Welcome to the Podiatry Arena forums

You are currently viewing our podiatry forum as a guest which gives you limited access to view all podiatry discussions and access our other features. By joining our free global community of Podiatrists and other interested foot health care professionals you will have access to post podiatry topics (answer and ask questions), communicate privately with other members, upload content, view attachments, receive a weekly email update of new discussions, access other special features. Registered users do not get displayed the advertisements in posted messages. Registration is fast, simple and absolutely free so please, join our global Podiatry community today!

  1. Have you considered the Clinical Biomechanics Boot Camp Online, for taking it to the next level? See here for more.
    Dismiss Notice
Dismiss Notice
Have you considered the Clinical Biomechanics Boot Camp Online, for taking it to the next level? See here for more.
Dismiss Notice
Have you liked us on Facebook to get our updates? Please do. Click here for our Facebook page.
Dismiss Notice
Do you get the weekly newsletter that Podiatry Arena sends out to update everybody? If not, click here to organise this.

This day in .....

Discussion in 'Break Room' started by NewsBot, Apr 6, 2008.

  1. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    13 October 1972 – An Aeroflot Ilyushin Il-62 crashes outside Moscow killing 174.

    Ilyushin Il-62

    The Ilyushin Il-62 (Russian: Илью́шин Ил-62; NATO reporting name: Classic) is a Soviet long-range narrow-body jetliner conceived in 1960 by Ilyushin. As successor to the popular turboprop Il-18 and with capacity for almost 200 passengers and crew, the Il-62 was the world's largest jet airliner when first flown in 1963.[1] The seventh quad engined, long-range jet airliner to fly (the predecessors being the De Havilland Comet (1949), Avro Jetliner (1949), Boeing 707 (1954), Douglas DC-8 (1958), Vickers VC10 (1962), and experimental Tupolev Tu-110 (1957)), it was the first such type to be operated by the Soviet Union and a number of allied nations.

    The Il-62 entered Aeroflot civilian service on 15 September 1967 with an inaugural passenger flight from Moscow to Montreal,[1] and remained the standard long-range airliner for the Soviet Union (and later, Russia) for several decades. It was the first Soviet pressurised aircraft with non-circular cross-section fuselage[citation needed] and ergonomic passenger doors,[citation needed] and the first Soviet jet with six-abreast seating (the turboprop Tu-114 shared this arrangement) and international-standard position lights.

    Over 30 nations operated the Il-62 with over 80 examples exported and others having been leased by Soviet-sphere and several Western airlines. The Il-62M variant became the longest-serving model in its airliner class (average age of examples in service as of 2016 is over 32 years). Special VIP (salon) and other conversions were also developed and used as head-of-state transport by some 14 countries. However, because it is expensive to operate compared to newer generation airliners, the number in service was greatly reduced after the 2008 Great Recession. The Il-62's successors include the wide-bodied Il-86 and Il-96, both of which were made in much smaller numbers and neither of which was widely exported.

    1. ^ a b Singh, Sumit (3 January 2022). "Once The Largest Jetliner In The World: 59 Years Of Ilyushin Il-62 Flight". Simple Flying. Retrieved 12 May 2023.
     
  2. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    14 October 1805Battle of Elchingen, France defeats Austria

    Battle of Elchingen

      current battle
      Napoleon in command
      Napoleon not in command

    The Battle of Elchingen, fought on 14 October 1805, saw French forces under Michel Ney rout an Austrian corps led by Johann Sigismund Riesch. This defeat led to a large part of the Austrian army being invested in the fortress of Ulm by the army of Emperor Napoleon Bonaparte of France while other formations fled to the east. Soon afterward, the Austrians trapped in Ulm surrendered and the French mopped up most of the remaining Austrian forces, bringing the Ulm Campaign to a close.

    In late September and early October 1805, Napoleon carried out a gigantic envelopment of the Austrian army in Bavaria led by Karl Mack von Lieberich. While the Austrian army lay near Ulm, south of the Danube River, the French army marched west on the north side of the river. Then Napoleon's troops crossed the river east of Ulm, cutting the Austrian retreat route to Vienna. Finally waking up to his danger, Mack tried to break out on the north side of the river, but a lone French division blocked his first attempt.

    Realizing that his enemies might escape the trap, Napoleon ordered Ney to cross to the north bank of the river. Ney's larger corps attacked Riesch's corps at Elchingen on the north bank. The French captured the heights and drove the Austrian soldiers west toward Ulm, forcing many of them to surrender. While a body of Austrians remained at large on the north bank, the near destruction of Riesch's command meant that the bulk of Mack's army was hopelessly surrounded in Ulm.

    1. ^ Young-Chandler, 377
    2. ^ a b Smith 1998, p. 204.
     
  3. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    15 October 1894 – The Dreyfus affair: Alfred Dreyfus is arrested for spying.

    Dreyfus affair

    The Dreyfus affair (French: affaire Dreyfus, pronounced [afɛːʁ dʁɛfys]) was a political scandal that divided the Third French Republic from 1894 until its resolution in 1906. L'Affaire Dreyfus has come to symbolise modern injustice in the Francophone world;[1] it remains one of the most notable examples of a complex miscarriage of justice and antisemitism. The press played a crucial role in exposing information and in shaping and expressing public opinion on both sides of the conflict.

    The scandal began in December 1894 when Captain Alfred Dreyfus, a 35-year-old Alsatian French artillery officer of Jewish descent, was convicted of treason for communicating French military secrets to the German Embassy in Paris. He was sentenced to life imprisonment and sent overseas to the penal colony on Devil's Island in French Guiana, where he spent the following five years imprisoned in very harsh conditions.

    In 1896, evidence came to light—primarily through the investigations of Lieutenant Colonel Georges Picquart, head of counter-espionage—which identified the real culprit as a French Army Major named Ferdinand Walsin Esterhazy. High-ranking military officials suppressed the new evidence, and a military court unanimously acquitted Esterhazy after a trial lasting only two days. The Army laid additional charges against Dreyfus, based on forged documents. Subsequently, writer Émile Zola's open letter J'Accuse...! in the newspaper L'Aurore stoked a growing movement of political support for Dreyfus, putting pressure on the government to reopen the case.

    In 1899, Dreyfus was returned to France for another trial. The intense political and judicial scandal that ensued divided French society between those who supported Dreyfus, the "Dreyfusards" such as Sarah Bernhardt, Anatole France, Charles Péguy, Henri Poincaré and Georges Clemenceau; and those who condemned him, the "anti-Dreyfusards" such as Édouard Drumont, the director and publisher of the antisemitic newspaper La Libre Parole. The new trial resulted in another conviction and a 10-year sentence, but Dreyfus was pardoned and released. In 1906, Dreyfus was exonerated. After being reinstated as a major in the French Army, he served during the whole of World War I, ending his service with the rank of lieutenant colonel. He died in 1935.

    The affair from 1894 to 1906 divided France into pro-republican, anticlerical Dreyfusards and pro-Army, mostly Catholic anti-Dreyfusards. It embittered French politics and encouraged radicalisation.[2]

    1. ^ Guy Canivet, first President of the Supreme Court, Justice from the Dreyfus Affair, p. 15.
    2. ^ Daughton, James Patrick (2006). An Empire Divided: Religion, Republicanism, and the making of French Colonialism, 1880–1914. Oxford University Press. p. 8. ISBN 0-19-530530-2. OCLC 644094069.
     
  4. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    16 October 1964 – China detonates its first nuclear weapon.

    596 (nuclear test)

    Redirect to:

    • From a page move: This is a redirect from a page that has been moved (renamed). This page was kept as a redirect to avoid breaking links, both internal and external, that may have been made to the old page name.
     
  5. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    17 October 1814 – Eight people die in the London Beer Flood.

    London Beer Flood

    Etching of brewery working; two drays of horses pull deliveries away from the building.
    Horse Shoe Brewery, London, c. 1800

    The London Beer Flood was an accident at Meux & Co's Horse Shoe Brewery, London, on 17 October 1814. It took place when one of the 22-foot-tall (6.7 m) wooden vats of fermenting porter burst. The escaping liquid dislodged the valve of another vessel and destroyed several large barrels: between 128,000 and 323,000 imperial gallons (580,000–1,470,000 L; 154,000–388,000 US gal) of beer were released in total.

    The resulting wave of porter destroyed the back wall of the brewery and swept into an area of slum dwellings known as the St Giles rookery. Eight people were killed, five of them mourners at the wake being held by an Irish family for a two-year-old boy. The coroner's inquest returned a verdict that the eight had lost their lives "casually, accidentally and by misfortune".[1] The brewery was nearly bankrupted by the event; it avoided collapse after a rebate from HM Excise on the lost beer. The brewing industry gradually stopped using large wooden vats after the accident. The brewery moved in 1921, and the Dominion Theatre is now where the brewery used to stand. Meux & Co went into liquidation in 1961.

     
  6. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    18 October 1648 – Boston Shoemakers form first American labor organization.

    Trade union

    A trade union (British English) or labor union (American English), often simply referred to as a union, is an organization of workers whose purpose is to maintain or improve the conditions of their employment,[1] such as attaining better wages and benefits, improving working conditions, improving safety standards, establishing complaint procedures, developing rules governing status of employees (rules governing promotions, just-cause conditions for termination) and protecting and increasing the bargaining power of workers.

    Trade unions typically fund their head office and legal team functions through regularly imposed fees called union dues. The union representatives in the workforce are usually made up of workplace volunteers who are often appointed by members through internal democratic elections. The trade union, through an elected leadership and bargaining committee, bargains with the employer on behalf of its members, known as the rank and file, and negotiates labour contracts (collective bargaining agreements) with employers.

    Unions may organize a particular section of skilled or unskilled workers (craft unionism),[2] a cross-section of workers from various trades (general unionism), or an attempt to organize all workers within a particular industry (industrial unionism). The agreements negotiated by a union are binding on the rank-and-file members and the employer, and in some cases on other non-member workers. Trade unions traditionally have a constitution which details the governance of their bargaining unit and also have governance at various levels of government depending on the industry that binds them legally to their negotiations and functioning.

    Originating in the United Kingdom, trade unions became popular in many countries during the Industrial Revolution. Trade unions may be composed of individual workers, professionals, past workers, students, apprentices or the unemployed. Trade union density, or the percentage of workers belonging to a trade union, is highest in the Nordic countries.[3][4]

    1. ^ Webb & Webb 1920.
    2. ^ Poole, M., 1986. Industrial Relations: Origins and Patterns of National Diversity. London UK: Routledge.
    3. ^ Cite error: The named reference :OECD union density was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    4. ^ "Industrial relations". ILOSTAT. Retrieved 9 October 2018.
     
  7. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    18 October 1648 – Boston Shoemakers form first American labor organization.

    Trade union

    A trade union (British English) or labor union (American English), often simply referred to as a union, is an organization of workers whose purpose is to maintain or improve the conditions of their employment,[1] such as attaining better wages and benefits, improving working conditions, improving safety standards, establishing complaint procedures, developing rules governing status of employees (rules governing promotions, just-cause conditions for termination) and protecting and increasing the bargaining power of workers.

    Trade unions typically fund their head office and legal team functions through regularly imposed fees called union dues. The union representatives in the workforce are usually made up of workplace volunteers who are often appointed by members through internal democratic elections. The trade union, through an elected leadership and bargaining committee, bargains with the employer on behalf of its members, known as the rank and file, and negotiates labour contracts (collective bargaining agreements) with employers.

    Unions may organize a particular section of skilled or unskilled workers (craft unionism),[2] a cross-section of workers from various trades (general unionism), or an attempt to organize all workers within a particular industry (industrial unionism). The agreements negotiated by a union are binding on the rank-and-file members and the employer, and in some cases on other non-member workers. Trade unions traditionally have a constitution which details the governance of their bargaining unit and also have governance at various levels of government depending on the industry that binds them legally to their negotiations and functioning.

    Originating in the United Kingdom, trade unions became popular in many countries during the Industrial Revolution. Trade unions may be composed of individual workers, professionals, past workers, students, apprentices or the unemployed. Trade union density, or the percentage of workers belonging to a trade union, is highest in the Nordic countries.[3][4]

    1. ^ Webb & Webb 1920.
    2. ^ Poole, M., 1986. Industrial Relations: Origins and Patterns of National Diversity. London UK: Routledge.
    3. ^ Cite error: The named reference :OECD union density was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    4. ^ "Industrial relations". ILOSTAT. Retrieved 9 October 2018.
     
  8. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    19 October 1914 – The First Battle of Ypres begins.

    First Battle of Ypres

    The First Battle of Ypres (French: Première Bataille des Flandres, German: Erste Flandernschlacht, 19 October22 November 1914) was a battle of the First World War, fought on the Western Front around Ypres, in West Flanders, Belgium. The battle was part of the First Battle of Flanders, in which German, French, Belgian armies and the British Expeditionary Force (BEF) fought from Arras in France to Nieuwpoort (Nieuport) on the Belgian coast, from 10 October to mid-November. The battles at Ypres began at the end of the Race to the Sea, reciprocal attempts by the German and Franco-British armies to advance past the northern flank of their opponents. North of Ypres, the fighting continued in the Battle of the Yser (16–31 October), between the German 4th Army, the Belgian army and French marines.

    The fighting has been divided into five stages, an encounter battle from 19 to 21 October, the Battle of Langemarck from 21 to 24 October, the battles at La Bassée and Armentières to 2 November, coincident with more Allied attacks at Ypres and the Battle of Gheluvelt (29–31 October), a fourth phase with the last big German offensive, which culminated at the Battle of Nonne Bosschen on 11 November, then local operations which faded out in late November. Brigadier-General James Edmonds, the British official historian, wrote in the History of the Great War, that the II Corps battle at La Bassée could be taken as separate but that the battles from Armentières to Messines and Ypres, were better understood as one battle in two parts, an offensive by III Corps and the Cavalry Corps from 12 to 18 October against which the Germans retired and an offensive by the German 6th Army and 4th Army from 19 October to 2 November, which from 30 October, took place mainly north of the Lys, when the battles of Armentières and Messines merged with the Battles of Ypres.[a]

    Attacks by the BEF (Field Marshal Sir John French) the Belgians and the French Eighth Army in Belgium made little progress beyond Ypres. The German 4th and 6th Armies took small amounts of ground, at great cost to both sides, during the Battle of the Yser and further south at Ypres. General Erich von Falkenhayn, head of the Oberste Heeresleitung (OHL, the German General Staff), then tried a limited offensive to capture Ypres and Mont Kemmel (Kemmelberg), from 19 October to 22 November. Neither side had moved forces to Flanders fast enough to obtain a decisive victory and by November both sides were exhausted. The armies were short of ammunition, suffering from low morale and some infantry units refused orders. The autumn battles in Flanders had become static, attrition operations, unlike the battles of manoeuvre in the summer. French, British and Belgian troops, in improvised field defences, repulsed German attacks for four weeks. From 21 to 23 October, German reservists had made mass attacks at Langemarck (Langemark), with losses of up to 70 per cent, to little effect.

    Warfare between mass armies, equipped with the weapons of the Industrial Revolution and its later developments, proved to be indecisive, because field fortifications neutralised many classes of offensive weapon. The defensive firepower of artillery and machine guns dominated the battlefield and the ability of the armies to supply themselves and replace casualties prolonged battles for weeks. Thirty-four German divisions fought in the Flanders battles, against twelve French, nine British and six Belgian divisions, along with marines and dismounted cavalry. Over the winter, Falkenhayn reconsidered Germany strategy because Vernichtungsstrategie and the imposition of a dictated peace on France and Russia had exceeded German resources. Falkenhayn devised a new strategy to detach either Russia or France from the Allied coalition through diplomacy as well as military action. A strategy of attrition (Ermattungsstrategie) would make the cost of the war too great for the Allies, until one dropped out and made a separate peace. The remaining belligerents would have to negotiate or face the Germans concentrated on the remaining front, which would be sufficient for Germany to inflict a decisive defeat.


    Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

     
  9. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    20 October 1803 – The United States Senate ratifies the Louisiana Purchase.

    Louisiana Purchase

    The Louisiana Purchase (French: Vente de la Louisiane, lit.'Sale of Louisiana') was the acquisition of the territory of Louisiana by the United States from the French First Republic in 1803. This consisted of most of the land in the Mississippi River's drainage basin west of the river.[1] In return for fifteen million dollars,[a] or approximately eighteen dollars per square mile,[b] the United States nominally acquired a total of 828,000 sq mi (2,140,000 km2; 530,000,000 acres) in Middle America. However, France only controlled a small fraction of this area, most of which was inhabited by Native Americans; effectively, for the majority of the area, the United States bought the preemptive right to obtain Indian lands by treaty or by conquest, to the exclusion of other colonial powers.[2][3]

    The Kingdom of France had controlled the Louisiana territory from 1682[4] until it was ceded to Spain in 1762. In 1800, Napoleon, the First Consul of the French Republic, regained ownership of Louisiana in exchange for Tuscany as part of a broader effort to re-establish a French colonial empire in North America. However, France's failure to suppress a revolt in Saint-Domingue, coupled with the prospect of renewed warfare with the United Kingdom, prompted Napoleon to consider selling Louisiana to the United States. Acquisition of Louisiana was a long-term goal of President Thomas Jefferson, who was especially eager to gain control of the crucial Mississippi River port of New Orleans. Jefferson tasked James Monroe and Robert R. Livingston with purchasing New Orleans. Negotiating with French Treasury Minister François Barbé-Marbois, the U.S. representatives quickly agreed to purchase the entire territory of Louisiana after it was offered. Overcoming the opposition of the Federalist Party, Jefferson and Secretary of State James Madison persuaded Congress to ratify and fund the Louisiana Purchase.

