After removing all political opposition through his secret police and outlawing labour strikes, Mussolini and his followers consolidated power through a series of laws that transformed the nation into a one-party dictatorship. Within five years, Mussolini established dictatorial authority by both legal and illegal means and aspired to create a totalitarian state. In 1929, Mussolini signed the Lateran Treaty with the Holy See to establish Vatican City.

    Mussolini's foreign policy was based on the fascist doctrine of "Spazio vitale" (trans: "living space"); which aimed to expand Italian possessions and the fascist sphere of influence. In 1923, Mussolini ordered the bombing of Corfu over an incident with Greece. That same year, Mussolini launched the Second Italo-Senussi war which lasted until 1932 and culminated in the Libyan genocide. He also annexed the city of Fiume into Italy after the Treaty of Rome in 1924 with Yugoslavia. Through the Tirana treaties, Mussolini turned Albania into an Italian protectorate. In 1936, Ethiopia was conquered following the Second Italo-Ethiopian War and merged into Italian East Africa (AOI) with Eritrea and Somalia. In 1939, Italian forces annexed Albania. Between 1936 and 1939, Mussolini ordered an intervention in Spain in favour of Francisco Franco during the Spanish Civil War. At the same time, Mussolini initially tried to retain much of the Versailles status quo by sending troops to the Brenner Pass to delay Hitler's Anschluss, and taking part in the Treaty of Lausanne, the Lytton Report, the Four-Power Pact and the Stresa Front. However, he ultimately alienated the democratic powers as tensions grew in the League of Nations, which he left in 1937. Now hostile to France and Britain, Italy formed the Axis alliance with Nazi Germany and Imperial Japan.

    The wars of the 1930s, although victorious, had cost Italy enormous resources, leaving the country unprepared for the upcoming Second World War. Therefore, when Poland was invaded on 1 September 1939, Mussolini declared Italy's non-belligerence. However, on 10 June 1940, believing that Allied defeat was imminent, he decided to join the war on the side of Germany to share the potential spoils of victory. But after three more years of world war, the tide of the conflict turned in favour of the Allies. Following the invasion of Sicily and a motion of no confidence by the Grand Council of Fascism, King Victor Emmanuel III dismissed Mussolini as head of government and placed him in custody (25 July 1943). After the king agreed to an armistice with the Allies, on 12 September 1943 Mussolini was rescued from captivity in the Gran Sasso raid by German paratroopers and Waffen-SS commandos. After meeting with his fallen ally, Hitler made Mussolini the figurehead of a puppet state in German-occupied northern Italy, the Italian Social Republic (Salò Republic), which served as a collaborationist regime of the Germans in their fight against the Allies, now including the Kingdom of Italy, and the Italian resistance.

    In late April 1945, with Allied victory imminent, Mussolini and his mistress Clara Petacci attempted to flee to Switzerland, but they were captured by Italian communist partisans and summarily executed on 28 April near Lake Como, and their bodies were strung up by the heels outside a service station in Milan.

     
  23. Admin2

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    4 January 1951Korean War: Chinese and North Korean forces capture Seoul.

    Third Battle of Seoul

    37°34′08″N 126°58′36″E / 37.56889°N 126.97667°E / 37.56889; 126.97667 (Seoul)

    The Third Battle of Seoul was a battle of the Korean War, which took place from December 31, 1950, to January 7, 1951, around the South Korean capital of Seoul. It is also known as the Chinese New Year's Offensive, the January–Fourth Retreat (Korean: 1•4 후퇴) or the Third Phase Campaign Western Sector[nb 4] (Chinese: 第三次战役西线; pinyin: Dì Sān Cì Zhàn Yì Xī Xiàn).

    In the aftermath of the major Chinese People's Volunteer Army (PVA) victory at the Battle of the Ch'ongch'on River, the United Nations Command (UN) started to contemplate the possibility of evacuation from the Korean Peninsula. Chinese Communist Party chairman Mao Zedong ordered the Chinese People's Volunteer Army to cross the 38th Parallel in an effort to pressure the UN forces to withdraw from South Korea.

    On December 31, 1950, the Chinese 13th Army attacked the Republic of Korea Army (ROK)'s 1st, 2nd, 5th and 6th Infantry Divisions along the 38th Parallel, breaching UN defenses at the Imjin River, Hantan River, Gapyeong and Chuncheon in the process. To prevent the PVA forces from overwhelming the defenders, the US Eighth Army now under the command of Lieutenant General Matthew B. Ridgway evacuated Seoul on January 3, 1951.

    Although PVA forces captured Seoul by the end of the battle, the Chinese invasion of South Korea galvanized the UN support for South Korea, while the idea of evacuation was soon abandoned by the UN Command. At the same time, the PVA were exhausted after months of nonstop fighting since the start of the Chinese intervention, thereby allowing the UN forces to regain the initiative in Korea. The city would change hands one more time in Operation Ripper.


    Cite error: There are <ref group=nb> tags on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=nb}} template (see the help page).

     
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    5 January 1968Alexander Dubček comes to power; "Prague Spring" begins in Czechoslovakia.

    Prague Spring

    The Prague Spring (Czech: Pražské jaro, Slovak: Pražská jar) was a period of political liberalization and mass protest in the Czechoslovak Socialist Republic. It began on 5 January 1968, when reformist Alexander Dubček was elected First Secretary of the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia (KSČ), and continued until 21 August 1968, when the Soviet Union and most Warsaw Pact members invaded the country to suppress the reforms.

    The Prague Spring reforms were a strong attempt by Dubček to grant additional rights to the citizens of Czechoslovakia in an act of partial decentralization of the economy and democratization. The freedoms granted included a loosening of restrictions on the media, speech and travel. After national discussion of dividing the country into a federation of three republics, Bohemia, Moravia-Silesia and Slovakia, Dubček oversaw the decision to split into two, the Czech Socialist Republic and Slovak Socialist Republic.[1] This dual federation was the only formal change that survived the invasion.

    The reforms, especially the decentralization of administrative authority, were not received well by the Soviets, who, after failed negotiations, sent half a million Warsaw Pact troops and tanks to occupy the country. The New York Times cited reports of 650,000 men equipped with the most modern and sophisticated weapons in the Soviet military catalogue.[2] A massive wave of emigration swept the nation. Resistance was mounted throughout the country, involving attempted fraternization, sabotage of street signs, defiance of curfews, etc. While the Soviet military had predicted that it would take four days to subdue the country, the resistance held out for almost eight months until diplomatic maneuvers finally circumvented it. It became a high-profile example of civilian-based defense; there were sporadic acts of violence and several protest suicides by self-immolation (the most famous being that of Jan Palach), but no military resistance. Czechoslovakia remained a Soviet satellite state until 1989 when the Velvet Revolution peacefully ended the communist regime; the last Soviet troops left the country in 1991.

    After the invasion, Czechoslovakia entered a period known as normalization (Czech: normalizace, Slovak: normalizácia), in which new leaders attempted to restore the political and economic values that had prevailed before Dubček gained control of the KSČ. Gustáv Husák, who replaced Dubček as First Secretary and also became President, reversed almost all of the reforms. The Prague Spring inspired music and literature including the work of Václav Havel, Karel Husa, Karel Kryl and Milan Kundera's novel The Unbearable Lightness of Being.

    1. ^ Czech radio broadcasts 18–20 August 1968
    2. ^ "New York Times September 2, 1968".
     
  25. Admin2

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    6 January 2001 – Congress certifies George W. Bush winner of 2000 elections.

