Welcome to the Podiatry Arena forums

You are currently viewing our podiatry forum as a guest which gives you limited access to view all podiatry discussions and access our other features. By joining our free global community of Podiatrists and other interested foot health care professionals you will have access to post podiatry topics (answer and ask questions), communicate privately with other members, upload content, view attachments, receive a weekly email update of new discussions, access other special features. Registered users do not get displayed the advertisements in posted messages. Registration is fast, simple and absolutely free so please, join our global Podiatry community today!

  1. Have you considered the Clinical Biomechanics Boot Camp Online, for taking it to the next level? See here for more.
    Dismiss Notice
Dismiss Notice
Have you considered the Clinical Biomechanics Boot Camp Online, for taking it to the next level? See here for more.
Dismiss Notice
Have you liked us on Facebook to get our updates? Please do. Click here for our Facebook page.
Dismiss Notice
Do you get the weekly newsletter that Podiatry Arena sends out to update everybody? If not, click here to organise this.

This day in .....

Discussion in 'Break Room' started by NewsBot, Apr 6, 2008.

  1. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    27 February 1594Henry IV is crowned King of France.

    Henry IV of France

    Henry IV (French: Henri IV; 13 December 1553 – 14 May 1610), also known by the epithets Good King Henry or Henry the Great, was King of Navarre (as Henry III) from 1572 and King of France from 1589 to 1610. He was the first monarch of France from the House of Bourbon, a cadet branch of the Capetian dynasty. He pragmatically balanced the interests of the Catholic and Protestant parties in France as well as among the European states. He was assassinated in 1610 by a Catholic zealot, and was succeeded by his son Louis XIII.

    Henry was baptised a Catholic but raised in the Protestant faith by his mother. He inherited the throne of Navarre in 1572 on his mother's death. As a Huguenot (Protestant), Henry was involved in the French Wars of Religion, barely escaping assassination in the St. Bartholomew's Day massacre. He later led Protestant forces against the French royal army. Henry inherited the throne of France in 1589 upon the death of Henry III. Henry IV initially kept the Protestant faith (the only French king to do so) and had to fight against the Catholic League, which refused to accept a Protestant monarch. After four years of military stalemate, Henry converted to Catholicism, reportedly saying, "Paris is well worth a mass." As a pragmatic politician he promulgated the Edict of Nantes (1598), which guaranteed religious liberties to Protestants, thereby effectively ending the French Wars of Religion.

    An active ruler, Henry worked to regularise state finance, promote agriculture, eliminate corruption and encourage education. He began the first successful French colonization of the Americas. He promoted trade and industry, and prioritized the construction of roads, bridges, and canals to facilitate communication within France and strengthen the country's cohesion. These efforts stimulated economic growth and improved living standards.

    While the Edict of Nantes brought religious peace to France, some hardline Catholics and Huguenots remained dissatisfied, leading to occasional outbreaks of violence and conspiracies. Henry IV also faced resistance from certain noble factions who opposed his centralization policies, leading to political instability.

    His main foreign policy success was the Peace of Vervins in 1598, which made peace in the long-running conflict with Spain. He formed a strategic alliance with England through his marriage to the cousin of Queen Elizabeth I. He also forged alliances with Protestant states, such as the Dutch Republic and several German states, to counter the Catholic powers. His policies contributed to the stability and prominence of France in European affairs.

     
  2. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    28 February 1991 – The first Gulf War ends.

    Gulf War

    The Gulf War was an armed conflict between Iraq and a 42-country coalition led by the United States. The coalition's efforts against Iraq were carried out in two key phases: Operation Desert Shield, which marked the military buildup from August 1990 to January 1991; and Operation Desert Storm, which began with the aerial bombing campaign against Iraq on 17 January 1991 and came to a close with the American-led liberation of Kuwait on 28 February 1991.

    On 2 August 1990, Iraq, governed by dictator Saddam Hussein, launched an invasion of neighboring Kuwait and fully occupied the country within two days. Initially, Iraq ran the occupied territory under a puppet government known as the "Republic of Kuwait" before proceeding with an outright annexation in which Kuwaiti sovereign territory was split, with the "Saddamiyat al-Mitla' District" being carved out of the country's northern portion and the "Kuwait Governorate" covering the rest. Varying speculations have been made regarding intents behind the Iraqi invasion, most notably including Iraq's inability to repay a US$14 billion debt the country had borrowed from Kuwait to finance its prior war with Iran. Kuwait's demands for repayment were coupled with its surge in petroleum production levels, which kept revenues down for Iraq and further weakened its economic prospects; throughout much of the 1980s, Kuwait's oil production was above its mandatory quota under OPEC, which kept international oil prices down. Iraq interpreted the Kuwaiti refusal to decrease oil production as an act of aggression towards the Iraqi economy, leading up to the hostilities.

    The invasion of Kuwait was immediately met with international condemnation, including Resolution 660 by the United Nations Security Council (UNSC), and economic sanctions were unanimously imposed on Iraq in its Resolution 661. British prime minister Margaret Thatcher and American president George H. W. Bush deployed troops and equipment into Saudi Arabia and openly urged other countries to send their own forces. An array of countries joined the American-led coalition, forming the largest military alliance since World War II. The bulk of the coalition's military power was from the United States, with Saudi Arabia, the United Kingdom, and Egypt as the largest lead-up contributors, in that order; Saudi Arabia and the Kuwaiti government-in-exile paid out around US$32 billion of the US$60 billion cost to mobilize the coalition against Iraq.

    UNSC Resolution 678 adopted on 29 November 1990 offered Iraq one final chance until 15 January 1991 to implement Resolution 660 and withdraw from Kuwait; it further empowered states after the deadline to use "all necessary means" to force Iraq out of Kuwait. Initial efforts to dislodge the Iraqis from Kuwait began with an aerial and naval bombardment on 17 January 1991, which continued for five weeks. As the Iraqi military struggled against the coalition attacks, Iraq began to fire missiles at Israel. The coalition did not include Israel, however the Iraqi leadership expected the missile barrage to provoke an independent Israeli military response, which would prompt the coalition's Muslim-majority countries to withdraw (see Arab–Israeli conflict). The provocation was unsuccessful; Israel did not retaliate and Iraq continued to remain at odds with most Muslim-majority countries. Iraqi missile barrages against coalition targets in Saudi Arabia were also largely unsuccessful, and on 24 February 1991, the coalition launched a major ground assault into Iraqi-occupied Kuwait. The offensive was a decisive victory for the coalition, who liberated Kuwait and promptly began to advance past the Iraq–Kuwait border into Iraqi territory. A hundred hours after the beginning of the ground campaign, the coalition ceased its advance into Iraq and declared a ceasefire. Aerial and ground combat was confined to Iraq, Kuwait, and areas straddling the Iraq–Saudi Arabia border.

    The conflict marked the introduction of live news broadcasts from the front lines of the battle, principally by the American network CNN. It has also earned the nickname Video Game War, after the daily broadcast of images from cameras onboard American bombers during Operation Desert Storm. The Gulf War has gained notoriety for including three of the largest tank battles in American military history.

    1. ^ "DESERT SHIELD AND DESERT STORM A CHRONOLOGY AND TROOP LIST FOR THE 1990–1991 PERSIAN GULF CRISIS" (PDF). apps.dtic.mil. Archived (PDF) from the original on 12 April 2019. Retrieved 18 December 2018.
    2. ^ Persian Gulf War, the Sandhurst-trained Prince
      Khaled bin Sultan al-Saud was co-commander with General Norman Schwarzkopf
      www.casi.org.uk/discuss Archived 3 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine
    3. ^ General Khaled was Co-Commander, with US General Norman Schwarzkopf, of the allied coalition that liberated Kuwait www.thefreelibrary.com Archived 30 April 2011 at the Wayback Machine
    4. ^ Knights, Michael (2005). Cradle of Conflict: Iraq and the Birth of Modern U.S. Military Power. United States Naval Institute. p. 20]. ISBN 978-1-59114-444-1.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
    5. ^ a b "Persian Gulf War". MSN Encarta. Archived from the original on 1 November 2009.
    6. ^ 18 M1 Abrams, 11 M60, 2 AMX-30
    7. ^ CheckPoint, Ludovic Monnerat. "Guerre du Golfe: le dernier combat de la division Tawakalna".
    8. ^ Scales, Brig. Gen. Robert H.: Certain Victory. Brassey's, 1994, p. 279.
    9. ^ Halberstadt 1991. p. 35
    10. ^ Atkinson, Rick. Crusade, The untold story of the Persian Gulf War. Houghton Mifflin Company, 1993. pp. 332–3
    11. ^ Captain Todd A. Buchs, B. Co. Commander, Knights in the Desert. Publisher/Editor Unknown. p. 111.
    12. ^ Malory, Marcia. "Tanks During the First Gulf War – Tank History". Archived from the original on 3 March 2016. Retrieved 5 July 2016.
    13. ^ M60 vs T-62 Cold War Combatants 1956–92 by Lon Nordeen & David Isby
    14. ^ "TAB H – Friendly-fire Incidents". Archived from the original on 1 June 2013. Retrieved 5 July 2016.
    15. ^ NSIAD-92-94, "Operation Desert Storm: Early Performance Assessment of Bradley and Abrams". Archived 21 February 2014 at the Wayback Machine US General Accounting Office, 10 January 1992. Quote: "According to information provided by the Army's Office of the Deputy Chief of Staff for Operations and Plans, 20 Bradleys were destroyed during the Gulf war. Another 12 Bradleys were damaged, but four of these were quickly repaired. Friendly fire accounted for 17 of the destroyed Bradleys and three of the damaged ones
    16. ^ Iraqi Invasion of Kuwait; 1990 (Air War) Archived 6 October 2014 at the Wayback Machine. Acig.org. Retrieved on 12 June 2011
    17. ^ a b c d e Bourque (2001), p. 455.
    18. ^ "Appendix – Iraqi Death Toll | The Gulf War | FRONTLINE | PBS". www.pbs.org. Retrieved 24 July 2021.
    19. ^ Tucker-Jones, Anthony (31 May 2014). The Gulf War: Operation Desert Storm 1990–1991. Pen and Sword. ISBN 978-1-4738-3730-0. Archived from the original on 5 December 2022. Retrieved 22 April 2022.
    20. ^ "Human Rights Watch". Archived from the original on 22 April 2022. Retrieved 22 April 2022.
    21. ^ "Appendix A: Chronology - February 1991". Naval History and Heritage Command. Retrieved 4 February 2024.
    22. ^ "Iraq air force wants Iran to give back its planes". Reuters. 10 August 2007.
    23. ^ "The Use of Terror during Iraq's invasion of Kuwait". The Jewish Agency for Israel. Archived from the original on 24 January 2005. Retrieved 22 June 2010.
    24. ^ "Kuwait: missing people: a step in the right direction". Red Cross. Archived from the original on 7 March 2016. Retrieved 5 March 2014.
    25. ^ "The Wages of War: Iraqi Combatant and Noncombatant Fatalities in the 2003 Conflict". Project on Defense Alternatives. Retrieved 9 May 2009.
     
  3. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    1 March 1998Titanic became the first film to gross over $1 billion worldwide.

    Titanic (1997 film)

    Titanic is a 1997 American romantic disaster film directed, written, produced, and co-edited by James Cameron. Incorporating both historical and fictionalized aspects, it is based on accounts of the sinking of RMS Titanic in 1912. Kate Winslet and Leonardo DiCaprio star as members of different social classes who fall in love during the ship's maiden voyage. The film also features an ensemble cast of Billy Zane, Kathy Bates, Frances Fisher, Gloria Stuart, Bernard Hill, Jonathan Hyde, Victor Garber, David Warner, Suzy Amis and Bill Paxton.

    Cameron's inspiration for the film came from his fascination with shipwrecks. He felt a love story interspersed with the human loss would be essential to convey the emotional impact of the disaster. Production began on September 1, 1995,[15] when Cameron shot footage of the Titanic wreck. The modern scenes on the research vessel were shot on board the Akademik Mstislav Keldysh, which Cameron had used as a base when filming the wreck. Scale models, computer-generated imagery and a reconstruction of the Titanic built at Baja Studios were used to recreate the sinking. The film was co-financed by Paramount Pictures and 20th Century Fox; Paramount handled distribution in the United States and Canada while 20th Century Fox released the film internationally. Titanic was the most expensive film ever made at the time, with a production budget of $200 million. Filming took place from July 1996 to March 1997.

    Titanic was released on December 19, 1997. It was praised for its visual effects, performances (particularly those of DiCaprio, Winslet, and Stuart), production values, direction, score, cinematography, story and emotional depth. Among other awards, it was nominated for 14 Academy Awards and won 11, including Best Picture and Best Director, tying Ben-Hur (1959) for the most Academy Awards won by a film. With an initial worldwide gross of over $1.84 billion, Titanic was the first film to reach the billion-dollar mark. It was the highest-grossing film of all time until Cameron's next film, Avatar (2009), surpassed it in 2010. Income from the initial theatrical release, retail video and soundtrack sales and US broadcast rights exceeded $3.2 billion.[16] A number of re-releases have pushed the film's worldwide theatrical total to $2.264 billion, making it the second film to gross more than $2 billion worldwide after Avatar. In 2017, the Library of Congress selected it for preservation in the United States National Film Registry for being "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant".

    1. ^ a b c "Titanic (1997)". Film & TV Database. British Film Institute. Archived from the original on January 14, 2009. Retrieved July 29, 2011.
    2. ^ a b "Titanic". AFI Catalog of Feature Films. American Film Institute. Archived from the original on September 15, 2020. Retrieved February 2, 2018.
    3. ^ "TITANIC (12)". British Board of Film Classification. November 14, 1997. Archived from the original on April 27, 2021. Retrieved November 8, 2014.
    4. ^ Cite error: The named reference Garrett (2007) was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    5. ^ Cite error: The named reference Sandler & Studlar 1999 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    6. ^ Cite error: The named reference Welkos (1998) was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    7. ^ "Titanic (1997)". Box Office Mojo. Archived from the original on October 27, 2019. Retrieved October 27, 2019.
    8. ^ "Titanic (1997)". Box Office Mojo. Archived from the original on October 30, 2020. Retrieved October 30, 2020.
    9. ^ "Titanic (1997)". Box Office Mojo. Archived from the original on October 26, 2021. Retrieved October 26, 2021.
    10. ^ "Titanic (1997)". Box Office Mojo. Archived from the original on February 5, 2023. Retrieved February 28, 2023.
    11. ^ "Titanic". The Numbers. Archived from the original on September 2, 2014. Retrieved September 2, 2014.
    12. ^ "Titanic". The Numbers. Archived from the original on September 13, 2014. Retrieved September 13, 2014.
    13. ^ "Titanic (25 Year Anniversary)". Box Office Mojo. Archived from the original on March 21, 2023. Retrieved March 21, 2023.
    14. ^ *Pre-2020 releases: "Titanic (1997)". Box Office Mojo. Archived from the original on October 27, 2019. Worldwide: $2,187,463,944; Original release: $1,843,221,532; 2012 3D Release: $343,550,770; 2017 Re-release: $691,642
    15. ^ "Titanic (1997) - IMDb". IMDb. Archived from the original on February 9, 2023. Retrieved November 6, 2022.
    16. ^ Cite error: The named reference VHS was invoked but never defined (see the help page).


    Cite error: There are <ref group=Note> tags on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=Note}} template (see the help page).

     
  4. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    2 March 1956Morocco gains its independence from France.