    The Louisiana Purchase extended United States sovereignty across the Mississippi River, nearly doubling the nominal size of the country. The purchase included land from fifteen present U.S. states and two Canadian provinces, including the entirety of Arkansas, Missouri, Iowa, Oklahoma, Kansas, and Nebraska; large portions of North Dakota and South Dakota; the area of Montana, Wyoming, and Colorado east of the Continental Divide; the portion of Minnesota west of the Mississippi River; the northeastern section of New Mexico; northern portions of Texas; New Orleans and the portions of the present state of Louisiana west of the Mississippi River; and small portions of land within Alberta and Saskatchewan. At the time of the purchase, the territory of Louisiana's non-native population was around 60,000 inhabitants, of whom half were enslaved Africans.[5] The western borders of the purchase were later settled by the 1819 Adams–Onís Treaty with Spain, while the northern borders of the purchase were adjusted by the Treaty of 1818 with the British.

    1. ^ "Louisiana Purchase Definition, Date, Cost, History, Map, States, Significance, & Facts". Encyclopedia Britannica. July 20, 1998. Retrieved June 25, 2023.
    2. ^ Lee, Robert (March 1, 2017). "The True Cost of the Louisiana Purchase". Slate. Retrieved October 1, 2019.
    3. ^ Lee, Robert (March 1, 2017). "Accounting for Conquest: The Price of the Louisiana Purchase of Indian Country". Journal of American History. 103 (4): 921–942. doi:10.1093/jahist/jaw504.
    4. ^ "Louisiana | History, Map, Population, Cities, & Facts | Britannica". britannica.com. June 29, 2023. Retrieved July 4, 2023.
    5. ^ "Congressional series of United States public documents". U.S. Government Printing Office. 1864 – via Google Books.


    Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

     
  10. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    21 October 1854Florence Nightingale and a staff of 38 nurses are sent to the Crimean War.

    Florence Nightingale

    Florence Nightingale OM RRC DStJ (/ˈntɪŋɡl/; 12 May 1820 – 13 August 1910) was an English social reformer, statistician and the founder of modern nursing. Nightingale came to prominence while serving as a manager and trainer of nurses during the Crimean War, in which she organised care for wounded soldiers at Constantinople.[4] She significantly reduced death rates by improving hygiene and living standards. Nightingale gave nursing a favourable reputation and became an icon of Victorian culture, especially in the persona of "The Lady with the Lamp" making rounds of wounded soldiers at night.[5][6]

    Recent commentators have asserted that Nightingale's Crimean War achievements were exaggerated by the media at the time, but critics agree on the importance of her later work in professionalising nursing roles for women.[7] In 1860, she laid the foundation of professional nursing with the establishment of her nursing school at St Thomas' Hospital in London. It was the first secular nursing school in the world and is now part of King's College London.[8] In recognition of her pioneering work in nursing, the Nightingale Pledge taken by new nurses, and the Florence Nightingale Medal, the highest international distinction a nurse can achieve, were named in her honour, and the annual International Nurses Day is celebrated on her birthday. Her social reforms included improving healthcare for all sections of British society, advocating better hunger relief in India, helping to abolish prostitution laws that were harsh for women, and expanding the acceptable forms of female participation in the workforce.

    Nightingale was a pioneer in statistics; she represented her analysis in graphical forms to ease drawing conclusions and actionables from data. She is famous for usage of the polar area diagram, also called the Nightingale rose diagram, equivalent to a modern circular histogram. This diagram is still regularly used in data visualisation.

    Nightingale was a prodigious and versatile writer. In her lifetime, much of her published work was concerned with spreading medical knowledge. Some of her tracts were written in simple English so that they could easily be understood by those with poor literary skills. She was also a pioneer in data visualisation with the use of infographics, using graphical presentations of statistical data in an effective way.[7] Much of her writing, including her extensive work on religion and mysticism, has only been published posthumously.

    1. ^ "Florence Nightingale". King's College London. Archived from the original on 8 December 2015. Retrieved 30 November 2015.
    2. ^ "Florence Nightingale 2nd rendition, 1890 – greetings to the dear old comrades of Balaclava". Internet Archive. Retrieved 13 February 2014.
    3. ^ Buhnemann, Kristin (17 February 2020). "Florence Nightingale's Voice, 1890". florence-nightingale.co.uk. Florence Nightingale Museum London. Retrieved 7 April 2022.
    4. ^ Strachey, Lytton (1918). Eminent Victorians. London: Chatto and Windus. p. 123.
    5. ^ Swenson, Kristine (2005). Medical Women and Victorian Fiction. University of Missouri Press. p. 15. ISBN 978-0-8262-6431-2.
    6. ^ Ralby, Aaron (2013). "The Crimean War 1853–1856". Atlas of Military History. Parragon. pp. 281. ISBN 978-1-4723-0963-1.
    7. ^ a b Bostridge, Mark (17 February 2011). "Florence Nightingale: the Lady with the Lamp". BBC. Archived from the original on 25 December 2019. Retrieved 20 December 2019.
    8. ^ Petroni, A (1969). "The first nursing school in the world – St. Thomas Hospital School in London". Munca Sanit. 17 (8): 449–454. PMID 5195090.
     
  11. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    22 October 1859 – Spain declares war on Morocco.

    Morocco

    Morocco (/məˈrɒk/ ),[note 3] officially the Kingdom of Morocco,[note 4] is a country in the Maghreb region of North Africa. It overlooks the Mediterranean Sea to the north and the Atlantic Ocean to the west, and has land borders with Algeria to the east, and the disputed territory of Western Sahara to the south. Morocco also claims the Spanish exclaves of Ceuta, Melilla and Peñón de Vélez de la Gomera, and several small Spanish-controlled islands off its coast.[16] It has a population of roughly 37 million, the official and predominant religion is Islam, and the official languages are Arabic and Berber; French and the Moroccan dialect of Arabic are also widely spoken. Moroccan identity and culture is a mix of Arab, Berber, African and European cultures. Its capital is Rabat, while its largest city is Casablanca.[17]

    The region constituting Morocco has been inhabited since the Paleolithic era over 300,000 years ago. The Idrisid dynasty was established by Idris I in 788 and was subsequently ruled by a series of other independent dynasties, reaching its zenith as a regional power in the 11th and 12th centuries, under the Almoravid and Almohad dynasties, when it controlled most of the Iberian Peninsula and the Maghreb.[18] Centuries of Arab migration to the Maghreb since the 7th century shifted the demographic scope of the region. In the 15th and 16th centuries, Morocco faced external threats to its sovereignty, with Portugal seizing some territory and the Ottoman Empire encroaching from the east. The Marinid and Saadi dynasties otherwise resisted foreign domination, and Morocco was the only North African nation to escape Ottoman dominion. The 'Alawi dynasty, which rules the country to this day, seized power in 1631, and over the next two centuries expanded diplomatic and commercial relations with the Western world. Morocco's strategic location near the mouth of the Mediterranean drew renewed European interest; in 1912, France and Spain divided the country into respective protectorates, reserving an international zone in Tangier. Following intermittent riots and revolts against colonial rule, in 1956, Morocco regained its independence and reunified.

    Since independence, Morocco has remained relatively stable. It has the fifth-largest economy in Africa and wields significant influence in both Africa and the Arab world; it is considered a middle power in global affairs and holds membership in the Arab League, the Arab Maghreb Union, the Union for the Mediterranean, and the African Union.[19] Morocco is a unitary semi-constitutional monarchy with an elected parliament. The executive branch is led by the King of Morocco and the prime minister, while legislative power is vested in the two chambers of parliament: the House of Representatives and the House of Councillors. Judicial power rests with the Constitutional Court, which may review the validity of laws, elections, and referendums.[20] The king holds vast executive and legislative powers, especially over the military, foreign policy and religious affairs; he can issue decrees called dahirs, which have the force of law, and can also dissolve the parliament after consulting the prime minister and the president of the constitutional court.

    Morocco claims ownership of the non-self-governing territory of Western Sahara, which it has designated its Southern Provinces. In 1975, after Spain agreed to decolonise the territory and cede its control to Morocco and Mauritania, a guerrilla war broke out between those powers and some of the local inhabitants. In 1979, Mauritania relinquished its claim to the area, but the war continued to rage. In 1991, a ceasefire agreement was reached, but the issue of sovereignty remained unresolved. Today, Morocco occupies two-thirds of the territory, and efforts to resolve the dispute have thus far failed to break the political deadlock.

    1. ^ "Constitution of Morocco". www.constituteproject.org. Retrieved 11 March 2024.
    2. ^ a b "Morocco". The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency. 12 January 2022.
    3. ^ "Présentation du Maroc" (in French). Ministère de l'Europe et des Affaires étrangères.
    4. ^ Hyde, Martin (October 1994). "The teaching of English in Morocco: the place of culture". ELT Journal. 48 (4): 295–305. doi:10.1093/elt/48.4.295.
    5. ^ The Report: Morocco 2012. Oxford Business Group. 2012. ISBN 978-1-907065-54-5.
    6. ^ "Regional Profiles: Morocco". The Association of Religion Data Archives. World Religion Database.
    7. ^ Constitution of the Kingdom of Morocco. Translated by Ruchti, Jefri J. Getzville: William S. Hein & Co., Inc. 2012. First published in the Official Bulletin on July 30, 2011
    8. ^ "Horloge de la population" (in French). HCP. 2022. Retrieved 18 December 2022.
    9. ^ "Résultats RGPH 2014" (in French). HCP. 2014. Archived from the original on 9 May 2020. Retrieved 17 October 2019.
    10. ^ a b c d "World Economic Outlook Database, October 2023 Edition. (Morocco)". IMF.org. International Monetary Fund. 10 October 2023. Retrieved 12 October 2023.
    11. ^ Africa's Development Dynamics 2018:Growth, Jobs and Inequalities. AUC/OECD. 2018. p. 179. Retrieved 18 December 2020.
    12. ^ Human Development Report 2021-22: Uncertain Times, Unsettled Lives: Shaping our Future in a Transforming World (PDF). United Nations Development Programme. 8 September 2022. pp. 272–276. ISBN 978-9-211-26451-7. Archived (PDF) from the original on 8 September 2022. Retrieved 8 September 2022.
    13. ^ "Décret royal n° 455-67 du 23 safar 1387 (2 juin 1967) portant loi relatif à l'heure légale". Bulletin Officiel du Royaume du Maroc (2854) – via Banque de Données Juridiques.
    14. ^ "Changements d'heure pour ramadan, quels impacts ?". TelQuel (in French). Retrieved 13 January 2023.
    15. ^ Trinidad, Jamie (2012). "An Evaluation of Morocco's Claims to Spain's Remaining Territories in Africa". The International and Comparative Law Quarterly. 61 (4): 961–975. ISSN 0020-5893.
    16. ^ "Ceuta, Melilla profile". BBC News. 2018. Retrieved 13 November 2018.
    17. ^ Jamil M. Abun-Nasr (20 August 1987). A History of the Maghrib in the Islamic Period. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-33767-0.
    18. ^ Hall, John G.; Chelsea Publishing House (2002). North Africa. Infobase Publishing. ISBN 978-0-7910-5746-9.
    19. ^ Balfour, Rosa (March 2009). "The Transformation of the Union for the Mediterranean". Mediterranean Politics. 14 (1): 99–105. doi:10.1080/13629390902747491. ISSN 1362-9395.
    20. ^ Morocco: Remove Obstacles to Access to the Constitutional Court Archived 21 July 2021 at the Wayback Machine. International Commission of Jurists.


    Cite error: There are <ref group=note> tags on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=note}} template (see the help page).

     
  12. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    23 October 1707 – The first Parliament of Great Britain meets.

    Parliament of Great Britain

    The Parliament of Great Britain was formed in May 1707 following the ratification of the Acts of Union by both the Parliament of England and the Parliament of Scotland. The Acts ratified the treaty of Union which created a new unified Kingdom of Great Britain and created the parliament of Great Britain located in the former home of the English parliament in the Palace of Westminster, near the City of London. This lasted nearly a century, until the Acts of Union 1800 merged the separate British and Irish Parliaments into a single Parliament of the United Kingdom with effect from 1 January 1801.

     
  13. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    24 October 1931 – The George Washington Bridge opens to public traffic.

    George Washington Bridge

    The George Washington Bridge is a double-decked suspension bridge spanning the Hudson River, connecting Fort Lee in Bergen County, New Jersey, with the Washington Heights neighborhood of Manhattan in New York City. It is named after Founding Father George Washington, the first president of the United States. The George Washington Bridge is the world's busiest motor vehicle bridge,[5] carrying a traffic volume of over 104 million vehicles in 2019,[6] and is the world's only suspension bridge with 14 vehicular lanes.[7]

    The bridge is owned by the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey, a bi-state government agency that operates infrastructure in the Port of New York and New Jersey. The George Washington Bridge is also informally known as the GW Bridge, the GWB, the GW, or the George,[8] and was known as the Fort Lee Bridge or Hudson River Bridge during construction. The George Washington Bridge measures 4,760 feet (1,450 m) long and has a main span of 3,500 feet (1,100 m). It was the longest main bridge span in the world from its 1931 opening until the Golden Gate Bridge in San Francisco opened in 1937.

    The George Washington Bridge is an important travel corridor within the New York metropolitan area. It has an upper level that carries four lanes in each direction and a lower level with three lanes in each direction, for a total of 14 lanes of travel. The speed limit on the bridge is 45 mph (72 km/h). The bridge's upper level also carries pedestrian and bicycle traffic. Interstate 95 (I-95) and U.S. Route 1/9 (US 1/9, composed of US 1 and US 9) cross the river via the bridge. U.S. Route 46 (US 46), which lies entirely within New Jersey, terminates halfway across the bridge at the state border with New York. At its eastern terminus in New York City, the bridge continues onto the Trans-Manhattan Expressway (part of I-95, connecting to the Cross Bronx Expressway).

    The idea of a bridge across the Hudson River was first proposed in 1906, but it was not until 1925 that the state legislatures of New York and New Jersey voted to allow for the planning and construction of such a bridge. Construction on the George Washington Bridge started in September 1927; the bridge was ceremonially dedicated on October 24, 1931, and opened to traffic the next day. The opening of the George Washington Bridge contributed to the development of Bergen County, New Jersey, in which Fort Lee is located. The upper deck was widened from six to eight lanes in 1946. The six-lane lower deck was constructed beneath the existing span from 1959 to 1962 because of increasing traffic flow.

    1. ^ a b c d Cite error: The named reference PANYNJ Facts was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    2. ^ Cite error: The named reference asce was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    3. ^ Cite error: The named reference PANYNJ-GWBRestrictions was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    4. ^ "New York City Bridge Traffic Volumes" (PDF). New York City Department of Transportation. 2016. p. 11. Retrieved March 16, 2018.
    5. ^ Cite error: The named reference BusiestBridgeOnEarth was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    6. ^ "Number of the Day - 104M". NJ Spotlight. November 20, 2020. Retrieved March 18, 2023.
    7. ^ "George Washington Bridge 80th Anniversary; The Port Authority of New York and New Jersey celebrates the 80th anniversary of the October 25, 1931 opening of the George Washington Bridge." Archived December 28, 2012, at the Wayback Machine, Port Authority of New York and New Jersey. Accessed January 24, 2013.
    8. ^ Rose, Lacey (March 2, 2006). "Inside the Booth". Forbes. Archived from the original on August 22, 2006. Retrieved January 15, 2008. Like the PATH trains, which also connect New York to New Jersey, the G.W. Bridge is run by the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey, a public agency that employees 7,000 workers [sic] and has annual revenues of $2.9 billion.
     
  14. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    25 October 1983Operation Urgent Fury: The United States and its Caribbean allies invade Grenada, six days after Prime Minister Maurice Bishop and several of his supporters are executed in a coup d'état.

    United States invasion of Grenada

    The United States invasion of Grenada began at dawn on 25 October 1983. The United States and a coalition of six Caribbean nations invaded the island nation of Grenada, 100 miles (160 km) north of Venezuela. Codenamed Operation Urgent Fury by the U.S. military, it resulted in military occupation within a few days.[9] It was triggered by the strife within the People's Revolutionary Government, which resulted in the house arrest and execution of the previous leader and second Prime Minister of Grenada, Maurice Bishop, and the establishment of the Revolutionary Military Council, with Hudson Austin as chairman. The invasion resulted in the appointment of an interim government, followed by elections in 1984.

    Grenada had gained independence from the United Kingdom in 1974. The Communist New JEWEL Movement seized power in a nearly bloodless coup in 1979 under Maurice Bishop suspending the constitution and detaining several political prisoners. In September 1983, an internal power struggle began over Bishop's leadership performance.[10] Bishop was pressured at a party meeting to share power with Deputy Prime Minister Bernard Coard. Bishop initially agreed, but later balked. He was put under house arrest by his own party's Central Committee until he relented. When his secret detention became widely known, Bishop was freed by an aroused crowd of his supporters. Bishop made his way to the army headquarters at Fort Rupert (known today as Fort George). After he arrived, a military force was dispatched from Fort Frederick to Fort Rupert. Bishop and seven others, including cabinet ministers, were captured. Then a four-man People's Revolutionary Army firing squad executed Bishop, three members of his Cabinet and four others by machine-gunning them.