    George W. Bush

    George Walker Bush (born July 6, 1946) is an American politician and businessman who served as the 43rd president of the United States from 2001 to 2009. A member of the Republican Party, he previously served as the 46th governor of Texas from 1995 to 2000.

    The eldest son of the 41st president George H. W. Bush and a member of the Bush family, he flew warplanes in the Texas Air National Guard in his twenties. After graduating from Harvard Business School in 1975, he worked in the oil industry. He later co-owned the Texas Rangers of Major League Baseball before being elected governor of Texas in 1994. As governor, Bush successfully sponsored legislation for tort reform, increased education funding, set higher standards for schools, and reformed the criminal justice system. He also helped make Texas the country's leading producer of wind-powered electricity. In the 2000 United States presidential election, he won over Democratic incumbent Vice President Al Gore, despite losing the popular vote after a narrow and contested Electoral College win that involved a Supreme Court decision to stop a recount in Florida.

    Upon taking office, Bush signed a major tax cut program and an education reform bill, the No Child Left Behind Act. He pushed for socially conservative efforts such as the Partial-Birth Abortion Ban Act and faith-based initiatives. He also initiated the President's Emergency Plan for AIDS Relief in 2003 to address the AIDS epidemic. The terrorist attacks on September 11, 2001 decisively reshaped his administration, resulting in the start of the war on terror and the creation of the Department of Homeland Security. Bush ordered the 2001 invasion of Afghanistan in an effort to overthrow the Taliban, destroy al-Qaeda, and capture Osama bin Laden. He signed the Patriot Act to authorize surveillance of suspected terrorists. He also ordered the 2003 invasion of Iraq on the inaccurate beliefs that Saddam Hussein's regime possessed weapons of mass destruction and developed ties with al-Qaeda. Bush later signed the Medicare Modernization Act, which created Medicare Part D. In 2004, Bush was reelected president in a close election, beating Democratic opponent John Kerry and winning a majority of the popular vote.

    During his second term, Bush reached multiple free trade agreements. He appointed John Roberts and Samuel Alito to the Supreme Court. He sought major changes to Social Security and immigration laws, but both efforts failed in Congress. Bush was widely criticized for his handling of Hurricane Katrina and the midterm dismissal of U.S. attorneys. Amid his unpopularity, the Democrats regained control of Congress in the 2006 elections. The Afghanistan and Iraq wars continued, and, in January 2007, Bush launched a surge of troops in Iraq. By December, the U.S. entered the Great Recession, prompting the Bush administration to obtain congressional approval for multiple economic programs intended to preserve the country's financial system, including the Troubled Asset Relief Program.

    After finishing his second term, Bush returned to Texas, where he has since maintained a low public profile. At various points in his presidency, he was among both the most popular and unpopular presidents in U.S. history. He received the highest recorded approval ratings in the wake of the September 11 attacks, but also one of the lowest ratings during the 2007–2008 financial crisis. Although public opinion of Bush has improved since he left office, his presidency has generally been rated as below-average by scholars.

     
  26. Admin2

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    7 January 1992 – The Jeep Grand Cherokee is introduced at the Detroit Auto Show.

    Jeep Grand Cherokee

    The Jeep Grand Cherokee is a range of mid-size SUVs produced by the American manufacturer Jeep.[1] At its introduction, while most SUVs were still manufactured with body-on-frame construction, the Grand Cherokee has used a unibody chassis from the start.[2]


    Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

    1. ^ Niebuhr, Kurt (September 3, 2020). "Jeep Grand Cherokee Prices, Reviews, and Pictures". edmunds.com.
    2. ^ "Jeep Grand Cherokee Review". edmunds.com. Retrieved 10 April 2012.
     
  27. Admin2

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    8 January 1982Breakup of the Bell System: AT&T agrees to divest itself of twenty-two subdivisions.

    Breakup of the Bell System

    Telecommunications situation in the contiguous United States immediately following the Bell System's dissolution in 1984
      NYNEX

    The breakup of the Bell System was mandated on January 8, 1982, by a consent decree providing that AT&T Corporation would, as had been initially proposed by AT&T, relinquish control of the Bell Operating Companies, which had provided local telephone service in the United States.[1] This effectively took the monopoly that was the Bell System and split it into entirely separate companies that would continue to provide telephone service. AT&T would continue to be a provider of long-distance service, while the now-independent Regional Bell Operating Companies (RBOCs), nicknamed the "Baby Bells", would provide local service, and would no longer be directly supplied with equipment from AT&T subsidiary Western Electric.

    This divestiture was initiated in 1974 when the United States Department of Justice filed United States v. AT&T, an antitrust lawsuit against AT&T.[2] At the time, AT&T had substantial control over the United States' communications infrastructure. Not only was it the sole telephone provider throughout most of the country, its subsidiary Western Electric produced much of its equipment. Relinquishing ownership of Western Electric was one of the Justice Department’s primary demands.[3]

    Believing that it was about to lose the suit, AT&T proposed an alternative: its breakup. It proposed that it retain control of Western Electric, Yellow Pages, the Bell trademark, Bell Labs, and AT&T Long Distance. It also proposed that it be freed from a 1956 antitrust consent decree, then administered by Judge Vincent P. Biunno in the United States District Court for the District of New Jersey, that barred it from participating in the general sale of computers (retreat from international markets, relinquish ownership in Bell Canada, and Northern Electric a Western Electric subsidiary).[4] In return, it proposed to give up ownership of the local operating companies. This last concession, it argued, would achieve the government's goal of creating competition in supplying telephone equipment and supplies to the operative companies. The settlement was finalized on January 8, 1982, with some changes ordered by the decree court: the regional holding companies received the Bell trademark, Yellow Pages, and about half of Bell Labs.

    Effective January 1, 1984, the Bell System's many member companies were variously merged into seven independent "Regional Holding Companies", also known as Regional Bell Operating Companies (RBOCs), or "Baby Bells". This divestiture reduced the book value of AT&T by approximately 70%.

    1. ^ "The End of AT&T". Celnet. Celnet. Archived from the original on October 6, 2014. Retrieved October 3, 2014.
    2. ^ Frum, David (2000). How We Got Here: The '70s. New York, New York: Basic Books. p. 327. ISBN 0-465-04195-7.
    3. ^ "Bell Telephone System".
    4. ^ "AT&T Breakup II: Highlights in the History of a Telecommunications Giant". Los Angeles Times.
     
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    9 January 1792Treaty of Jassy between Russian and Ottoman Empire is signed.

