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This day in .....

Discussion in 'Break Room' started by NewsBot, Apr 6, 2008.

  1. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    20 November 1959 – The Declaration of the Rights of the Child is adopted by the United Nations.

    Declaration of the Rights of the Child

    Children's day 1928 in Bulgaria. The text on the poster is the Geneva Declaration. In front are Prime Minister Andrey Lyapchev and Metropolitan Stefan of Sofia.

    The Declaration of the Rights of the Child, sometimes known as the Geneva Declaration of the Rights of the Child, is an international document promoting child rights, drafted by Eglantyne Jebb and adopted by the League of Nations in 1924, and adopted in an extended form by the United Nations in 1959.

     
  2. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    21 November 1979 – The United States Embassy in Islamabad, Pakistan, is attacked by a mob and set on fire, killing four.

    1979 U.S. embassy burning in Islamabad

    Beginning at 12:00 p.m. on 21 November 1979, a large mob of Pakistani citizens violently stormed the Embassy of the United States in Islamabad and subsequently burned it down in a coordinated attack.[1][2] The riot was led by local Islamists aligned with the right-wing Pakistani political party Jamaat-i-Islami, and the mob primarily comprised students from Quaid-i-Azam University. Lasting for almost 24 hours, the riot had been incited by Iranian religious cleric Ruhollah Khomeini, who was leading the Islamic Revolution at the time, after he falsely claimed in a widespread Iranian radio broadcast that the then-ongoing Grand Mosque seizure in Saudi Arabia had been orchestrated by the United States and Israel, prompting many anti-American riots throughout the Muslim world.[2] During the attack, the Pakistani rioters took several American diplomats as hostages with the intent of carrying out sham trials and public executions. In addition to Islamabad, there were similarly large riots in Karachi, Lahore, and Rawalpindi, where a number of American cultural centres were attacked and burned down.[3][4]

    Four embassy personnel were killed in the attack: a U.S. Marine Security Guard, a U.S. Army warrant officer, and two local Pakistani employees. The American ambassador Arthur W. Hummel Jr. was outside of the embassy at the time of the attack and therefore was able to escape from the rioters before being harmed. Shortly after the riots began, American president Jimmy Carter contacted Pakistani president Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq by phone to warn him against allowing the embassy employees' safety to be compromised. However, Zia proved reluctant to dispatch troops to disperse the crowd.[3] By the morning of 22 November, the Pakistan Army moved in to retake the embassy grounds: two of the rioting students were killed and as many as 70 additional rioters were injured.[3] According to witnesses at the nearby British High Commission, well over 1,500 people took part in the attack on the embassy.

    The burning of the embassy in Islamabad played into Khomeini's Islamic Revolution export propaganda amidst the Iran hostage crisis, and Khomeini himself later publicly praised the Pakistani rioters' actions after hearing about the attack. Zia condemned the embassy burning as "not in keeping with lofty Islamic traditions" while refraining from overtly criticizing Jamaat-i-Islami, which had been a political ally in his Islamization of Pakistan.[3]

    1. ^ Barr, Cameron W. (November 27, 2004). "A Day of Terror Recalled". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on May 9, 2008.
    2. ^ a b "Witness History, Attack on the US Embassy in Islamabad". BBC World Service. Retrieved 2023-05-23.
    3. ^ a b c d "Flames Engulf the U.S. Embassy in Pakistan". TIME. December 3, 1979. Archived from the original on October 22, 2010. Retrieved 2023-08-27.
    4. ^ Cite error: The named reference nyt was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
     
  3. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    22 November 1995Toy Story is released as the first feature-length film created completely using computer-generated imagery.