    The Reagan administration mounted a US military intervention following receipt of a formal appeal for help from the Organisation of Eastern Caribbean States, which had received a covert appeal for assistance from the Governor-General of Grenada, Paul Scoon (though he put off signing the formal letter of invitation until 26 October).[11] President Reagan stated that he felt compelled to act due to "concerns over the 600 U.S. medical students on the island" and fears of a repeat of the Iran hostage crisis, which ended less than three years earlier. According to the future United States Secretary of State Lawrence Eagleburger, who was serving as Reagan's Under Secretary of State for Political Affairs at the time of the invasion, the prime motivation for the US intervention was to "get rid" of the coup leader Hudson Austin, and the students were the pretext.[12] While the invasion followed the execution of Maurice Bishop, his party members intending to gain power still maintained his communist ideologies. President Reagan expressed that he viewed this, alongside the party's growing connection to Fidel Castro, as a threat to democracy.[13]

    The invading force consisted of the 1st and 2nd battalions of the US Army's 75th Ranger Regiment, the 82nd Airborne Division, and elements of the former Rapid Deployment Force, U.S. Marines, US Army Delta Force, Navy SEALs, and ancillary forces, totaling 7,600 troops, together with Jamaican forces and troops of the Regional Security System (RSS).[14] The force defeated Grenadian resistance after a low-altitude airborne assault by the Rangers and 82nd Airborne on Point Salines Airport, at the south end of the island, and a Marine helicopter and amphibious landing on the north end, at Pearls Airport. Austin's military government was deposed and replaced, with Scoon as Governor-General, by an interim advisory council until the 1984 elections.

    The invasion was criticized by many countries. British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher privately disapproved of the mission, in part because she was not consulted in advance and was given very short notice of the military operation, but she supported it in the press.[15] The United Nations General Assembly condemned it as "a flagrant violation of international law" on 2 November 1983, by a vote of 108 to 9.[16]

    The date of the invasion is now a national holiday in Grenada, called Thanksgiving Day, commemorating the freeing of several political prisoners who were subsequently elected to office. A truth and reconciliation commission was launched in 2000 to re-examine some of the controversies of the era; in particular, the Commission made an unsuccessful attempt to find Bishop's body, which had been disposed of at Austin's order and never found.

    The invasion highlighted issues with communication and coordination between the different branches of the American military when operating together as a joint force, triggering post-action investigations resulting in sweeping operational changes in the form of the Goldwater-Nichols Act and other reorganizations.[17]

    1. ^ Cole, Ronald H. (1997). "OPERATION URGENT FURY Grenada" (PDF).
    2. ^ a b c d Cole, Ronald (1997). "Operation Urgent Fury: The Planning and Execution of Joint Operations in Grenada" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 16 November 2011. Retrieved 9 November 2006.
    3. ^ "Medals Outnumber G.I.'s in Grenada Assault". The New York Times. 30 March 1984. Archived from the original on 13 February 2017. Retrieved 9 February 2017.
    4. ^ a b c d Clodfelter, Micheal (2017). Warfare and Armed Conflicts: A Statistical Encyclopedia of Casualty and Other Figures, 1492–2015 (4th ed.). McFarland. p. 645. ISBN 978-0786474707.
    5. ^ "Study Faults U.S. Military Tactics in Grenada Invasion". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on 2 July 2019. Retrieved 2 July 2019.
    6. ^ "The Invasion of Grenada". PBS.org. Archived from the original on 20 March 2017. Retrieved 27 August 2017.
    7. ^ Russell, Lee; Mendez, Albert (2012). Grenada 1983. London: Osprey Publishing. p. 45.
    8. ^ "Soldiers During the Invasion of Grenada". CardCow Vintage Postcards. Archived from the original on 8 December 2015. Retrieved 9 October 2015.
    9. ^ Kukielski, Phil (18 September 2013). "How Grenada reshaped the US military". The Boston Globe. Archived from the original on 2 August 2020. Retrieved 25 April 2020.
    10. ^ Seabury, Paul; McDougall, Walter A., eds. (1984). The Grenada Papers. San Francisco: Institute for Contemporary Studies. ISBN 0-917616-68-5. OCLC 11233840.
    11. ^ Scoon, Sir Paul (2003). Survival for Service: My Experiences as Governor General of Grenada. Oxford: Macmillan Caribbean. pp. 136, 145. ISBN 0-333-97064-0. OCLC 54489557.
    12. ^ Moore, Charles (2015). "Chapter 5: Reagan plays her false". Margaret Thatcher: The Authorized Biography, Volume Two: Everything She Wants. Great Britain: Allen Lane, Penguin Books. p. 119. ISBN 978-0-713-99288-5. OCLC 922929186. OL 27339067M. pp. 118–119: On 20 October, the administration's Crisis Preplanning Group met and discussed a rescue plan for the students, but also the possibility of overthrowing the hostile Grenadian regime. According to Lawrence Eagleburger, the Under Secretary of State for Political Affairs at the State Department, 'The prime motivation was to get rid of that son of a bitch [General Austin] before the Cubans got any further embedded … The students were the pretext … but we would not have done it simply because of the students.'
    13. ^ Lewis, Patsy (1999). "Revisiting the Grenada Invasion: The Oecs' Role, and Its Impact on Regional and International Politics". Social and Economic Studies. 48 (3): 85–120. ISSN 0037-7651.
    14. ^ "Caribbean Islands – A Regional Security System". country-data.com. Archived from the original on 26 April 2017. Retrieved 18 November 2008.
    15. ^ Moore, Charles (2016). Margaret Thatcher: At her Zenith. p. 130.
    16. ^ "United Nations General Assembly resolution 38/7". United Nations. 2 November 1983. Archived from the original on 10 August 2018. Retrieved 5 March 2016.
    17. ^ Kukielski, Philip (2019). The U.S. Invasion of Grenada: legacy of a flawed victory. Jefferson, NC: McFarland & Company. pp. 213–214. ISBN 978-1-4766-7879-5. OCLC 1123182247.
     
  15. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    26 October 1520Charles V is crowned as Holy Roman Emperor.

    Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor

    Charles V[c][d] (24 February 1500 – 21 September 1558) was Holy Roman Emperor and Archduke of Austria from 1519 to 1556, King of Spain from 1516 to 1556, and Lord of the Netherlands as titular Duke of Burgundy from 1506 to 1555. He was heir to and then head of the rising House of Habsburg during the first half of the 16th century. His dominions in Europe included the Holy Roman Empire, extending from Germany to northern Italy with direct rule over the Austrian hereditary lands and the Burgundian Low Countries, and Spain with its possessions of the southern Italian kingdoms of Naples, Sicily and Sardinia. In the Americas, he oversaw both the continuation of the long-lasting Spanish colonization as well as a short-lived German colonization. The personal union of the European and American territories of Charles V was the first collection of realms labelled "the empire on which the sun never sets".[9]

    Charles was born in Flanders to Habsburg Archduke Philip the Handsome, the son of Emperor Maximilian I and Mary of Burgundy, and Joanna of Castile, younger child of Isabella I of Castile and Ferdinand II of Aragon, the Catholic Monarchs of Spain. The heir of his four grandparents, Charles inherited all his family dominions at a young age. After the death of his father Philip in 1506, he inherited the Habsburg Netherlands, originally held by his paternal grandmother Mary.[10] In 1516, inheriting the dynastic union formed by his maternal grandparents Isabella I and Ferdinand II, he became King of Spain as co-monarch of the Crowns of Castile and Aragon with his mother, who was deemed incapable of ruling due to mental illness. Spain's possessions at his accession also included the Castilian colonies of the West Indies and the Spanish Main as well as the Aragonese kingdoms of Naples, Sicily and Sardinia. At the death of his paternal grandfather Maximilian in 1519, he inherited the Austrian hereditary lands and was elected to succeed him as Holy Roman Emperor. He adopted the Imperial name of Charles V as his main title, and styled himself as a new Charlemagne.[11]

    Charles V revitalized the medieval concept of universal monarchy. With no fixed capital city, he made 40 journeys through the different entities he ruled; he spent a quarter of his reign travelling within his realms.[12] Although his empire came to him peacefully as inheritances from strategic marriages, he spent most of his life waging war, exhausting his own royal revenues and leaving debts to his successors in his attempt to defend the integrity of the Holy Roman Empire from the Protestant Reformation, the expansion of the Muslim realms of the Ottoman Empire, and in a series of wars with France.[13][14] The Imperial wars were fought by German Landsknechte, Spanish tercios, Burgundian knights, and Italian condottieri. Charles V borrowed money from German and Italian bankers and, in order to repay such loans, he relied on the proto-capitalist economy of the Low Countries and on the flow of precious metal, especially silver, from New Spain and Peru to Spain, which caused widespread inflation. During his reign his realms expanded by the Spanish conquest of the Aztec and Inca empires by the Spanish conquistadores Hernán Cortés and Francisco Pizarro, as well as the establishment of Klein-Venedig by the German Welser family in search of the legendary El Dorado. In order to consolidate power early in his reign, Charles overcame two insurrections in Spain (the Comuneros' Revolt and Brotherhoods' Revolt) and two German rebellions (the Knights' Revolt and Great Peasants' Revolt). He suppressed a major rebellion of Spanish colonists in Peru in the 1540s.

    Crowned King in Germany, Charles sided with Pope Leo X and declared Martin Luther an outlaw at the Diet of Worms (1521).[15] The same year, Francis I of France, surrounded by the Habsburg possessions, started a war in Italy that lasted until the Battle of Pavia (1525), which led to the French king's temporary imprisonment. The Protestant affair re-emerged in 1527 as Rome was sacked by an army of Charles's mutinous soldiers, largely of Lutheran faith. In the following years, Charles V defended Vienna from the Turks and obtained a coronation as King of Italy and Holy Roman Emperor from Pope Clement VII. In 1535, he annexed the vacant Duchy of Milan and captured Tunis. Nevertheless, the loss of Buda during the struggle for Hungary and the Algiers expedition in the early 1540s frustrated his anti-Ottoman policies. After years of negotiations, Charles V had come to an agreement with Pope Paul III for the organization of the Council of Trent (1545). The refusal of the Lutheran Schmalkaldic League to recognize the council's validity led to a war, won by Charles V with the imprisonment of the Protestant princes. However, Henry II of France offered new support to the Lutheran cause and strengthened the alliance with the Ottoman Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent.

    Ultimately, Charles V conceded the Peace of Augsburg and abandoned his multi-national project with a series of abdications in 1556 that divided his hereditary and imperial domains between the Spanish Habsburgs, headed by his son Philip II of Spain, and the Austrian Habsburgs, headed by his brother Ferdinand. Ferdinand had been Archduke of Austria in Charles's name since 1521 and the designated successor as emperor since 1531.[16][17][18] The Duchy of Milan and the Habsburg Netherlands were also left in personal union to the King of Spain, although initially also belonging to the Holy Roman Empire. The two Habsburg dynasties remained allied until the extinction of the Spanish line in 1700. In 1557, Charles retired to the Monastery of Yuste in Extremadura and died there a year later.

    1. ^ a b Setton, K. (1984). The Papacy and the Levant (1204–1571), Volume IV: The Sixteenth Century from Julius III to Pius V. Memoirs. Vol. 162. Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society. p. 716. ISBN 978-0871691620. ISSN 0065-9738.
    2. ^ a b Chillany, F. Wilhelm (1865). Europaeische Chronik von 1492 bis Ende April 1865. pp. 16, 78.
    3. ^ "Instruction for the abdication mission to Ferdinand I", Charles V: The World Emperor, Harald Kleinschmidt, 2011
    4. ^ Flathe, Theodor (1886). Allgemeine Weltgeschichte. p. 212.
    5. ^ Karl V Archived 24 September 2021 at the Wayback Machine. Neue Deutsche Biographie.
    6. ^ Bruno Gebhardt (1890). Gebhardts Handbuch der deutschen geschichte. p. 92.
    7. ^ William H. Prescott (1856). Historia del reinado de Felipe Segundo, Rey de España. p. 321.
    8. ^ Carlos V: La coronación del Emperador Archived 25 July 2021 at the Wayback Machine. National Geographic
    9. ^ Pagden, Anthony quoting Ariosto, Peoples and Empires: A Short History of European Migration, Exploration, and Conquest from Greece to the Present. New York: Random House 2007, p. 76 ISBN 978-0307431592
    10. ^ Charles Quint, prince des Pays-Bas (in French). La Renaissance du Livre. 1943.
    11. ^ Leitch, S. (2010). Mapping Ethnography in Early Modern Germany: New Worlds in Print Culture. Springer. ISBN 978-0230112988 – via Google Books.
    12. ^ Ferer, Mary Tiffany (2012). Music and Ceremony at the Court of Charles V: The Capilla Flamenca and the Art of Political Promotion. Boydell Press. ISBN 978-1843836995.
    13. ^ MacCulloch, D. (2 September 2004). Reformation: Europe's House Divided 1490–1700. p. 216. ISBN 978-0141926605.
    14. ^ Armitage, D. (2000). The Ideological Origins of the British Empire. Cambridge University Press. p. 32. ISBN 978-0521789783.
    15. ^ Smedley, Edward (1845). Encyclopædia metropolitana; Volume 17. London.
    16. ^ Kanski, Jack J. (2019). History of the German speaking nations. Troubador Publishing. ISBN 978-1789017182.
    17. ^ Pavlac, Brian A.; Lott, Elizabeth S. (2019). The Holy Roman Empire: A Historical Encyclopedia [2 volumes]. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 978-1440848568 – via Google Books.
    18. ^ Wilson, Peter H. (2010). The Thirty Years War, a sourcebook. Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 978-1137069771. Archived from the original on 7 April 2022.


    Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

     
  16. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    28 October 1453Ladislaus the Posthumous is crowned king of Bohemia in Prague.

    Ladislaus the Posthumous

    Ladislaus V, more commonly known as Ladislaus the Posthumous (Hungarian: Utószülött László; Croatian: Ladislav Posmrtni; Czech: Ladislav Pohrobek; German: Ladislaus Postumus; 22 February 1440 – 23 November 1457), was Duke of Austria and King of Hungary, Croatia and Bohemia. He was the posthumous son of Albert of Habsburg with Elizabeth of Luxembourg. Albert had bequeathed all his realms to his future son on his deathbed, but only the estates of Austria accepted his last will. Fearing an Ottoman invasion, the majority of the Hungarian lords and prelates offered the crown to Vladislaus III of Poland. The Hussite noblemen and towns of Bohemia did not acknowledge the hereditary right of Albert's descendants to the throne, but also did not elect a new king.

    After Ladislaus's birth, his mother seized the Holy Crown of Hungary and had Ladislaus crowned king in Székesfehérvár on 15 May 1440. However, the Diet of Hungary declared Ladislaus's coronation invalid and elected Vladislaus king. A civil war broke out which lasted for years. Elizabeth appointed her late husband's distant cousin, Albert VI to her child's guardian. However, as a representative of the interests of the Austrian and Hungarian estates, he could not defend himself against his rival, Frederick III, King of the Romans, who in turn took over his role as guardian of Ladislaus. Albert had to renounce his guardianship and in return received the mighty Hungarian border castle Forchtenstein, including a principality in the Hungarian-Styrian-Carinthian area.[1] Ladislaus lived at Frederick's court (mainly in Wiener Neustadt), where Aeneas Silvius Piccolomini (later Pope Pius II) wrote a treatise on his upbringing.

    After his mother died in late 1442, Ladislaus' interests were represented by a Czech condottiere, John Jiskra of Brandýs, in Hungary, and by the Czech Catholic lord, Ulrich II of Rosenberg, in Bohemia. Ladislaus' rival in Hungary, Vladislaus, fell in the Battle of Varna in November 1444. The next year, the Diet of Hungary offered to acknowledge Ladislaus as king if Frederick III renounced his guardianship. After Frederick III rejected the offer, the Diet of Hungary elected John Hunyadi regent in 1446. In Bohemia, the head of the moderate Hussites (or Utraquists), George of Poděbrady, took control of Prague in 1448. The Estates of Austria forced Frederick III to resign the guardianship and hand over Ladislaus to them in September 1452. Royal administration was formally restored in Hungary after Hunyadi resigned the regency in early 1453, but he continued to control most royal castles and revenues.

    Ulrich II, Count of Celje (his mother's cousin) became Ladislaus' main advisor, but an Austrian baron, Ulrich von Eytzinger, forced Ladislaus to expel Celje from his court. Although Ladislaus was crowned king of Bohemia on 28 October 1453, Poděbrady remained in full control of the government. During the following years, Eytzinger, Hunyadi and Poděbrady closely cooperated to mutually secure their positions. Ladislaus was reconciled with Ulrich II in early 1455. With the support of the leading Hungarian barons, Ladislaus persuaded Hunyadi to withdraw his troops from most royal castles and renounce the administration of part of the royal revenues.