    Morocco

    Morocco (/məˈrɒk/ ),[note 3] officially the Kingdom of Morocco,[note 4] is a country in the Maghreb region of North Africa. It overlooks the Mediterranean Sea to the north and the Atlantic Ocean to the west, and has land borders with Algeria to the east, and the disputed territory of Western Sahara to the south. Morocco also claims the Spanish exclaves of Ceuta, Melilla and Peñón de Vélez de la Gomera, and several small Spanish-controlled islands off its coast.[16] It has a population of roughly 37 million, the official and predominant religion is Islam, and the official languages are Arabic and Berber; French and the Moroccan dialect of Arabic are also widely spoken. Moroccan identity and culture is a mix of Arab, Berber, African and European cultures. Its capital is Rabat, while its largest city is Casablanca.[17]

    The region constituting Morocco has been inhabited since the Paleolithic era over 300,000 years ago. The Idrisid dynasty was established by Idris I in 788 and was subsequently ruled by a series of other independent dynasties, reaching its zenith as a regional power in the 11th and 12th centuries, under the Almoravid and Almohad dynasties, when it controlled most of the Iberian Peninsula and the Maghreb.[18] Centuries of Arab migration to the Maghreb since the 7th century shifted the demographic scope of the region. In the 15th and 16th centuries, Morocco faced external threats to its sovereignty, with Portugal seizing some territory and the Ottoman Empire encroaching from the east. The Marinid and Saadi dynasties otherwise resisted foreign domination, and Morocco was the only North African nation to escape Ottoman dominion. The 'Alawi dynasty, which rules the country to this day, seized power in 1631, and over the next two centuries expanded diplomatic and commercial relations with the Western world. Morocco's strategic location near the mouth of the Mediterranean drew renewed European interest; in 1912, France and Spain divided the country into respective protectorates, reserving an international zone in Tangier. Following intermittent riots and revolts against colonial rule, in 1956, Morocco regained its independence and reunified.

    Since independence, Morocco has remained relatively stable. It has the fifth-largest economy in Africa and wields significant influence in both Africa and the Arab world; it is considered a middle power in global affairs and holds membership in the Arab League, the Arab Maghreb Union, the Union for the Mediterranean, and the African Union.[19] Morocco is a unitary semi-constitutional monarchy with an elected parliament. The executive branch is led by the King of Morocco and the prime minister, while legislative power is vested in the two chambers of parliament: the House of Representatives and the House of Councillors. Judicial power rests with the Constitutional Court, which may review the validity of laws, elections, and referendums.[20] The king holds vast executive and legislative powers, especially over the military, foreign policy and religious affairs; he can issue decrees called dahirs, which have the force of law, and can also dissolve the parliament after consulting the prime minister and the president of the constitutional court.

    Morocco claims ownership of the non-self-governing territory of Western Sahara, which it has designated its Southern Provinces. In 1975, after Spain agreed to decolonise the territory and cede its control to Morocco and Mauritania, a guerrilla war broke out between those powers and some of the local inhabitants. In 1979, Mauritania relinquished its claim to the area, but the war continued to rage. In 1991, a ceasefire agreement was reached, but the issue of sovereignty remained unresolved. Today, Morocco occupies two-thirds of the territory, and efforts to resolve the dispute have thus far failed to break the political deadlock.

    1. ^ "Constitution of Morocco". www.constituteproject.org. Retrieved 11 March 2024.
    2. ^ a b "Morocco". The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency. 12 January 2022.
    3. ^ "Présentation du Maroc" (in French). Ministère de l'Europe et des Affaires étrangères.
    4. ^ Hyde, Martin (October 1994). "The teaching of English in Morocco: the place of culture". ELT Journal. 48 (4): 295–305. doi:10.1093/elt/48.4.295.
    5. ^ The Report: Morocco 2012. Oxford Business Group. 2012. ISBN 978-1-907065-54-5.
    6. ^ "Regional Profiles: Morocco". The Association of Religion Data Archives. World Religion Database.
    7. ^ Constitution of the Kingdom of Morocco. Translated by Ruchti, Jefri J. Getzville: William S. Hein & Co., Inc. 2012. First published in the Official Bulletin on July 30, 2011
    8. ^ "Horloge de la population" (in French). HCP. 2022. Retrieved 18 December 2022.
    9. ^ "Résultats RGPH 2014" (in French). HCP. 2014. Archived from the original on 9 May 2020. Retrieved 17 October 2019.
    10. ^ a b c d "World Economic Outlook Database, October 2023 Edition. (Morocco)". IMF.org. International Monetary Fund. 10 October 2023. Retrieved 12 October 2023.
    11. ^ Africa's Development Dynamics 2018:Growth, Jobs and Inequalities. AUC/OECD. 2018. p. 179. Retrieved 18 December 2020.
    12. ^ Human Development Report 2021-22: Uncertain Times, Unsettled Lives: Shaping our Future in a Transforming World (PDF). United Nations Development Programme. 8 September 2022. pp. 272–276. ISBN 978-9-211-26451-7. Archived (PDF) from the original on 8 September 2022. Retrieved 8 September 2022.
    13. ^ "Décret royal n° 455-67 du 23 safar 1387 (2 juin 1967) portant loi relatif à l'heure légale". Bulletin Officiel du Royaume du Maroc (2854) – via Banque de Données Juridiques.
    14. ^ "Changements d'heure pour ramadan, quels impacts ?". TelQuel (in French). Retrieved 13 January 2023.
    15. ^ Trinidad, Jamie (2012). "An Evaluation of Morocco's Claims to Spain's Remaining Territories in Africa". The International and Comparative Law Quarterly. 61 (4): 961–975. ISSN 0020-5893.
    16. ^ "Ceuta, Melilla profile". BBC News. 2018. Retrieved 13 November 2018.
    17. ^ Jamil M. Abun-Nasr (20 August 1987). A History of the Maghrib in the Islamic Period. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-33767-0.
    18. ^ Hall, John G.; Chelsea Publishing House (2002). North Africa. Infobase Publishing. ISBN 978-0-7910-5746-9.
    19. ^ Balfour, Rosa (March 2009). "The Transformation of the Union for the Mediterranean". Mediterranean Politics. 14 (1): 99–105. doi:10.1080/13629390902747491. ISSN 1362-9395.
    20. ^ Morocco: Remove Obstacles to Access to the Constitutional Court Archived 21 July 2021 at the Wayback Machine. International Commission of Jurists.


    Cite error: There are <ref group=note> tags on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=note}} template (see the help page).

     
  5. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    3 March 1938Oil is discovered in Saudi Arabia.

    History of the oil industry in Saudi Arabia

    Dammam No. 7, the first commercial oil well in Saudi Arabia, struck oil on March 3,[1] 1938.
    Saudi Arabia crude oil production 1950-2012

    Saudi Arabian oil was first discovered by the Americans in commercial quantities at Dammam oil well No. 7 in 1938 in what is now modern day Dhahran.

    1. ^ Society, National Geographic (20 February 2014). "Oil Discovered in Saudi Arabia". nationalgeographic.org. Retrieved 13 April 2018.
     
  6. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    4 March 1882 – Britain's first electric trams run in east London.

    Trams in London

    Map
    London tramway network (before 1952) (source[usurped]).

    There have been two separate generations of trams in London, from 1860 to 1952 and from 2000 to the present. There were no trams at all in London between 1952 and 2000.

     
  7. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    5 March 1943 – First Flight of the Gloster Meteor, Britain's first combat jet aircraft.

    Gloster Meteor

    The Gloster Meteor was the first British jet fighter and the Allies' only jet aircraft to engage in combat operations during the Second World War. The Meteor's development was heavily reliant on its ground-breaking turbojet engines, pioneered by Frank Whittle and his company, Power Jets Ltd. Development of the aircraft began in 1940, although work on the engines had been under way since 1936. The Meteor first flew in 1943 and commenced operations on 27 July 1944 with No. 616 Squadron RAF. The Meteor was not a sophisticated aircraft in its aerodynamics, but proved to be a successful combat fighter. Gloster's 1946 civil Meteor F.4 demonstrator G-AIDC was the first civilian-registered jet aircraft in the world.[1] Several major variants of the Meteor incorporated technological advances during the 1940s and 1950s. Thousands of Meteors were built to fly with the RAF and other air forces and remained in use for several decades.

    Slower and less heavily armed than its German counterpart, the jet-powered Messerschmitt Me 262,[2] the Meteor saw limited action in the Second World War. Meteors of the Royal Australian Air Force (RAAF) fought in the Korean War. Several other operators such as Argentina, Egypt and Israel flew Meteors in later regional conflicts. Specialised variants of the Meteor were developed for use in photographic aerial reconnaissance and as night fighters.

    The Meteor was also used for research and development purposes and to break several aviation records. On 7 November 1945, the first official airspeed record by a jet aircraft was set by a Meteor F.3 at 606 miles per hour (975 km/h). In 1946, this record was broken when a Meteor F.4 reached a speed of 616 miles per hour (991 km/h). Other performance-related records were broken in categories including flight time endurance, rate of climb, and speed. On 20 September 1945, a heavily modified Meteor I, powered by two Rolls-Royce Trent turbine engines driving propellers, became the first turboprop aircraft to fly.[3] On 10 February 1954, a specially adapted Meteor F.8, the "Meteor Prone Pilot", which placed the pilot into a prone position to counteract inertial forces, took its first flight.[4]

    In the 1950s, the Meteor became increasingly obsolete as more nations developed jet fighters, many of these newcomers having adopted a swept wing instead of the Meteor's conventional straight wing; in RAF service, the Meteor was replaced by newer types such as the Hawker Hunter and Gloster Javelin. As of 2023, two Meteors, G-JSMA and G-JWMA, remain in active service with the Martin-Baker company as ejection seat testbeds.[5] One further aircraft in the USA remains airworthy, as does another in Australia.

    1. ^ "photo caption". Flight International. 1974. Archived from the original on 23 June 2016.
    2. ^ Gunston 1988, p. 240.
    3. ^ King Flight 27 May 1955, p. 727.
    4. ^ Young 1985, p. 83.
    5. ^ Daren Harbar (12 March 2023). "Martin-Baker Meteors – How First-Generation jets test ejection seats for 5th-Gen fighters". Key.Aero. Retrieved 26 September 2023.
     
  8. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    6 March 1899Bayer registers "Aspirin" as a trademark.

    Aspirin

    Aspirin, also known as acetylsalicylic acid (ASA), is a nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) used to reduce pain, fever, and/or inflammation, and as an antithrombotic.[9] Specific inflammatory conditions which aspirin is used to treat include Kawasaki disease, pericarditis, and rheumatic fever.[9]

    Aspirin is also used long-term to help prevent further heart attacks, ischaemic strokes, and blood clots in people at high risk.[9] For pain or fever, effects typically begin within 30 minutes.[9] Aspirin works similarly to other NSAIDs but also suppresses the normal functioning of platelets.[9]

    One common adverse effect is an upset stomach.[9] More significant side effects include stomach ulcers, stomach bleeding, and worsening asthma.[9] Bleeding risk is greater among those who are older, drink alcohol, take other NSAIDs, or are on other blood thinners.[9] Aspirin is not recommended in the last part of pregnancy.[9] It is not generally recommended in children with infections because of the risk of Reye syndrome.[9] High doses may result in ringing in the ears.[9]

    A precursor to aspirin found in the bark of the willow tree (genus Salix) has been used for its health effects for at least 2,400 years.[10][11] In 1853, chemist Charles Frédéric Gerhardt treated the medicine sodium salicylate with acetyl chloride to produce acetylsalicylic acid for the first time.[12] Over the next 50 years, other chemists, mostly of the German company Bayer, established the chemical structure and devised more efficient production methods.[12]: 69–75 

    Aspirin is available without medical prescription as a proprietary or generic medication[9] in most jurisdictions. It is one of the most widely used medications globally, with an estimated 40,000 tonnes (44,000 tons) (50 to 120 billion pills)[clarification needed] consumed each year,[10][13] and is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines.[14] In 2021, it was the 34th most commonly prescribed medication in the United States, with more than 17 million prescriptions.[15][16]

    1. ^ "Aspirin Use During Pregnancy". Drugs.com. 2 April 2018. Retrieved 29 December 2019.
    2. ^ "OTC medicine monograph: Aspirin tablets for oral use". Therapeutic Goods Administration (TGA). 21 June 2022. Retrieved 4 April 2023.
    3. ^ "Poisons Standard October 2022". Australian Government Federal Register of Legislation. 26 September 2022. Retrieved 9 January 2023.
    4. ^ "Aspirin Product information". Health Canada. 22 October 2009. Retrieved 20 August 2023.
    5. ^ a b "Zorprin, Bayer Buffered Aspirin (aspirin) dosing, indications, interactions, adverse effects, and more". Medscape Reference. WebMD. Archived from the original on 7 April 2014. Retrieved 3 April 2014.
    6. ^ a b c Brayfield A, ed. (14 January 2014). "Aspirin". Martindale: The Complete Drug Reference. Pharmaceutical Press. Retrieved 3 April 2014.
    7. ^ CID 2244 from PubChem
    8. ^ Cite error: The named reference b92 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    9. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l "Aspirin". American Society of Health-System Pharmacists. 29 November 2021. Archived from the original on 25 April 2017 – via Drugs.com.
    10. ^ a b Jones A (2015). Chemistry: An Introduction for Medical and Health Sciences. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 5–6. ISBN 978-0-470-09290-3.
    11. ^ Ravina E (2011). The Evolution of Drug Discovery: From Traditional Medicines to Modern Drugs. John Wiley & Sons. p. 24. ISBN 978-3-527-32669-3.
    12. ^ a b Jeffreys D (2008). Aspirin the remarkable story of a wonder drug. Bloomsbury Publishing USA. ISBN 978-1-59691-816-0. Archived from the original on 8 September 2017.: 46–48 
    13. ^ Warner TD, Mitchell JA (October 2002). "Cyclooxygenase-3 (COX-3): filling in the gaps toward a COX continuum?". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 99 (21): 13371–3. Bibcode:2002PNAS...9913371W. doi:10.1073/pnas.222543099. PMC 129677. PMID 12374850.
    14. ^ World Health Organization (2023). The selection and use of essential medicines 2023: web annex A: World Health Organization model list of essential medicines: 23rd list (2023). Geneva: World Health Organization. hdl:10665/371090. WHO/MHP/HPS/EML/2023.02.
    15. ^ "The Top 300 of 2021". ClinCalc. Archived from the original on 15 January 2024. Retrieved 14 January 2024.
    16. ^ "Aspirin - Drug Usage Statistics, US 2013-2021". ClinCalc. Retrieved 14 January 2024.
     
  9. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    7 March 1965Bloody Sunday: a group of 600 civil rights marchers is brutally attacked by state and local police in Selma, Alabama.

    Selma to Montgomery marches

    The Selma to Montgomery marches were three protest marches, held in 1965, along the 54-mile (87 km) highway from Selma, Alabama, to the state capital of Montgomery. The marches were organized by nonviolent activists to demonstrate the desire of African-American citizens to exercise their constitutional right to vote, in defiance of segregationist repression; they were part of a broader voting rights movement underway in Selma and throughout the American South. By highlighting racial injustice, they contributed to passage that year of the Voting Rights Act, a landmark federal achievement of the civil rights movement.