    Toy Story

    Toy Story is a 1995 American animated comedy film produced by Pixar Animation Studios for Walt Disney Pictures. The first installment in the franchise of the same name, it was the first entirely computer-animated feature film, as well as the first feature film from Pixar. It was directed by John Lasseter (in his feature directorial debut) and produced by Bonnie Arnold and Ralph Guggenheim, from a screenplay written by Joss Whedon, Andrew Stanton, Joel Cohen, and Alec Sokolow and a story by Lasseter, Stanton, Pete Docter, and Joe Ranft. The film features music by Randy Newman, and was executive-produced by Steve Jobs and Edwin Catmull. The film features the voices of Tom Hanks, Tim Allen, Don Rickles, Jim Varney, Wallace Shawn, John Ratzenberger, Annie Potts, R. Lee Ermey, John Morris, Laurie Metcalf, and Erik von Detten.

    Taking place in a world where toys come to life when humans are not present, the plot of Toy Story focuses on the relationship between an old-fashioned pullstring cowboy doll named Woody and a modern space cadet action figure, Buzz Lightyear, as Woody develops jealousy towards Buzz when he becomes their owner Andy's favorite toy.

    Following the success of Tin Toy, a short film that was released in 1988, Pixar was approached by Disney to produce a computer-animated feature film that was told from a small toy's perspective. Lasseter, Stanton, and Docter wrote early story treatments, which were rejected by Disney, who wanted the film's tone to be "edgier". After several disastrous story reels, production was halted and the script was rewritten to better reflect the tone and theme Pixar desired: "toys deeply want children to play with them, and ... this desire drives their hopes, fears, and actions". The studio, then consisting of a relatively small number of employees, produced Toy Story under minor financial constraints.

    Toy Story premiered at the El Capitan Theatre in Los Angeles on November 19, 1995, and was released in theaters in North America on November 22 of that year. It was the highest-grossing film during its opening weekend,[2] eventually grossing over $373 million worldwide, making it the second highest-grossing film of 1995. The film received critical acclaim and holds a 100% approval rating on film aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes. It was praised for the technical innovation of the 3D animation, script, Newman's score, appeal to all age groups, and voice performances (particularly Hanks and Allen); it is frequently lauded as one of the best animated films ever made and, due to its status as the first computer-animated film, one of the most important films in medium's history and film at large.[4] The film received three Academy Award nominations—Best Original Screenplay (the first animated film to be nominated for the award), Best Original Song for "You've Got a Friend in Me", and Best Original Score—in addition to being honored with a non-competitive Special Achievement Academy Award.[5]

    In 2005, Toy Story was selected for preservation in the United States National Film Registry by the Library of Congress as being "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant", one of nine films designated in its first year of eligibility. The success of Toy Story launched a multimedia franchise. It spawned three sequels beginning with Toy Story 2 (1999), a spin-off film Lightyear (2022), numerous short films, and a planned fourth sequel. The film also had a theatrical 3D re-release in 2009 as part of a double feature with the second film.

    1. ^ "Toy Story". British Board of Film Classification. Archived from the original on September 21, 2013. Retrieved August 2, 2013.
    2. ^ a b "Toy Story". The Numbers. Nash Information Services, LLC. Archived from the original on December 5, 2014. Retrieved January 18, 2022.
    3. ^ "Toy Story". Box Office Mojo. IMDb. Archived from the original on January 18, 2022. Retrieved January 18, 2022.
    4. ^ Cite error: The named reference best-animation was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    5. ^ King, Susan (September 30, 2015). "How 'Toy Story' changed the face of animation, taking off 'like an explosion'". Los Angeles Times. Archived from the original on October 2, 2015. Retrieved September 30, 2015.
     
  4. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    23 November 1978Cyclone kills about 1000 people in eastern Sri Lanka.

    1978 Sri Lanka cyclone

    The 1978 Sri Lanka Cyclone (JTWC designation: 04B) was one of the most destructive tropical cyclones to strike Sri Lanka since modern records began. The cyclone formed on November 17, 1978, and attained peak intensity on November 23, 1978, right before making landfall in Batticaloa. Sri Lanka's eastern province was heavily affected by the cyclone.[1]

    1. ^ Neelavannan (1979). 12 மணி நேரம் (The 12 hours). Jaffna, Sri Lanka. p. 29.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
     
  5. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    23 November 1978Cyclone kills about 1000 people in eastern Sri Lanka.