    After the Ottoman Sultan Mehmed II decided to invade Hungary, Ladislaus and Ulrich II left the kingdom. The sultan laid siege to Belgrade. Hunyadi relieved the fortress on 22 July 1456, but he died two weeks later. Ladislaus and Ulrich II returned to Hungary and tried to force Hunyadi's son, also named Ladislaus, to renounce all royal castles and revenues, but Ladislaus Hunyadi murdered Ulrich II on 9 November, forcing Ladislaus to grant an amnesty to him. However, most Hungarian barons were hostile towards Ladislaus Hunyadi. With their support, Ladislaus captured him and his brother, Matthias. After Ladislaus Hunyadi was executed in March 1457, his relatives stirred up a rebellion against Ladislaus, forcing him to flee from Hungary. Ladislaus died unexpectedly in Prague. He was the last male member of the Albertinian Line of the House of Habsburg.

    1. ^ Langmaier 2015, pp. 47–61.
     
  17. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    29 October 1390 – First trial for witchcraft in Paris leading to the death of three people.

    Witchcraft

    Witchcraft, as most commonly understood in both historical and present-day communities, is the use of alleged supernatural powers of magic. A witch is a practitioner of witchcraft. Traditionally, "witchcraft" means the use of magic or supernatural powers to inflict harm or misfortune on others, and this remains the most common and widespread meaning.[1]: ix [2] According to Encyclopedia Britannica, "Witchcraft thus defined exists more in the imagination of contemporaries than in any objective reality. Yet this stereotype has a long history and has constituted for many cultures a viable explanation of evil in the world".[3] The belief in witchcraft has been found in a great number of societies worldwide. Anthropologists have applied the English term "witchcraft" to similar beliefs in occult practices in many different cultures, and societies that have adopted the English language have often internalised the term.[4][2][5]

    In Europe, belief in witchcraft traces back to classical antiquity. In medieval and early modern Europe, accused witches were usually women who were believed to have used black magic or maleficium against their own community. Usually, accusations of witchcraft were made by their neighbors and followed from social tensions. Witches were sometimes said to have communed with evil beings or with the Devil, though anthropologist Jean La Fontaine notes that such accusations were mainly made against "enemies of the Church".[6] It was thought witchcraft could be thwarted by protective magic or counter-magic, which could be provided by the 'cunning folk' or 'wise people'. Suspected witches were also intimidated, banished, attacked or killed. Often they would be formally prosecuted and punished, if found guilty or simply believed to be guilty. European witch-hunts and witch trials in the early modern period led to tens of thousands of executions. While magical healers and midwives were sometimes accused of witchcraft themselves,[7]: 7–13 [2]: 519 [8][9]: 31-59 they made up a minority of those accused. European belief in witchcraft gradually dwindled during and after the Age of Enlightenment.

    Many indigenous belief systems that include the concept of witchcraft likewise define witches as malevolent, and seek healers and medicine people for protection against witchcraft.[10][11] Some African and Melanesian peoples believe witches are driven by an evil spirit or substance inside them. Modern witch-hunting takes place in parts of Africa and Asia.

    Today, followers of certain types of modern paganism self-identify as witches and use the term witchcraft for their beliefs and practices.[12][13][14] Other neo-pagans avoid the term due to its negative connotations.[15]

    1. ^ Hutton, Ronald (2017). The Witch: A History of Fear, from Ancient Times to the Present. Yale University Press.
    2. ^ a b c Thomas, Keith (1997). Religion and the Decline of Magic. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press. p. 519. ISBN 978-0297002208.
    3. ^ Russell, Jeffrey Burton; Lewis, Ioan M. (21 June 2023). "Witchcraft". Encyclopedia Britannica. Archived from the original on 28 June 2023. Retrieved 28 July 2023. Although defined differently in disparate historical and cultural contexts, witchcraft has often been seen, especially in the West, as the work of crones who meet secretly at night, indulge in cannibalism and orgiastic rites with the Devil, or Satan, and perform black magic. Witchcraft thus defined exists more in the imagination of contemporaries than in any objective reality. Yet this stereotype has a long history and has constituted for many cultures a viable explanation of evil in the world.
    4. ^ Singh, Manvir (2 February 2021). "Magic, Explanations, and Evil: The Origins and Design of Witches and Sorcerers". Current Anthropology. 62 (1): 2–29. doi:10.1086/713111. ISSN 0011-3204. S2CID 232214522. Archived from the original on 18 July 2021. Retrieved 28 April 2021.
    5. ^ Perrone, Bobette; Stockel, H. Henrietta; Krueger, Victoria (1993). Medicine women, curanderas, and women doctors. University of Oklahoma Press. p. 189. ISBN 978-0806125121. Archived from the original on 23 April 2017. Retrieved 8 October 2010.
    6. ^ La Fontaine, J. (2016). Witches and Demons: A Comparative Perspective on Witchcraft and Satanism. Berghahn Books. pp. 33–34. ISBN 978-1785330865.
    7. ^ Davies, Owen (2003). Cunning-Folk: Popular Magic in English History. London: Hambledon Continuum. ISBN 978-1-85285-297-9.
    8. ^ Riddle, John M. (1997). Eve's Herbs: A History of Contraception and Abortion in the West. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press. pp. 110–119. ISBN 0674270266.
    9. ^ Ehrenreich, Barbara; English, Deirdre (2010). Witches, Midwives & Nurses: A History of Women Healers (Second ed.). New York: Feminist Press at CUNY. ISBN 978-1558616905.
    10. ^ Demetrio, F. R. (1988). Philippine Studies Vol. 36, No. 3: Shamans, Witches and Philippine Society, pp. 372-380. Ateneo de Manila University.
    11. ^ Tan, Michael L. (2008). Revisiting Usog, Pasma, Kulam. University of the Philippines Press. ISBN 978-9715425704. Archived from the original on 26 January 2021. Retrieved 17 September 2020.
    12. ^ Doyle White, Ethan (2016). Wicca: History, Belief, and Community in Modern Pagan Witchcraft. Liverpool University Press. pp. 1–9, 73. ISBN 978-1-84519-754-4.
    13. ^ Berger, Helen A.; Ezzy, Douglas (September 2009). "Mass Media and Religious Identity: A Case Study of Young Witches". Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion. 48 (3): 501–514. doi:10.1111/j.1468-5906.2009.01462.x. JSTOR 40405642.
    14. ^ Kelly, Aidan A. (1992). "An Update on Neopagan Witchcraft in America". In James R. Lewis; J. Gordon Melton (eds.). Perspectives on the New Age. Albany: State University of New York Press. pp. 136–151. ISBN 978-0791412138.
    15. ^ Lewis, James (1996). Magical Religion and Modern Witchcraft. SUNY Press. p. 376.
     
  18. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    30 October 1974The Rumble in the Jungle boxing match between Muhammad Ali and George Foreman takes place in Zaire.

    The Rumble in the Jungle

    Kinshasa is located in Africa
    Kinshasa
    Kinshasa

    George Foreman vs. Muhammad Ali, billed as The Rumble in the Jungle, was a heavyweight championship boxing match on October 30, 1974, at the 20th of May Stadium (now at the State Tata Raphaël) in Kinshasa, Zaire (now Democratic Republic of the Congo), between undefeated and undisputed heavyweight champion George Foreman and Muhammad Ali. The event had an attendance of 60,000 people and was one of the most watched televised events at the time. Ali won by knockout in the eighth round.

    It has been called "arguably the greatest sporting event of the 20th century"[2] and was a major upset,[3] with Ali coming in as a 4–1 underdog against the unbeaten, heavy-hitting Foreman.[4] The fight is famous for Ali's introduction of the rope-a-dope tactic.[5]

    Some sources estimate that the fight was watched by as many as one billion television viewers around the world,[6][7] becoming the world's most-watched live television broadcast at the time.[8] This included a record estimated 50 million viewers watching the fight on pay-per-view or closed-circuit theatre TV.[3] The fight grossed an estimated $100 million (inflation-adjusted $600 million) in worldwide revenue.[9][10] Decades later, the bout would be the subject of the Academy Award winning documentary film When We Were Kings.[11]

    1. ^ "Ali KO's Foreman in 8th". Milwaukee Sentinel. UPI. October 30, 1974. p. 1-part 2.
    2. ^ Kang, Jay Caspian (2013-04-04). "The End and Don King". Grantland. ESPN. Retrieved 2013-04-04.McDougall, Christopher, ed. (2014). The Best American Sports Writing 2014. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. p. 149. ISBN 9780544147003.
    3. ^ a b Cite error: The named reference Herald was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    4. ^ "Ali Regains Title, Flooring Foreman". The New York Times. October 30, 1974.
    5. ^ Cite error: The named reference guardian was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    6. ^ Cite error: The named reference usatoday was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    7. ^ "Oct 30, 1974 CE: Rumble in the Jungle". National Geographic. Retrieved February 14, 2022.
    8. ^ Cite error: The named reference briefly was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    9. ^ Cite error: The named reference Times was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    10. ^ Cite error: The named reference Kabanda was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    11. ^ "When We Were Kings (1996)". IMDb. Retrieved March 3, 2021.
     
  19. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    31 October 1922Benito Mussolini is made Prime Minister of Italy

    Benito Mussolini

    Benito Amilcare Andrea Mussolini (UK: /ˌmʊsəˈlni, ˌmʌs-/, US: /ˌms-/, Italian: [beˈniːto aˈmilkare anˈdrɛːa mussoˈliːni]; 29 July 1883 – 28 April 1945) was an Italian dictator who founded and led the National Fascist Party (PNF). He was Prime Minister of Italy from the March on Rome in 1922 until his deposition in 1943, as well as Duce of Italian fascism from the establishment of the Italian Fasces of Combat in 1919 until his summary execution in 1945 by Italian partisans. As dictator of Italy and principal founder of fascism, Mussolini inspired and supported the international spread of fascist movements during the inter-war period.

    Mussolini was originally a socialist politician and a journalist at the Avanti! newspaper. In 1912, he became a member of the National Directorate of the Italian Socialist Party (PSI), but he was expelled from the PSI for advocating military intervention in World War I, in opposition to the party's stance on neutrality. In 1914, Mussolini founded a newspaper, Il Popolo d'Italia, and served in the Royal Italian Army during the war until he was wounded and discharged in 1917. Mussolini denounced the PSI, his views now centering on Italian nationalism instead of socialism, and later founded the fascist movement which came to oppose egalitarianism and class conflict, instead advocating "revolutionary nationalism" transcending class lines. On 31 October 1922, following the March on Rome (28–30 October), Mussolini was appointed prime minister by King Victor Emmanuel III, becoming the youngest individual to hold the office up to that time. After removing all political opposition through his secret police and outlawing labour strikes, Mussolini and his followers consolidated power through a series of laws that transformed the nation into a one-party dictatorship. Within five years, Mussolini established dictatorial authority by both legal and illegal means and aspired to create a totalitarian state. In 1929, Mussolini signed the Lateran Treaty with the Holy See to establish Vatican City.

    Mussolini's foreign policy was based on the fascist doctrine of "Spazio vitale" (trans: "living space"); which aimed to expand Italian possessions and the fascist sphere of influence. In 1923, Mussolini ordered the bombing of Corfu over an incident with Greece. That same year, Mussolini launched the Second Italo-Senussi war which lasted until 1932 and culminated in the Libyan genocide. He also annexed the city of Fiume into Italy after the Treaty of Rome in 1924 with Yugoslavia. Through the Tirana treaties, Mussolini turned Albania into an Italian protectorate. In 1936, Ethiopia was conquered following the Second Italo-Ethiopian War and merged into Italian East Africa (AOI) with Eritrea and Somalia. In 1939, Italian forces annexed Albania. Between 1936 and 1939, Mussolini ordered an intervention in Spain in favour of Francisco Franco during the Spanish Civil War. At the same time, Mussolini initially tried to retain much of the Versailles status quo by sending troops to the Brenner Pass to delay Hitler's Anschluss, and taking part in the Treaty of Lausanne, the Lytton Report, the Four-Power Pact and the Stresa Front. However, he ultimately alienated the democratic powers as tensions grew in the League of Nations, which he left in 1937. Now hostile to France and Britain, Italy formed the Axis alliance with Nazi Germany and Imperial Japan.

    The wars of the 1930s, although victorious, had cost Italy enormous resources, leaving the country unprepared for the upcoming Second World War. Therefore, when Poland was invaded on 1 September 1939, Mussolini declared Italy's non-belligerence. However, on 10 June 1940, believing that Allied defeat was imminent, he decided to join the war on the side of Germany to share the potential spoils of victory. But after three more years of world war, the tide of the conflict turned in favour of the Allies. Following the invasion of Sicily and a motion of no confidence by the Grand Council of Fascism, King Victor Emmanuel III dismissed Mussolini as head of government and placed him in custody (25 July 1943). After the king agreed to an armistice with the Allies, on 12 September 1943 Mussolini was rescued from captivity in the Gran Sasso raid by German paratroopers and Waffen-SS commandos. After meeting with his fallen ally, Hitler made Mussolini the figurehead of a puppet state in German-occupied northern Italy, the Italian Social Republic (Salò Republic), which served as a collaborationist regime of the Germans in their fight against the Allies, now including the Kingdom of Italy, and the Italian resistance.

    In late April 1945, with Allied victory imminent, Mussolini and his mistress Clara Petacci attempted to flee to Switzerland, but they were captured by Italian communist partisans and summarily executed on 28 April near Lake Como, and their bodies were strung up by the heels outside a service station in Milan.

     
  20. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    1 November 1955 – The Vietnam War begins.

    Vietnam War

    The Vietnam War (also known by other names) was a conflict in Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia from 1 November 1955[A 1] to the fall of Saigon on 30 April 1975. It was the second of the Indochina Wars and was a major conflict of the Cold War. While the war was officially fought between North Vietnam and South Vietnam, the north was supported by the Soviet Union, China, and other communist states, while the south was supported by the United States and other anti-communist allies, making the war a proxy war between the United States and the Soviet Union. It lasted almost 20 years, with direct U.S. military involvement ending in 1973. The conflict also spilled over into neighboring states, exacerbating the Laotian Civil War and the Cambodian Civil War, which ended with all three countries officially becoming communist states by 1976.

    After the fall of French Indochina with the 1954 Geneva Conference on 21 July, the country gained independence from France but was divided into two parts: the Viet Minh took control of North Vietnam, while the U.S. assumed financial and military support for South Vietnam.[56][A 8] The Viet Cong (VC), a South Vietnamese common front under the direction of the north, initiated a guerrilla war in the south. The People's Army of Vietnam (PAVN), also known as the North Vietnamese Army (NVA), engaged in more conventional warfare with U.S. and Army of the Republic of Vietnam (ARVN) forces. North Vietnam invaded Laos in 1958, establishing the Ho Chi Minh Trail to supply and reinforce the VC.[57]: 16  By 1963, the north had sent 40,000 soldiers to fight in the south.[57]: 16  U.S. involvement increased under President John F. Kennedy, from just under a thousand military advisors in 1959 to 23,000 by 1964.[58][29]: 131 

    Following the Gulf of Tonkin incident in August 1964, the U.S. Congress passed a resolution that gave President Lyndon B. Johnson broad authority to increase U.S. military presence in Vietnam, without a formal declaration of war. Johnson ordered the deployment of combat units for the first time and dramatically increased the number of American troops to 184,000.[58] U.S. and South Vietnamese forces relied on air superiority and overwhelming firepower to conduct search and destroy operations, involving ground forces, artillery, and airstrikes. The U.S. also conducted a large-scale strategic bombing campaign against North Vietnam[29]: 371–374 [59] and continued significantly building up its forces, despite little progress being made. In 1968, North Vietnamese forces launched the Tet Offensive. Though it was a tactical defeat for them, it was a strategic victory, as it caused U.S. domestic support for the war to fade.[29]: 481  By the end of the year, the VC held little territory and were sidelined by the PAVN.[60] In 1969, North Vietnam declared the Provisional Revolutionary Government of the Republic of South Vietnam. Operations crossed national borders, and the U.S. bombed North Vietnamese supply routes in Laos and Cambodia. The 1970 deposing of the Cambodian monarch, Norodom Sihanouk, resulted in a PAVN invasion of the country (at the request of the Khmer Rouge), and then a U.S.-ARVN counter-invasion, escalating the Cambodian Civil War. After the election of Richard Nixon in 1969, a policy of "Vietnamization" began, which saw the conflict fought by an expanded ARVN, while U.S. forces withdrew in the face of increasing domestic opposition. U.S. ground forces had largely withdrawn by early 1972, and their operations were limited to air and artillery support, advisors, and materiel shipments. The Paris Peace Accords of January 1973 saw all U.S. forces withdrawn [61]: 457  The accords were broken almost immediately, and fighting continued for two more years. Phnom Penh fell to the Khmer Rouge on 17 April 1975, while the 1975 spring offensive saw the Fall of Saigon to the PAVN on 30 April, marking the end of the war. North and South Vietnam were reunified on 2 July the following year.