    Since the late 19th century, Southern state legislatures had passed and maintained a series of Jim Crow laws that had disenfranchised the millions of African Americans across the South and enforced racial segregation. The initial voter registration drive, started in 1963 by the African-American Dallas County Voters League (DCVL) and the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC) failed as local White officials arrested the organizers and otherwise harassed Blacks wishing to register to vote. The passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 legally ended segregation but the situation in Selma changed little. The DCVL then invited Rev. Martin Luther King Jr. and the activists of the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC) to amplify the efforts, and these figures drew more prominent people to Alabama. Local and regional protests began in January 1965, with 3,000 people arrested by the end of February. On February 26, activist and deacon Jimmie Lee Jackson died after being shot several days earlier by state trooper James Bonard Fowler during a peaceful march in nearby Marion. To defuse and refocus the Black community's outrage, James Bevel, who was directing SCLC's Selma voting rights movement, called for a march of dramatic length, from Selma to the state capital of Montgomery, calling for an unhindered exercise of the right to vote.[3][page needed][4]

    The first march took place on March 7, 1965, led by figures including Bevel and Amelia Boynton, but was ended by state troopers and county possemen, who charged on about 600 unarmed protesters with batons and tear gas after they crossed the Edmund Pettus Bridge in the direction of Montgomery. The event became known as Bloody Sunday.[5][6] Law enforcement beat Boynton unconscious, and the media publicized worldwide a picture of her lying wounded on the bridge.[7] The second march took place two days later but King cut it short as a federal court issued a temporary injunction against further marches. That night, an anti-civil rights group murdered civil rights activist James Reeb, a Unitarian Universalist minister from Boston.[8] The third march, which started on March 21, was escorted by the Alabama National Guard under federal control, the FBI and federal marshals (segregationist Governor George Wallace refused to protect the protesters). Thousands of marchers averaged 10 mi (16 km) a day along U.S. Route 80 (US 80), reaching Montgomery on March 24. The following day, 25,000 people staged a demonstration on the steps of the Alabama State Capitol.

    The violence of "Bloody Sunday" and Reeb's murder resulted in a national outcry, and the marches were widely discussed in national and international news media. The protesters campaigned for a new federal voting rights law to enable African Americans to register and vote without harassment. President Lyndon B. Johnson seized the opportunity and held a historic, nationally televised joint session of Congress on March 15, asking lawmakers to pass what is now known as the Voting Rights Act of 1965. He enacted it on August 6, removing obstacles for Blacks to register en masse. The march route is memorialized and designated as the Selma to Montgomery National Historic Trail.

    1. ^ Taylor Branch, At Canaan's Edge: America in the King Years 1965–1968
    2. ^ "Swarthmore College Bulletin (July 2014)".
    3. ^ Kryn, Randall (1989). "James L. Bevel: The Strategist of the 1960s Civil Rights Movement". In Garrow, David (ed.). We Shall Overcome: The Civil Rights Movement in the United States in the 1950's and 1960's. Martin Luther King, Jr. and the Civil Rights Movement, no. 5. Vol. II. Brooklyn, N.Y.: Carlson Publishing Company. ISBN 9780926019027. OCLC 19740619.
    4. ^ Randy Kryn, "Movement Revision Research Summary Regarding James Bevel" Archived March 3, 2016, at the Wayback Machine, October 2005, Middlebury College.
    5. ^ "Student March at Nyack". The New York Times. March 11, 1965. p. 19. Retrieved March 9, 2015.
    6. ^ Reed, Roy (March 6, 1966). "'Bloody Sunday' Was Year Ago". The New York Times. p. 76. Retrieved March 9, 2015.
    7. ^ Sheila Jackson Hardy; P. Stephen Hardy (2008). Extraordinary People of the Civil Rights Movement. Paw Prints. p. 264. ISBN 978-1-4395-2357-5. Retrieved March 6, 2011.
    8. ^ "James Joseph Reeb". uudb.org. Archived from the original on January 3, 2022. Retrieved July 5, 2019.
     
  10. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    8 March 1974Charles de Gaulle Airport opens in Paris, France.

    Charles de Gaulle Airport

    Paris Charles de Gaulle Airport[a] (IATA: CDG, ICAO: LFPG), also known as Roissy Airport or simply Paris CDG, is the main international airport serving Paris, France. Opened in 1974, it is in Roissy-en-France, 23 km (14 mi) northeast of Paris and is named after World War II statesman Charles de Gaulle (1890–1970), whose initials (CDG) are used as its IATA airport code.

    Charles de Gaulle Airport serves as the principal hub for Air France and a destination for other legacy carriers (from Star Alliance, Oneworld and SkyTeam), as well as a focus city for easyJet. It is operated by Groupe ADP (Aéroports de Paris) under the brand Paris Aéroport.

    In 2022, the airport handled 57,474,033 passengers and 34,657 aircraft movements,[4] thus making it the world's ninth busiest airport and Europe's third busiest airport (after Istanbul and Heathrow) in terms of passenger numbers. Charles de Gaulle is also the busiest airport within the European Union. In terms of cargo traffic, the airport is the eleventh busiest in the world and the busiest in Europe, handling 2,102,268 tonnes (2,069,066 long tons; 2,317,354 short tons) of cargo in 2019.[5] It is also the airport that is served by the greatest number of airlines, with more than 105 airlines operating at the airport.[6]

    As of 2017, the airport offers direct flights to the most countries and hosts the most airlines in the world.[7] Marc Houalla has been the director of the airport since 12 February 2018.

    1. ^ LFPG – PARIS CHARLES DE GAULLE. AIP from French Service d'information aéronautique, effective 22 February 2024.
    2. ^ "DECEMBER 2023 AND FULL-YEAR TRAFFIC FIGURES". 16 January 2024. Retrieved 18 January 2024.
    3. ^ "Preliminary world airport traffic rankings released". aci.aero. 13 March 2019. Archived from the original on 10 April 2021. Retrieved 31 August 2019.
    4. ^ "Traffic Paris Aéroport and Groupe ADP airports". www.parisaeroport.fr. Retrieved 7 April 2023.
    5. ^ "Statistiques annuelles". Union des aéroports Français. Archived from the original on 29 February 2012. Retrieved 24 February 2012.
    6. ^ "which airport serves the most airlines?". travelupdate.com. 4 June 2020. Archived from the original on 13 November 2022. Retrieved 31 May 2022.
    7. ^ "Frankfurt and Paris CDG lead global analysis of airports in S17". anna.aero. 15 February 2017. Archived from the original on 29 January 2023.


    Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

     
  11. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    9 March 2011Space Shuttle Discovery makes its final landing after 39 flights.

    Space Shuttle Discovery

    Space Shuttle Discovery at the Steven F. Udvar-Hazy Center
    Discovery rollout ceremony in October 1983
    Discovery and SCA 905 at Vandenberg Air Force Base, November 6, 1983

    Space Shuttle Discovery (Orbiter Vehicle Designation: OV-103) is a retired American spacecraft. The spaceplane was one of the orbiters from NASA's Space Shuttle program and the third of five fully operational orbiters to be built.[2] Its first mission, STS-41-D, flew from August 30 to September 5, 1984. Over 27 years of service it launched and landed 39 times, aggregating more spaceflights than any other spacecraft to date. The Space Shuttle launch vehicle had three main components: the Space Shuttle orbiter, a single-use central fuel tank, and two reusable solid rocket boosters. Nearly 25,000 heat-resistant tiles cover the orbiter to protect it from high temperatures on re-entry.[3]

    Discovery became the third operational orbiter to enter service, preceded by Columbia and Challenger.[4] It embarked on its final mission, STS-133, on February 24, 2011, and touched down for the last time at Kennedy Space Center on March 9,[5] having spent a cumulative total of nearly a full year in space. Discovery performed both research and International Space Station (ISS) assembly missions, and also carried the Hubble Space Telescope into orbit among other satellites.

    Discovery was the first operational shuttle to be retired, followed by Endeavour and then Atlantis. The shuttle is now on display at the Steven F. Udvar-Hazy Center of the Smithsonian National Air and Space Museum.

    1. ^ NASA (October 2010). "NASAfacts Discovery (OV-103)" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on October 26, 2010. Retrieved October 21, 2010.
    2. ^ NASA (2007). "Space Shuttle Overview: Discovery (OV-103)". National Aeronautics and Space Administration. Archived from the original on November 7, 2007. Retrieved November 6, 2007.
    3. ^ "10 Cool Facts About NASA's Space Shuttle Discovery | Space Shuttle Retirement". Space.com. April 18, 2012. Archived from the original on June 22, 2013. Retrieved August 30, 2013.
    4. ^ "Discovery's last mission flight to space begun". February 24, 2011. Archived from the original on July 16, 2011. Retrieved March 9, 2011.
    5. ^ "Discovery's Final Touchdown A Success". redOrbit.com. Archived from the original on August 20, 2011. Retrieved March 9, 2011.
     
  12. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    10 March 1977 – Astronomers discover the rings of Uranus.

    Rings of Uranus

    An updated image of Uranus' rings system (the epsilon/ε, zeta/ζ, mu/μ and nu/ν rings are annotated) as imaged by the James Webb Space Telescope's near-infrared camera on September 4, 2023.

    The rings of Uranus are intermediate in complexity between the more extensive set around Saturn and the simpler systems around Jupiter and Neptune. The rings of Uranus were discovered on March 10, 1977, by James L. Elliot, Edward W. Dunham, and Jessica Mink. William Herschel had also reported observing rings in 1789; modern astronomers are divided on whether he could have seen them, as they are very dark and faint.[1]

    By 1977, nine distinct rings were identified. Two additional rings were discovered in 1986 in images taken by the Voyager 2 spacecraft, and two outer rings were found in 2003–2005 in Hubble Space Telescope photos. In the order of increasing distance from the planet the 13 known rings are designated 1986U2R/ζ, 6, 5, 4, α, β, η, γ, δ, λ, ε, ν and μ. Their radii range from about 38,000 km for the 1986U2R/ζ ring to about 98,000 km for the μ ring. Additional faint dust bands and incomplete arcs may exist between the main rings. The rings are extremely dark—the Bond albedo of the rings' particles does not exceed 2%. They are probably composed of water ice with the addition of some dark radiation-processed organics.

    The majority of Uranus' rings are opaque and only a few kilometres wide. The ring system contains little dust overall; it consists mostly of large bodies 20 cm to 20 m in diameter. Some rings are optically thin: the broad and faint 1986U2R/ζ, μ and ν rings are made of small dust particles, while the narrow and faint λ ring also contains larger bodies. The relative lack of dust in the ring system may be due to aerodynamic drag from the extended Uranian exosphere.

    The rings of Uranus are thought to be relatively young, and not more than 600 million years old. The Uranian ring system probably originated from the collisional fragmentation of several moons that once existed around the planet. After colliding, the moons probably broke up into many particles, which survived as narrow and optically dense rings only in strictly confined zones of maximum stability.

    The mechanism that confines the narrow rings is not well understood. Initially it was assumed that every narrow ring had a pair of nearby shepherd moons corralling it into shape. In 1986 Voyager 2 discovered only one such shepherd pair (Cordelia and Ophelia) around the brightest ring (ε), though the faint ν would later be discovered shepherded between Portia and Rosalind.[2]

    1. ^ Rincon, Paul (Apr 18, 2007). "Uranus rings 'were seen in 1700s'". BBC News. Retrieved 23 January 2012.(re study by Stuart Eves)
    2. ^ Filacchione & Ciarniello (2021) "Rings", Encyclopedia of Geology, 2nd edition, INAF-IAPS, Rome
     
  13. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    11 March 2006Michelle Bachelet is inaugurated as first female president of Chile.

    Michelle Bachelet

    Verónica Michelle Bachelet Jeria[a] (Spanish: [βeˈɾonika miˈʃel βaʃeˈle ˈxeɾja]; born 29 September 1951[2]) is a Chilean politician who served as United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights from 2018 to 2022.[3] She previously served as President of Chile from 2006 to 2010 and from 2014 to 2018 for the Socialist Party of Chile. She is the first woman to hold the Chilean presidency. After leaving the presidency in 2010 and before becoming eligible for re-election, she was appointed as the first executive director of the newly established United Nations Entity for Gender Equality and the Empowerment of Women.[4] In December 2013, Bachelet was re-elected with over 62% of the vote, surpassing the 54% she received in 2006. She was the first President of Chile to be re-elected since 1932.[5] Bachelet, a physician who has studied military strategy at the university level, previously served as the Health Minister and Defense Minister under her predecessor, Ricardo Lagos. She is a separated mother of three and identifies as an agnostic.[6] In addition to her native Spanish, she speaks English fluently and has some proficiency in German, French, and Portuguese.[7][8]

    1. ^ "Austria's Turk appointed UN human rights chief". CNA. 9 September 2022. Retrieved 9 September 2022.[permanent dead link]
    2. ^ "Certficado de Nacimiento" [Birth certificate] (PDF). Dirección Nacional del Registro Civil Nacional de la República de Chile. 3 October 1951. Archived (PDF) from the original on 6 February 2021.
    3. ^ "Michelle Bachelet será la nueva Alta Comisionada de la ONU para los Derechos Humanos" [Michelle Bachelet will be the new UN High Commissioner for Human Rights]. Noticias ONU (in Spanish). 8 August 2018. Archived from the original on 24 January 2021. Retrieved 8 August 2018.
    4. ^ "15 women leading the way for girls' education". www.globalpartnership.org. Archived from the original on 22 March 2019. Retrieved 22 March 2019.
    5. ^ "Michelle Bachelet: primera mujer presidenta y primer presidente reelecto desde 1932" [Michelle Bachelet: first female president and first re-elected president since 1932]. Facebook. 16 December 2013. Archived from the original on 5 March 2016. Retrieved 11 March 2016.
    6. ^ "Bachelet critica a la derecha por descalificarla por ser agnóstica" [Bachelet criticises the political right for discounting her because of her agnosticism] (in Spanish). El Mercurio. 30 December 2005. Archived from the original on 25 December 2014. Retrieved 25 November 2014.
    7. ^ "Biografía Michelle Bachelet" [Michelle Bachelet biography]. Gobierno de Chile (in Spanish). Archived from the original on 12 March 2008. Retrieved 2 February 2007.
    8. ^ "Biographical Sketch: Michelle Bachelet". UN Women. Archived from the original on 28 April 2012. Retrieved 12 May 2012.


    Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

     
  14. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    12 March 1994 – The Church of England ordains its first female priests.

    Ordination of women

    First woman Mariavite bishop Maria Izabela Wiłucka-Kowalska was consecrated in 1960 in Plock.
    Katharine Jefferts Schori was elected in 2006 as the first female Presiding Bishop of the U.S. Episcopal Church and also the first female primate in the Anglican Communion.[1]

    The ordination of women to ministerial or priestly office is an increasingly common practice among some contemporary major religious groups.[2] It remains a controversial issue in certain religious groups in which ordination[a] was traditionally reserved for men.[2][3][4][b]

    In some cases, women have been permitted to be ordained, but not to hold higher positions, such as (until July 2014) that of bishop in the Church of England.[9] Where laws prohibit sex discrimination in employment, exceptions are often made for clergy (for example, in the United States) on grounds of separation of church and state.