    1978 Sri Lanka cyclone

    The 1978 Sri Lanka Cyclone (JTWC designation: 04B) was one of the most destructive tropical cyclones to strike Sri Lanka since modern records began. The cyclone formed on November 17, 1978, and attained peak intensity on November 23, 1978, right before making landfall in Batticaloa. Sri Lanka's eastern province was heavily affected by the cyclone.[1]

    1. ^ Neelavannan (1979). 12 மணி நேரம் (The 12 hours). Jaffna, Sri Lanka. p. 29.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
     
  6. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    23 November 1978Cyclone kills about 1000 people in eastern Sri Lanka.

    1978 Sri Lanka cyclone

    The 1978 Sri Lanka Cyclone (JTWC designation: 04B) was one of the most destructive tropical cyclones to strike Sri Lanka since modern records began. The cyclone formed on November 17, 1978, and attained peak intensity on November 23, 1978, right before making landfall in Batticaloa. Sri Lanka's eastern province was heavily affected by the cyclone.[1]

    1. ^ Neelavannan (1979). 12 மணி நேரம் (The 12 hours). Jaffna, Sri Lanka. p. 29.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
     
  7. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    24 November 1859Charles Darwin publishes On the Origin of Species.

    On the Origin of Species

    On the Origin of Species (or, more completely, On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, or the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life)[3] is a work of scientific literature by Charles Darwin that is considered to be the foundation of evolutionary biology; it was published on 24 November 1859.[4] Darwin's book introduced the scientific theory that populations evolve over the course of generations through a process of natural selection. The book presented a body of evidence that the diversity of life arose by common descent through a branching pattern of evolution. Darwin included evidence that he had collected on the Beagle expedition in the 1830s and his subsequent findings from research, correspondence, and experimentation.[5]

    Various evolutionary ideas had already been proposed to explain new findings in biology. There was growing support for such ideas among dissident anatomists and the general public, but during the first half of the 19th century the English scientific establishment was closely tied to the Church of England, while science was part of natural theology. Ideas about the transmutation of species were controversial as they conflicted with the beliefs that species were unchanging parts of a designed hierarchy and that humans were unique, unrelated to other animals. The political and theological implications were intensely debated, but transmutation was not accepted by the scientific mainstream.

    The book was written for non-specialist readers and attracted widespread interest upon its publication. Darwin was already highly regarded as a scientist, so his findings were taken seriously and the evidence he presented generated scientific, philosophical, and religious discussion. The debate over the book contributed to the campaign by T. H. Huxley and his fellow members of the X Club to secularise science by promoting scientific naturalism. Within two decades, there was widespread scientific agreement that evolution, with a branching pattern of common descent, had occurred, but scientists were slow to give natural selection the significance that Darwin thought appropriate. During "the eclipse of Darwinism" from the 1880s to the 1930s, various other mechanisms of evolution were given more credit. With the development of the modern evolutionary synthesis in the 1930s and 1940s, Darwin's concept of evolutionary adaptation through natural selection became central to modern evolutionary theory, and it has now become the unifying concept of the life sciences.

    1. ^ Darwin 1859, p. iii
    2. ^ Cite error: The named reference Freeman 1977 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    3. ^ The book's full original title was On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, or the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life. In the 1872 sixth edition, "On" was omitted, so the full title is The origin of species by means of natural selection, or the preservation of favoured races in the struggle for life. This edition is usually known as The Origin of Species. The 6th is Darwin's final edition; there were minor modifications in the text of certain subsequent issues. See Freeman, R. B. "The works of Charles Darwin: an annotated bibliographical handlist." In Van Wyhe, John, ed. Darwin Online: On the Origin of Species, 2002.
    4. ^ Desmond & Moore 1991, p. 477.
    5. ^ "Darwin Manuscripts (Digitised notes on Origin)". Cambridge Digital Library. Retrieved 24 November 2014.
     