    Treaty of Jassy

    The Treaty of Jassy, signed at Jassy (Iași) in Moldavia (presently in Romania), was a pact between the Russian and Ottoman Empires ending the Russo-Turkish War of 1787–92[1] and confirming Russia's increasing dominance in the Black Sea.[2]

    The treaty was signed on 9 January 1792 (O.S.: 29 December 1791) by Grand Vizier Koca Yusuf Pasha and Prince Bezborodko (who had succeeded Prince Potemkin as the head of the Russian delegation when Potemkin died). The Treaty of Jassy formally recognized the Russian Empire's annexation of the Crimean Khanate via the Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca of 1774[3] and transferred Yedisan (the territory between Dniester and Bug rivers) to Russia making the Dniester the Russo-Turkish frontier in Europe, and leaving the Asiatic frontier (Kuban River) unchanged.[4]

    The signing of peace was strongly influenced by the storming of the Ottoman fortress of Izmail by commander Alexander Vasilyevich Suvorov-Rymniksky.[5]

    1. ^ Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Jassy" . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 15 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 279.
    2. ^ Hitchens, Keith (2012). "Great Powers, Small Powers: Wallachia and Georgia Confront the Eastern Question, 1768–1802". In Ivan Biliarsky; Ovidiu Cristea; Anca Oroveanu (eds.). The Balkans and Caucasus: Parallel Processes on the Opposite Sides of the Black Sea. Cambridge Scholars Publishing. p. 20. ISBN 978-1-4438-3705-7.
    3. ^ "Russia and Turkey signed the Treaty of Jassy". Presidential Library of Russia. 2009. Retrieved 19 May 2016.
    4. ^ Gibb, Elias John Wilkinson (1911). "Turkey" . In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 27 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 454.
    5. ^ See Result
     
  29. Admin2

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    10 January 2015 – A mass poisoning at a funeral in Mozambique involving beer that was deliberately contaminated with crocodile bile leaving at least 56 dead and nearly 200 hospitalized.

    Mozambique funeral beer poisoning

    On 9 January 2015, 75 people died and 230 were made ill after drinking contaminated beer at a funeral in Mozambique. All of the people affected had consumed the local beer, pombe, on 9 January, which had been inadvertently contaminated by the bacterium Burkholderia gladioli which produced the toxic compound bongkrekic acid.[2]

    Early speculation on the source of the illness by Mozambique officials blamed crocodile bile. A Forbes article opposed this hypothesis and instead pointed to the toxic flowering plant foxglove as the likely source of the poison.[3][4] Only in November 2015 was it determined that the deaths and illnesses were a result of bacterial contamination of the beer.[5]

    1. ^ "Where is Chitima in Tete, Mozambique Located?". GoMapper. n.d. Archived from the original on 22 January 2015. Retrieved 22 January 2015.
    2. ^ a b Gudo, Eduardo Samo; Cook, Kyla; Kasper, Amelia M; Vergara, Alfredo; Salomão, Cristolde; Oliveira, Fernanda; Ismael, Hamida; Saeze, Cristovão; Mosse, Carla; Fernandes, Quinhas; Viegas, Sofia Omar; Baltazar, Cynthia S; Doyle, Timothy J; Yard, Ellen; Steck, Alaina; Serret, Mayda; Falconer, Travis M; Kern, Sara E; Brzezinski, Jennifer L; Turner, James A; Boyd, Brian L; Jani, Ilesh V (2018). "Description of a Mass Poisoning in a Rural District in Mozambique: The First Documented Bongkrekic Acid Poisoning in Africa" (PDF). Clinical Infectious Diseases. 66 (9): 1400–1406. doi:10.1093/cid/cix1005. PMC 5908738. PMID 29155976. Archived (PDF) from the original on 20 March 2020. Retrieved 23 March 2018.
    3. ^ "At least 69 die after drinking contaminated beer at Mozambique funeral". The Guardian. Associated Press. 12 January 2015. Archived from the original on 19 March 2020. Retrieved 12 January 2015.
    4. ^ Camillo, Emmanuel (12 January 2015). "At Least 52 Dead After Drinking Poisoned Beer In Mozambique". The Huffington Post. Associated Press. Archived from the original on 13 January 2015. Retrieved 12 January 2015.
    5. ^ "Mozambique: Mass Poisoning Caused By Bacterial Contamination". allafrica.com. 4 November 2015. Archived from the original on 7 February 2016. Retrieved 7 February 2016.
     
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    11 January 1908Grand Canyon National Monument is created.

    Grand Canyon National Park

    Grand Canyon National Park, located in northwestern Arizona, is the 15th site in the United States to have been named as a national park. The park's central feature is the Grand Canyon, a gorge of the Colorado River, which is often considered one of the Wonders of the World. The park, which covers 1,217,262 acres (1,901.972 sq mi; 4,926.08 km2) of unincorporated area in Coconino and Mohave counties, received more than 4.7 million recreational visitors in 2022, which is the second highest count of all American national parks after Great Smoky Mountains National Park.[5] The Grand Canyon was designated a World Heritage Site by UNESCO in 1979. The park celebrated its 100th anniversary on February 26, 2019.[6]

    1. ^ Grand Canyon in United States of America Archived July 24, 2019, at the Wayback Machine. protectedplanet.net. United Nations Environment World Conservation Monitoring Centre and the IUCN's World Commission on Protected Areas. Retrieved July 25, 2019.
    2. ^ "Grand Canyon National Park Visitor Center". Geographic Names Information System. United States Geological Survey, United States Department of the Interior. Retrieved August 14, 2011.
    3. ^ "Listing of acreage – December 31, 2011" (XLSX). Land Resource Division, National Park Service. Retrieved March 7, 2012. (National Park Service Acreage Reports)
    4. ^ "Annual Park Ranking Report for Recreation Visits in: 2022". nps.gov. National Park Service. Retrieved July 23, 2023.
    5. ^ "NPS Annual Recreation Visits Report". National Park Service. Retrieved July 23, 2023.
    6. ^ "Grand Canyon Centennial History". Time. Retrieved April 19, 2019.
     
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    12 January 1970Biafra capitulates, ending the Nigerian Civil War.

    Biafra

    Biafra (/biˈæfrə/ bee-AF-frə[4]), officially the Republic of Biafra,[5] was a partially recognised state in West Africa[6][7] that declared independence from Nigeria and existed from 1967 until 1970.[8] Its territory consisted of the former Eastern Region of Nigeria, predominantly inhabited by the Igbo ethnic group.[1] Biafra was established on 30 May 1967 by Igbo military officer and Eastern Region governor C. Odumegwu Ojukwu under his presidency, following a series of ethnic tensions and military coups after Nigerian independence in 1960 that culminated in the 1966 anti-Igbo pogrom.[9] The Nigerian military proceeded to attempt to reclaim the territory of Biafra, resulting in the start of the Nigerian Civil War. Biafra was formally recognised by Gabon, Haiti, Ivory Coast, Tanzania, and Zambia while receiving de facto recognition and covert military support from France, Portugal, Israel, South Africa and Rhodesia.[10][11] After nearly three years of war, during which around two million Biafran civilians died, President Ojukwu fled to Ivory Coast in exile as the Nigerian military was approaching the capital of Biafra. Philip Effiong became the second president of Biafra, and he oversaw the surrender of Biafran forces to Nigeria.

    Igbo nationalism became a strong political and social force after the civil war. It has grown more militant since the 1990s, calling for the revival of Biafra as an entity.[12] Various Biafran secessionist groups have emerged such as the Indigenous People of Biafra, the Movement for the Actualization of the Sovereign State of Biafra, and the Biafra Zionist Front.