    1. ^ "US Episcopal Church installs first female presiding bishop". Australia: Journeyonline.com.au. 2006-11-07. Archived from the original on 2011-07-06. Retrieved 2010-11-19.
    2. ^ a b "The divide over ordaining women". Pew Research Center. Retrieved 2020-06-25.
    3. ^ Turpin, Andrea (May 24, 2018). "Evangelicals have long disagreed on the role of women in the church". News Observer.
    4. ^ Green, Emma (2017-07-05). "This Is What a Battle Over Gender and Race Looks Like in a Conservative Christian Community". The Atlantic. Retrieved 2020-06-25.
    5. ^ Cite error: The named reference Osiek 2005 186 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    6. ^ Cite error: The named reference Man 1982 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    7. ^ Chaves, Mark; Cavendish, James (1997). "Recent Changes in Women's Ordination Conflicts: The Effect of a Social Movement on Intraorganizational Controversy". Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion. 36 (4): 574–584. doi:10.2307/1387691. ISSN 0021-8294. JSTOR 1387691.
    8. ^ Kienzle, Beverly Mayne; Walker, Professor Pamela J.; Walker, Pamela J. (1998-04-30). Women Preachers and Prophets Through Two Millennia of Christianity. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-20922-0.
    9. ^ "Women bishops vote: Church of England 'resembles sect'". BBC News - UK Politics. BBC. 2012-11-22. Archived from the original on 2013-01-27. Retrieved 2013-10-18.


    Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

     
  15. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    13 March 2013Pope Francis is elected, in the papal conclave, as the 266th Pope of the Catholic Church.

    Pope Francis

    Pope Francis (Latin: Franciscus; Italian: Francesco; Spanish: Francisco; born Jorge Mario Bergoglio;[b] 17 December 1936) is the head of the Catholic Church, the bishop of Rome and sovereign of the Vatican City State. He is the first pope to be a member of the Society of Jesus (Jesuits), the first one from the Americas, the first one from the Southern Hemisphere, and the first one born or raised outside Europe since the 8th-century papacy of the Syrian Pope Gregory III.

    Born in Buenos Aires, Argentina, Bergoglio worked for a time as a bouncer and a janitor as a young man before training to be a chemist and working as a technician in a food science laboratory. After recovering from a severe illness of pneumonia and cysts, he was inspired to join the Jesuits in 1958. He was ordained a Catholic priest in 1969, and from 1973 to 1979 was the Jesuit provincial superior in Argentina. He became the Archbishop of Buenos Aires in 1998 and was created a cardinal in 2001 by Pope John Paul II. He led the Argentine Church during the December 2001 riots in Argentina. The administrations of Néstor Kirchner and Cristina Fernández de Kirchner considered him to be a political rival.

    Following the resignation of Pope Benedict XVI on 28 February 2013, a papal conclave elected Bergoglio as his successor on 13 March. He chose Francis as his papal name in honour of Saint Francis of Assisi. Throughout his public life, Francis has been noted for his humility, emphasis on God's mercy, international visibility as pope, concern for the poor, and commitment to interreligious dialogue. He is credited with having a less formal approach to the papacy than his predecessors, for instance choosing to reside in the Domus Sanctae Marthae guesthouse rather than in the papal apartments of the Apostolic Palace used by previous popes.

    Francis has made women full members of dicasteries in the Roman Curia.[2][3] He maintains that the Catholic Church should be more sympathetic toward members of the LGBT community and has permitted the blessings of same-sex couples.[4] Francis is a critic of unbridled capitalism, consumerism, and overdevelopment;[5] he has made action on climate change a leading focus of his papacy.[6] Widely interpreted as denouncing the death penalty as intrinsically evil,[7] he has termed it "an attack on the inviolability and dignity of the person", "inadmissible", and committed the Church to its abolition,[8] saying that there can be "no going back from this position".[9]

    In international diplomacy, Francis has criticized the rise of right-wing populism, called for the decriminalization of homosexuality,[10] helped to restore full diplomatic relations between the United States and Cuba, negotiated a deal with China to define how much influence the Communist Party has in appointing Chinese bishops, and has supported the cause of refugees during the European and Central American migrant crises, calling on the Western World to significantly increase immigration levels.[11][12] In 2022, he apologized for the Church's role in the "cultural genocide" of the Canadian indigenous peoples.[13] On 4 October 2023, Francis convened the beginnings of the Synod on Synodality, described as the culmination of his papacy and the most important event in the Catholic Church since the Second Vatican Council.[3][14][15]

    1. ^ Scarisbrick, Veronica (18 March 2013). "Pope Francis: "Miserando atque eligendo"..." Vatican Radio. Archived from the original on 5 July 2013. Retrieved 19 March 2013.
    2. ^ Dallas, Kelsey (3 October 2023). "The pope's latest comments on same-sex marriage, explained". Deseret News. Archived from the original on 7 October 2023. Retrieved 4 October 2023.
    3. ^ a b Faiola, Andy; Boorstein, Michelle; Brady, Kate (2 October 2023). "Amid liberal revolt, pope signals openness to blessings for gay couples". Washington Post. Archived from the original on 4 October 2023. Retrieved 7 October 2023.
    4. ^ Graham, Ruth; Harmon, Amy (18 December 2023). "American Catholics Split on Pope's Blessing for Gay Couples". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 19 December 2023.
    5. ^ Davies, Lizzy (15 December 2013). "Pope says he is not a Marxist, but defends criticism of capitalism". The Guardian. Rome, Italy. Archived from the original on 15 December 2013.
    6. ^ Sherwood, Harriet (7 September 2021). "Christian leaders unite to issue stark warning over climate crisis". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 7 September 2021. Retrieved 7 September 2021.
    7. ^ Trabbic, Joseph G. (16 August 2018). "Capital punishment: Intrinsically evil or morally permissible?". Catholic World Report. Archived from the original on 23 December 2023. Retrieved 4 October 2023.
    8. ^ "New revision of number 2267 of the Catechism of the Catholic Church on the death penalty – Rescriptum "ex Audentia SS.mi"". press.vatican.va. Archived from the original on 4 October 2023. Retrieved 1 October 2023.
    9. ^ Cite error: The named reference Pullella-2023 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    10. ^ "The AP Interview: Pope Francis: Homosexuality not a crime". AP News. 25 January 2023. Archived from the original on 25 January 2023. Retrieved 25 January 2023.
    11. ^ Rocca, Francis X. (22 September 2023). "Pope Francis Calls Protection of Migrants a Duty of Civilization". WSJ. Archived from the original on 30 September 2023. Retrieved 4 October 2023.
    12. ^ Lauter, David; Bierman, Noah (18 February 2016). "Trump and Pope Francis clash over immigration, another extraordinary campaign twist". Los Angeles Times. Archived from the original on 20 June 2018. Retrieved 20 April 2018.
    13. ^ Horowitz, Jason (30 July 2022). "Francis Calls Abuse of Indigenous People in Canada a 'Genocide'". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on 7 November 2023. Retrieved 7 October 2023.
    14. ^ Horowitz, Jason; Povoledo, Elisabetta (2 October 2023). "What Is a Synod in the Catholic Church? And Why Does This One Matter?". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on 13 November 2023. Retrieved 7 October 2023.
    15. ^ Horowitz, Jason (2 October 2023). "Vatican Assembly Puts the Church's Most Sensitive Issues on the Table". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on 7 October 2023. Retrieved 7 October 2023.


    Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

     
  16. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    13 March 2013Pope Francis is elected, in the papal conclave, as the 266th Pope of the Catholic Church.

    Pope Francis

    Pope Francis (Latin: Franciscus; Italian: Francesco; Spanish: Francisco; born Jorge Mario Bergoglio;[b] 17 December 1936) is the head of the Catholic Church, the bishop of Rome and sovereign of the Vatican City State. He is the first pope to be a member of the Society of Jesus (Jesuits), the first one from the Americas, the first one from the Southern Hemisphere, and the first one born or raised outside Europe since the 8th-century papacy of the Syrian Pope Gregory III.

    Born in Buenos Aires, Argentina, Bergoglio worked for a time as a bouncer and a janitor as a young man before training to be a chemist and working as a technician in a food science laboratory. After recovering from a severe illness of pneumonia and cysts, he was inspired to join the Jesuits in 1958. He was ordained a Catholic priest in 1969, and from 1973 to 1979 was the Jesuit provincial superior in Argentina. He became the Archbishop of Buenos Aires in 1998 and was created a cardinal in 2001 by Pope John Paul II. He led the Argentine Church during the December 2001 riots in Argentina. The administrations of Néstor Kirchner and Cristina Fernández de Kirchner considered him to be a political rival.

    Following the resignation of Pope Benedict XVI on 28 February 2013, a papal conclave elected Bergoglio as his successor on 13 March. He chose Francis as his papal name in honour of Saint Francis of Assisi. Throughout his public life, Francis has been noted for his humility, emphasis on God's mercy, international visibility as pope, concern for the poor, and commitment to interreligious dialogue. He is credited with having a less formal approach to the papacy than his predecessors, for instance choosing to reside in the Domus Sanctae Marthae guesthouse rather than in the papal apartments of the Apostolic Palace used by previous popes.

    Francis has made women full members of dicasteries in the Roman Curia.[2][3] He maintains that the Catholic Church should be more sympathetic toward members of the LGBT community and has permitted the blessings of same-sex couples.[4] Francis is a critic of unbridled capitalism, consumerism, and overdevelopment;[5] he has made action on climate change a leading focus of his papacy.[6] Widely interpreted as denouncing the death penalty as intrinsically evil,[7] he has termed it "an attack on the inviolability and dignity of the person", "inadmissible", and committed the Church to its abolition,[8] saying that there can be "no going back from this position".[9]

    In international diplomacy, Francis has criticized the rise of right-wing populism, called for the decriminalization of homosexuality,[10] helped to restore full diplomatic relations between the United States and Cuba, negotiated a deal with China to define how much influence the Communist Party has in appointing Chinese bishops, and has supported the cause of refugees during the European and Central American migrant crises, calling on the Western World to significantly increase immigration levels.[11][12] In 2022, he apologized for the Church's role in the "cultural genocide" of the Canadian indigenous peoples.[13] On 4 October 2023, Francis convened the beginnings of the Synod on Synodality, described as the culmination of his papacy and the most important event in the Catholic Church since the Second Vatican Council.[3][14][15]

    1. ^ Scarisbrick, Veronica (18 March 2013). "Pope Francis: "Miserando atque eligendo"..." Vatican Radio. Archived from the original on 5 July 2013. Retrieved 19 March 2013.
    2. ^ Dallas, Kelsey (3 October 2023). "The pope's latest comments on same-sex marriage, explained". Deseret News. Archived from the original on 7 October 2023. Retrieved 4 October 2023.
    3. ^ a b Faiola, Andy; Boorstein, Michelle; Brady, Kate (2 October 2023). "Amid liberal revolt, pope signals openness to blessings for gay couples". Washington Post. Archived from the original on 4 October 2023. Retrieved 7 October 2023.
    4. ^ Graham, Ruth; Harmon, Amy (18 December 2023). "American Catholics Split on Pope's Blessing for Gay Couples". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 19 December 2023.
    5. ^ Davies, Lizzy (15 December 2013). "Pope says he is not a Marxist, but defends criticism of capitalism". The Guardian. Rome, Italy. Archived from the original on 15 December 2013.
    6. ^ Sherwood, Harriet (7 September 2021). "Christian leaders unite to issue stark warning over climate crisis". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 7 September 2021. Retrieved 7 September 2021.
    7. ^ Trabbic, Joseph G. (16 August 2018). "Capital punishment: Intrinsically evil or morally permissible?". Catholic World Report. Archived from the original on 23 December 2023. Retrieved 4 October 2023.
    8. ^ "New revision of number 2267 of the Catechism of the Catholic Church on the death penalty – Rescriptum "ex Audentia SS.mi"". press.vatican.va. Archived from the original on 4 October 2023. Retrieved 1 October 2023.
    9. ^ Cite error: The named reference Pullella-2023 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    10. ^ "The AP Interview: Pope Francis: Homosexuality not a crime". AP News. 25 January 2023. Archived from the original on 25 January 2023. Retrieved 25 January 2023.
    11. ^ Rocca, Francis X. (22 September 2023). "Pope Francis Calls Protection of Migrants a Duty of Civilization". WSJ. Archived from the original on 30 September 2023. Retrieved 4 October 2023.
    12. ^ Lauter, David; Bierman, Noah (18 February 2016). "Trump and Pope Francis clash over immigration, another extraordinary campaign twist". Los Angeles Times. Archived from the original on 20 June 2018. Retrieved 20 April 2018.
    13. ^ Horowitz, Jason (30 July 2022). "Francis Calls Abuse of Indigenous People in Canada a 'Genocide'". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on 7 November 2023. Retrieved 7 October 2023.
    14. ^ Horowitz, Jason; Povoledo, Elisabetta (2 October 2023). "What Is a Synod in the Catholic Church? And Why Does This One Matter?". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on 13 November 2023. Retrieved 7 October 2023.
    15. ^ Horowitz, Jason (2 October 2023). "Vatican Assembly Puts the Church's Most Sensitive Issues on the Table". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on 7 October 2023. Retrieved 7 October 2023.


    Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

     
  17. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    14 March 1964 – A jury in Dallas finds Jack Ruby guilty of killing Lee Harvey Oswald, the assumed assassin of John F. Kennedy.

    Jack Ruby

    Jack Leon Ruby (born Jacob Leon Rubenstein; c.[1][2] March 25, 1911 – January 3, 1967) was an American nightclub owner who murdered Lee Harvey Oswald on November 24, 1963, two days after Oswald was accused of the assassination of President John F. Kennedy. Ruby shot and mortally wounded Oswald on live television in the basement of Dallas Police Headquarters and was immediately arrested. In a trial, Ruby was found guilty and sentenced to death. The conviction was appealed, and he was to be granted a new trial, but Ruby became ill, was diagnosed with cancer, and died of a pulmonary embolism on January 3, 1967.

    In 1964, the Warren Commission concluded that Ruby acted alone in killing Oswald, that Ruby shot Oswald on impulse and in retaliation for the Kennedy assassination. The commission's findings are challenged by various critics who hypothesize that Ruby was part of a conspiracy surrounding the Kennedy assassination.

    1. ^ a b Birth records were not officially kept in Chicago prior to 1915, and among school records, driver's licenses, and arrest records, there were six different dates, ranging from March to June 1911.
    2. ^ a b Cite error: The named reference dob2 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    3. ^ "Jack Ruby sentenced to death for murdering Lee Harvey Oswald".
     
  18. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    15 March 1888 – Start of the Anglo-Tibetan War of 1888.

    Sikkim expedition

    The Sikkim expedition (Chinese: 隆吐山戰役; pinyin: Lóngtǔ Shān Zhànyì; lit. 'Battle of the Longtu Mountain') was an 1888 British military expedition to expel Tibetan forces from the Kingdom of Sikkim. The roots of the conflict lay in British–Tibetan competition for suzerainty over Sikkim.[citation needed]

     
  19. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    16 March 1988Iran–Contra affair: Lieutenant Colonel Oliver North and Vice Admiral John Poindexter are indicted on charges of conspiracy to defraud the United States.

    Iran–Contra affair

    The Iran–Contra affair (Persian: ماجرای ایران-کنترا; Spanish: Caso Irán-Contra), often referred to as the Iran–Contra scandal, was a political scandal in the United States that occurred during the second term of the Reagan administration. Between 1981 and 1986, senior administration officials secretly facilitated the illegal sale of arms to Iran, which was subject to an arms embargo at the time.[1] The administration hoped to use the proceeds of the arms sale to fund the Contras, an anti-Sandinista rebel group in Nicaragua. Under the Boland Amendment, further funding of the Contras by legislative appropriations was prohibited by Congress, but the Reagan administration figured out a loophole by secretively using non-appropriated funds instead.

    The official justification for the arms shipments was that they were part of an operation to free seven US hostages being held in Lebanon by Hezbollah, an Islamist paramilitary group with Iranian ties connected to the Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps.[2] The idea to exchange arms for hostages was proposed by Manucher Ghorbanifar, an expatriate Iranian arms dealer.[3][4][5] Some within the Reagan administration hoped the sales would influence Iran to get Hezbollah to release the hostages.