  8. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    25 November 1999 – A 5-year-old Cuban boy, Elian Gonzalez, is rescued by fishermen while floating in an inner tube off the Florida coast.

    Elián González

    Elián González Brotons (born December 6, 1993) is a Cuban industrial engineer and politician who, as a young child, became embroiled in an international custody and immigration controversy in 2000 involving the governments of Cuba and the United States, his father Juan Miguel González Quintana, his other relatives in Cuba and in Miami, and Miami's Cuban community.

    González's mother Elizabeth Brotons Rodríguez drowned in November 1999 while attempting to leave Cuba with González and her boyfriend to get to the United States.[2][3] Elián Gonzalez was five years old when found nestled in an inner tube floating at sea three miles (5 km) from Florida's Fort Lauderdale coast. Two fishermen found Elián and reluctantly handed him over to the U.S. Coast Guard, as they feared he would be sent back to Cuba under the wet feet, dry feet policy since he had not yet reached land.[4] The Coast Guard assured them that Elián would be taken "ashore for medical reasons", deeming him eligible to stay.[4]: 152  Elián was immediately taken to a hospital and treated for dehydration and minor cuts on his body. It was later found that Elián's mother, Elisabeth Brotons Rodríguez, and Lázaro Munero García, her common-law husband, had left Cárdenas, Cuba, as part of a group with 14 refugees on a 17 ft (5.2 m) boat.[4] However, the others died in a storm, while a young couple escaped to the shore, and Elián was found individually.

    Once he had been treated, the Immigration and Naturalization Service (INS) provided Elián with a temporary deferral regarding his inspection, and further released Elián to his great-uncle, Lázaro González, who lived with his family in Miami's Little Havana.[4] These relatives informed the family in Cárdenas to prepare for an extreme hardship visa waiver. The former were told the next day that "some functionary of the government would be coming to get the boy" as a result of Fidel Castro's having met with Juan Miguel, Elián's father.[4]: 153  The involvement of the Cuban Communist leader in the case and the subsequent diplomatic note written to the U.S. Department of State emphasizing the father's demand for Elián's repatriation attracted international attention.[4] This is because Elián had become a "symbol to many exiles" reminding them of the solidarity of the Cuban exile community and its privileged status with economic refugee criteria.[4]: 153  He subsequently became the subject of a custody battle waged by his father, Miami relatives, and state officials from the U.S. and Cuba.

    After protracted legal wrangling, and intervention by Attorney General Janet Reno, it was determined that Elián would be returned to his father's custody. He was seized from the home of his Miami relatives in a raid by the INS; a dramatic photo of an INS agent confronting a relative holding Elián during the raid went on to win the 2001 Pulitzer Prize.[5] Elián's father in turn returned with him to Cuba. Elián grew up in Cuba, where he was well regarded by Fidel Castro. Elián went on to earn a degree in engineering, and has worked as an engineer in Cuba. Elián's story has been covered in popular culture; a museum in Cuba includes an exhibit about him. In 2023, he was nominated for a seat in the National Assembly of People's Power, and joined the body on April 19, 2023 representing the city of Cárdenas.[6]

    1. ^ "Elián González". Biography.com. February 28, 2019.
    2. ^ "Elian's relatives at war". BBC News. April 18, 2000.
    3. ^ Haberman, Clyde (January 14, 2000). "NYC; A Tug of War As Complex As War". The New York Times.
    4. ^ a b c d e f g Cite error: The named reference Cova was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    5. ^ Cite error: The named reference :2 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    6. ^ Cite error: The named reference pbs was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
     
  9. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    26 November 1842 – The University of Notre Dame is founded.