    The war exacted an enormous human cost: estimates of the number of Vietnamese soldiers and civilians killed range from 966,000 to 3 million. Some 275,000–310,000 Cambodians, 20,000–62,000 Laotians, and 58,220 U.S. service members also died in the conflict.[A 7] The end of the Vietnam War would precipitate the Vietnamese boat people and the larger Indochina refugee crisis, which saw millions of refugees leave Indochina, an estimated 250,000 of whom perished at sea. Once in power, the Khmer Rouge carried out the Cambodian genocide, while conflict between them and the unified Vietnam would eventually escalate into the Cambodian–Vietnamese War, which toppled the Khmer Rouge government in 1979 and ended the genocide. In response, China invaded Vietnam, with subsequent border conflicts lasting until 1991. Within the United States, the war gave rise to what was referred to as Vietnam syndrome, a public aversion to American overseas military involvement,[62] which, together with the Watergate scandal, contributed to the crisis of confidence that affected America throughout the 1970s.[63]

    The U.S. Air Force destroyed more than 20% of the jungles of South Vietnam and 20–50% of the mangrove forests, by spraying over 20 million U.S. gallons (75 million liters) of toxic herbicides (defoliants), including Agent Orange.[64][65][66] The war is one of the most commonly used examples of ecocide.[67][68][69]

    1. ^ "Name of Technical Sergeant Richard B. Fitzgibbon to be added to the Vietnam Veterans Memorial". Department of Defense (DoD). Archived from the original on 20 October 2013.
    2. ^ a b Lawrence, A.T. (2009). Crucible Vietnam: Memoir of an Infantry Lieutenant. McFarland. ISBN 978-0-7864-4517-2.
    3. ^ Olson & Roberts 2008, p. 67.
    4. ^ "Chapter 5, Origins of the Insurgency in South Vietnam, 1954–1960". The Pentagon Papers (Gravel Edition), Volume 1. Boston: Beacon Press. 1971. Section 3, pp. 314–346. Archived from the original on 19 October 2017. Retrieved 17 August 2008 – via International Relations Department, Mount Holyoke College.
    5. ^ The Paris Agreement on Vietnam: Twenty-five Years Later (Conference Transcript). Washington, DC: The Nixon Center. April 1998. Archived from the original on 1 September 2019. Retrieved 5 September 2012 – via International Relations Department, Mount Holyoke College.
    6. ^ Military History Institute of Vietnam 2002, p. 182. "By the end of 1966 the total strength of our armed forces was 690,000 soldiers."
    7. ^ Doyle, Edward; Lipsman, Samuel; Maitland, Terence (1986). The Vietnam Experience The North. Time Life Education. pp. 45–49. ISBN 978-0-939526-21-5.
    8. ^ "China admits 320,000 troops fought in Vietnam". Toledo Blade. Reuters. 16 May 1989. Retrieved 24 December 2013.
    9. ^ Roy, Denny (1998). China's Foreign Relations. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 27. ISBN 978-0-8476-9013-8.
    10. ^ a b Womack, Brantly (2006). China and Vietnam. Cambridge University Press. p. 179. ISBN 978-0-521-61834-2.
    11. ^ a b c d e f Tucker, Spencer C (2011). The Encyclopedia of the Vietnam War: A Political, Social, and Military History. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 978-1-85109-960-3.
    12. ^ "Area Handbook Series Laos". Retrieved 1 November 2019.
    13. ^ O'Ballance, Edgar (1982). Tracks of the bear: Soviet imprints in the seventies. Presidio. p. 171. ISBN 978-0-89141-133-8.
    14. ^ Pham Thi Thu Thuy (1 August 2013). "The colorful history of North Korea-Vietnam relations". NK News. Archived from the original on 24 April 2015. Retrieved 3 October 2016.
    15. ^ Le Gro, William (1985). Vietnam from ceasefire to capitulation (PDF). US Army Center of Military History. p. 28. ISBN 978-1-4102-2542-9. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2 February 2023.
    16. ^ "The rise of Communism". www.footprinttravelguides.com. Archived from the original on 17 November 2010. Retrieved 31 May 2018.
    17. ^ "Hmong rebellion in Laos". Members.ozemail.com.au. Archived from the original on 4 April 2023. Retrieved 11 April 2021.
    18. ^ "Vietnam War Allied Troop Levels 1960–73". Archived from the original on 2 August 2016. Retrieved 2 August 2016., accessed 7 November 2017
    19. ^ Doyle, Jeff; Grey, Jeffrey; Pierce, Peter (2002). "Australia's Vietnam War – A Select Chronology of Australian Involvement in the Vietnam War" (PDF). Texas A&M University Press. Archived from the original (PDF) on 10 November 2022.
    20. ^ Blackburn, Robert M. (1994). Mercenaries and Lyndon Johnson's "More Flage": The Hiring of Korean, Filipino, and Thai Soldiers in the Vietnam War. McFarland. ISBN 0-89950-931-2.
    21. ^ Marín, Paloma (9 April 2012). "Spain's secret support for US in Vietnam". El País.
    22. ^ a b c d e Hirschman, Charles; Preston, Samuel; Vu, Manh Loi (December 1995). "Vietnamese Casualties During the American War: A New Estimate" (PDF). Population and Development Review. 21 (4): 783. doi:10.2307/2137774. JSTOR 2137774. Archived from the original (PDF) on 12 October 2013.
    23. ^ a b c d e Lewy, Guenter (1978). America in Vietnam. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-987423-1.
    24. ^ "Battlefield:Vietnam – Timeline". PBS. Archived from the original on 4 June 2023.
    25. ^ a b Moyar, Mark. "Triumph Regained: The Vietnam War, 1965–1968." Encounter Books, December 2022. Chapter 17 index: "Communists provided further corroboration of the proximity of their casualty figures to American figures in a postwar disclosure of total losses from 1960 to 1975. During that period, they stated, they lost 849,018 killed plus approximately 232,000 missing and 463,000 wounded. Casualties fluctuated considerably from year to year, but a degree of accuracy can be inferred from the fact that 500,000 was 59 percent of the 849,018 total and that 59 percent of the war's days had passed by the time of Fallaci's conversation with Giap. The killed in action figure comes from "Special Subject 4: The Work of Locating and Recovering the Remains of Martyrs From Now Until 2020 And Later Years," downloaded from the Vietnamese government website datafile on 1 December 2017. The above figures on missing and wounded were calculated using Hanoi's declared casualty ratios for the period of 1945 to 1979, during which time the Communists incurred 1.1 million killed, 300,000 missing, and 600,000 wounded. Ho Khang, ed, Lich Su Khang Chien Chong My, Cuu Nuoc 1954–1975, Tap VIII: Toan Thang (Hanoi: Nha Xuat Ban Chinh Tri Quoc Gia, 2008), 463."
    26. ^ "Chuyên đề 4 CÔNG TÁC TÌM KIẾM, QUY TẬP HÀI CỐT LIỆT SĨ TỪ NAY ĐẾN NĂM 2020 VÀ NHỮNG NĂM TIẾP THEO". Datafile.chinhsachquandoi.gov.vn. Archived from the original on 4 April 2023. Retrieved 11 April 2021.
    27. ^ "Công tác tìm kiếm, quy tập hài cốt liệt sĩ từ nay đến năm 2020 và những năn tiếp theo" [The work of searching and collecting the remains of martyrs from now to 2020 and the next] (in Vietnamese). Ministry of Defence, Government of Vietnam. Archived from the original on 17 December 2018. Retrieved 11 June 2018.
    28. ^ Joseph Babcock (29 April 2019). "Lost Souls: The Search for Vietnam's 300,000 or More MIAs". Pulitzer Centre. Archived from the original on 10 November 2022. Retrieved 28 June 2021.
    29. ^ a b c d Hastings, Max (2018). Vietnam an epic tragedy, 1945–1975. Harper Collins. ISBN 978-0-06-240567-8.
    30. ^ James F. Dunnigan; Albert A. Nofi (2000). Dirty Little Secrets of the Vietnam War: Military Information You're Not Supposed to Know. Macmillan. ISBN 978-0-312-25282-3.
    31. ^ "North Korea fought in Vietnam War". BBC News Online. 31 March 2000. Archived from the original on 12 March 2023. Retrieved 18 October 2015.
    32. ^ Pribbenow, Merle (November 2011). "North Korean Pilots in the Skies over Vietnam" (PDF). Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars. p. 1. Archived from the original (PDF) on 5 June 2023. Retrieved 3 March 2023.
    33. ^ Thayer, Thomas C. (1985). War Without Fronts: The American Experience in Vietnam. Westview Press. ISBN 978-0-8133-7132-0.
    34. ^ Rummel, R.J (1997), "Table 6.1A. Vietnam Democide : Estimates, Sources, and Calculations", Freedom, Democracy, Peace; Power, Democide, and War, University of Hawaii System, archived from the original (GIF) on 13 March 2023
    35. ^ Clarke, Jeffrey J. (1988). United States Army in Vietnam: Advice and Support: The Final Years, 1965–1973. Center of Military History, United States Army. The Army of the Republic of Vietnam suffered 254,256 recorded combat deaths between 1960 and 1974, with the highest number of recorded deaths being in 1972, with 39,587 combat deaths
    36. ^ "The Fall of South Vietnam" (PDF). Rand.org. Archived from the original (PDF) on 29 January 2023. Retrieved 11 April 2021.
    37. ^ Vietnam Veterans Memorial Fund (4 May 2021). "2021 NAME ADDITIONS AND STATUS CHANGES ON THE VIETNAM VETERANS MEMORIAL" (Press release). Archived from the original on 29 April 2023.
    38. ^ National Archives–Vietnam War U.S. Military Fatal Casualties, 15 August 2016, retrieved 29 July 2020
    39. ^ "Vietnam War U.S. Military Fatal Casualty Statistics: HOSTILE OR NON-HOSTILE DEATH INDICATOR." U.S. National Archives. 29 April 2008. Accessed 13 July 2019.
    40. ^ America's Wars (PDF) (Report). Department of Veterans Affairs. May 2010. Archived from the original (PDF) on 24 January 2014.
    41. ^ Anne Leland; Mari–Jana "M-J" Oboroceanu (26 February 2010). American War and Military Operations: Casualties: Lists and Statistics (PDF) (Report). Congressional Research Service. Archived from the original (PDF) on 14 May 2023.
    42. ^ Aaron Ulrich (editor); Edward FeuerHerd (producer and director) (2005, 2006). Heart of Darkness: The Vietnam War Chronicles 1945–1975 (Box set, Color, Dolby, DVD-Video, Full Screen, NTSC, Dolby, Vision Software) (Documentary). Koch Vision. Event occurs at 321 minutes. ISBN 1-4172-2920-9.
    43. ^ Kueter, Dale (2007). Vietnam Sons: For Some, the War Never Ended. AuthorHouse. ISBN 978-1-4259-6931-8.
    44. ^ T. Lomperis, From People's War to People's Rule (1996)
    45. ^ "Australian casualties in the Vietnam War, 1962–72". Australian War Memorial. Archived from the original on 14 February 2023. Retrieved 29 June 2013.
    46. ^ "Overview of the war in Vietnam". New Zealand and the Vietnam War. 16 July 1965. Archived from the original on 26 July 2013. Retrieved 29 June 2013.
    47. ^ "America Wasn't the Only Foreign Power in the Vietnam War". 2 October 2013. Archived from the original on 18 April 2023. Retrieved 10 June 2017.
    48. ^ "Vietnam Reds Said to Hold 17 From Taiwan as Spies". The New York Times. 1964. Archived from the original on 7 March 2023.
    49. ^ Larsen, Stanley (1975). Vietnam Studies Allied Participation in Vietnam (PDF). Department of the Army. ISBN 978-1-5176-2724-9. Archived from the original (PDF) on 6 June 2023.
    50. ^ "Asian Allies in Vietnam" (PDF). Embassy of South Vietnam. March 1970. Archived from the original (PDF) on 21 May 2023. Retrieved 18 October 2015.
    51. ^ Shenon, Philip (23 April 1995). "20 Years After Victory, Vietnamese Communists Ponder How to Celebrate". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 27 May 2023. Retrieved 24 February 2011. The Vietnamese government officially claimed a rough estimate of 2 million civilian deaths, but it did not divide these deaths between those of North and South Vietnam.
    52. ^ a b c Obermeyer, Ziad; Murray, Christopher J L; Gakidou, Emmanuela (23 April 2008). "Fifty years of violent war deaths from Vietnam to Bosnia: analysis of data from the world health survey programme". British Medical Journal. 336 (7659): 1482–1486. doi:10.1136/bmj.a137. PMC 2440905. PMID 18566045. From 1955 to 2002, data from the surveys indicated an estimated 5.4 million violent war deaths ... 3.8 million in Vietnam
    53. ^ Heuveline, Patrick (2001). "The Demographic Analysis of Mortality Crises: The Case of Cambodia, 1970–1979". Forced Migration and Mortality. National Academies Press. pp. 102–104, 120, 124. ISBN 978-0-309-07334-9. As best as can now be estimated, over two million Cambodians died during the 1970s because of the political events of the decade, the vast majority of them during the mere four years of the 'Khmer Rouge' regime. ... Subsequent reevaluations of the demographic data situated the death toll for the [civil war] in the order of 300,000 or less.
    54. ^ Banister, Judith; Johnson, E. Paige (1993). Genocide and Democracy in Cambodia: The Khmer Rouge, the United Nations and the International Community. Yale University Southeast Asia Studies. p. 97. ISBN 978-0-938692-49-2. An estimated 275,000 excess deaths. We have modeled the highest mortality that we can justify for the early 1970s.
    55. ^ Sliwinski, Marek (1995). Le Génocide Khmer Rouge: Une Analyse Démographique [The Khmer Rouge genocide: A demographic analysis]. L'Harmattan. pp. 42–43, 48. ISBN 978-2-7384-3525-5.
    56. ^ Eckhardt, George (1991). Vietnam Studies Command and Control 1950–1969. Department of the Army. p. 6. Archived from the original on 19 October 2017. Retrieved 31 October 2014.
    57. ^ a b Ang, Cheng Guan (2002). The Vietnam War from the Other Side. RoutledgeCurzon. ISBN 978-0-7007-1615-9.
    58. ^ a b "Vietnam War Allied Troop Levels 1960–73". Archived from the original on 2 August 2016. Retrieved 1 June 2018.
    59. ^ Li, Xiaobing (2010). Voices from the Vietnam War: Stories from American, Asian, and Russian Veterans. University Press of Kentucky. p. 85. ISBN 978-0-8131-7386-3.
    60. ^ Military History Institute of Vietnam 2002, pp. 247–249.
    61. ^ Kolko, Gabriel (1985). Anatomy of a War: Vietnam, the United States, and the Modern Historical Experience. Pantheon Books. ISBN 978-0-394-74761-3.
    62. ^ Kalb, Marvin (22 January 2013). "It's Called the Vietnam Syndrome, and It's Back". Brookings Institution. Archived from the original on 24 December 2022. Retrieved 12 June 2015.
    63. ^ Horne, Alistair (2010). Kissinger's Year: 1973. Phoenix Press. pp. 370–371. ISBN 978-0-7538-2700-0.
    64. ^ Cite error: The named reference :02 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    65. ^ Kolko 1994, pp. 144–145.
    66. ^ Cite error: The named reference :0 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    67. ^ Cite error: The named reference :2 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    68. ^ Cite error: The named reference :4 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    69. ^ Cite error: The named reference :6 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).


    Cite error: There are <ref group=A> tags on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=A}} template (see the help page).

     
  21. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    2 November 1899 – The Boers begin their 118-day siege of British-held Ladysmith during the Second Boer War.

    Siege of Ladysmith

    The siege of Ladysmith was a protracted engagement in the Second Boer War, taking place between 2 November 1899 and 28 February 1900 at Ladysmith, Natal.

     
  22. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    3 November 1911Chevrolet officially enters the automobile market in competition with the Ford Model T.

    Chevrolet

    Chevrolet (/ˌʃɛvrəˈl/ SHEV-rə-LAY), colloquially referred to as Chevy, is an American automobile division of the manufacturer General Motors (GM).

    Louis Chevrolet (1878–1941), Arthur Chevrolet (1884–1946) and ousted General Motors founder William C. Durant (1861–1947) started the company on November 3, 1911[3] as the Chevrolet Motor Car Company. Durant used the Chevrolet Motor Car Company to acquire a controlling stake in General Motors with a reverse merger occurring on May 2, 1918, and propelled himself back to the GM presidency. After Durant's second ousting in 1919, Alfred Sloan, with his maxim "a car for every purse and purpose", would pick the Chevrolet brand to become the volume leader in the General Motors family, selling mainstream vehicles to compete with Henry Ford's Model T in 1919 and overtaking Ford as the best-selling car in the United States by 1929 with the Chevrolet International.[4]

    Chevrolet-branded vehicles are sold in most automotive markets worldwide. In Oceania, Chevrolet was represented by Holden Special Vehicles, having returned to the region in 2018 after a 50-year absence with the launching of the Camaro and Silverado pickup truck (HSV was partially and formerly owned by GM subsidiary Holden, which GM retired in 2021). In 2021, General Motors Specialty Vehicles took over the distribution and sales of Chevrolet vehicles in Oceania, starting with the Silverado. In 2005, Chevrolet was relaunched in Europe, primarily selling vehicles built by GM Daewoo of South Korea with the tagline "Daewoo has grown up enough to become Chevrolet", a move rooted in General Motors' attempt to build a global brand around Chevrolet. With the reintroduction of Chevrolet to Europe, GM intended Chevrolet to be a mainstream value brand, while GM's traditional European standard-bearers, Opel of Germany and Vauxhall of the United Kingdom, would be moved upmarket.[5] However, GM reversed this move in late 2013, announcing that the brand would be withdrawn from Europe from 2016 onward, with the exception of the Camaro and Corvette.[6] Chevrolet vehicles were to continue to be marketed in the CIS states, including Russia. After General Motors fully acquired GM Daewoo in 2011 to create GM Korea, the last usage of the Daewoo automotive brand was discontinued in its native South Korea and succeeded by Chevrolet.