    In late 1985, Lieutenant Colonel Oliver North of the National Security Council (NSC) diverted a portion of the proceeds from the Iranian weapon sales to fund the Contras, a group of anti-Sandinista National Liberation Front (FSLN) rebels, in their insurgency against the socialist government of Nicaragua. North later claimed that Ghorbanifar had given him the idea for diverting profits from BGM-71 TOW and MIM-23 Hawk missile sales to Iran to the Nicaraguan Contras.[6] While President Ronald Reagan was a vocal supporter of the Contra cause,[7] the evidence is disputed as to whether he personally authorized the diversion of funds to the Contras.[2] Handwritten notes taken by Defense Secretary Caspar Weinberger on 7 December 1985 indicate that Reagan was aware of potential hostage transfers with Iran, by Israel, as well as the sale of Hawk and TOW missiles to "moderate elements" within that country.[8][original research?] Weinberger wrote that Reagan said "he could answer charges of illegality but he couldn't answer charge [sic] that 'big strong President Reagan passed up a chance to free hostages.'"[8] After the weapon sales were revealed in November 1986, Reagan appeared on national television and stated that the weapons transfers had indeed occurred, but that the US did not trade arms for hostages.[9] The investigation was impeded when large volumes of documents relating to the affair were destroyed or withheld from investigators by Reagan administration officials.[10] On 4 March 1987, Reagan made a further nationally televised address, saying he was taking full responsibility for the affair and stating that "what began as a strategic opening to Iran deteriorated, in its implementation, into trading arms for hostages."[11]

    The affair was investigated by Congress and by the three-person, Reagan-appointed Tower Commission. Neither investigation found evidence that President Reagan himself knew of the extent of the multiple programs.[2] Additionally, US Deputy Attorney General Lawrence Walsh was appointed Independent Counsel in December 1986 to investigate possible criminal actions by officials involved in the scheme. In the end, several dozen administration officials were indicted, including then-Secretary of Defense Caspar Weinberger. Eleven convictions resulted, some of which were vacated on appeal.[12]

    The rest of those indicted or convicted were all pardoned in the final days of the presidency of George H. W. Bush, who had been vice president at the time of the affair.[13] Former Independent Counsel Walsh noted that, in issuing the pardons, Bush appeared to have been preempting being implicated himself by evidence that came to light during the Weinberger trial and noted that there was a pattern of "deception and obstruction" by Bush, Weinberger, and other senior Reagan administration officials.[14] Walsh submitted his final report on 4 August 1993[15] and later wrote an account of his experiences as counsel, Firewall: The Iran-Contra Conspiracy and Cover-Up.[14]

    1. ^ The Iran-Contra Affair 20 Years On. The National Security Archive (George Washington University), 2006-11-24
    2. ^ a b c "Reagan's mixed White House legacy". BBC. 6 June 2004. Retrieved 22 April 2008.
    3. ^ Cite error: The named reference plain-and-simple was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    4. ^ Abshire, David (2005). Saving the Reagan Presidency: Trust Is the Coin of the Realm. Texas A&M University Press. ISBN 9781603446204.
    5. ^ Valentine, Douglas (2008). Reagan, Bush, Gorbachev: Revisiting the End of the Cold War. Praeger Security International. ISBN 9780313352416.
    6. ^ Rozen, Laura (21 March 2005). "The Front".
    7. ^ Reagan 1990, p. 542.
    8. ^ a b "Weinberger Diaries Dec 7 handwritten" (PDF). National Security Archive. George Washington University.
    9. ^ Reagan, Ronald (13 November 1986). "Address to the Nation on the Iran Arms and Contra Aid Controversy". Ronald Reagan Presidential Foundation. Retrieved 7 June 2008.
    10. ^ "Excerpts From the Iran-Contra Report: A Secret Foreign Policy". The New York Times. 1994. Retrieved 7 June 2008.
    11. ^ Reagan, Ronald (4 March 1987). "Address to the Nation on the Iran Arms and Contra Aid Controversy". Ronald Reagan Presidential Foundation. Retrieved 7 June 2008.
    12. ^ Dwyer, Paula. "Pointing a Finger at Reagan". Business Week. Archived from the original on 16 April 2008. Retrieved 22 April 2008.
    13. ^ "Pardons Granted by President George H. W. Bush (1989-1993)". U.S. Department of Justice. 12 January 2015. Archived from the original on 23 December 2020. Retrieved 22 December 2020.
    14. ^ a b Walsh, Lawrence E. (1997). Firewall: The Iran-Contra Conspiracy and Cover-up. New York: Norton & Company. p. 290.
    15. ^ Walsh 1993.
     
  20. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    17 March 1958 – The United States launches the Vanguard 1 satellite.

    Vanguard 1

    Vanguard 1 (Harvard designation: 1958-Beta 2,[3] COSPAR ID: 1958-002B[1]) is an American satellite that was the fourth artificial Earth-orbiting satellite to be successfully launched, following Sputnik 1, Sputnik 2, and Explorer 1. It was launched 17 March 1958. Vanguard 1 was the first satellite to have solar electric power.[4] Although communications with the satellite were lost in 1964, it remains the oldest human-made object still in orbit, together with the upper stage of its launch vehicle.[1]

    Vanguard 1 was designed to test the launch capabilities of a three-stage launch vehicle as a part of Project Vanguard, and the effects of the space environment on a satellite and its systems in Earth orbit. It also was used to obtain geodetic measurements through orbit analysis.[5] Vanguard 1, being small and light enough to carry with one hand, was described by the Soviet Premier, Nikita Khrushchev, as "the grapefruit satellite".[6]

    1. ^ a b c d "Display: Vanguard 1 1958-002B". NASA. 14 May 2020. Retrieved 1 February 2021. Public Domain This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.
    2. ^ "Vanguard 1 Satellite details 1958-002B NORAD 00005". N2YO. Retrieved 1 February 2021.
    3. ^ "U.S. Space Objects Registry". Archived from the original on 6 October 2013. Retrieved 25 June 2009. Public Domain This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.
    4. ^ "Vanguard I The World's Oldest Satellite Still in Orbit". Archived from the original on 21 March 2015. Retrieved 24 September 2007. Public Domain This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.
    5. ^ O'Keefe, J. A.; Eckeis, Ann; Squires, R. K. (1959). "Vanguard Measurements Give Pear-Shaped Component of Earth's Figure". Science. 129 (3348): 565–566. doi:10.1126/science.129.3348.565.
    6. ^ "Vanguard I – The World's Oldest Satellite Still in Orbit". Spacecraft Engineering Department, U.S. Navy. Archived from the original on 19 September 2008. Public Domain This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.
     
  21. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

  22. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    19 March 1962 – Algerian War of Independence ends.

    Algerian War

    The Algerian War (also known as the Algerian Revolution or the Algerian War of Independence)[nb 1] was a major armed conflict between France and the Algerian National Liberation Front (FLN) from 1954 to 1962, which led to Algeria winning its independence from France.[33] An important decolonization war, it was a complex conflict characterized by guerrilla warfare and war crimes. The conflict also became a civil war between the different communities and within the communities.[34] The war took place mainly on the territory of Algeria, with repercussions in metropolitan France.

    Effectively started by members of the National Liberation Front (FLN) on 1 November 1954, during the Toussaint Rouge ("Red All Saints' Day"), the conflict led to serious political crises in France, causing the fall of the Fourth Republic (1946–58), to be replaced by the Fifth Republic with a strengthened presidency. The brutality of the methods employed by the French forces failed to win hearts and minds in Algeria, alienated support in metropolitan France, and discredited French prestige abroad.[35][36] As the war dragged on, the French public slowly turned against it[37] and many of France's key allies, including the United States, switched from supporting France to abstaining in the UN debate on Algeria.[38] After major demonstrations in Algiers and several other cities in favor of independence (1960)[39][40] and a United Nations resolution recognizing the right to independence,[41] Charles de Gaulle, the first president of the Fifth Republic, decided to open a series of negotiations with the FLN. These concluded with the signing of the Évian Accords in March 1962. A referendum took place on 8 April 1962 and the French electorate approved the Évian Accords. The final result was 91% in favor of the ratification of this agreement[42] and on 1 July, the Accords were subject to a second referendum in Algeria, where 99.72% voted for independence and just 0.28% against.[43]

    The planned French withdrawal led to a state crisis. This included various assassination attempts on de Gaulle as well as some attempts at military coups. Most of the former were carried out by the Organisation armée secrète (OAS), an underground organization formed mainly from French military personnel supporting a French Algeria, which committed a large number of bombings and murders both in Algeria and in the homeland to stop the planned independence.

    The war caused the deaths of between 400,000 and 1,500,000 Algerians,[44][28][26] 25,600 French soldiers,[20]: 538  and 6,000 Europeans. War crimes committed during the war included massacres of civilians, rape, and torture; the French destroyed over 8,000 villages and relocated over 2 million Algerians to concentration camps.[45][46] Upon independence in 1962, 900,000 European-Algerians (Pieds-noirs) fled to France within a few months in fear of the FLN's revenge. The French government was unprepared to receive such a vast number of refugees, which caused turmoil in France. The majority of Algerian Muslims who had worked for the French were disarmed and left behind, as the agreement between French and Algerian authorities declared that no actions could be taken against them.[47] However, the Harkis in particular, having served as auxiliaries with the French army, were regarded as traitors and many were murdered [fr] by the FLN or by lynch mobs, often after being abducted and tortured.[20]: 537 [48] About 20,000 Harki families (around 90,000 people) managed to flee to France,[49] some with help from their French officers acting against orders, and today they and their descendants form a significant part of the population of Algerians in France.

    1. ^ a b Windrow, Martin; Chappell, Mike (1997). The Algerian War 1954–62. Osprey Publishing. p. 11. ISBN 9781855326583.
    2. ^ Introduction to Comparative Politics, by Mark Kesselman, Joel Krieger, William Joseph, page 108
    3. ^ Alexander Cooley, Hendrik Spruyt. Contracting States: Sovereign Transfers in International Relations. Page 63.
    4. ^ George Bernard Noble. Christian A. Herter: The American Secretaries of State and Their Diplomacy. Page 155.
    5. ^ Robert J. C. Young (12 October 2016). Postcolonialism: An Historical Introduction. Wiley. p. 300. ISBN 978-1-118-89685-3. the French lost their Algerian empire in military and political defeat by the FLN, just as they lost their empire in China in defeat by Giap and Ho Chi Minh.
    6. ^ R. Aldrich (10 December 2004). Vestiges of Colonial Empire in France. Palgrave Macmillan UK. p. 156. ISBN 978-0-230-00552-5. For the [French] nation as a whole, commemoration of the Franco-Algerian War is complicated since it ended in defeat (politically, if not strictly militarily) rather than victory.
    7. ^ Alec G. Hargreaves (2005). Memory, Empire, and Postcolonialism: Legacies of French Colonialism. Lexington Books. p. 1. ISBN 978-0-7391-0821-5. The death knell of the French empire was sounded by the bitterly fought Algerian war of independence, which ended in 1962.
    8. ^ "The French defeat in the war effectively signaled the end of the French Empire". Jo McCormack (2010). Collective Memory: France and the Algerian War (1954–1962).
    9. ^ Paul Allatson; Jo McCormack (2008). Exile Cultures, Misplaced Identities. Rodopi. p. 117. ISBN 978-90-420-2406-9. The Algerian War came to an end in 1962, and with it closed some 130 years of French colonial presence in Algeria (and North Africa). With this outcome, the French Empire, celebrated in pomp in Paris in the Exposition coloniale of 1931 ... received its decisive death blow.
    10. ^ Yves Beigbeder (2006). Judging War Crimes And Torture: French Justice And International Criminal Tribunals And Commissions (1940–2005). Martinus Nijhoff Publishers. p. 35. ISBN 978-90-04-15329-5. The independence of Algeria in 1962, after a long and bitter war, marked the end of the French Empire.
    11. ^ France's Colonial Legacies: Memory, Identity and Narrative. University of Wales Press. 15 October 2013. p. 111. ISBN 978-1-78316-585-8. The difficult relationship which France has with the period of history dominated by the Algerian war has been well documented. The reluctance, which ended only in 1999, to acknowledge 'les évenements' as a war, the shame over the fate of the harki detachments, the amnesty covering many of the deeds committed during the war and the humiliation of a colonial defeat which marked the end of the French empire are just some of the reasons why France has preferred to look towards a Eurocentric future, rather than confront the painful aspects of its colonial past.
    12. ^ Ottaway, David; Ottaway, Marina (25 March 2022). Algeria: The Politics of a Socialist Revolution. Univ of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-35711-2.
    13. ^ Stora, Benjamin (2004). Algeria 1830-2000: A Short History. p. 101. ISBN 0-8014-8916-4.
    14. ^ General Faivre, Les combatants musulmans de la guerre d'Algérie, L'Harmattan, 1995, p.125
    15. ^ Major Gregory D. Peterson, The French Experience in Algeria, 1954–62: Blueprint for U.S. Operations in Iraq, p.33
    16. ^ "Algérie : Une guerre d'appelés". Le Figaro. 19 March 2012.
    17. ^ Travis, Hannibal (2013). Genocide, Ethnonationalism, and the United Nations: Exploring the Causes of Mass Killing Since 1945. Routledge. p. 137.
    18. ^ Martin S. Alexander; Martin Evans; J. F. V. Keiger (2002). "The 'War without a Name', the French Army and the Algerians: Recovering Experiences, Images and Testimonies". Algerian War and the French Army, 1954-62: Experiences, Images, Testimonies (PDF). Palgrave Macmillan. p. 6. ISBN 978-0333774564. The Algerian Ministry of War Veterans gives the figure of 152,863 FLN killed.
    19. ^ Katherine Draper (2013). "Why a War Without a Name May Need One: Policy-Based Application of International Humanitarian Law in the Algerian War" (PDF). Texas International Law Journal. 48 (3): 576. Archived from the original (PDF) on 7 November 2016. The Algerian Ministry of War Veterans calculates 152,863 Front de Libération Nationale (FLN) deaths (French sources), and although the death toll among Algerian civilians may never be accurately known estimate of 1,500,000 to 2,000,000 were killed.
    20. ^ a b c d e Horne, Alistair (1978). A Savage War of Peace: Algeria 1954–1962. New York Review of Books. p. 358. ISBN 9781590172186.
    21. ^ "Déclaration de M. Emmanuel Macron, président de la République, sur le 60ème anniversaire des accords d'Évian et la guerre d'Algérie, à Paris le 19 mars 2022".
    22. ^ Stapleton, T.J. (2013). A Military History of Africa. ABC-CLIO. pp. 1–272. ISBN 9780313395703. Retrieved 13 January 2017.
    23. ^ Encyclopedia of Violence, Peace and Conflict: Po – Z, index. 3, Academic Press, 1999 (ISBN 9780122270109, lire en ligne [archive]), p. 86.
    24. ^ Crandall, R., America's Dirty Wars: Irregular Warfare from 1776 to the War on Terror, Cambridge University Press, 2014 (ISBN 9781139915823, lire en ligne [archive]), p. 184.
    25. ^ From "Algeria: War of independence". Mass Atrocity Endings.:

      He also argues that the least controversial of all the numbers put forward by various groups are those concerning the French soldiers, where government numbers are largely accepted as sound. Most controversial are the numbers of civilians killed. On this subject, he turns to the work of Meynier, who, citing French army documents (not the official number) posits the range of 55,000–60,000 deaths. Meynier further argues that the best number to capture the harkis deaths is 30,000. If we add to this, the number of European civilians, which government figures posit as 2,788.