    1. ^ a b Smith, Daniel Jordan (3 March 2011). "Legacies of Biafra: Marriage, 'Home People' and Reproduction Among the Igbo of Nigeria". Africa. 75 (1): 30–45. doi:10.3366/afr.2005.75.1.30. S2CID 144755434. In 1967, following a succession of military coups and interethnic violence, the predominantly Igbo-speaking region of south-eastern Nigeria attempted to secede, declaring the independent state of Biafra
    2. ^ Nwaka, Jacinta Chiamaka; Osuji, Obiomachukwu Winifred (27 September 2022). "They do not belong: adoption and resilience of the Igbo traditional culture". African Identities: 1–18. doi:10.1080/14725843.2022.2126346. ISSN 1472-5843. S2CID 252583369.
    3. ^ a b Cite error: The named reference land was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    4. ^ "biafra". CollinsDictionary.com. HarperCollins.
    5. ^ "The Republic of Biafra | AHA". www.historians.org. Retrieved 9 June 2022.
    6. ^ "Republic of Biafra (1967–1970) •". 21 June 2009. Retrieved 9 November 2022.
    7. ^ Anglin, Douglas G. (1971). "Zambia and the Recognition of Biafra". The African Review: A Journal of African Politics, Development and International Affairs. 1 (2): 102–136. ISSN 0856-0056. JSTOR 45341498.
    8. ^ Daly, Samuel Fury Childs (2020). A History of the Republic of Biafra: Law, Crime, and the Nigerian Civil War. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/9781108887748. ISBN 978-1-108-84076-7. S2CID 225266768.
    9. ^ Lewis, Peter (2007). Oil, Politics, and Economic Change in Indonesia and Nigeria. University of Michigan Press. p. 78. ISBN 9780472024742. setting in motion a chain of social conflicts that culminated in the attempted secession of Igbo nationalists in 1967
    10. ^ Ijalaye, David A. (July 1971). "Was "Biafra" at Any Time A State in International Law?". American Journal of International Law. 65 (3): 553–554. doi:10.1017/S0002930000147311. JSTOR 2198977. S2CID 152122313. Retrieved 18 August 2022.
    11. ^ Hurst, Ryan (21 June 2009). "Republic of Biafra (1967-1970) •". Retrieved 11 January 2024.
    12. ^ Nwangwu, Chikodiri; Onuoha, Freedom C; Nwosu, Bernard U; Ezeibe, Christian (11 December 2020). "The political economy of Biafra separatism and post-war Igbo nationalism in Nigeria". African Affairs. 119 (477): 526–551. doi:10.1093/afraf/adaa025.
     
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    13 January 1968Johnny Cash performs live at Folsom State Prison

    At Folsom Prison

    Johnny Cash at Folsom Prison is the first live album by American singer-songwriter Johnny Cash, released on Columbia Records on May 6, 1968. After his 1955 song "Folsom Prison Blues", Cash had been interested in recording a performance at a prison. His idea was put on hold until 1967, when personnel changes at Columbia Records put Bob Johnston in charge of producing Cash's material. Cash had recently controlled his drug abuse problems, and was looking to turn his career around after several years of limited commercial success. Backed by June Carter, Carl Perkins, and the Tennessee Three, Cash performed two shows at Folsom State Prison in California on January 13, 1968. The initial release of the album consists of fifteen songs from the first show and two from the second.

    Despite little initial promotion by Columbia, Johnny Cash at Folsom Prison was a hit in the United States, reaching number one on the country charts and the top 15 of the national album chart. The lead single, a live version of "Folsom Prison Blues", was a top 40 hit, Cash's first since 1964's "Understand Your Man". At Folsom Prison received positive reviews and revitalized Cash's career, becoming the first in a series of live albums recorded at prisons that includes At San Quentin (1969), På Österåker (1973), and A Concert Behind Prison Walls (1976). The album was rereleased with additional tracks in 1999, a three-disc set in 2008, and a five LP box set with bonus rehearsals in 2018 for Record Store Day. It was certified triple platinum in 2003 for US sales exceeding 3.4 million.

     
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    13 January 1968Johnny Cash performs live at Folsom State Prison

    At Folsom Prison

    Johnny Cash at Folsom Prison is the first live album by American singer-songwriter Johnny Cash, released on Columbia Records on May 6, 1968. After his 1955 song "Folsom Prison Blues", Cash had been interested in recording a performance at a prison. His idea was put on hold until 1967, when personnel changes at Columbia Records put Bob Johnston in charge of producing Cash's material. Cash had recently controlled his drug abuse problems, and was looking to turn his career around after several years of limited commercial success. Backed by June Carter, Carl Perkins, and the Tennessee Three, Cash performed two shows at Folsom State Prison in California on January 13, 1968. The initial release of the album consists of fifteen songs from the first show and two from the second.

    Despite little initial promotion by Columbia, Johnny Cash at Folsom Prison was a hit in the United States, reaching number one on the country charts and the top 15 of the national album chart. The lead single, a live version of "Folsom Prison Blues", was a top 40 hit, Cash's first since 1964's "Understand Your Man". At Folsom Prison received positive reviews and revitalized Cash's career, becoming the first in a series of live albums recorded at prisons that includes At San Quentin (1969), På Österåker (1973), and A Concert Behind Prison Walls (1976). The album was rereleased with additional tracks in 1999, a three-disc set in 2008, and a five LP box set with bonus rehearsals in 2018 for Record Store Day. It was certified triple platinum in 2003 for US sales exceeding 3.4 million.

     
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    14 January 1539 – Spain annexes Cuba.

    Cuba

    Cuba,[c] officially the Republic of Cuba,[d] is an island country, comprising the island of Cuba, Isla de la Juventud, archipelagos, 4,195 islands and cays surrounding the main island. Cuba is located where the northern Caribbean Sea, Gulf of Mexico, and Atlantic Ocean meet. Cuba is located east of the Yucatán Peninsula (Mexico), south of both the American state of Florida and the Bahamas, west of Hispaniola (Haiti/Dominican Republic), and north of Jamaica and the Cayman Islands. Havana is the largest city and capital; other major cities include Santiago de Cuba and Camagüey. The official area of the Republic of Cuba is 109,884 km2 (42,426 sq mi) (without the territorial waters) but a total of 350,730 km2 (135,420 sq mi) including the exclusive economic zone. Cuba is the second-most populous country in the Caribbean after Haiti, with over 11 million inhabitants.[15]

    The territory that is now Cuba was inhabited as early as the 4th millennium BC, with the Guanahatabey and Taíno peoples inhabiting the area at the time of Spanish colonization in the 15th century.[16] It was then a colony of Spain, and slavery was abolished in 1886, remaining a colony until the Spanish–American War of 1898, when Cuba was occupied by the United States and gained independence in 1902. In 1940, Cuba implemented a new constitution, but mounting political unrest culminated in the 1952 Cuban coup d'état and the subsequent dictatorship of Fulgencio Batista.[17] The Batista government was overthrown in January 1959 by the 26th of July Movement during the Cuban Revolution. That revolution established communist rule under the leadership of Fidel Castro.[18][19] The country was a point of contention during the Cold War between the Soviet Union and the United States, and nuclear war nearly broke out during the Cuban Missile Crisis of 1962. Following the dissolution of the Soviet Union, Cuba faced severe economic downturn in the 1990s, known as the Special Period. In 2008, Fidel Castro retired after 49 years; Raúl Castro was elected his successor. Raúl Castro retired as president in 2018 and Miguel Díaz-Canel was elected president by the National Assembly following parliamentary elections. Raúl Castro retired as First Secretary of the Communist Party in 2021 and Díaz-Canel was elected.

    Cuba is one of a few extant Marxist–Leninist one-party socialist states, in which the role of the vanguard Communist Party is enshrined in the Constitution. Cuba has an authoritarian regime where political opposition is not permitted.[20][21] Censorship is extensive and independent journalism is repressed;[22][23][24] Reporters Without Borders has characterized Cuba as one of the worst countries for press freedom.[25][24] Culturally, Cuba is considered part of Latin America.[26] It is a multiethnic country whose people, culture and customs derive from diverse origins, including the Taíno Ciboney peoples, the long period of Spanish colonialism, the introduction of enslaved Africans and a close relationship with the Soviet Union during the Cold War.