    University of Notre Dame

    The University of Notre Dame du Lac, known simply as Notre Dame (/ˌntərˈdm/ NOH-tər-DAYM; ND), is a private Catholic research university in Notre Dame, Indiana.[7] French priest Edward Sorin founded the school in 1842. The main campus of 1,261 acres (510 ha) has a suburban setting and contains landmarks such as the Golden Dome, the Word of Life mural, Notre Dame Stadium, and the Basilica. Originally for men, the university started accepting undergraduate women in 1972.[8]

    Notre Dame is one of the top universities in the United States.[9][10][11][12][13] The university is organized into seven schools and colleges. Notre Dame's graduate program includes more than 50 master, doctoral and professional degrees offered by the six schools, including the Notre Dame Law School and an MD–PhD program offered in combination with the Indiana University School of Medicine.[14][15] The School of Architecture is known for teaching New Classical Architecture and for awarding the annual Driehaus Architecture Prize.

    The university offers more than 50 semester and year-long study programs abroad and over 15 summer programs.[16] Notre Dame maintains a system of libraries, cultural venues, artistic and scientific museums, including the Hesburgh Library and the Snite Museum of Art. Most of the university's 8,000 undergraduates live on campus in one of 33 residence halls. Notre Dame's network of alumni consist of 151,000 members.[17]

    The university's athletic teams are members of the NCAA Division I and are known collectively as the Fighting Irish. Notre Dame is noted for its football team, which contributed to its rise to prominence on the national stage in the early 20th century; the team has no conference affiliation and has accumulated 11 consensus national championships, 7 Heisman Trophy winners, 62 members of the College Football Hall of Fame, and 13 of the Pro Football Hall of Fame.[18] Notre Dame teams in other sports, chiefly in the Atlantic Coast Conference, have won 17 national championships.[19]

    Notre Dame became more prominent in the early 20th century, aided by the success of its football team under coach Knute Rockne. Major improvements to the university occurred during Theodore Hesburgh's administration between 1952 and 1987. His administration increased the university's resources, academic programs, and its reputation. Notre Dame's growth has continued in the 21st century. At the end of the fiscal year 2022, its endowment was valued at $20.3 billion.[20]

    1. ^ "The Spirit of Notre Dame". www3.nd.edu. Retrieved October 29, 2019.
    2. ^ "Memories and lessons from Notre Dame". Notre Dame Magazine. January 7, 2015. Retrieved October 29, 2019.
    3. ^ Budget Endowment and Income (Report). University of Notre Dame. 2023. Retrieved December 22, 2023.
    4. ^ a b c d "About: Notre Dame at a Glance". University of Notre Dame. Retrieved December 4, 2022.
    5. ^ "Primary Colors". On Message. University of Notre Dame. Retrieved June 20, 2019.
    6. ^ "University of Notre Dame". Geographic Names Information System. United States Geological Survey, United States Department of the Interior. February 14, 1979. Retrieved October 8, 2020.
    7. ^ "University of Notre Dame". carnegieclassifications.iu.edu. Archived from the original on January 3, 2016. Retrieved December 10, 2015.
    8. ^ Cappy (March 12, 2012). "A.D. Admissions". Notre Dame. Retrieved November 26, 2022.
    9. ^ Shepkowski, Nick (April 19, 2023). "Top 25 colleges and universities ranked academically by US News for 2022-23". Fighting Irish Wire – via USA Today Sports Weekly. The university is widely regarded as one of the very best nationally each and every year.
    10. ^ "University of Notre Dame – The Princeton Review College Rankings & Reviews". princetonreview.com. Retrieved December 9, 2019.
    11. ^ "University of Notre Dame". Times Higher Education (THE). June 7, 2022. Retrieved November 9, 2022.
    12. ^ "Ranked: The top 100 universities in the USA". Top Universities. Retrieved November 9, 2022.
    13. ^ Herron, Arika (September 18, 2023). "Notre Dame tops best colleges lists for Indiana". Axios.
    14. ^ "Carnegie Classifications: University of Notre Dame". Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching. Archived from the original on May 21, 2009. Retrieved September 20, 2008.
    15. ^ "The Graduate School: Quick facts". University of Notre Dame. Archived from the original on July 14, 2014. Retrieved June 12, 2014.
    16. ^ "Home – Study Abroad – University of Notre Dame". University of Notre Dame. Retrieved October 27, 2018.
    17. ^ "Notre Dame Alumni By the Numbers". Notre Dame Magazine. Notre Dame Alumni Association. January 4, 2022.
    18. ^ "Irish National Championships". Archived from the original on December 23, 2015. Retrieved September 30, 2017.
    19. ^ "Championships Summary" (PDF). National Collegiate Athletic Association. June 26, 2019. Retrieved October 16, 2019.
    20. ^ "Endowment Boom". Notre Dame Magazine. Spring 2022. Retrieved January 9, 2023.
     