      Meynier's work cited was: Meynier, Gilbert. "Histoire intérieure du FLN. 1954–1962".

    26. ^ a b Rummel, Rudolph J. "STATISTICS OF DEMOCIDE Chapter 14 THE HORDE OF CENTI-KILO MURDERERS Estimates, Calculations, And Sources". Table 14.1 B; row 664.
    27. ^ Rummel, Rudolph J. "STATISTICS OF DEMOCIDE Chapter 14 THE HORDE OF CENTI-KILO MURDERERS Estimates, Calculations, And Sources". Table 14.1 B; row 694.
    28. ^ a b c "France remembers the Algerian War, 50 years on". 16 March 2012.
    29. ^ Cutts, M.; Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (2000). The State of the World's Refugees, 2000: Fifty Years of Humanitarian Action. Oxford University Press. p. 38. ISBN 9780199241040. Retrieved 13 January 2017. Referring to Evans, Martin. 2012. Algeria: France's Undeclared War. New York: Oxford University Press.
    30. ^ Hobson, Faure L. (2009). "The Migration of Jews from Algeria to France: An Opportunity for French Jews to Recover Their Independence in the Face of American Judaism in Postwar France?". Archives Juives. 42 (2): 67–81. doi:10.3917/aj.422.0067.
    31. ^ Cite error: The named reference Fabien was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    32. ^ "Algeria – The Revolution and Social Change". countrystudies.us. Retrieved 13 January 2017.
    33. ^ Matthew James Connelly (2002). A Diplomatic Revolution: Algeria's Fight for Independence and the Origins of the Post-cold War Era. Oxford University Press. pp. 263–277. ISBN 978-0-19-514513-7. The Algerians' victory enabled the French to become free--free from their colonial charges, and free from the United States....... Although France was obviously eager to get out, it had to accept the terms of its defeat.

      Robert Malley (20 November 1996). The Call From Algeria: Third Worldism, Revolution, and the Turn to Islam. University of California Press. p. 81. ISBN 978-0-520-91702-6. Then, in 1962, came the FLN's victory in Algeria, a defining moment in the history of the Third Worldism, for the battle had lasted so long, had been so violent, and had been won by a movement so acutely aware of its international dimension.

      Ruud van Dijk; William Glenn Gray; Svetlana Savranskaya (13 May 2013). Encyclopedia of the Cold War. Routledge. p. 16. ISBN 978-1-135-92311-2. During this war of independence, Algeria was at the center of world politics. The FLN's victory made the country one of the most prominent in the Third World during the 1960s and 1970s.
    34. ^ Guy Pervillé, Pour une histoire de la guerre d´Algérie, chap. "Une double guerre civile", Picard, 2002, pp.132–139
    35. ^ Keith Brannum. "The Victory Without Laurels: The French Military Tragedy in Algeria (1954–1962)" (PDF). University of North Carolina Asheville. Archived from the original (PDF) on 26 October 2014.
    36. ^ Irwin M. Wall (20 July 2001). France, the United States, and the Algerian War. University of California Press. pp. 68–69. ISBN 9780520925687.
    37. ^ Benjamin Stora (2004). Algeria, 1830-2000: A Short History. Cornell University Press. p. 87. ISBN 0-8014-8916-4.
    38. ^ Mathilde Von Bulow (22 August 2016). West Germany, Cold War Europe and the Algerian War. Cambridge University Press. p. 170. ISBN 978-1-107-08859-7.
    39. ^ Stora, Benjamin (2004). Algeria, 1830-2000: A Short History. Cornell University Press. ISBN 978-0801489167.
    40. ^ Pervillé, G. (2012). Les accords d'Evian (1962): Succès ou échec de la réconciliation franco-algérienne (1954–2012). Armand Colin. ISBN 9782200281977. Retrieved 13 January 2017.
    41. ^ "Document officiel des Nations Unies". un.org. Retrieved 13 January 2017.
    42. ^ "référendum 1962 Algérie". france-politique.fr. Retrieved 13 January 2017.
    43. ^ "Proclamation des résultats du référendum d'autodétermination du 1er juillet 1962" (PDF). Journal Officiel de l'État Algérien. 6 July 1962. Retrieved 8 April 2009.
    44. ^ "Ombres et lumières de la révolution algérienne". Le Monde diplomatique (in French). 1 November 1982. Retrieved 9 February 2018.
    45. ^ Kevin Shillington (2013). Encyclopedia of African History 3-Volume Set. Routledge. p. 60. ISBN 978-1-135-45670-2. The Algerian war for independence had lasted eight years. More than 8,000 villages had been destroyed in the fighting. Some three million people were displaced, and more than one million Algerians and some 10,000 colons lost their lives.
    46. ^ Cite error: The named reference Aoudjit was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    47. ^ Évian accords, Chapitre II, partie A, article 2
    48. ^ See http://www.aljazeera.com/news/2015/05/qa-happened-algeria-harkis-150531082955192.html and Pierre Daum's "The Last Taboo: Harkis Who Stayed in Algeria After 1962". November 2017
    49. ^ Ghosh, Palash (2 April 2012). "France-Algeria: 50 Years After Independence, What Happened To The Harkis?". International Business Times.


    Cite error: There are <ref group=nb> tags on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=nb}} template (see the help page).

     
  23. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    20 March 1987 – The Food and Drug Administration approves the anti-AIDS drug, AZT.

    Zidovudine

    Zidovudine (ZDV), also known as azidothymidine (AZT), was the first antiretroviral medication used to prevent and treat HIV/AIDS. It is generally recommended for use in combination with other antiretrovirals.[6] It may be used to prevent mother-to-child spread during birth or after a needlestick injury or other potential exposure.[6] It is sold both by itself and together as lamivudine/zidovudine and abacavir/lamivudine/zidovudine.[6] It can be used by mouth or by slow injection into a vein.[6]

    Common side effects include headaches, fever, and nausea.[6] Serious side effects include liver problems, muscle damage, and high blood lactate levels.[6] It is commonly used in pregnancy and appears to be safe for the fetus.[6] ZDV is of the nucleoside analog reverse-transcriptase inhibitor (NRTI) class.[6] It works by inhibiting the enzyme reverse transcriptase that HIV uses to make DNA and therefore decreases replication of the virus.[6]

    Zidovudine was first described in 1964.[7] It was resynthesized from a public-domain formula by Burroughs Wellcome.[8] It was approved in the United States in 1987 and was the first treatment for HIV.[6][9] It is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines.[10][11] It is available as a generic medication.[6]

    1. ^ "FDA-sourced list of all drugs with black box warnings (Use Download Full Results and View Query links.)". nctr-crs.fda.gov. FDA. Retrieved October 22, 2023.
    2. ^ "Retrovir 100mg Capsules - Summary of Product Characteristics (SmPC)". (emc). December 14, 2018. Retrieved January 23, 2021.
    3. ^ "Retrovir- zidovudine capsule Retrovir- zidovudine solution Retrovir- zidovudine injection, solution". DailyMed. Retrieved January 23, 2021.
    4. ^ "Active substance: Zidovudine" (PDF). European Medicines Agency. November 30, 2017.
    5. ^ "Zidovudine". PubChem Public Chemical Database. NCBI. Archived from the original on October 25, 2012. Retrieved April 10, 2011.
    6. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k "Zidovudine". The American Society of Health-System Pharmacists. Archived from the original on December 21, 2016. Retrieved November 28, 2016.
    7. ^ Fischer J, Ganellin CR (2006). Analogue-based Drug Discovery. John Wiley & Sons. p. 505. ISBN 9783527607495. Archived from the original on September 8, 2017.
    8. ^ Linda Marsa, 'Toxic Hope', Los Angeles Times, 20 June 1993
    9. ^ Reeves JD, Derdeyn CA (2007). Entry Inhibitors in HIV Therapy. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 179. ISBN 9783764377830.
    10. ^ World Health Organization (2019). World Health Organization model list of essential medicines: 21st list 2019. Geneva: World Health Organization. hdl:10665/325771. WHO/MVP/EMP/IAU/2019.06. License: CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 IGO.
    11. ^ World Health Organization (2021). World Health Organization model list of essential medicines: 22nd list (2021). Geneva: World Health Organization. hdl:10665/345533. WHO/MHP/HPS/EML/2021.02.
     
  24. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    21 March 1963Alcatraz Federal Penitentiary (in California) closes

    Alcatraz Federal Penitentiary

    United States Penitentiary, Alcatraz Island, also known simply as Alcatraz (English: /ˈælkəˌtræz/, Spanish: [alkaˈtɾas] "the gannet") or The Rock, was a maximum security federal prison on Alcatraz Island, 1.25 miles (2.01 km) off the coast of San Francisco, California, United States. The site of a fort since the 1850s, the main prison building was built in 1910–12 as a U.S. Army military prison.

    The United States Department of Justice acquired the United States Disciplinary Barracks, Pacific Branch, on Alcatraz on October 12, 1933. The island became adapted and used as a prison of the Federal Bureau of Prisons in August 1934 after the buildings were modernized and security increased. Given this high security and the island's location in the cold waters and strong currents of San Francisco Bay, prison operators believed Alcatraz to be escape-proof and America's most secure prison.

    The three-story cellhouse included the four main cell blocks – A-block through D-block – the warden's office, visitation room, the library, and the barber shop. The prison cells typically measured 9 feet (2.7 m) by 5 ft (1.5 m) and 7 ft (2.1 m) high. The cells were primitive and lacked privacy. They were furnished with a bed, desk, washbasin, a toilet on the back wall, and few items other than a blanket. African Americans were segregated from other inmates in cell designation due to racism during the Jim Crow era. D-Block housed the worst inmates, and six cells at its end were designated "The Hole". Prisoners with behavioral problems were sent to these for periods of often brutal punishment. The dining hall and kitchen extended from the main building. Prisoners and staff ate three meals a day together. The Alcatraz Hospital was located above the dining hall.

    Prison corridors were named after major U.S. streets, such as Broadway and Michigan Avenue, of New York and Chicago, respectively. Working at the prison was considered a privilege for inmates. Those who earned privileges were employed in the Model Industries Building and New Industries Building during the day, actively involved in providing for the military in jobs such as sewing and woodwork, and performing various maintenance and laundry chores.

    The prison closed in 1963, but Alcatraz was reopened as a public museum. The island and prison were occupied by Native Americans from 1969 to 1971. It is one of San Francisco's major tourist attractions, attracting some 1.5 million visitors annually. Now operated by the National Park Service's Golden Gate National Recreation Area, the former prison is being restored and maintained.

    1. ^ "Alcatraz Island". Geographic Names Information System. United States Geological Survey, United States Department of the Interior.
    2. ^ "Escapes from Alcatraz Image Gallery: Federal Penitentiary Wardens". San Francisco History. SFgenealogy. Retrieved March 4, 2022.
     
  25. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    22 March 1995Cosmonaut Valeri Polyakov returns to earth after setting a record of 438 days in space.

    Valeri Polyakov

    Valeri Vladimirovich Polyakov (Russian: Валерий Владимирович Поляков, born Valeri Ivanovich Korshunov, Russian: Валерий Иванович Коршунов, 27 April 1942 – 7 September 2022) was a Soviet and Russian cosmonaut. He is the record holder for the longest single stay in space, staying aboard the Mir space station for more than 14 months (437 days 18 hours) during one trip.[1] His combined space experience was more than 22 months.[2]

    Selected as a cosmonaut in 1972, Polyakov made his first flight into space aboard Soyuz TM-6 in 1988. He returned to Earth 240 days later aboard TM-7. Polyakov completed his second flight into space in 1994–1995, spending 437 days in space between launching on Soyuz TM-18 and landing with TM-20, setting the record for the longest time continuously spent in space by an individual.[2]

    1. ^ Schwirtz, Michael (30 March 2009). "Staying Put on Earth, Taking a Step to Mars". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 7 July 2018. Retrieved 15 May 2010.
    2. ^ a b "Valeri Vladimirovich Polyakov". New Mexico Museum of Space History. Archived from the original on 24 April 2020. Retrieved 27 January 2011.
     
  26. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    23 March 1933 – The Reichstag passes the Enabling Act of 1933, making Adolf Hitler dictator of Germany.

    Enabling Act of 1933

    Hitler's Reichstag speech promoting the bill was delivered at the Kroll Opera House, following the Reichstag fire.

    The Enabling Act of 1933 (German: Ermächtigungsgesetz), officially titled Gesetz zur Behebung der Not von Volk und Reich (lit.'Law to Remedy the Distress of People and Reich'),[1] was a law that gave the German Cabinet – most importantly, the Chancellor – the power to make and enforce laws without the involvement of the Reichstag or Weimar President Paul von Hindenburg, leading to the rise of Nazi Germany. Critically, the Enabling Act allowed the Chancellor to bypass the system of checks and balances in the government.

    In January 1933, Adolf Hitler, leader of the Nazi Party, was appointed as chancellor, the head of the German government.[2] On 27 February, the German parliament building – the Reichstagcaught fire.[3] Acting as chancellor, Hitler immediately accused the Communists of being the perpetrators of the fire and claimed the arson was part of a larger effort to overthrow the German government. Using this justification, Hitler persuaded Hindenburg to enact the Reichstag Fire Decree.[4] The decree abolished most civil liberties, including the right to speak, assemble, protest, and due process. Using the decree, the Nazis declared a state of emergency and began a violent crackdown against their political enemies.[5] As Hitler cleared the political arena of anyone willing to challenge him, he contended that the decree was insufficient and required sweeping policies that would safeguard his emerging dictatorship.[6] Hitler submitted a proposal to the Reichstag that if passed would immediately grant all legislative powers to the cabinet and by extension Hitler. This would in effect allow Hitler's government to act without concern to the constitution.[7]

    Despite outlawing the communists and repressing other opponents, the passage of the Enabling Act was not a guarantee. Hitler allied with other nationalist and conservative factions,[8] and they steamrolled over the Social Democrats in the 5 March 1933 German federal election. Germans voted in an atmosphere of extreme voter intimidation perpetrated by the Nazi Sturmabteilung (SA) militia. Contrary to popular belief, Hitler did not win an outright majority in the Reichstag as the majority of Germans did not vote for the Nazi Party.[9] The election was a setback for the Nazis; however, it was insufficient in stopping the ratification of the Enabling Act. In order to guarantee its passage, the Nazis implemented a strategy of coercion, bribery, and manipulation. Hitler removed any remaining political obstacles so his coalition of conservatives, nationalists, and Nazis could begin building the Nazi dictatorship.[10][11] By mid-March, the government began sending communists, labor union leaders, and other political dissidents to Dachau, the first Nazi concentration camp.[12]

    Once the Enabling Act was introduced, it was hastily passed by the Reichstag and Reichsrat on 23 March 1933.[13][14][15] Later that day, the Enabling Act was signed into law by President Paul von Hindenburg.[16] Unless extended by the Reichstag, the act would expire after four years. With the Enabling Act now in force, the cabinet (in practice, the chancellor) could pass and enforce laws without any objection. The combined effect of the Enabling Act and the Reichstag Fire Decree transformed Hitler's government into a legal dictatorship and laid the groundwork for his totalitarian regime. By July, the NSDAP was the only legally permitted party in Germany. The Reichstag from 1933 onward effectively became the rubber stamp parliament that Hitler had desired.[17] The Enabling Act was renewed twice, but was rendered moot when Nazi Germany surrendered to the Allies in 1945, and repealed by a law passed by the occupying powers in September of that year.