    Cuba is a founding member of the United Nations, G77, Non-Aligned Movement, Organisation of African, Caribbean and Pacific States, ALBA, and Organization of American States. It has one of the world's few planned economies, and its economy is dominated by tourism and the exports of skilled labor, sugar, tobacco, and coffee. Cuba has historically—before and during communist rule—performed better than other countries in the region on several socioeconomic indicators, such as literacy,[27][28] infant mortality and life expectancy. Cuba has a universal health care system which provides free medical treatment to all Cuban citizens,[29][30] although challenges include low salaries for doctors, poor facilities, poor provision of equipment, and the frequent absence of essential drugs.[31][32] A 2023 study by the Cuban Observatory of Human Rights (OCDH), estimated 88% of the population is living in extreme poverty.[33] The traditional diet is of international concern due to micronutrient deficiencies and lack of diversity. As highlighted by the World Food Programme (WFP) of the United Nations, rationed food meets only a fraction of daily nutritional needs for many Cubans, leading to health issues.[34]

    1. ^ "Cuban Peso Bills". Central Bank of Cuba. 2015. Archived from the original on 26 September 2018. Retrieved 14 February 2017.
    2. ^ "National symbols". Government of Cuba. Archived from the original on 15 January 2016. Retrieved 7 September 2009.
    3. ^ "Central America :: Cuba — The World Factbook – Central Intelligence Agency". Cia.gov. Archived from the original on 12 August 2021. Retrieved 28 September 2021.
    4. ^ "Cuba - The World Factbook". www.cia.gov. 6 October 2021. Archived from the original on 12 August 2021. Retrieved 19 January 2021.
    5. ^ "Constitution of Cuba" (PDF). constituteproject.org. National Assembly of People's Power. 10 April 2019. Archived (PDF) from the original on 28 February 2020. Retrieved 15 June 2023.
    6. ^ "New Cuban leadership reflects a rebranding of Castro dictatorship".
    7. ^ "Cuba". Central Intelligence Agency. 20 February 2023. Archived from the original on 12 August 2021. Retrieved 20 November 2023 – via CIA.gov.
    8. ^ "Cuba". The World Factbook (2024 ed.). Central Intelligence Agency. Retrieved 22 June 2023.
    9. ^ "Indicadores Demográficos por provincias y municipios 2022" (in Spanish). Oficina Nacional de Estadística e Information República de Cuba. Archived from the original on 14 March 2020. Retrieved 8 June 2023.
    10. ^ a b "World Bank GDP PPP 2015, 28 April 2017 PDF". Retrieved 18 January 2018.
    11. ^ "World Bank total population of Cuba in 2015 (GDP PPP divided by Population data)". Archived from the original on 11 November 2020. Retrieved 18 January 2018.
    12. ^ a b "Basic Data Selection". United Nations. Archived from the original on 20 September 2022. Retrieved 12 February 2024.
    13. ^ "Cuba grapples with growing inequality". Reuters. Archived from the original on 23 December 2015. Retrieved 21 July 2013.
    14. ^ "Human Development Report 2021/2022" (PDF). United Nations Development Programme. 8 September 2022. Archived (PDF) from the original on 8 September 2022. Retrieved 8 September 2022.
    15. ^ "Cuba profile: Facts". BBC News. 13 September 2012. Archived from the original on 4 October 2021. Retrieved 26 March 2013.
    16. ^ Allaire 2000, p. 678
    17. ^ "Remarks of Senator John F. Kennedy at Democratic Dinner, Cincinnati, Ohio". John F. Kennedy Presidential Library & Museum. 6 October 1960. Archived from the original on 4 May 2020. Retrieved 14 February 2017.
    18. ^ "Fidel Castro". Encyclopædia Britannica. 26 June 2017. Archived from the original on 2 August 2017. Retrieved 1 August 2017. Castro created a one-party government to exercise dictatorial control over all aspects of Cuba's political, economic, and cultural life. All political dissent and opposition were ruthlessly suppressed
    19. ^ Sand, Sonila (26 November 2016). "Cuba's hero and dictator, dead at 90". Deutsche Welle. Archived from the original on 16 August 2022.
    20. ^ Levitsky, Steven; Way, Lucan A. (16 August 2010). Competitive Authoritarianism: Hybrid Regimes after the Cold War. Cambridge University Press. pp. 361–363. ISBN 978-1-139-49148-8. Archived from the original on 9 April 2023. Retrieved 19 March 2023.
    21. ^ Lachapelle, Jean; Levitsky, Steven; Way, Lucan A.; Casey, Adam E. (2020). "Social Revolution and Authoritarian Durability". World Politics. 72 (4): 557–600. doi:10.1017/S0043887120000106. ISSN 0043-8871. S2CID 225096277. Archived from the original on 21 January 2022. Retrieved 20 July 2021.
    22. ^ Stein, Elizabeth Ann (2016). "Information and Civil Unrest in Dictatorships". Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Politics. doi:10.1093/acrefore/9780190228637.013.35. ISBN 978-0-19-022863-7. Archived from the original on 6 August 2021. Retrieved 6 August 2021.
    23. ^ "Six facts about censorship in Cuba". www.amnesty.org. 11 March 2016. Archived from the original on 11 October 2022. Retrieved 17 December 2020.
    24. ^ a b "Press Freedom Index 2015" Archived 27 August 2015 at the Wayback Machine, Reporters Without Borders. Retrieved 12 November 2015
    25. ^ "Press Freedom Index 2008" (PDF). Reporters Without Borders. 2008. Archived from the original (PDF) on 3 March 2009.
    26. ^ Rangel, Carlos (1977). The Latin Americans: Their Love-Hate Relationship with the United States. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich. pp. 3–5. ISBN 978-0-15-148795-0. Skidmore, Thomas E.; Peter H. Smith (2005). Modern Latin America (6 ed.). Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 1–10. ISBN 978-0-19-517013-9.
    27. ^ "Pre-Castro Cuba | American Experience". PBS. Archived from the original on 22 July 2021. Retrieved 20 July 2021.
    28. ^ Greenberg, Jon (24 February 2020). "Fact-checking Bernie Sanders' claim on Cuba literacy under Castro". PolitiFact. Archived from the original on 20 July 2021. Retrieved 20 July 2021.
    29. ^ Geloso, Vincent; Pavlik, Jamie Bologna (1 April 2021). "The Cuban revolution and infant mortality: A synthetic control approach". Explorations in Economic History. 80: 101376. doi:10.1016/j.eeh.2020.101376. ISSN 0014-4983. S2CID 229073336. Archived from the original on 20 July 2021. Retrieved 20 July 2021.
    30. ^ Kessler, Glenn (1 December 2016). "Justin Trudeau's claim that Castro made 'significant improvements' to Cuban health care and education". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on 17 April 2020. Retrieved 19 August 2017.
    31. ^ Cite error: The named reference :7 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    32. ^ Cite error: The named reference :8 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    33. ^ "he State of Social Rights in Cuba: VI Report 2023" (PDF). Observatorio Cubano de Derechos Humanos (OCDH). 2023. Archived (PDF) from the original on 5 October 2023. Retrieved 2 October 2023.
    34. ^ Cite error: The named reference :10 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).


    Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

     
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    1
    14 January 1539 – Spain annexes Cuba.