    In North America, Chevrolet produces and sells a wide range of vehicles, from subcompact automobiles to medium-duty commercial trucks. Due to the prominence and name recognition of Chevrolet as one of General Motors' global marques, 'Chevrolet', 'Chevy' or 'Chev' is used at times as a synonym for General Motors or its products, one example being the GM LS1 engine, commonly known by the name or a variant thereof of its progenitor, the Chevrolet small-block engine.

    1. ^ Cite error: The named reference historych was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    2. ^ Corporate Officers (January 15, 2014). "Alan Batey – GM Corporate Officers". GM.com. Archived from the original on July 14, 2014. Retrieved August 19, 2014.
    3. ^ "Chevrolet 1911–1996". GM Heritage Center. 1996. p. 97. Archived from the original on October 6, 2014. Retrieved October 1, 2014.
    4. ^ 60 years of Chevrolet. Crestline. 1972.
    5. ^ Luft, Alex. "General Motors To Move Opel Upmarket, Position Chevy As "Value" Brand". Archived from the original on December 13, 2013. Retrieved November 17, 2013.
    6. ^ "General Motors to withdraw Chevrolet brand from Europe". BBC News. December 5, 2013. Archived from the original on March 21, 2018. Retrieved June 21, 2018.
     
  23. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    4 November 1980Ronald Reagan is elected the 40th President of The United States, defeating incumbent Jimmy Carter.

    Ronald Reagan

    Ronald Wilson Reagan (/ˈrɡən/ RAY-gən; February 6, 1911 – June 5, 2004) was an American politician and actor who served as the 40th president of the United States from 1981 to 1989. A member of the Republican Party, his presidency constituted the Reagan era, and he is considered one of the most prominent conservative figures in American history.

    Reagan graduated from Eureka College in 1932 and began to work as a sports broadcaster in Iowa. In 1937, he moved to California, and became a well-known film actor there. From 1947 to 1952, Reagan served as the president of the Screen Actors Guild. During the 1950s, he worked in television and spoke for General Electric. From 1959 to 1960, he again served as the Screen Actors Guild's president. In 1964, "A Time for Choosing" gave Reagan attention as a new conservative figure. He was elected governor of California in 1966. During his governorship, he raised taxes, turned the state budget deficit into a surplus, and cracked down harshly on university protests. After challenging and losing to incumbent president Gerald Ford in the 1976 Republican presidential primaries, Reagan won the Republican nomination and then a landslide victory over incumbent Democratic president Jimmy Carter in the 1980 presidential election.

    In his first term, Reagan implemented "Reaganomics", which involved economic deregulation and cuts in both taxes and government spending during a period of stagflation. He escalated an arms race and transitioned Cold War policy away from détente with the Soviet Union. Reagan also ordered the invasion of Grenada in 1983. Additionally, he survived an assassination attempt, fought public-sector labor unions, expanded the war on drugs, and was slow to respond to the AIDS epidemic in the United States, which began early in his presidency. In the 1984 presidential election, he defeated former vice president Walter Mondale in another landslide victory. Foreign affairs dominated Reagan's second term, including the 1986 bombing of Libya, the Iran–Iraq War, the secret and illegal sale of arms to Iran to fund the Contras, and a more conciliatory approach in talks with Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev that culminated in the Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty.

    Reagan left the presidency in 1989 with the American economy having seen a significant reduction of inflation, the unemployment rate having fallen, and the United States having entered its then-longest peacetime expansion. At the same time, the national debt had nearly tripled since 1981 as a result of his cuts in taxes and increased military spending, despite cuts to domestic discretionary spending. Reagan's policies also helped contribute to the end of the Cold War and the end of Soviet communism.[7] Alzheimer's disease hindered Reagan post-presidency, and his physical and mental capacities rapidly deteriorated, ultimately leading to his death in 2004. Historians and scholars have typically ranked him among the middle to upper tier of American presidents, and his post-presidential approval ratings by the general public are usually high.[8]

    1. ^ Holmes 2020, p. 210.
    2. ^ Oliver, Myrna (October 11, 1995). "Robert H. Finch, Lt. Gov. Under Reagan, Dies : Politics: Leader in California GOP was 70. He also served in Nixon's Cabinet and as President's special counselor and campaign manager". Los Angeles Times. Archived from the original on December 26, 2022. Retrieved April 4, 2020.
    3. ^ Chang, Cindy (December 25, 2016). "Ed Reinecke, who resigned as California's lieutenant governor after a perjury conviction, dies at 92". Los Angeles Times. Archived from the original on December 26, 2022. Retrieved April 4, 2020.
    4. ^ South, Garry (May 21, 2018). "California's lieutenant governors rarely move up to the top job". San Francisco Chronicle. Archived from the original on December 26, 2022. Retrieved April 4, 2020.
    5. ^ The Chairman's Report – 1968: To the Members of the Republican National Committee Jan. 16–17, 1969. Republican National Committee. January 1969. p. 41. Retrieved January 16, 2023.
    6. ^ Synergy, Volumes 13–30. Bay Area Reference Center. 1969. p. 41. Retrieved January 16, 2023. Governor Raymond Shafer of Pennsylvania was elected on December 13 to succeed Governor Ronald Reagan as Chairman of the Republican Governors Association.
    7. ^ "Ronald Reagan". Encyclopædia Britannica. June 9, 2023. Retrieved June 27, 2023.
    8. ^ "Retrospective Approval of Presidents". Gallup, Inc. July 17, 2023. Retrieved August 23, 2023.
     
  24. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    5 November 1943 – World War II: Bombing of the Vatican.

    Bombing of the Vatican

    Map of Vatican City showing the buildings of the Governatorate, the Tribunal, and the Archpriest, and the railway station, which were damaged on 5 November 1943. The mosaic workshop, which received a direct hit, is positioned between the railway station and the residence of the archpriest.

    Vatican City was bombed twice during World War II. The first occasion was on the evening of 5 November 1943, when a plane dropped bombs on the area south-west of St. Peter's Basilica, causing considerable damage but no casualties. The second bombing, which affected only the outer margin of the city, was at about the same hour on 1 March 1944. It killed one person and injured another.[1]

     
  25. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    6 November 1860Abraham Lincoln is elected as the 16th President of United States.

    Abraham Lincoln

    Abraham Lincoln (/ˈlɪŋkən/ LING-kən; February 12, 1809 – April 15, 1865) was an American lawyer, politician, and statesman who served as the 16th president of the United States from 1861 until his assassination in 1865. Lincoln led the United States through the American Civil War, defending the nation as a constitutional union, defeating the insurgent Confederacy, abolishing slavery, expanding the power of the federal government, and modernizing the U.S. economy.

    Lincoln was born into poverty in a log cabin in Kentucky and was raised on the frontier, primarily in Indiana. He was self-educated and became a lawyer, Whig Party leader, Illinois state legislator, and U.S. representative from Illinois. In 1849, he returned to his successful law practice in Springfield, Illinois. In 1854, he was angered by the Kansas–Nebraska Act, which opened the territories to slavery, causing him to re-enter politics. He soon became a leader of the new Republican Party. He reached a national audience in the 1858 Senate campaign debates against Stephen A. Douglas. Lincoln ran for president in 1860, sweeping the North to gain victory. Pro-slavery elements in the South viewed his election as a threat to slavery, and Southern states began seceding from the nation. During this time, the newly formed Confederate States of America began seizing federal military bases in the South. A little over one month after Lincoln assumed the presidency, Confederate forces attacked Fort Sumter, a U.S. fort in South Carolina. Following the bombardment, Lincoln mobilized forces to suppress the rebellion and restore the union.

    Lincoln, a moderate Republican, had to navigate a contentious array of factions with friends and opponents from both the Democratic and Republican parties. His allies, the War Democrats and the Radical Republicans, demanded harsh treatment of the Southern Confederates. He managed the factions by exploiting their mutual enmity, carefully distributing political patronage, and by appealing to the American people. Anti-war Democrats (called "Copperheads") despised Lincoln, and some irreconcilable pro-Confederate elements went so far as to plot his assassination. His Gettysburg Address came to be seen as one of the greatest and most influential statements of American national purpose. Lincoln closely supervised the strategy and tactics in the war effort, including the selection of generals, and implemented a naval blockade of the South's trade. He suspended habeas corpus in Maryland and elsewhere, and averted British intervention by defusing the Trent Affair. In 1863, he issued the Emancipation Proclamation, which declared the slaves in the states "in rebellion" to be free. It also directed the Army and Navy to "recognize and maintain the freedom of such persons", and to receive them "into the armed service of the United States." Lincoln pressured border states to outlaw slavery, and he promoted the Thirteenth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution, which abolished slavery, except as punishment for a crime.

    Lincoln managed his own successful re-election campaign. He sought to heal the war-torn nation through reconciliation. On April 14, 1865, just five days after the Confederate surrender at Appomattox, he was attending a play at Ford's Theatre in Washington, D.C., with his wife, Mary, when he was fatally shot by Confederate sympathizer John Wilkes Booth. Lincoln is remembered as a martyr and a national hero for his wartime leadership and for his efforts to preserve the Union and abolish slavery. Lincoln is often ranked in both popular and scholarly polls as the greatest president in American history.

    1. ^ Carpenter, Francis B. (1866). Six Months in the White House: The Story of a Picture. Hurd and Houghton. p. 217.


    Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

     
  26. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    7 November 1861 – The first Melbourne Cup horse race is held in Melbourne, Australia.

    Melbourne Cup

    The Melbourne Cup is an annual Group 1 Thoroughbred horse race held in Melbourne, Australia, at the Flemington Racecourse. It is a 3200-metre race for three-year-olds and older, conducted by the Victoria Racing Club that forms part of the Melbourne Spring Racing Carnival. It is the richest two-mile handicap in the world and one of the richest turf races. The event starts at 3:00 pm on the first Tuesday of November and is known locally as "the race that stops the nation".[1]

    The Melbourne Cup has cemented itself as a part of Melbourne and Australian culture, having being run every year since 1861 (except for an intermission during World War I and World War II). The day of the race has been a public holiday for much of Victoria since 1876.[2] It was originally run over two mi (3.219 km) but was shortened to 3,200 m (1 mi 1,740 yd) in 1972 when Australia adopted the metric system. This reduced the distance by 18.688 m (61 ft 3+34 in), and Rain Lover's 1968 race record of 3:19.1 was accordingly adjusted to 3:17.9. The present record holder is the 1990 winner Kingston Rule with a time of 3:16.3.

    Archer, the inaugural winner of the Melbourne Cup
    1. ^ "Melbourne Cup: how Australia's signature race lost its hold on the nation | Melbourne". The Guardian. November 2019. Archived from the original on 4 November 2019. Retrieved 4 November 2019.
    2. ^ "Why is Melbourne Cup Day a public holiday?". Public Record Office Victoria. Retrieved 7 November 2023.
     
  27. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    8 November 1939 – In Munich, Adolf Hitler narrowly escapes the assassination attempt of Georg Elser while celebrating the 16th anniversary of the Beer Hall Putsch.

    Georg Elser

    Johann Georg Elser (German: [ˈɡeː.ɔʁk ˈɛl.zɐ]] ; 4 January 1903 – 9 April 1945) was a German worker who planned and carried out an elaborate assassination attempt on Adolf Hitler and other high-ranking Nazi leaders on 8 November 1939 at the Bürgerbräukeller in Munich (known as the Bürgerbräukeller Bombing). Elser constructed and placed a bomb near the platform from which Hitler was to deliver a speech. It did not kill Hitler, who left earlier than expected, but it did kill 8 people and injured 62 others. Elser was held as a prisoner for more than five years until he was executed at Dachau concentration camp less than a month before the surrender of Nazi Germany.

     
  28. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    9 November 1953Cambodia gains independence from France.

    Cambodia

    Cambodia,[a] officially the Kingdom of Cambodia,[b] is a country in Mainland Southeast Asia, spanning an area of 181,035 square kilometres (69,898 square miles), bordered by Thailand to the northwest, Laos to the north, Vietnam to the east, and the Gulf of Thailand to the southwest. The capital and most populous city is Phnom Penh.

    In 802 AD, Jayavarman II declared himself king, uniting the warring Khmer princes of Chenla under the name "Kambuja".[16] This marked the beginning of the Khmer Empire. The Indianised kingdom facilitated the spread of first Hinduism and then Buddhism to Southeast Asia and undertook religious infrastructural projects throughout the region. In the fifteenth century, Cambodia experienced a decline of power, and in 1863, it became a protectorate of France. After a period of Japanese occupation during the Second World War, Cambodia gained independence in 1953. The Vietnam War extended into the country in 1965 via the Ho Chi Minh and Sihanouk trails. A 1970 coup installed the US-aligned Khmer Republic, which was overthrown by the Khmer Rouge in 1975. The Khmer Rouge ruled the country and carried out the Cambodian genocide from 1975 until 1979, when they were ousted in the Cambodian–Vietnamese War. The Vietnamese-occupied People's Republic of Kampuchea became the de facto government. Following the 1991 Paris Peace Accords which formally ended the war with Vietnam, Cambodia was governed by a United Nations mission (1992–93). The UN withdrew after holding elections in which around 90% of the registered voters cast ballots. The 1997 coup d'état consolidated power under Prime Minister Hun Sen and the Cambodian People's Party (CPP). While constitutionally a multi-party state,[17] CPP dominates the political system and dissolved its main opposition party in 2017, making Cambodia a de facto one-party state.[18]

    The United Nations designates Cambodia as a least developed country.[19] Cambodia is a member of the United Nations, ASEAN, the RCEP, the East Asia Summit, the WTO, the Non-Aligned Movement and La Francophonie. Cambodia is a dialogue partner of the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation.[20][21] Agriculture remains the dominant economic sector, with growth in textiles, construction, garments, and tourism leading to increased foreign investment and international trade.[22] Cambodia is considered among the most vulnerable countries to climate change.

    1. ^ a b "Constitution of the Kingdom of Cambodia". Office of the Council of Ministers. អង្គភាពព័ត៌មាន និងប្រតិកម្មរហ័ស. Archived from the original on 14 December 2022. Retrieved 26 September 2020.
    2. ^ "General Population Census of Cambodia 2019" (PDF).
    3. ^ "Ethnic Minorities, Census of Cambodia 2019" (PDF).
    4. ^ "Constitution of the Kingdom of Cambodia" (PDF). Constitutional Council of Cambodia. October 2015. p. 14 Article 43. Archived from the original on 16 October 2022. Retrieved 11 April 2022. Buddhism is State's religion
    5. ^ "General Population Census of Cambodia 2019" (PDF).
    6. ^ "What to expect from Cambodia's new 'dynastic' prime minister". Deutsche Welle. 8 August 2022. Retrieved 25 August 2023.
    7. ^ Syed, Armani (26 July 2023). "What to Know About the Army Chief Who Will Be Cambodia's Next Leader". Time. Retrieved 25 August 2023.
    8. ^ Hunt, Luke (23 August 2023). "Assessing Cambodia's New Political Leadership". The Diplomat. Retrieved 25 August 2023.
    9. ^ https://www.nis.gov.kh/index.php/en/national-statistical-systems/official-statistics-of-cambodia
    10. ^ a b c d "World Economic Outlook Database, October 2023 Edition. (Cambodia)". IMF.org. International Monetary Fund. 10 October 2023. Retrieved 15 October 2023.
    11. ^ "Income Gini coefficient". hdr.undp.org. World Bank. Archived from the original on 10 June 2010. Retrieved 29 January 2020.
    12. ^ "Human Development Report 2021/2022" (PDF). United Nations Development Programme. 8 September 2022. Archived (PDF) from the original on 8 September 2022. Retrieved 8 September 2022.
    13. ^ Nay Im, Tal; Dabadie, Michel (31 March 2007). "Dollarization in Cambodia" (PDF). National Bank of Cambodia. Archived (PDF) from the original on 11 May 2022. Retrieved 11 April 2022.
    14. ^ Nagumo, Jada (4 August 2021). "Cambodia aims to wean off US dollar dependence with digital currency". Nikkei Asia. Archived from the original on 15 April 2022. Retrieved 11 April 2022. Cambodia runs a dual-currency system, with the U.S. dollar widely circulating in its economy. The country's dollarization began in the 1980s and 90s, following years of civil war and unrest.
    15. ^ "Cambodia". Dictionary.reference.com. Archived from the original on 9 March 2013. Retrieved 16 March 2013.
    16. ^ Chandler, David P. (1992) History of Cambodia. Boulder, CO: Westview Press, ISBN 0813335116.
    17. ^ "CONSTITUTION OF THE KINGDOM OF CAMBODIA". pressocm.gov.kh. Office of the Council of Ministers. 25 January 2017. Archived from the original on 19 August 2017. Retrieved 4 September 2019.
    18. ^ Barrett, Chris (10 November 2022). "Biden, Albanese urged to fight repression in Cambodia". The Sydney Morning Herald. Archived from the original on 17 November 2022. Retrieved 17 November 2022.
    19. ^ "UN list of Least Developed Countries". UNCTAD. Archived from the original on 29 March 2012. Retrieved 4 November 2019.
    20. ^ Kucera, Joshua (10 July 2015). "SCO Summit Provides Few Concrete Results, But More Ambitious Goals". Eurasianet. Retrieved 16 October 2021.
    21. ^ "Cambodia becomes dialogue partner in SCO". TASS. 24 September 2015.
    22. ^ "Cambodia to outgrow LDC status by 2020". The Phnom Penh Post. 18 May 2011. Archived from the original on 21 May 2011. Retrieved 20 June 2011.


    Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

     
  29. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    10 November 1674Third Anglo-Dutch War: As provided in the Treaty of Westminster, Netherlands cedes New Netherland to England.

    Third Anglo-Dutch War

    The Third Anglo-Dutch War [a], began on 27 March 1672, and concluded on 19 February 1674. A naval conflict between the Dutch Republic and England, in alliance with France, it is considered a related conflict of the wider 1672 to 1678 Franco-Dutch War.[1]

    In the 1670 Secret Treaty of Dover, Charles II of England agreed to support an attack by Louis XIV of France on the Dutch Republic. By doing so, Louis hoped to gain control of the Spanish Netherlands, while Charles sought to restore the damage to his prestige caused by the 1667 Raid on the Medway. Under the treaty, Charles also received secret payments which he hoped would make him financially independent of Parliament.

    The French offensive in May and June 1672 quickly overran most of the Republic, with the exception of the core province of Holland, where they were halted by water defences. In early June, the Anglo-French fleet was badly damaged by the Dutch under Michiel de Ruyter at the Battle of Solebay. Shortly thereafter, Johan de Witt resigned as Grand Pensionary, and Charles' nephew William III of Orange was appointed Stadtholder. William rebuffed attempts by Charles to make peace, knowing the French alliance was unpopular in England, while French success brought him support from Emperor Leopold and Spain.

    By the end of 1673, the Dutch had regained much of the territory lost in May, and with hopes of a quick victory gone, Parliament refused to provide Charles with further funding for a war which the majority opposed. Between June to July 1673, the Dutch and Anglo-French fleets fought three separate battles, which were largely inconclusive but ended any prospect of an English landing. Instead, Louis focused on taking the Spanish Netherlands, an objective as harmful to English interests as it was to Dutch. The resulting increase in domestic opposition forced Charles to agree the Second Peace of Westminster in February 1674.


    Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

    1. ^ Ogg 1934, pp. 357–388.
     
  30. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    11 November 1675Gottfried Leibniz demonstrates integral calculus for the first time to find the area under the graph of y = ƒ(x).

    Integral

    Definite integral example
    A definite integral of a function can be represented as the signed area of the region bounded by its graph and the horizontal axis; in the above graph as an example, the integral of is the yellow (−) area subtracted from the blue (+) area

    In mathematics, an integral is the continuous analog of a sum, which is used to calculate areas, volumes, and their generalizations. Integration, the process of computing an integral, is one of the two fundamental operations of calculus,[a] the other being differentiation. Integration was initially used to solve problems in mathematics and physics, such as finding the area under a curve, or determining displacement from velocity. Usage of integration expanded to a wide variety of scientific fields thereafter.

    A definite integral computes the signed area of the region in the plane that is bounded by the graph of a given function between two points in the real line. Conventionally, areas above the horizontal axis of the plane are positive while areas below are negative. Integrals also refer to the concept of an antiderivative, a function whose derivative is the given function; in this case, they are also called indefinite integrals. The fundamental theorem of calculus relates definite integration to differentiation and provides a method to compute the definite integral of a function when its antiderivative is known; differentiation and integration are inverse operations.

    Although methods of calculating areas and volumes dated from ancient Greek mathematics, the principles of integration were formulated independently by Isaac Newton and Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz in the late 17th century, who thought of the area under a curve as an infinite sum of rectangles of infinitesimal width. Bernhard Riemann later gave a rigorous definition of integrals, which is based on a limiting procedure that approximates the area of a curvilinear region by breaking the region into infinitesimally thin vertical slabs. In the early 20th century, Henri Lebesgue generalized Riemann's formulation by introducing what is now referred to as the Lebesgue integral; it is more general than Riemann's in the sense that a wider class of functions are Lebesgue-integrable.

    Integrals may be generalized depending on the type of the function as well as the domain over which the integration is performed. For example, a line integral is defined for functions of two or more variables, and the interval of integration is replaced by a curve connecting two points in space. In a surface integral, the curve is replaced by a piece of a surface in three-dimensional space.
    Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

     
  31. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    12 November 1954Ellis Island ceased operations.

    Ellis Island

    Ellis Island is a federally owned island in New York Harbor, situated within the U.S. states of New Jersey and New York, that was the busiest immigrant inspection and processing station in the United States. From 1892 to 1954, nearly 12 million immigrants arriving at the Port of New York and New Jersey were processed there under federal law.[6] Today, it is part of the Statue of Liberty National Monument and is accessible to the public only by ferry. The north side of the island is the site of the main building, now a national museum of immigration. The south side of the island, including the Ellis Island Immigrant Hospital, is open to the public only through guided tours.

    In the 19th century, Ellis Island was the site of Fort Gibson and later became a naval magazine. The first inspection station opened in 1892 and was destroyed by fire in 1897. The second station opened in 1900 and housed facilities for medical quarantines and processing immigrants. After 1924, Ellis Island was used primarily as a detention center for migrants. During both World War I and World War II, its facilities were also used by the US military to detain prisoners of war. After the immigration station's closure, the buildings languished for several years until they were partially reopened in 1976. The main building and adjacent structures were completely renovated in 1990.

    The 27.5-acre (11.1 ha) island was greatly expanded by land reclamation between the late 1890s and the 1930s. Jurisdictional disputes between New Jersey and New York State persisted until the 1998 U.S. Supreme Court ruling in New Jersey v. New York.

    1. ^ "Ellis Island – Hudson County, New Jersey". USGS. Retrieved January 1, 2011.
    2. ^ "Proclamation 3656 – Adding Ellis Island to the Statue of Liberty National Monument". April 5, 2010.
    3. ^ "National Register Information System". National Register of Historic Places. National Park Service. March 13, 2009.
    4. ^ "New Jersey and National Registers of Historic Places – Hudson County". New Jersey Department of Environmental Protection – Historic Preservation Office. Retrieved August 2, 2014.
    5. ^ Ellis Island Main Building Interior Designation Report 1993.
    6. ^ "Overview + History | Ellis Island". Statue of Liberty & Ellis Island. March 4, 2020. Retrieved September 10, 2021.
     
  32. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    13 November 1901 – The 1901 Caister lifeboat disaster.

    1901 Caister lifeboat disaster

    Memorial to the lifeboatmen who died

    The Caister lifeboat disaster of 13 November 1901 occurred off the coast of Caister-on-Sea, Norfolk, England. It took place during what became known as the "Great Storm", which caused havoc down the east coasts of England and Scotland.

     
  33. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    14 November 1971Mariner 9 enters orbit around Mars.

    Mariner 9

    Mariner 9 (Mariner Mars '71 / Mariner-I) was a robotic spacecraft that contributed greatly to the exploration of Mars and was part of the NASA Mariner program. Mariner 9 was launched toward Mars on May 30, 1971,[3][4] from LC-36B at Cape Canaveral Air Force Station, Florida, and reached the planet on November 14 of the same year,[3][4] becoming the first spacecraft to orbit another planet[5] – only narrowly beating the Soviet probes Mars 2 (launched May 19) and Mars 3 (launched May 28), which both arrived at Mars only weeks later.

    After the occurrence of dust storms on the planet for several months following its arrival, the orbiter managed to send back clear pictures of the surface. Mariner 9 successfully returned 7,329 images over the course of its mission, which concluded in October 1972.[6]

    1. ^ "Mariner 9". NASA's Solar System Exploration website. Retrieved September 28, 2023.
    2. ^ "Mariner 9". NASA's Solar System Exploration website. Retrieved November 30, 2022.
    3. ^ a b c "Mariner 9: Trajectory Information". National Space Science Data Center. Retrieved December 28, 2011.
    4. ^ a b "Mariner Mars 1971 Project Final Report" (PDF). NASA Technical Reports Server. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2022-10-09. Retrieved December 28, 2011.
    5. ^ "Mariner 9: Details". National Space Science Data Center. Retrieved December 28, 2011.
    6. ^ "NASA Programs & Missions Historical Log". Archived from the original on 2014-11-13. Retrieved 2011-12-12.
     
  34. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    15 November 2006 – Al Jazeera English launches worldwide.

    Al Jazeera English

    Al Jazeera English (AJE; Arabic: الجزيرة‎, romanizedal-jazīrah, lit.'the Peninsula', pronounced [æl (d)ʒæˈziːrɐ]) is a 24-hour English-language news channel. It operates under the ownership of the Al Jazeera Media Network, which, in turn, is funded by the government of Qatar. It is the first global English-language news channel to be headquartered in the Middle East.[3] Al Jazeera broadcasts in over 150 countries and territories, and has a large global audience of over 430 million people.[4]

    Al Jazeera is known for its in-depth and frontline reporting particularly in conflict zones.[5][6] It has been praised for its in-depth coverage of events such as the Arab Spring, the Gaza–Israel conflict and others.[7][8][6][9] Al Jazeera's coverage of the Arab Spring won the network numerous awards, including the Peabody Award.[10][5][11]

    1. ^ Habib Toumi (13 July 2011). "Al Jazeera turning into private media organisation". Gulf News. Archived from the original on 12 July 2021. Retrieved 15 February 2021.
    2. ^ Bridges, Scott (19 October 2012). "How Al Jazeera took on the (English-speaking) world". Archived from the original on 24 January 2021. Retrieved 13 January 2021.
    3. ^ "Al-Jazeera Says Its English-Language News Channel Will Launch November 15". The Post-Star. 1 November 2006. Archived from the original on 7 October 2009.
    4. ^ "About Us". Archived from the original on 26 October 2023. Retrieved 27 October 2023.
    5. ^ a b "Al-Jazeera English wins RTS news channel of the year". Archived from the original on 4 April 2023.
    6. ^ a b Ruddick, Graham (24 June 2017). "Al-Jazeera: the Qatar broadcaster at centre of diplomatic crisis". TheGuardian.com. Archived from the original on 8 July 2023. Retrieved 28 October 2023.
    7. ^ Cohen, Noam (January 2009). "Al Jazeera provides an inside look at Gaza conflict". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 25 October 2023. Retrieved 28 October 2023.
    8. ^ "Al-Jazeera English, N.Y. Times Take Home duPont Awards". 21 December 2011. Archived from the original on 29 October 2023. Retrieved 28 October 2023.
    9. ^ "Al-Jazeera English, N.Y. Times Take Home duPont Awards". Reuters. 21 December 2011. Archived from the original on 9 November 2023. Retrieved 9 November 2023.
    10. ^ "Al Jazeera's Coverage of the Arab Awakening". Archived from the original on 9 June 2023. Retrieved 28 October 2023.
    11. ^ "Arab Spring coverage earns Al Jazeera English top award". Archived from the original on 1 September 2012.
     
  35. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    16 November 1871 – The National Rifle Association receives its charter from New York State.

    National Rifle Association

    Seal of the National Rifle Association

    The National Rifle Association of America (NRA) is a gun rights advocacy group based in the United States.[2][3][b] Founded in 1871 to advance rifle marksmanship, the modern NRA has become a prominent gun rights lobbying organization while continuing to teach firearm safety and competency. The organization also publishes several magazines and sponsors competitive marksmanship events.[4] According to the NRA, it had nearly 5 million members as of December 2018, though that figure has not been independently confirmed.[5][6][7]

    The NRA is among the most influential advocacy groups in U.S. politics.[8][9][10] The NRA Institute for Legislative Action (NRA-ILA) is its lobbying division, which manages its political action committee (PAC), the Political Victory Fund (PVF). Over its history, the organization has influenced legislation, participated in or initiated lawsuits, and endorsed or opposed various candidates at local, state, and federal levels. Some notable lobbying efforts by the NRA-ILA are the Firearm Owners Protection Act, which lessened restrictions of the Gun Control Act of 1968, and the Dickey Amendment, which blocks the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) from using federal funds to advocate for gun control.

    Starting in the mid-to-late 1970s, the NRA has been increasingly criticized by gun control and gun rights advocacy groups, political commentators, and politicians. This criticism began following changes in the NRA's organizational policies, following what is now referred to as the Revolt at Cincinnati at the 1977 NRA annual convention. The changes, which deposed former NRA executive vice president Maxwell Rich and included new organizational bylaws, have been described as moving the organization away from its previous focuses of "hunting, conservation, and marksmanship" and toward a focus on the defense of the right to bear arms.[11][12][13] The organization has been the focus of intense criticism in the aftermath of high-profile shootings, such as the Parkland High School shooting and the Sandy Hook Elementary School shooting, after which they suggested adding armed security guards to schools.[14]

    1. ^ "National Rifle Association". ProPublica. May 9, 2013.
    2. ^ Korte, Gregory (May 4, 2013). "Post-Newtown, NRA membership surges to 5 million". USA Today.
    3. ^ Carter, Gregg Lee, ed. (2012). "National Rifle Association (NRA)". Guns in American Society: An Encyclopedia of History, Politics, Culture, and the Law. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO. pp. 616–20. ISBN 978-0313386701. Retrieved June 6, 2014. The National Rifle Association (NRA) is the nation's largest, oldest, and most politically powerful interest group that opposes gun laws and favors gun rights.
    4. ^ "A Brief History of NRA". National Rifle Association of America. Archived from the original on July 3, 2013. Retrieved July 19, 2013.
    5. ^ "Analysis | Nobody knows how many members the NRA has, but its tax returns offer some clues". The Washington Post.
    6. ^ Sit, Ryan (March 30, 2018). "How big is the NRA? Gun group's membership might not be as powerful as it says". Newsweek. Retrieved December 13, 2018.
    7. ^ "About the NRA". home.nra.org. Retrieved December 13, 2018.
    8. ^ Lacombe, Matthew J. (2021). Firepower: How the NRA Turned Gun Owners into a Political Force. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-20746-9.
    9. ^ "FORTUNE Releases Annual Survey of Most Powerful Lobbying Organizations" (Press release). Time Warner. November 15, 1999. Retrieved November 21, 2010.
    10. ^ Wilson, James Q.; et al. (2011). American Government: Institutions & Policies. Cengage Learning. p. 264. ISBN 978-0495802815.
    11. ^ LaPierre, Wayne. "Media Rage Against Trump And His Promise Of A Better Nation". America's 1st Freedom. NRA.
    12. ^ Davidson, Osha Gray (1998). Under Fire: the NRA and the Battle for Gun Control. University Of Iowa Press. pp. 28–36. ISBN 0877456461.
    13. ^ "Gun violence research: History of the federal funding freeze". apa.org. Retrieved November 13, 2019.
    14. ^ "Transcript of remarks from the NRA press conference on Sandy Hook school shooting". The Washington Post. December 21, 2012.


    Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

     
  36. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    16 November 1871 – The National Rifle Association receives its charter from New York State.

    National Rifle Association

    Seal of the National Rifle Association

    The National Rifle Association of America (NRA) is a gun rights advocacy group based in the United States.[2][3][b] Founded in 1871 to advance rifle marksmanship, the modern NRA has become a prominent gun rights lobbying organization while continuing to teach firearm safety and competency. The organization also publishes several magazines and sponsors competitive marksmanship events.[4] According to the NRA, it had nearly 5 million members as of December 2018, though that figure has not been independently confirmed.[5][6][7]

    The NRA is among the most influential advocacy groups in U.S. politics.[8][9][10] The NRA Institute for Legislative Action (NRA-ILA) is its lobbying division, which manages its political action committee (PAC), the Political Victory Fund (PVF). Over its history, the organization has influenced legislation, participated in or initiated lawsuits, and endorsed or opposed various candidates at local, state, and federal levels. Some notable lobbying efforts by the NRA-ILA are the Firearm Owners Protection Act, which lessened restrictions of the Gun Control Act of 1968, and the Dickey Amendment, which blocks the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) from using federal funds to advocate for gun control.

    Starting in the mid-to-late 1970s, the NRA has been increasingly criticized by gun control and gun rights advocacy groups, political commentators, and politicians. This criticism began following changes in the NRA's organizational policies, following what is now referred to as the Revolt at Cincinnati at the 1977 NRA annual convention. The changes, which deposed former NRA executive vice president Maxwell Rich and included new organizational bylaws, have been described as moving the organization away from its previous focuses of "hunting, conservation, and marksmanship" and toward a focus on the defense of the right to bear arms.[11][12][13] The organization has been the focus of intense criticism in the aftermath of high-profile shootings, such as the Parkland High School shooting and the Sandy Hook Elementary School shooting, after which they suggested adding armed security guards to schools.[14]

    1. ^ "National Rifle Association". ProPublica. May 9, 2013.
    2. ^ Korte, Gregory (May 4, 2013). "Post-Newtown, NRA membership surges to 5 million". USA Today.
    3. ^ Carter, Gregg Lee, ed. (2012). "National Rifle Association (NRA)". Guns in American Society: An Encyclopedia of History, Politics, Culture, and the Law. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO. pp. 616–20. ISBN 978-0313386701. Retrieved June 6, 2014. The National Rifle Association (NRA) is the nation's largest, oldest, and most politically powerful interest group that opposes gun laws and favors gun rights.
    4. ^ "A Brief History of NRA". National Rifle Association of America. Archived from the original on July 3, 2013. Retrieved July 19, 2013.
    5. ^ "Analysis | Nobody knows how many members the NRA has, but its tax returns offer some clues". The Washington Post.
    6. ^ Sit, Ryan (March 30, 2018). "How big is the NRA? Gun group's membership might not be as powerful as it says". Newsweek. Retrieved December 13, 2018.
    7. ^ "About the NRA". home.nra.org. Retrieved December 13, 2018.
    8. ^ Lacombe, Matthew J. (2021). Firepower: How the NRA Turned Gun Owners into a Political Force. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-20746-9.
    9. ^ "FORTUNE Releases Annual Survey of Most Powerful Lobbying Organizations" (Press release). Time Warner. November 15, 1999. Retrieved November 21, 2010.
    10. ^ Wilson, James Q.; et al. (2011). American Government: Institutions & Policies. Cengage Learning. p. 264. ISBN 978-0495802815.
    11. ^ LaPierre, Wayne. "Media Rage Against Trump And His Promise Of A Better Nation". America's 1st Freedom. NRA.
    12. ^ Davidson, Osha Gray (1998). Under Fire: the NRA and the Battle for Gun Control. University Of Iowa Press. pp. 28–36. ISBN 0877456461.
    13. ^ "Gun violence research: History of the federal funding freeze". apa.org. Retrieved November 13, 2019.
    14. ^ "Transcript of remarks from the NRA press conference on Sandy Hook school shooting". The Washington Post. December 21, 2012.


    Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

     
  37. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    16 November 1871 – The National Rifle Association receives its charter from New York State.

    National Rifle Association

    Seal of the National Rifle Association

    The National Rifle Association of America (NRA) is a gun rights advocacy group based in the United States.[2][3][b] Founded in 1871 to advance rifle marksmanship, the modern NRA has become a prominent gun rights lobbying organization while continuing to teach firearm safety and competency. The organization also publishes several magazines and sponsors competitive marksmanship events.[4] According to the NRA, it had nearly 5 million members as of December 2018, though that figure has not been independently confirmed.[5][6][7]

    The NRA is among the most influential advocacy groups in U.S. politics.[8][9][10] The NRA Institute for Legislative Action (NRA-ILA) is its lobbying division, which manages its political action committee (PAC), the Political Victory Fund (PVF). Over its history, the organization has influenced legislation, participated in or initiated lawsuits, and endorsed or opposed various candidates at local, state, and federal levels. Some notable lobbying efforts by the NRA-ILA are the Firearm Owners Protection Act, which lessened restrictions of the Gun Control Act of 1968, and the Dickey Amendment, which blocks the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) from using federal funds to advocate for gun control.

    Starting in the mid-to-late 1970s, the NRA has been increasingly criticized by gun control and gun rights advocacy groups, political commentators, and politicians. This criticism began following changes in the NRA's organizational policies, following what is now referred to as the Revolt at Cincinnati at the 1977 NRA annual convention. The changes, which deposed former NRA executive vice president Maxwell Rich and included new organizational bylaws, have been described as moving the organization away from its previous focuses of "hunting, conservation, and marksmanship" and toward a focus on the defense of the right to bear arms.[11][12][13] The organization has been the focus of intense criticism in the aftermath of high-profile shootings, such as the Parkland High School shooting and the Sandy Hook Elementary School shooting, after which they suggested adding armed security guards to schools.[14]

    1. ^ "National Rifle Association". ProPublica. May 9, 2013.
    2. ^ Korte, Gregory (May 4, 2013). "Post-Newtown, NRA membership surges to 5 million". USA Today.
    3. ^ Carter, Gregg Lee, ed. (2012). "National Rifle Association (NRA)". Guns in American Society: An Encyclopedia of History, Politics, Culture, and the Law. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO. pp. 616–20. ISBN 978-0313386701. Retrieved June 6, 2014. The National Rifle Association (NRA) is the nation's largest, oldest, and most politically powerful interest group that opposes gun laws and favors gun rights.
    4. ^ "A Brief History of NRA". National Rifle Association of America. Archived from the original on July 3, 2013. Retrieved July 19, 2013.
    5. ^ "Analysis | Nobody knows how many members the NRA has, but its tax returns offer some clues". The Washington Post.
    6. ^ Sit, Ryan (March 30, 2018). "How big is the NRA? Gun group's membership might not be as powerful as it says". Newsweek. Retrieved December 13, 2018.
    7. ^ "About the NRA". home.nra.org. Retrieved December 13, 2018.
    8. ^ Lacombe, Matthew J. (2021). Firepower: How the NRA Turned Gun Owners into a Political Force. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-20746-9.
    9. ^ "FORTUNE Releases Annual Survey of Most Powerful Lobbying Organizations" (Press release). Time Warner. November 15, 1999. Retrieved November 21, 2010.
    10. ^ Wilson, James Q.; et al. (2011). American Government: Institutions & Policies. Cengage Learning. p. 264. ISBN 978-0495802815.
    11. ^ LaPierre, Wayne. "Media Rage Against Trump And His Promise Of A Better Nation". America's 1st Freedom. NRA.
    12. ^ Davidson, Osha Gray (1998). Under Fire: the NRA and the Battle for Gun Control. University Of Iowa Press. pp. 28–36. ISBN 0877456461.
    13. ^ "Gun violence research: History of the federal funding freeze". apa.org. Retrieved November 13, 2019.
    14. ^ "Transcript of remarks from the NRA press conference on Sandy Hook school shooting". The Washington Post. December 21, 2012.


    Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

     
  38. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    17 November 1950 – Lhamo Dondrub is officially named the 14th Dalai Lama.

    14th Dalai Lama

    The 14th Dalai Lama[b] (spiritual name: Jetsun Jamphel Ngawang Lobsang Yeshe Tenzin Gyatso, also known as Tenzin Gyatso;[c]  Lhamo Thondup;[d] born 6 July 1935), known to the Tibetan people as Gyalwa Rinpoche, is, as the incumbent Dalai Lama, the highest spiritual leader and head of Tibet.[2] He is considered a living Bodhisattva; specifically, an emanation of Avalokiteśvara in Sanskrit, and Chenrezig in Tibetan. He is also the leader and a monk of the Gelug school, the newest school of Tibetan Buddhism,[3] formally headed by the Ganden Tripa. The central government of Tibet, the Ganden Phodrang, invested the Dalai Lama with temporal[4] duties until his exile in 1959.[5][6]

    The 14th Dalai Lama was born to a farming family in Taktser (Hongya Village), in the traditional Tibetan region of Amdo (administratively Qinghai, Republic of China).[7][8] He was selected as the tulku of the 13th Dalai Lama in 1937, and formally recognised as the 14th Dalai Lama in a public declaration near the town of Bumchen in 1939.[9] As with the recognition process for his predecessor, a Golden Urn selection process was exempted and approved by the Central Government of the Republic of China.[10][11][12][13][14] His enthronement ceremony was held in Lhasa on 22 February 1940 and he eventually assumed full temporal (political) duties on 17 November 1950 (at 15 years of age), after the People's Republic of China's occupation of Tibet.[9] The Tibetan government administered the historic Tibetan regions of Ü-Tsang, Kham and Amdo.[15]

    Subsequent to the annexation of Tibet by the People's Republic of China, during the 1959 Tibetan uprising, the Dalai Lama escaped to India, where he continues to live in exile while remaining the spiritual leader of Tibet. On 29 April 1959, the Dalai Lama established the independent Tibetan government in exile in the north Indian hill station of Mussoorie, which then moved in May 1960 to Dharamshala, where he resides. He retired as political head in 2011 to make way for a democratic government, the Central Tibetan Administration.[16][17][18]

    The Dalai Lama advocates for the welfare of Tibetans and since the early 1970s has called for the Middle Way Approach with China to peacefully resolve the issue of Tibet. The Dalai Lama travels worldwide to give Tibetan Mahayana and Vajrayana Buddhism teachings, and his Kalachakra teachings and initiations are international events. He also attends conferences on a wide range of subjects, including the relationship between religion and science, meets with other world leaders, religious leaders, philosophers, and scientists, online and in-person. His work includes focus on the environment, economics, women's rights, nonviolence, interfaith dialogue, physics, astronomy, Buddhism and science, cognitive neuroscience,[19][20][21] reproductive health and sexuality.

    The Dalai Lama was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1989. Time magazine named the Dalai Lama one of the "Children of Gandhi" and Gandhi's spiritual heir to nonviolence.[22][23]

    1. ^ Article 29, Section 2 of the Constitution of Tibet (1963)
    2. ^ "His Holiness the Dalai Lama Speaks to Tibetan Students in Delhi". Office of His Holiness the Dalai Lama. 26 January 2015. Archived from the original on 17 April 2021. Retrieved 28 March 2021.
    3. ^ Van Schaik, Sam (2011). Tibet: A History. Yale University Press. p. 129. ISBN 978-0-300-15404-7.
    4. ^ The two footnotes at the end of this sentence -- (at least, 'as of' this [March 2024] version of this article) -- may help to understand what the phrase "temporal duties" means here. The last footnote there contains a "QUOTE" that ends with the phrase "the spiritual and temporal ruler of Tibet". That might serve as a hint, indicating that investigating the meaning and use of the phrase "spiritual and temporal" (especially in a context like this one) might help to clarify the meaning of the word "temporal" in the phrase "temporal duties" here. The footnote before that (the second-to-last footnote in this sentence) contains a link to a PDF version of The Princeton Dictionary of Buddhism, ... a source that does not contain a defining entry for the word "temporal", but it does have a sentence that begins by saying

      In 1645, three years after his installation as temporal ruler of Tibet, the fifth Dalai Lama NGAG DBANG BLO BZANG RGYA MTSHO began [...]

      which is another example of the use of the word "temporal". A Wikipedia search for the phrase "temporal duties" might or might not be helpful. However, a Wikipedia search for the phrase "Temporal and Spiritual" might be more useful, since it includes a result for the Wikipedia disambiguation page Temporal power, although it lists only two meanings, and only one that is not specific to the Roman Catholic pope, which says:

      The temporal power (simply), the state (polity) or secular authority, in contrast to the church or spiritual authority

      so ... that Wikipedia article -- "state (polity)" -- that is mentioned there, might well shed some light on the meaning of the phrase "Temporal and Spiritual", and (by doing that), help us to understand what the word "temporal" means, as it is used here.
    5. ^ Buswell, Robert E.; Lopez, Donald S., Jr. (2013). The Princeton dictionary of Buddhism. Archived 12 June 2018 at the Wayback Machine Princeton: Princeton University Press. ISBN 9781400848058. Entries on "Dalai Lama" and "Dga' ldan pho brang".
    6. ^ "Definition of Dalai Lama in English". Oxford Dictionaries. Archived from the original on 7 July 2016. Retrieved 2 May 2015. The spiritual head of Tibetan Buddhism and, until the establishment of Chinese communist rule, the spiritual and temporal ruler of Tibet
    7. ^ "Brief Biography". DalaiLama.com. Archived from the original on 16 April 2021. Retrieved 13 June 2020.
    8. ^ "A Brief Biography of His Holiness the Dalai Lama". fmpt.org. Archived from the original on 30 June 2020. Retrieved 14 June 2020.
    9. ^ a b "Chronology of Events". The 14th Dalai Lama of Tibet. Office of the Dalai Lama. Archived from the original on 1 April 2017. Retrieved 29 April 2015.
    10. ^ Goldstein 1991, p. 328–.
    11. ^ "Report to Wu Zhongxin from the Regent Reting Rinpoche Regarding the Process of Searching and Recognizing the Thirteenth Dalai lama's Reincarnated Soul Boy as well as the Request for an Exemption to Drawing Lots". The Reincarnation of Living Buddhas. Museum of Tibetan Culture of China Tibetology Research Center. 1940.
    12. ^ "Executive Yuan's Report to the National Government Regarding the Request to Approve Lhamo Thondup to Succeed the Fourteenth Dalai lama and to Appropriate Expenditure for His Enthronement". The Reincarnation of Living Buddhas. Museum of Tibetan Culture of China Tibetology Research Center. 1940.
    13. ^ Goldstein, Melvyn C. (18 June 1991). A History of Modern Tibet, 1913–1951: The Demise of the Lamaist State. University of California Press. pp. 328ff. ISBN 978-0-520-91176-5. Archived from the original on 23 July 2019. Retrieved 12 October 2019.
    14. ^ "Beijing: Dalai Lama's Reincarnation Must Comply with Chinese Laws". Archived from the original on 24 August 2019. Retrieved 12 October 2019.
    15. ^ van Pragg, Walt; C. Van, Michael (1 March 1988). "The Legal Status of Tibet". Cultural Survival Quarterly Magazine (12–1). Archived from the original on 19 September 2016. Retrieved 19 June 2021.
    16. ^ "Life in exile". britannica.com. Encyclopaedia Britannica. Archived from the original on 11 April 2021. Retrieved 2 April 2021.
    17. ^ Yardley, Jim; Wong, Edward (10 March 2011). "Dalai Lama Gives Up Political Role". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 31 March 2021. Retrieved 2 April 2021.
    18. ^ "About Central Tibetan Administration". tibet.net. Central Tibetan Administration. Archived from the original on 14 March 2021. Retrieved 2 April 2021.
    19. ^ Davidson, Richard J.; Lutz, Antoine (1 January 2008). "Buddha's Brain: Neuroplasticity and Meditation". IEEE Signal Processing Magazine. 25 (1): 174–176. doi:10.1109/msp.2008.4431873. PMC 2944261. PMID 20871742.
    20. ^ Koch, Christof (1 July 2013). "Neuroscientists and the Dalai Lama Swap Insights on Meditation". Scientific American. Archived from the original on 5 May 2021. Retrieved 5 May 2021.
    21. ^ Foley, Ryan J. (14 May 2010). "Scientist, Dalai Lama Share Research Effort". NBC News. Associated Press. Archived from the original on 11 October 2019. Retrieved 5 May 2021.
    22. ^ "The Children of Gandhi" (excerpt). Time. 31 December 1999. Archived from the original on 5 October 2013.
    23. ^ "Congressional Gold Medal Recipients". history.house.gov. United States House of Representatives. Archived from the original on 12 March 2021. Retrieved 22 October 2019.


    Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

     
  39. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    18 November 1180Phillip II becomes king of France.

    Philip II of France

    Philip II (21 August 1165 – 14 July 1223), byname Philip Augustus (French: Philippe Auguste), was King of France from 1180 to 1223. His predecessors had been known as kings of the Franks (Latin: rex Francorum), but from 1190 onward, Philip became the first French monarch to style himself "King of France" (rex Francie).[a] The son of King Louis VII and his third wife, Adela of Champagne, he was originally nicknamed Dieudonné (God-given) because he was a first son and born late in his father's life. Philip was given the epithet "Augustus" by the chronicler Rigord for having extended the crown lands of France so remarkably.

    After decades of conflicts with the House of Plantagenet, Philip succeeded in putting an end to the Angevin Empire by defeating a coalition of his rivals at the Battle of Bouvines in 1214. This victory would have a lasting impact on western European politics: the authority of the French king became unchallenged, while the English King John was forced by his barons to assent to Magna Carta and deal with a rebellion against him aided by Philip's son Louis, the First Barons' War. The military actions surrounding the Albigensian Crusade helped prepare the expansion of France southward. Philip did not participate directly in these actions, but he allowed his vassals and knights to help carry them out.

    Philip transformed France into the most prosperous and powerful country in Europe.[5] He checked the power of the nobles and helped the towns free themselves from seigneurial authority, granting privileges and liberties to the emergent bourgeoisie. He built a great wall around Paris ("the Wall of Philip II Augustus"), re-organized the French government, and brought financial stability to his country.


    Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

    1. ^ Guenée 1981, p. 158. "En 1190, Rex Franciae aparait dans quelques actes influencés par les traditions des Plantagenets. Puis en 1196 l'expression se trouve dans des actes quelconques. En juin 1204 enfin, Philippus rex Franciae est utilisé dans les protocole initial des lettres royales. Et en juin 1205 apparait pour la première fois Regnum Francie".
    2. ^ Babbitt 1985, p. 39 (note 34).
    3. ^ Broun 2015, p. 176.
    4. ^ Baldwin 1991, pp. 360–361.
    5. ^ Flori & Tucker 2019, p. 999.
     
  40. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    19 November 1955National Review publishes its first issue.

    National Review

    National Review is an American conservative right-libertarian[4] editorial magazine, focusing on news and commentary pieces on political, social, and cultural affairs. The magazine was founded by the author William F. Buckley Jr. in 1955.[5] Its editor-in-chief is Rich Lowry, and its editor is Ramesh Ponnuru.

    Since its founding, the magazine has played a significant role in the development of conservatism in the United States, helping to define its boundaries[5] and promoting fusionism while establishing itself as a leading voice on the American right.[5][6][7]

    1. ^ "Behold! A New Magazine". National Review. August 20, 2023. Retrieved October 30, 2023.
    2. ^ "Garrett Bewkes". National Review. January 27, 2017. Retrieved February 2, 2017.
    3. ^ Jim Fowler. "National Review Media Kit 2022" (PDF). National Review. Retrieved July 1, 2022.
    4. ^ Meylan, Phillip (September 19, 2022). "Is the National Review Reliable?".
    5. ^ a b c Perlstein, Rick (April 11, 2017). "I thought I understood the American Right". The New York Times. Retrieved June 7, 2017.
    6. ^ Byers, Dylan (January 21, 2016). "National Review, conservative thinkers stand against Donald Trump". CNN. Retrieved April 5, 2017.
    7. ^ Brooks, David (September 24, 2017). "The Conservative Mind". The New York Times. Retrieved June 11, 2017.
     

Share This Page