    The passing of the Enabling Act is significant in German and world history as it marked the formal transition from the democratic Weimar Republic to the totalitarian Nazi dictatorship. From 1933 onwards, Hitler continued to consolidate and centralize power via purges and propaganda. In 1934, Hitler and Heinrich Himmler began removing non-Nazi officials together with Hitler's rivals within the Nazi Party, culminating in the Night of the Long Knives. Once the purges of the Nazi Party and German government concluded, Hitler had total control over Germany. Armed with the Enabling Act, Hitler could begin German rearmament and achieve his aggressive foreign policy aims which ultimately resulted in the Second World War.

    1. ^ Rabinbach, Anson; Gilman, Sander L. (2013). The Third Reich Sourcebook. University of California Press. p. 52. ISBN 978-0520276833.
    2. ^ "Enabling Act Exhibition" (PDF). German Bundestag.
    3. ^ "The Reichstag fire – Nazi rise to power – National 5 History Revision". BBC Bitesize. Retrieved 12 July 2021.
    4. ^ "The Reichstag Fire Decree (1933)". Nazi Germany. 25 July 2012. Retrieved 12 April 2022.
    5. ^ Kellerhoff, Sven (2016). The Reichstag Fire: The Case Against the Nazi Conspiracy. Stroud: History Press.
    6. ^ "Reichstag Fire Decree". United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. Retrieved 30 August 2022.
    7. ^ Pinfield, Nick (2015). A/AS Level History for AQA Democracy and Nazism: Germany, 1918–1945 Student Book. Cambridge University Press. p. 98.
    8. ^ Jones, Larry (June 2011). "Franz von Papen, Catholic Conservatives, and the Establishment of the Third Reich, 1933–1934". Journal of Modern History. 83 (2): 272–318. doi:10.1086/659103. S2CID 143231402. Retrieved 12 April 2022.
    9. ^ "The 1933 election and Enabling Act – Consolidation of power – WJEC – GCSE History Revision". BBC Bitesize. Retrieved 12 April 2022.
    10. ^ "The role of the conservative elite in the Nazi rise to power – The Holocaust Explained: Designed for schools". 10 April 1933. Retrieved 12 July 2021.
    11. ^ Beck, Hermann (2010). The Fateful Alliance: German Conservatives and Nazis in 1933: TheMachtergreifungin a New Light (new ed.). Berghahn Books. ISBN 978-1-84545-680-1. JSTOR j.ctt9qdcpj.
    12. ^ "Communists to be interned in Dachau". The Guardian. 21 March 1933. Retrieved 12 July 2021.
    13. ^ "The Reichstag Fire and the Enabling Act of March 23, 1933". Britannica Blog. Archived from the original on 11 March 2019. Retrieved 30 March 2017.
    14. ^ von Lüpke-Schwarz, Marc (23 March 2013). "The law that 'enabled' Hitler's dictatorship". Deutsche Welle. Retrieved 9 April 2020.
    15. ^ Mason, K. J. Republic to Reich: A History of Germany 1918–1945. McGraw-Hill.
    16. ^ Kitson, Alison (2001). Germany, 1858–1990: Hope, Terror, and Revival. Oxford University Press. pp. 153–154.[ISBN missing]
    17. ^ Edinger, Lewis J. (April 1953). "German Social Democracy and Hitler's 'National Revolution' of 1933: A Study in Democratic Leadership". World Politics. 5 (3): 330–367. doi:10.2307/2009137. ISSN 1086-3338. JSTOR 2009137. S2CID 153745010.
     
  27. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    24 March 1921 – The 1921 Women's Olympiad begins in Monte Carlo, first international women's sports event

    1921 Women's Olympiad

    Mary Lines
    Lucie Bréard
    Germaine Delapierre
    Frédérique Kussel
    Violette Morris

    The 1921 Women's Olympiad Olympiades Féminines and Jeux Olympiques Féminins[2] was the first international women's sports event, a 5-day multi-sport event organised by Alice Milliat and held on 24–31 March[3] 1921 in Monte Carlo[4] at the International Sporting Club of Monaco.[5] The tournament was formally called 1er Meeting International d'Education Physique Féminine de Sports Athlétiques.[6] It was the first of three Women's Olympiads or "Monte Carlo Games" held annually at the venue, and the forerunner of the quadrennial Women's World Games, organised in 1922–34 by the International Women's Sports Federation founded by Milliat later in 1921.[7]

    1. ^ "Athletics in the First Half of the 20th Century" (PDF). IAAF. 2018. p. 27. Retrieved 23 March 2021.
    2. ^ Cite error: The named reference iaaf2008 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    3. ^ Sources:
    4. ^ Sources:
    5. ^ Sources:
    6. ^ Sources:
    7. ^ Sources:
     
  28. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    25 March 1965Civil rights activists led by Martin Luther King Jr. successfully complete their 4-day 50-mile march from Selma to the capitol in Montgomery, Alabama.

    Selma to Montgomery marches

    The Selma to Montgomery marches were three protest marches, held in 1965, along the 54-mile (87 km) highway from Selma, Alabama, to the state capital of Montgomery. The marches were organized by nonviolent activists to demonstrate the desire of African-American citizens to exercise their constitutional right to vote, in defiance of segregationist repression; they were part of a broader voting rights movement underway in Selma and throughout the American South. By highlighting racial injustice, they contributed to passage that year of the Voting Rights Act, a landmark federal achievement of the civil rights movement.

    Since the late 19th century, Southern state legislatures had passed and maintained a series of Jim Crow laws that had disenfranchised the millions of African Americans across the South and enforced racial segregation. The initial voter registration drive, started in 1963 by the African-American Dallas County Voters League (DCVL) and the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC) failed as local White officials arrested the organizers and otherwise harassed Blacks wishing to register to vote. The passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 legally ended segregation but the situation in Selma changed little. The DCVL then invited Rev. Martin Luther King Jr. and the activists of the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC) to amplify the efforts, and these figures drew more prominent people to Alabama. Local and regional protests began in January 1965, with 3,000 people arrested by the end of February. On February 26, activist and deacon Jimmie Lee Jackson died after being shot several days earlier by state trooper James Bonard Fowler during a peaceful march in nearby Marion. To defuse and refocus the Black community's outrage, James Bevel, who was directing SCLC's Selma voting rights movement, called for a march of dramatic length, from Selma to the state capital of Montgomery, calling for an unhindered exercise of the right to vote.[3][page needed][4]

    The first march took place on March 7, 1965, led by figures including Bevel and Amelia Boynton, but was ended by state troopers and county possemen, who charged on about 600 unarmed protesters with batons and tear gas after they crossed the Edmund Pettus Bridge in the direction of Montgomery. The event became known as Bloody Sunday.[5][6] Law enforcement beat Boynton unconscious, and the media publicized worldwide a picture of her lying wounded on the bridge.[7] The second march took place two days later but King cut it short as a federal court issued a temporary injunction against further marches. That night, an anti-civil rights group murdered civil rights activist James Reeb, a Unitarian Universalist minister from Boston.[8] The third march, which started on March 21, was escorted by the Alabama National Guard under federal control, the FBI and federal marshals (segregationist Governor George Wallace refused to protect the protesters). Thousands of marchers averaged 10 mi (16 km) a day along U.S. Route 80 (US 80), reaching Montgomery on March 24. The following day, 25,000 people staged a demonstration on the steps of the Alabama State Capitol.

    The violence of "Bloody Sunday" and Reeb's murder resulted in a national outcry, and the marches were widely discussed in national and international news media. The protesters campaigned for a new federal voting rights law to enable African Americans to register and vote without harassment. President Lyndon B. Johnson seized the opportunity and held a historic, nationally televised joint session of Congress on March 15, asking lawmakers to pass what is now known as the Voting Rights Act of 1965. He enacted it on August 6, removing obstacles for Blacks to register en masse. The march route is memorialized and designated as the Selma to Montgomery National Historic Trail.

    1. ^ Taylor Branch, At Canaan's Edge: America in the King Years 1965–1968
    2. ^ "Swarthmore College Bulletin (July 2014)".
    3. ^ Kryn, Randall (1989). "James L. Bevel: The Strategist of the 1960s Civil Rights Movement". In Garrow, David (ed.). We Shall Overcome: The Civil Rights Movement in the United States in the 1950's and 1960's. Martin Luther King, Jr. and the Civil Rights Movement, no. 5. Vol. II. Brooklyn, N.Y.: Carlson Publishing Company. ISBN 9780926019027. OCLC 19740619.
    4. ^ Randy Kryn, "Movement Revision Research Summary Regarding James Bevel" Archived March 3, 2016, at the Wayback Machine, October 2005, Middlebury College.
    5. ^ "Student March at Nyack". The New York Times. March 11, 1965. p. 19. Retrieved March 9, 2015.
    6. ^ Reed, Roy (March 6, 1966). "'Bloody Sunday' Was Year Ago". The New York Times. p. 76. Retrieved March 9, 2015.
    7. ^ Sheila Jackson Hardy; P. Stephen Hardy (2008). Extraordinary People of the Civil Rights Movement. Paw Prints. p. 264. ISBN 978-1-4395-2357-5. Retrieved March 6, 2011.
    8. ^ "James Joseph Reeb". uudb.org. Archived from the original on January 3, 2022. Retrieved July 5, 2019.
     
  29. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    26 March 1812 – An earthquake devastates Caracas, Venezuela.

    1812 Caracas earthquake

    The 1812 Caracas earthquake took place in Venezuela on March 26 (on Maundy Thursday) at 4:37 p.m. It measured 7.7 on the Richter magnitude scale.[citation needed] It caused extensive damage in Caracas, La Guaira, Barquisimeto, San Felipe, and Mérida. An estimated 15,000–20,000 people perished as a result, in addition to incalculable material damage.[citation needed]

    The seismic movement was so significant that in a zone named Valecillo, a new lake was formed and the river Yurubí was dammed up. Numerous rivulets changed their course in the Caracas valley, which was flooded with dirty water.[citation needed]

    Based on contemporary descriptions, the earthquake is believed to have consisted of two seismic shocks occurring within the span of 30 minutes.[citation needed] The first destroyed Caracas and the second Mérida, where it was raining when the shock occurred.

    1. ^ a b c d National Geophysical Data Center / World Data Service (NGDC/WDS): NCEI/WDS Global Significant Earthquake Database. NOAA National Centers for Environmental Information (1972). "Significant Earthquake Information". NOAA National Centers for Environmental Information. doi:10.7289/V5TD9V7K. Retrieved July 26, 2022.
     
  30. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    27 March 1986 – A car bomb explodes outside Russell Street Police HQ in Melbourne, Australia, killing one police officer and injuring 21 people.

    Russell Street bombing

    The Russell Street bombing was the 27 March 1986 bombing of the Russell Street Police Headquarters complex in Melbourne, Victoria, Australia. The explosion killed Angela Rose Taylor, the first Australian policewoman to be killed in the line of duty. The materials for the bomb were stolen from Tyrconnel Mine. Several men were arrested for suspected involvement with the bombing. Stanley Taylor and Craig Minogue were convicted of murder and various other offences related to the bombing. Peter Reed and Rodney Minogue were acquitted of any offences related to the bombing, but Reed was convicted of a number of offences related to his arrest, which involved a shootout with police officers in which he and an officer were wounded. He was sentenced to 12 years' imprisonment.

     
  31. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    28 March 1842 – First concert of the Vienna Philharmonic Orchestra, founded by Otto Nicolai.

    Vienna Philharmonic

    Vienna Philharmonic (VPO; German: Wiener Philharmoniker) is an orchestra that was founded in 1842 and is considered to be one of the finest in the world.[1][2][3]

    The Vienna Philharmonic is based at the Musikverein in Vienna, Austria. Its members are selected from the orchestra of the Vienna State Opera. Selection involves a lengthy process, with each musician demonstrating their capability for a minimum of three years' performance for the opera and ballet. After this probationary period, the musician may request an application for a position in the orchestra from the Vienna Philharmonic's board. The Vienna Philharmonic hires no musician over 35 years of age, and has a mandatory retirement age of 65; 30 years of service are required for full pension.

    1. ^ "Salzburg Festival – 27 July to 30 August, 2011". Salzburgerfestspiele.at. Archived from the original on 10 September 2012. Retrieved 17 November 2013.
    2. ^ Reiner, Fritz. "Chicago Symphony Tops U.S. Orchestras". NPR.org. NPR. Retrieved 17 November 2013.
    3. ^ Hoyle, Ben (21 November 2008). "LSO is only British orchestra in list of worlds best". The Times. London. Archived from the original on 16 June 2011. Retrieved 27 May 2010.
     
  32. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    29 March 1974Terracotta Army was discovered in Shaanxi province, China.

    Terracotta Army

    The Terracotta Army is a collection of terracotta sculptures depicting the armies of Qin Shi Huang, the first emperor of China. It is a form of funerary art buried with the emperor in 210–209 BCE with the purpose of protecting him in his afterlife.

    The figures, dating from approximately the late 200s BCE,[1] were discovered in 1974 by local farmers in Lintong County, outside Xi'an, Shaanxi, China. The figures vary in height according to their rank, the tallest being the generals. The figures include warriors, chariots and horses. Estimates from 2007 were that the three pits containing the Terracotta Army hold more than 8,000 soldiers, 130 chariots with 520 horses, and 150 cavalry horses, the majority of which remain in situ in the pits near Qin Shi Huang's mausoleum.[2] Other, non-military terracotta figures have been found in other pits, including officials, acrobats, strongmen, and musicians.[3]

    1. ^ Lu Yanchou; Zhang Jingzhao; Xie Jun; Wang Xueli (1988). "TL dating of pottery sherds and baked soil from the Xian Terracotta Army Site, Shaanxi Province, China". International Journal of Radiation Applications and Instrumentation, Part D. 14 (1–2): 283–286. doi:10.1016/1359-0189(88)90077-5.
    2. ^ Portal 2007, p. 167.
    3. ^ Cite error: The named reference :0 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
     
  33. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    30 March 2009 – Twelve gunmen attack the Manawan Police Academy in Lahore, Pakistan.

    2009 Lahore police academy attacks

     
  34. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    31 March 1889 – The Eiffel Tower is officially opened.

    Eiffel Tower

    The Eiffel Tower (/ˈfəl/ EYE-fəl; French: Tour Eiffel [tuʁ ɛfɛl] ) is a wrought-iron lattice tower on the Champ de Mars in Paris, France. It is named after the engineer Gustave Eiffel, whose company designed and built the tower from 1887 to 1889.

    Locally nicknamed "La dame de fer" (French for "Iron Lady"), it was constructed as the centerpiece of the 1889 World's Fair, and to crown the centennial anniversary of the French Revolution. Although initially criticised by some of France's leading artists and intellectuals for its design, it has since become a global cultural icon of France and one of the most recognisable structures in the world.[5] The tower received 5,889,000 visitors in 2022.[6] The Eiffel Tower is the most visited monument with an entrance fee in the world:[7] 6.91 million people ascended it in 2015. It was designated a monument historique in 1964, and was named part of a UNESCO World Heritage Site ("Paris, Banks of the Seine") in 1991.[8]

    The tower is 330 metres (1,083 ft) tall,[9] about the same height as an 81-storey building, and the tallest structure in Paris. Its base is square, measuring 125 metres (410 ft) on each side. During its construction, the Eiffel Tower surpassed the Washington Monument to become the tallest human-made structure in the world, a title it held for 41 years until the Chrysler Building in New York City was finished in 1930. It was the first structure in the world to surpass both the 200-metre and 300-metre mark in height. Due to the addition of a broadcasting aerial at the top of the tower in 1957, it is now taller than the Chrysler Building by 5.2 metres (17 ft). Excluding transmitters, the Eiffel Tower is the second tallest free-standing structure in France after the Millau Viaduct.