  10. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    27 November 1901 – The U.S. Army War College is established.

    United States Army War College

    The United States Army War College (USAWC) is a U.S. Army educational institution in Carlisle, Pennsylvania, on the 500-acre (2 km2) campus of the historic Carlisle Barracks.[2] It provides graduate-level instruction to senior military officers and civilians to prepare them for senior leadership assignments and responsibilities.[3] Each year, a number of Army colonels and lieutenant colonels are considered by a board for admission.[4][3] Approximately 800 students attend at any one time, half in a two-year-long distance learning program, and the other half in an on-campus, full-time resident program lasting ten months.[3] Upon completion, the college grants its graduates a master's degree in Strategic Studies.[3]

    The Army War College is a split-functional institution. Emphasis is placed on research and students are also instructed in leadership, strategy, and joint-service/international operations. It is one of the senior service colleges including the Naval War College and the USAF Air War College. Additionally, the U.S. Department of Defense operates the National War College.

    1. ^ "Commandant's Column: Envisioning USAWC 2020". Archived from the original on 3 December 2013. Retrieved 27 November 2013.
    2. ^ "Historic Carlisle Barracks". Retrieved 3 November 2017.
    3. ^ a b c d "Military Education Level 1 Programs". Retrieved 3 November 2017.
    4. ^ US Army War College Archived 15 June 2011 at the Wayback Machine. Carlisle.army.mil. Retrieved on 2013-07-23.
     
  11. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    28 November 1821Panama Independence Day: Panama separates from Spain and joins Gran Colombia.

    Public holidays in Panama

    Public holidays in Panama include:

     
  12. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    29 November 1944 – World War II: Albania is liberated by the Partisans.

    Liberation Day (Albania)

    Map of Albania during World War II

    Liberation Day (Albanian: Dita e Çlirimit) in Albania is commemorated as the day, November 29, 1944, in which the country was liberated from Nazi Germany forces by the Albanian resistance during World War II.[1]

    1. ^ Pearson, Owen (2006). Albania as dictatorship and democracy: from isolation to the Kosovo War. IB Taurus. p. 221. ISBN 1-84511-105-2.
     
  13. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    30 November 1936 – In London, the Crystal Palace is destroyed by fire.

    The Crystal Palace

    The Crystal Palace was a cast iron and plate glass structure, originally built in Hyde Park, London, to house the Great Exhibition of 1851. The exhibition took place from 1 May to 15 October 1851, and more than 14,000 exhibitors from around the world gathered in its 990,000 square feet (92,000 m2) exhibition space to display examples of technology developed in the Industrial Revolution. Designed by Joseph Paxton, the Great Exhibition building was 1,851 feet (564 m) long, with an interior height of 128 feet (39 m),[1] and was three times the size of St Paul's Cathedral.[2]

    The 60,000 panes of glass were manufactured by the Chance Brothers.[3] The 990,000 square foot building with its 128 foot high ceiling was completed in thirty-nine weeks. The Crystal Palace boasted the greatest area of glass ever seen in a building. It astonished visitors with its clear walls and ceilings that did not require interior lights.