    Cuba

    Cuba,[c] officially the Republic of Cuba,[d] is an island country, comprising the island of Cuba, Isla de la Juventud, archipelagos, 4,195 islands and cays surrounding the main island. Cuba is located where the northern Caribbean Sea, Gulf of Mexico, and Atlantic Ocean meet. Cuba is located east of the Yucatán Peninsula (Mexico), south of both the American state of Florida and the Bahamas, west of Hispaniola (Haiti/Dominican Republic), and north of Jamaica and the Cayman Islands. Havana is the largest city and capital; other major cities include Santiago de Cuba and Camagüey. The official area of the Republic of Cuba is 109,884 km2 (42,426 sq mi) (without the territorial waters) but a total of 350,730 km2 (135,420 sq mi) including the exclusive economic zone. Cuba is the second-most populous country in the Caribbean after Haiti, with over 11 million inhabitants.[15]

    The territory that is now Cuba was inhabited as early as the 4th millennium BC, with the Guanahatabey and Taíno peoples inhabiting the area at the time of Spanish colonization in the 15th century.[16] It was then a colony of Spain, and slavery was abolished in 1886, remaining a colony until the Spanish–American War of 1898, when Cuba was occupied by the United States and gained independence in 1902. In 1940, Cuba implemented a new constitution, but mounting political unrest culminated in the 1952 Cuban coup d'état and the subsequent dictatorship of Fulgencio Batista.[17] The Batista government was overthrown in January 1959 by the 26th of July Movement during the Cuban Revolution. That revolution established communist rule under the leadership of Fidel Castro.[18][19] The country was a point of contention during the Cold War between the Soviet Union and the United States, and nuclear war nearly broke out during the Cuban Missile Crisis of 1962. Following the dissolution of the Soviet Union, Cuba faced severe economic downturn in the 1990s, known as the Special Period. In 2008, Fidel Castro retired after 49 years; Raúl Castro was elected his successor. Raúl Castro retired as president in 2018 and Miguel Díaz-Canel was elected president by the National Assembly following parliamentary elections. Raúl Castro retired as First Secretary of the Communist Party in 2021 and Díaz-Canel was elected.

    Cuba is one of a few extant Marxist–Leninist one-party socialist states, in which the role of the vanguard Communist Party is enshrined in the Constitution. Cuba has an authoritarian regime where political opposition is not permitted.[20][21] Censorship is extensive and independent journalism is repressed;[22][23][24] Reporters Without Borders has characterized Cuba as one of the worst countries for press freedom.[25][24] Culturally, Cuba is considered part of Latin America.[26] It is a multiethnic country whose people, culture and customs derive from diverse origins, including the Taíno Ciboney peoples, the long period of Spanish colonialism, the introduction of enslaved Africans and a close relationship with the Soviet Union during the Cold War.

    Cuba is a founding member of the United Nations, G77, Non-Aligned Movement, Organisation of African, Caribbean and Pacific States, ALBA, and Organization of American States. It has one of the world's few planned economies, and its economy is dominated by tourism and the exports of skilled labor, sugar, tobacco, and coffee. Cuba has historically—before and during communist rule—performed better than other countries in the region on several socioeconomic indicators, such as literacy,[27][28] infant mortality and life expectancy. Cuba has a universal health care system which provides free medical treatment to all Cuban citizens,[29][30] although challenges include low salaries for doctors, poor facilities, poor provision of equipment, and the frequent absence of essential drugs.[31][32] A 2023 study by the Cuban Observatory of Human Rights (OCDH), estimated 88% of the population is living in extreme poverty.[33] The traditional diet is of international concern due to micronutrient deficiencies and lack of diversity. As highlighted by the World Food Programme (WFP) of the United Nations, rationed food meets only a fraction of daily nutritional needs for many Cubans, leading to health issues.[34]

    1. ^ "Cuban Peso Bills". Central Bank of Cuba. 2015. Archived from the original on 26 September 2018. Retrieved 14 February 2017.
    2. ^ "National symbols". Government of Cuba. Archived from the original on 15 January 2016. Retrieved 7 September 2009.
    3. ^ "Central America :: Cuba — The World Factbook – Central Intelligence Agency". Cia.gov. Archived from the original on 12 August 2021. Retrieved 28 September 2021.
    4. ^ "Cuba - The World Factbook". www.cia.gov. 6 October 2021. Archived from the original on 12 August 2021. Retrieved 19 January 2021.
    5. ^ "Constitution of Cuba" (PDF). constituteproject.org. National Assembly of People's Power. 10 April 2019. Archived (PDF) from the original on 28 February 2020. Retrieved 15 June 2023.
    6. ^ "New Cuban leadership reflects a rebranding of Castro dictatorship".
    7. ^ "Cuba". Central Intelligence Agency. 20 February 2023. Archived from the original on 12 August 2021. Retrieved 20 November 2023 – via CIA.gov.
    8. ^ "Cuba". The World Factbook (2024 ed.). Central Intelligence Agency. Retrieved 22 June 2023.
    9. ^ "Indicadores Demográficos por provincias y municipios 2022" (in Spanish). Oficina Nacional de Estadística e Information República de Cuba. Archived from the original on 14 March 2020. Retrieved 8 June 2023.
    10. ^ a b "World Bank GDP PPP 2015, 28 April 2017 PDF". Retrieved 18 January 2018.
    11. ^ "World Bank total population of Cuba in 2015 (GDP PPP divided by Population data)". Archived from the original on 11 November 2020. Retrieved 18 January 2018.
    12. ^ a b "Basic Data Selection". United Nations. Archived from the original on 20 September 2022. Retrieved 12 February 2024.
    13. ^ "Cuba grapples with growing inequality". Reuters. Archived from the original on 23 December 2015. Retrieved 21 July 2013.
    14. ^ "Human Development Report 2021/2022" (PDF). United Nations Development Programme. 8 September 2022. Archived (PDF) from the original on 8 September 2022. Retrieved 8 September 2022.
    15. ^ "Cuba profile: Facts". BBC News. 13 September 2012. Archived from the original on 4 October 2021. Retrieved 26 March 2013.
    16. ^ Allaire 2000, p. 678
    17. ^ "Remarks of Senator John F. Kennedy at Democratic Dinner, Cincinnati, Ohio". John F. Kennedy Presidential Library & Museum. 6 October 1960. Archived from the original on 4 May 2020. Retrieved 14 February 2017.
    18. ^ "Fidel Castro". Encyclopædia Britannica. 26 June 2017. Archived from the original on 2 August 2017. Retrieved 1 August 2017. Castro created a one-party government to exercise dictatorial control over all aspects of Cuba's political, economic, and cultural life. All political dissent and opposition were ruthlessly suppressed
    19. ^ Sand, Sonila (26 November 2016). "Cuba's hero and dictator, dead at 90". Deutsche Welle. Archived from the original on 16 August 2022.
    20. ^ Levitsky, Steven; Way, Lucan A. (16 August 2010). Competitive Authoritarianism: Hybrid Regimes after the Cold War. Cambridge University Press. pp. 361–363. ISBN 978-1-139-49148-8. Archived from the original on 9 April 2023. Retrieved 19 March 2023.
    21. ^ Lachapelle, Jean; Levitsky, Steven; Way, Lucan A.; Casey, Adam E. (2020). "Social Revolution and Authoritarian Durability". World Politics. 72 (4): 557–600. doi:10.1017/S0043887120000106. ISSN 0043-8871. S2CID 225096277. Archived from the original on 21 January 2022. Retrieved 20 July 2021.
    22. ^ Stein, Elizabeth Ann (2016). "Information and Civil Unrest in Dictatorships". Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Politics. doi:10.1093/acrefore/9780190228637.013.35. ISBN 978-0-19-022863-7. Archived from the original on 6 August 2021. Retrieved 6 August 2021.
    23. ^ "Six facts about censorship in Cuba". www.amnesty.org. 11 March 2016. Archived from the original on 11 October 2022. Retrieved 17 December 2020.
    24. ^ a b "Press Freedom Index 2015" Archived 27 August 2015 at the Wayback Machine, Reporters Without Borders. Retrieved 12 November 2015
    25. ^ "Press Freedom Index 2008" (PDF). Reporters Without Borders. 2008. Archived from the original (PDF) on 3 March 2009.
    26. ^ Rangel, Carlos (1977). The Latin Americans: Their Love-Hate Relationship with the United States. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich. pp. 3–5. ISBN 978-0-15-148795-0. Skidmore, Thomas E.; Peter H. Smith (2005). Modern Latin America (6 ed.). Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 1–10. ISBN 978-0-19-517013-9.
    27. ^ "Pre-Castro Cuba | American Experience". PBS. Archived from the original on 22 July 2021. Retrieved 20 July 2021.
    28. ^ Greenberg, Jon (24 February 2020). "Fact-checking Bernie Sanders' claim on Cuba literacy under Castro". PolitiFact. Archived from the original on 20 July 2021. Retrieved 20 July 2021.
    29. ^ Geloso, Vincent; Pavlik, Jamie Bologna (1 April 2021). "The Cuban revolution and infant mortality: A synthetic control approach". Explorations in Economic History. 80: 101376. doi:10.1016/j.eeh.2020.101376. ISSN 0014-4983. S2CID 229073336. Archived from the original on 20 July 2021. Retrieved 20 July 2021.
    30. ^ Kessler, Glenn (1 December 2016). "Justin Trudeau's claim that Castro made 'significant improvements' to Cuban health care and education". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on 17 April 2020. Retrieved 19 August 2017.
    31. ^ Cite error: The named reference :7 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    32. ^ Cite error: The named reference :8 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    33. ^ "he State of Social Rights in Cuba: VI Report 2023" (PDF). Observatorio Cubano de Derechos Humanos (OCDH). 2023. Archived (PDF) from the original on 5 October 2023. Retrieved 2 October 2023.
    34. ^ Cite error: The named reference :10 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).


    Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

     
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    15 January 1943 – The Pentagon is dedicated in Arlington, Virginia.

    The Pentagon

    The Pentagon is the headquarters building of the United States Department of Defense, in Arlington County, Virginia, across the Potomac River from Washington, D.C. The building was constructed on an accelerated schedule during World War II. As a symbol of the U.S. military, the phrase The Pentagon is often used as a metonym for the Department of Defense and its leadership.

    The building was designed by American architect George Bergstrom and built by contractor John McShain. Ground was broken on 11 September 1941, and the building was dedicated on 15 January 1943. General Brehon Somervell provided the major impetus to gain Congressional approval for the project;[5] Colonel Leslie Groves was responsible for overseeing the project for the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, which supervised it.

    The Pentagon is the world's second largest office building, with about 6.5 million square feet (600,000 m2) of floor space, of which 3.7 million square feet (340,000 m2) are used as offices.[6][7] It has five sides, five floors above ground, two basement levels, and five ring corridors per floor with a total of 17.5 mi (28.2 km)[7] of corridors, with a central five-acre (2.0 ha) pentagonal plaza. About 23,000 military and civilian employees work in the Pentagon, as well as about 3,000 non-defense support personnel.[7]

    In 2001, the Pentagon was damaged during the September 11 attacks. Five al-Qaeda hijackers flew American Airlines Flight 77 into the western side of the building, killing themselves and 184 other people: 59 on the airplane and 125 in the Pentagon.[8] It was the first significant foreign attack on federal facilities in the capital area since the burning of Washington during the War of 1812.[citation needed] Following the attacks, the western side of the building was repaired, with a small indoor memorial and chapel added at the point of impact. An outdoor memorial dedicated to the Pentagon victims of 9/11 opened in 2008.

    1. ^ Johnston, Louis; Williamson, Samuel H. (2023). "What Was the U.S. GDP Then?". MeasuringWorth. Retrieved 30 November 2023. United States Gross Domestic Product deflator figures follow the Measuring Worth series.
    2. ^ "Facts: Navigating The Pentagon". pentagontours.osd.mil. Archived from the original on 11 January 2018. Retrieved 10 January 2018.
    3. ^ "National Register Information System". National Register of Historic Places. National Park Service. 9 July 2010.
    4. ^ "Virginia Landmarks Register". Virginia Department of Historic Resources. Archived from the original on 21 September 2013. Retrieved 12 May 2013.
    5. ^ Vogel (2007), p. [page needed].
    6. ^ Hancock, Michaila (27 August 2015). "Pentagon: the world's largest office building - in infographics". The Architects' Journal. Archived from the original on 15 January 2021. Retrieved 27 February 2021.
    7. ^ a b c "The Pentagon, Facts & Figures". Archived from the original on 19 August 2014. Retrieved 23 August 2014.
    8. ^ Stone, Andrea (20 August 2002). "Military's aid and comfort ease 9/11 survivors' burden". USA TODAY. Archived from the original on 11 March 2015. Retrieved 12 September 2021.
     
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    16 January 1964Hello, Dolly! opened on Broadway, beginning a run of 2,844 performances.

    Hello, Dolly! (musical)

    Hello, Dolly! is a 1964 musical with lyrics and music by Jerry Herman and a book by Michael Stewart, based on Thornton Wilder's 1938 farce The Merchant of Yonkers, which Wilder revised and retitled The Matchmaker in 1954. The musical follows the story of Dolly Gallagher Levi, a strong-willed matchmaker, as she travels to Yonkers, New York, to find a match for the miserly "well-known unmarried half-a-millionaire" Horace Vandergelder.

    Hello, Dolly! debuted at the Fisher Theater in Detroit on November 18, 1963,[1] directed and choreographed by Gower Champion and produced by David Merrick. It starred stage performer Carol Channing as Dolly Gallagher Levi, a role theatrical audiences of the world would forever associate with her.[2] The show moved to Broadway in 1964, winning 10 Tony Awards, including Best Musical and Best Actress in a Musical for Channing. The awards earned set a record which the play held for 37 years. The show album Hello, Dolly! An Original Cast Recording was inducted into the Grammy Hall of Fame in 2002.[3] The album reached number one on the Billboard album chart on June 6, 1964, and was replaced the next week by Louis Armstrong's album Hello, Dolly![4] Louis Armstrong also was featured in the film version of the show, performing a small part of the song "Hello, Dolly!".

    The show has become one of the most enduring musical theater hits, with four Broadway revivals and international success. It was also made into the 1969 film Hello Dolly! by 20th Century Fox, which won three Academy Awards, including Best Score of a Musical Picture and was nominated in four other categories, including Best Picture at the 42nd Academy Awards.

    1. ^ "Hello, Dolly! – 1964 Broadway – Backstage & Production Info". www.broadwayworld.com. Retrieved 23 November 2019.
    2. ^ Dvornik, Teale (30 April 2017). "Theatre History: Hello Dolly". thebackstageblonde.co. Teale Dvornik. Retrieved 30 April 2017.
    3. ^ Grammy Hall of Fame Award Archived 2015-07-07 at the Wayback Machine
    4. ^ Whitburn, Joel. Top Pop Albums (2010), Record Research, ISBN 0-89820-183-7, p.973
     
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    17 January 1946 – The UN Security Council holds its first session.