    The tower has three levels for visitors, with restaurants on the first and second levels. The top level's upper platform is 276 m (906 ft) above the ground – the highest observation deck accessible to the public in the European Union. Tickets can be purchased to ascend by stairs or lift to the first and second levels. The climb from ground level to the first level is over 300 steps, as is the climb from the first level to the second, making the entire ascent a 600 step climb. Although there is a staircase to the top level, it is usually accessible only by lift. On this top, third level is a private apartment built for Gustave Eiffel's private use. He decorated it with furniture by Jean Lachaise and invited friends such as Thomas Edison.

    1. ^ a b Bachman, Leonard R. (2019). Constructing the Architect: An Introduction to Design, Research, Planning, and Education. p. 80. ISBN 9781351665421.
    2. ^ a b "Eiffel Tower". CTBUH Skyscraper Center.
    3. ^ "Intermediate floor of the Eiffel tower".
    4. ^ "Eiffel Tower". Emporis. Archived from the original on 22 April 2016.
    5. ^ SETE. "The Eiffel Tower at a glance". Official Eiffel Tower website. Archived from the original on 14 April 2016. Retrieved 15 April 2016.
    6. ^ Tourism Statistics, "Visit Paris Region" site of the Paris Ile de France Visitors Bureau, retrieved March 22, 2022.
    7. ^ Cite error: The named reference :0 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    8. ^ Clayson, S. Hollis (26 February 2020), "Eiffel Tower", Architecture, Planning, and Preservation, Oxford University Press, doi:10.1093/obo/9780190922467-0014, ISBN 978-0-19-092246-7, retrieved 14 November 2021
    9. ^ "Eiffel Tower grows six metres after new antenna attached". Reuters. 15 March 2022. Retrieved 15 March 2022.
     
  35. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    1 April 1924 – The Royal Canadian Air Force is formed.

    Royal Canadian Air Force

    The Royal Canadian Air Force (RCAF; French: Aviation royale canadienne, ARC) is the air and space force of Canada.[3] Its role is to "provide the Canadian Forces with relevant, responsive and effective airpower".[4] The RCAF is one of three environmental commands within the unified Canadian Armed Forces. As of 2020, the Royal Canadian Air Force consists of 12,074 Regular Force and 1,969 Primary Reserve personnel, supported by 1,518 civilians, and operates 258 manned aircraft and nine unmanned aerial vehicles.[1][5] Lieutenant-General Eric Kenny is the current commander of the Royal Canadian Air Force and chief of the Air Force Staff.[6]

    The Royal Canadian Air Force is responsible for all aircraft operations of the Canadian Forces, enforcing the security of Canada's airspace and providing aircraft to support the missions of the Royal Canadian Navy and the Canadian Army. The RCAF is a partner with the United States Air Force in protecting continental airspace under the North American Aerospace Defense Command (NORAD). The RCAF also provides all primary air resources to and is responsible for the National Search and Rescue Program.

    The RCAF traces its history to the Canadian Air Force, which was formed in 1920. The Canadian Air Force was granted royal sanction in 1924 by King George V to form the Royal Canadian Air Force. In 1968, the RCAF was amalgamated with the Royal Canadian Navy and the Canadian Army, as part of the unification of the Canadian Forces. Air units were split between several different commands: Air Defence Command (ADC; interceptors), Air Transport Command (ATC; airlift, search and rescue), Mobile Command (tactical fighters, helicopters), Maritime Command (anti-submarine warfare, maritime patrol), as well as Training Command (TC).

    In 1975, some commands (ADC, ATC, TC) were dissolved, and all air units were placed under a new environmental command called simply Air Command (AIRCOM; French: Commandement aérien). Air Command reverted to its historic name of "Royal Canadian Air Force" in August 2011.[7]

    The Royal Canadian Air Force has served in the Second World War, the Korean War, the Persian Gulf War, as well as several United Nations peacekeeping missions and NATO operations. As a NATO member, the force maintained a presence in Europe during the second half of the 20th century.

    1. ^ a b c d "Key facts". 30 September 2021. Retrieved 31 December 2021.
    2. ^ "Sic Itur ad Astra – Traditions Motto/Words". Archived 2013-05-22 at the Wayback Machine National Defence, 23 April 2009, Retrieved: 1 April 2013.
    3. ^ "DND/CAF Joint and Combined Space Program". Royal Canadian Air Force. 18 September 2020.
    4. ^ Royal Canadian Air Force. "Royal Canadian Air Force - Mission". Her Majesty the Queen in Right of Canada as represented by the Minister of National Defence. Archived from the original on 6 March 2016. Retrieved 19 March 2016.
    5. ^ Berthiaume, Lee. "Air force's new name got lost in translation, documents show". Archived 2011-11-30 at Archive-It Postmedia News, 29 November 2011.
    6. ^ "Royal Canadian Air Force welcomes new Commander". National Defence News release. 12 August 2022. Retrieved 12 August 2022.
    7. ^ "Canadian Forces name". Archived 2011-09-17 at the Wayback Machine CBC. Retrieved 26 September 2011.
     
  36. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    1 April 1924 – The Royal Canadian Air Force is formed.

    Royal Canadian Air Force

    The Royal Canadian Air Force (RCAF; French: Aviation royale canadienne, ARC) is the air and space force of Canada.[3] Its role is to "provide the Canadian Forces with relevant, responsive and effective airpower".[4] The RCAF is one of three environmental commands within the unified Canadian Armed Forces. As of 2020, the Royal Canadian Air Force consists of 12,074 Regular Force and 1,969 Primary Reserve personnel, supported by 1,518 civilians, and operates 258 manned aircraft and nine unmanned aerial vehicles.[1][5] Lieutenant-General Eric Kenny is the current commander of the Royal Canadian Air Force and chief of the Air Force Staff.[6]

    The Royal Canadian Air Force is responsible for all aircraft operations of the Canadian Forces, enforcing the security of Canada's airspace and providing aircraft to support the missions of the Royal Canadian Navy and the Canadian Army. The RCAF is a partner with the United States Air Force in protecting continental airspace under the North American Aerospace Defense Command (NORAD). The RCAF also provides all primary air resources to and is responsible for the National Search and Rescue Program.

    The RCAF traces its history to the Canadian Air Force, which was formed in 1920. The Canadian Air Force was granted royal sanction in 1924 by King George V to form the Royal Canadian Air Force. In 1968, the RCAF was amalgamated with the Royal Canadian Navy and the Canadian Army, as part of the unification of the Canadian Forces. Air units were split between several different commands: Air Defence Command (ADC; interceptors), Air Transport Command (ATC; airlift, search and rescue), Mobile Command (tactical fighters, helicopters), Maritime Command (anti-submarine warfare, maritime patrol), as well as Training Command (TC).

    In 1975, some commands (ADC, ATC, TC) were dissolved, and all air units were placed under a new environmental command called simply Air Command (AIRCOM; French: Commandement aérien). Air Command reverted to its historic name of "Royal Canadian Air Force" in August 2011.[7]

    The Royal Canadian Air Force has served in the Second World War, the Korean War, the Persian Gulf War, as well as several United Nations peacekeeping missions and NATO operations. As a NATO member, the force maintained a presence in Europe during the second half of the 20th century.

    1. ^ a b c d "Key facts". 30 September 2021. Retrieved 31 December 2021.
    2. ^ "Sic Itur ad Astra – Traditions Motto/Words". Archived 2013-05-22 at the Wayback Machine National Defence, 23 April 2009, Retrieved: 1 April 2013.
    3. ^ "DND/CAF Joint and Combined Space Program". Royal Canadian Air Force. 18 September 2020.
    4. ^ Royal Canadian Air Force. "Royal Canadian Air Force - Mission". Her Majesty the Queen in Right of Canada as represented by the Minister of National Defence. Archived from the original on 6 March 2016. Retrieved 19 March 2016.
    5. ^ Berthiaume, Lee. "Air force's new name got lost in translation, documents show". Archived 2011-11-30 at Archive-It Postmedia News, 29 November 2011.
    6. ^ "Royal Canadian Air Force welcomes new Commander". National Defence News release. 12 August 2022. Retrieved 12 August 2022.
    7. ^ "Canadian Forces name". Archived 2011-09-17 at the Wayback Machine CBC. Retrieved 26 September 2011.
     
  37. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    2 April 1982Falklands War: Argentina invades the Falkland Islands.

    1982 invasion of the Falkland Islands

    The Invasion of the Falkland Islands (Spanish: Invasión de las Islas Malvinas), code-named Operation Rosario (Operación Rosario), was a military operation launched by Argentine forces on 2 April 1982, to capture the Falkland Islands, and served as a catalyst for the subsequent Falklands War. The Argentines mounted amphibious landings and the invasion ended with the surrender of Falkland Government House.

     
  38. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    3 April 1922Joseph Stalin becomes the first General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union.

    Joseph Stalin

    Joseph Vissarionovich Stalin[g][h][i] (born Ioseb Besarionis dze Jughashvili;[d] 18 December [O.S. 6 December] 1878 – 5 March 1953) was a Soviet revolutionary and politician who was the leader of the Soviet Union from 1924 until his death in 1953. He held power as General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (1922–1952) and Chairman of the Council of Ministers of the Soviet Union (1941–1953). Initially governing the country as part of a collective leadership, he consolidated power to become a dictator by the 1930s. Ideologically adhering to the Leninist interpretation of Marxism, he formalised these ideas as Marxism–Leninism, while his own policies are called Stalinism.

    Born into a poor family in Gori in what was then the Russian Empire, Stalin attended the Tbilisi Spiritual Seminary before joining the Marxist Russian Social Democratic Labour Party. He edited the party's newspaper, Pravda, and raised funds for Vladimir Lenin's Bolshevik faction via robberies, kidnappings and protection rackets. Repeatedly arrested, he underwent several internal exiles to Siberia. After the Bolsheviks seized power in the October Revolution and created a one-party state under the new Communist Party in 1917, Stalin joined its governing Politburo. Serving in the Russian Civil War before overseeing the Soviet Union's establishment in 1922, Stalin assumed leadership over the country following Lenin's death in 1924. Under Stalin, socialism in one country became a central tenet of the party's ideology. As a result of his Five-Year Plans, the country underwent agricultural collectivisation and rapid industrialisation, creating a centralised command economy. Severe disruptions to food production contributed to the famine of 1930–33, including the Asharshylyk in Kazakhstan and the Holodomor in Ukraine. To eradicate those deemed "enemies of the working class", Stalin instituted the Great Purge, in which over a million were imprisoned, largely in the Gulag system of forced labour camps, and at least 700,000 executed between 1934 and 1939. By 1937, he had absolute control over the party and government.

    Stalin promoted Marxism–Leninism abroad through the Communist International and supported European anti-fascist movements during the 1930s, particularly in the Spanish Civil War. In 1939, his regime signed a non-aggression pact with Nazi Germany, resulting in the Soviet invasion of Poland. Germany ended the pact by invading the Soviet Union in 1941. Despite initial catastrophes, the Soviet Red Army repelled the German invasion and captured Berlin in 1945, ending World War II in Europe. Amid the war, the Soviets annexed the Baltic states and Bessarabia and North Bukovina, subsequently establishing Soviet-aligned governments throughout Central and Eastern Europe and in parts of East Asia. The Soviet Union and the United States emerged as global superpowers and entered a period of tension, the Cold War. Stalin presided over the Soviet post-war reconstruction and its development of an atomic bomb in 1949. During these years, the country experienced another major famine and an antisemitic campaign that culminated in the doctors' plot. After Stalin's death in 1953, he was eventually succeeded by Nikita Khrushchev, who subsequently denounced his rule and initiated the de-Stalinisation of Soviet society.

    Widely considered to be one of the 20th century's most significant figures, Stalin was the subject of a pervasive personality cult within the international Marxist–Leninist movement, which revered him as a champion of the working class and socialism. Since the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991, Stalin has retained popularity in Russia and Georgia as a victorious wartime leader who cemented the Soviet Union's status as a leading world power. Conversely, his totalitarian regime has been widely condemned for overseeing mass repression, ethnic cleansing, pervasive censorship, wide-scale deportation, hundreds of thousands of executions, and famines that killed millions.


    Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

    1. ^ Montefiore 2007, pp. 365–366.
    2. ^ Montefiore 2007, p. 366.
    3. ^ Khlevniuk 2015, p. 189.
    4. ^ Service 2004, p. 587.
     
  39. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    4 April 1460Basel University is founded.

    University of Basel

    The old main building of the University of Basel, which with its arcades in the middle takes up the lines of the first Italian university in Bologna.

    The University of Basel (Latin: Universitas Basiliensis, German: Universität Basel) is a public research university in Basel, Switzerland. Founded on 4 April 1460, it is Switzerland's oldest university and among the world's oldest surviving universities. The university is traditionally counted among the leading institutions of higher learning in the country.[4]

    The associated Basel University Library is the largest and among the most important libraries in Switzerland. The university hosts the faculties of theology, law, medicine, humanities and social sciences, science, psychology, and business and economics, as well as numerous cross-disciplinary subjects and institutes, such as the Biozentrum for biomedical research and the Institute for European Global Studies. In 2020, the university had 13,139 students and 378 professors. International students accounted for 27 percent of the student body.[5]

    In its over 500-year history, the university has been home to Erasmus of Rotterdam, Paracelsus, Daniel Bernoulli, Leonhard Euler, Jacob Burckhardt, Friedrich Nietzsche, Tadeusz Reichstein, Karl Jaspers, Carl Gustav Jung, Karl Barth, and Jeanne Hersch. The institution is associated with ten Nobel laureates and two Presidents of the Swiss Confederation.[6]

    1. ^ a b c "University of Basel, Facts & Figures". University of Basel. Retrieved 15 March 2022.
    2. ^ "Die Rektorin". www.unibas.ch. Archived from the original on 28 April 2017. Retrieved 28 November 2017.
    3. ^ "Colors". www.unibas.ch. Retrieved 24 May 2023.
    4. ^ Universities, Swiss. "University of Basel". Swiss Universities Handbook – Top Universities in Switzerland. Retrieved 7 April 2018.
    5. ^ "Herbstsemester 2020".
    6. ^
     
  40. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    5 April 1958Ripple Rock, an underwater threat to navigation in the Seymour Narrows in Canada is destroyed in one of the largest non-nuclear controlled explosions of the time.

    Ripple Rock

    Ripple Rock (French: Roche Ripple)[1] is an underwater mountain located in the Seymour Narrows of the Discovery Passage in British Columbia, Canada. It had two peaks (2.74 metres and 6.4 metres below the surface at low tide) that produced large, dangerous eddies from the strong tidal currents that flowed around them at low tide. Ships transiting the strait preferred to wait until slack tide in order to safely bypass the rock.[2]

    The hazardous nature of the rock prompted the Canadian government to remove the top of the mountain in a controlled explosion on 5 April 1958.[3] The event was one of the first live coast-to-coast television broadcasts of an event in Canada[4] and was designated a National Historic Event of Canada.

    1. ^ "Ripple Rock". BC Geographical Names.
    2. ^ Popular Mechanics. Hearst Magazines. June 1956. p. 120.
    3. ^ "Canadians Destroy Rock Periling Ships In 1,375-Ton Blast". New York Times. CAMPBELL RIVER, B. C. April 6, 1958. p. 1. Retrieved 9 August 2010.
    4. ^ B.C.'s deadly Ripple Rock blown up, CBC Broadcast Date: April 5, 1958
     

Share This Page