    It has been suggested that the name of the building resulted from a piece penned by the playwright Douglas Jerrold, who in July 1850 wrote in the satirical magazine Punch about the forthcoming Great Exhibition, referring to a "palace of very crystal".[4]

    After the exhibition, the Palace was relocated to an open area of South London known as Penge Place which had been excised from Penge Common. It was rebuilt at the top of Penge Peak next to Sydenham Hill, an affluent suburb of large villas. It stood there from June 1854 until its destruction by fire in November 1936. The nearby residential area was renamed Crystal Palace after the landmark. This included the Crystal Palace Park that surrounds the site, home of the Crystal Palace National Sports Centre, which was previously a football stadium that hosted the FA Cup Final between 1895 and 1914. Crystal Palace F.C. were founded at the site and played at the Cup Final venue in their early years. The park still contains Benjamin Waterhouse Hawkins's Crystal Palace Dinosaurs which date back to 1854.

    1. ^ "The Crystal Palace of Hyde Park". Archived from the original on 12 March 2012. Retrieved 4 April 2008.
    2. ^ James Harrison, ed. (1996). "Imperial Britain". Children's Encyclopedia of British History. London: Kingfisher Publications. p. 131. ISBN 0-7534-0299-8.
    3. ^ Chance, Tom. "The Crystal Palace's glass" (PDF). Retrieved 31 March 2023.
    4. ^ The Punch issue of 13 July 1850 carried a contribution by Douglas Jerrold, writing as Mrs Amelia Mouser, which referred to a palace of very crystal. Michael Slater (2002). Douglas Jerrold. London: Duckworth. p. 243. ISBN 0-7156-2824-0. In fact the term "Crystal Palace" itself is used seven times in the same issue of Punch (pages iii. iv, 154, 183 (twice), 214 (twice) and 224. It seems clear, however, that the term was already in use and did not need much explanation. Other sources refer to the 2 November 1850 Punch issue bestowing the "Crystal Palace" name on the design by Terry Strieter (1999). Nineteenth-Century European Art: A Topical Dictionary. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. p. 50. ISBN 0-313-29898-X. (And "Crystal Palace". BBC. Retrieved 21 November 2007. The term 'Crystal Palace' was first applied to Paxton's building by Punch in its issue of 2 November 1850.) Punch had originally sided with The Times against the exhibition committee's proposal of a fixed brick structure, but featured the Crystal Palace heavily throughout 1851 (for example in "Punch Issue 502". Archived from the original on 20 April 2006. included the article "Travels into the Interior of the Crystal Palace" of February 1851). Any earlier name has been lost, according to "Everything2 Crystal Palace Exhibition Building Design #251". 2003.. The use by Mrs Mouser was picked up by a reference in The Leader, no. 17, 20 July 1850 (p. 1): "In more than one country we notice active preparations for sending inanimate representatives of trade and industry to take up their abode in the crystal palace which Mr. Paxton is to build for the Exposition of 1851." Source: British Periodicals database or Nineteenth Century Serials Edition Archived 17 April 2009 at the Wayback Machine
     
  14. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    1 December 1822Peter I is crowned Emperor of Brazil.

    List of monarchs of Brazil

    The monarchs of Brazil (Portuguese: monarcas do Brasil) were the imperial heads of state and hereditary rulers of Brazil from the House of Braganza that reigned from the creation of the Brazilian monarchy in 1815 as a constituent kingdom of the United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves until the republican coup d'état that overthrew the Empire of Brazil in 1889.[1]

    The coast of the territory which would become known as Brazil was first explored by Portuguese navigators on 22 April 1500. This territory was subsequently colonized by the Portuguese crown. Since the transfer of the Portuguese court to Brazil in 1808, colonial rule had de facto ended. On 16 December 1815, Prince Regent John, the future king John VI, raised Brazil to the status of a kingdom, thus making his mother, Maria I, the reigning queen, the first monarch of Brazil. The next year, 20 March 1816, John succeeded his mother as king of the united Luso-Brazilian monarchy. Having proclaimed independence of the Kingdom of Brazil from Portugal in 1822, Pedro I, son of John VI, was acclaimed the first emperor of Brazil on 12 October 1822. He was later succeeded on 7 April 1831 by his son Pedro II, deposed along with the 74-years-old monarchy on 15 November 1889 in a bloodless and unpopular military coup d'état.