    United Nations Security Council

    The United Nations Security Council (UNSC) is one of the six principal organs of the United Nations (UN)[2] and is charged with ensuring international peace and security,[3] recommending the admission of new UN members to the General Assembly,[4] and approving any changes to the UN Charter.[5] Its powers as outlined in the United Nations Charter include establishing peacekeeping operations, enacting international sanctions, and authorizing military action. The UNSC is the only UN body with authority to issue resolutions that are binding on member states.

    Like the UN as a whole, the Security Council was created after World War II to address the failings of the League of Nations in maintaining world peace. It held its first session on 17 January 1946 but was largely paralyzed in the following decades by the Cold War between the United States and the Soviet Union (and their allies). Nevertheless, it authorized military interventions in the Korean War and the Congo Crisis and peacekeeping missions in Cyprus, West New Guinea, and the Sinai Peninsula. With the collapse of the Soviet Union, UN peacekeeping efforts increased dramatically in scale, with the Security Council authorizing major military and peacekeeping missions in Kuwait, Namibia, Cambodia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Rwanda, Somalia, Sudan, and the Democratic Republic of the Congo.

    The Security Council consists of fifteen members, of which five are permanent:[6] China, France, Russia, the United Kingdom, and the United States. These were the great powers that were the victors of World War II (or their successor states). Permanent members can veto (block) any substantive Security Council resolution, including those on the admission of new member states to the United Nations or nominees for the office of Secretary-General. This veto right does not carry over into any General Assembly or emergency special sessions of the General Assembly[citation needed] matters or votes. The other ten members are elected on a regional basis for a term of two years. The body's presidency rotates monthly among its members.

    Resolutions of the Security Council are typically enforced by UN peacekeepers, which consist of military forces voluntarily provided by member states and funded independently of the main UN budget. As of November 2021, there have been 12 peacekeeping missions with over 87,000 personnel from 121 countries, with a total annual budget of approximately $6.3 billion.[7]


    Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

    1. ^ "Security Council Presidency | United Nations Security Council". www.un.org. Archived from the original on 22 March 2022. Retrieved 2 August 2022.
    2. ^ "Article 7 (1) of Charter of the United Nations". Archived from the original on 10 April 2019. Retrieved 4 September 2017.
    3. ^ "Article 24 (1) of Charter of the United Nations". Archived from the original on 10 April 2019. Retrieved 4 September 2017.
    4. ^ "Article 4 (2) of Charter of the United Nations". Archived from the original on 10 April 2019. Retrieved 4 September 2017.
    5. ^ "Article 108 of Charter of the United Nations". Archived from the original on 10 April 2019. Retrieved 4 September 2017.
    6. ^ "Article 23 (1) of the Charter of the United Nations". www.un.org. United Nations. 26 June 1945. Archived from the original on 10 April 2019. Retrieved 10 December 2018.
    7. ^ "Data for November 2021" (PDF). United Nations Peacekeeping. Archived (PDF) from the original on 11 July 2022. Retrieved 19 June 2022.
     
  39. Admin2

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    18 January 1976Lebanese Christian militias kill at least 1,000 in Karantina, Beirut.

    Karantina massacre

    The Karantina massacre (Arabic: مجزرة الكرنتينا; French: Massacre de La Quarantaine/Karantina) took place on January 18, 1976, early in the Lebanese Civil War. La Quarantaine, known in Arabic as Karantina, was a Muslim-inhabited district in mostly Christian East Beirut controlled by forces of the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO),[3] and inhabited by Palestinians, Kurds, Syrians, Armenians and Lebanese Shiites.[4][5] The fighting and subsequent killings also involved an old quarantine area near the port and nearby Maslakh quarter.[6][7][8] According to then-Washington Post-correspondent Jonathan Randal, "Many Lebanese Muslim men and boys were rounded up and separated from the women and children and massacred," while the women and young girls were violently raped and robbed.[9]

    Karantina was overrun by militias of the right-wing and mostly Christian Lebanese Front, specifically the Kataeb Party (Phalangists),[10][11] resulting in the deaths of approximately 1,500 people, mostly Lebanese Muslims.[7] After Kataeb Regulatory Forces (KRF), Guardians of the Cedars (GoC), National Liberal Party's Tiger militia and Lebanese Youth Movement (LYM) forces took control of the Karantina district on 18 January 1976, Tel al-Zaatar was placed under siege, leading to the Tel al-Zaatar massacre.[2]

    The Damour massacre was a reprisal for the Karantina massacre.[7][12]

    1. ^ "1976 – World Press Photo". Archived from the original on 2011-07-18. Retrieved 2008-03-29.
    2. ^ a b Kazziha, Walid (1979) Palestine in the Arab dilemma Taylor & Francis, ISBN 0-85664-864-7 p 52
    3. ^ Noam Chomsky (1989) Necessary Illusions: Thought Control in Democratic Societies South End Press, ISBN 0-89608-366-7 p 171
    4. ^ Michael Johnson (2001) All Honourable Men: The Social Origins of War in Lebanon I.B.Tauris, ISBN 1-86064-715-4 p 62
    5. ^ Jonathan C. Randal (1990). Many Lebanese Muslim men and boys were rounded up and separated from the women and children and massacred. Their families still search for their remains. Women and young girls were violently raped and robbed by the Christian warlords led by Bachir Gemayel, also Bashir Gemayel was a senior member of the right-wing Christian Phalange party and the founder and supreme commander of the Lebanese Forces militia during the early years of the Lebanese Civil War. The Tragedy of Lebanon: Christian Warlords, Israeli Adventurers and American Bunglers Hogarth, ISBN 0-7012-0909-7 pp 88–90
    6. ^ Lokman I. Meho, Kelly L. Maglaughlin (2001) Kurdish culture and society: an annotated bibliography Greenwood Publishing Group, ISBN 0-313-31543-4 p 35
    7. ^ a b c Harris (p. 162) notes "the massacre of 1,500 Palestinians, Shi'is, and others in Karantina and Maslakh, and the revenge killings of hundreds of Christians in Damur"[1]
    8. ^ Jonathan C. Randal (1990) The Tragedy of Lebanon: Christian Warlords, Israeli Adventurers and American Bunglers Hogarth, ISBN 0-7012-0909-7 p 88
    9. ^ Jonathan C. Randal (1990) The Tragedy of Lebanon: Christian Warlords, Israeli Adventurers and American Bunglers Hogarth, ISBN 0-7012-0909-7 p 88
    10. ^ William W. Harris (2006). The New Face of Lebanon: History's Revenge. Markus Wiener Publishers. p. 162. ISBN 978-1-55876-392-0. Retrieved July 27, 2013. the massacre of 1,500 Palestinians, Shi'is, and others in Karantina and Maslakh, and the revenge killings of hundreds of Christians in Damour
    11. ^ Noam Chomsky, Edward W. Said (1999) Fateful Triangle: The United States, Israel, and the Palestinians South End Press, ISBN 0-89608-601-1 pp 184–185
    12. ^ Noam Chomsky, Edward W. Said (1999) Fateful Triangle: The United States, Israel, and the Palestinians South End Press, ISBN 0-89608-601-1 pp 184–185
     
  40. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    19 January 1942 – World War II: The Japanese conquest of Burma begins.

    Japanese conquest of Burma

     

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