    1. ^ Bandeira, Moniz. Casa da Torre de Garcia d'Avila. Editora Record, 2000, pp. 423–425
     
  15. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    2 December 1908Puyi becomes Emperor of China at the age of two.

    Puyi

    Puyi[c] (7 February 1906 – 17 October 1967) was the final emperor of China, reigning as the eleventh and final monarch of the Qing dynasty. He was later ruler of the puppet state of Manchukuo under the Empire of Japan from 1934 to 1945. He became emperor at the age of two in 1908, but was forced to abdicate in 1912 as a result of Xinhai Revolution at the age of six. During his first reign, he was known as the Xuantong Emperor, with his era name meaning "proclamation of unity".

    Puyi was briefly restored to the Qing throne by the loyalist general Zhang Xun from 1 July to 12 July 1917. He was first wed to Empress Wanrong in 1922 in an arranged marriage. In 1924, he was expelled from the Forbidden City and found refuge in Tianjin, where he began to court both the warlords fighting for control over parts of the weak Republic of China and the Japanese who had long desired control of China. The Japanese invasion of Manchuria in 1932 resulted in the puppet state of Manchukuo being established by Japan, who chose Puyi to become its chief executive, using the era name "Datong".

    In 1934, he was declared emperor of Manchukuo, prompting writer Wen Yuan-ning to quip that Puyi "holds the world's record for the number of times that any mortal may ascend and abdicate the throne."[1] Puyi nominally reigned under the era name "Kangde" until the end of the Second Sino-Japanese War in 1945. This third stint as emperor saw him as a puppet of Japan; he signed most edicts the Japanese gave him. During this period, he largely resided in the Salt Tax Palace, where he regularly ordered his servants beaten. His first wife's opium addiction consumed her during these years, and they were generally distant. He took on numerous concubines, as well as male lovers. With the surrender of Japan in 1945, Puyi fled the capital and was eventually captured by the Soviets who had occupied the country; he was extradited to the People's Republic of China in 1950. After his capture, he never saw his first wife again; she died of starvation in a Chinese prison in 1946.

    Puyi was a defendant at the Tokyo Trials and was later imprisoned and re-educated as a war criminal for 10 years. After his release in 1959, he wrote his memoirs (with the help of a ghost writer) and became a titular member of the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference and the National People's Congress of the People's Republic of China. His time in prison greatly changed him, and he expressed deep regret for his actions while he was emperor. He died in 1967 and was ultimately buried near the Western Qing tombs in a commercial cemetery.


    Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

    1. ^ Wen, Yuan-ning (2018). "Emperor Malgre Lui" (Feb. 8, 1934), in Imperfect Understanding: Intimate Portraits of Modern Chinese Celebrities. Cambria Press. p. 117.
     
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    3 December 1979 – Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini becomes the first Supreme Leader of Iran.

    Ruhollah Khomeini

    Ayatollah Ruhollah Musavi Khomeini[b] (17 May 1900 or 24 September 1902[a] – 3 June 1989) was an Iranian Islamic revolutionary, politician, and religious leader who served as the first supreme leader of Iran from 1979 until his death in 1989. He was the founder of the Islamic Republic of Iran and the leader of the Iranian Revolution, which overthrew Mohammad Reza Pahlavi and ended the Iranian monarchy.

    Born in Khomeyn, in what is now Iran's Markazi province, his father was murdered in 1903 when Khomeini was two years old. He began studying the Quran and Arabic from a young age and was assisted in his religious studies by his relatives, including his mother's cousin and older brother. Khomeini was a high ranking cleric in Twelver Shi'ism, an ayatollah, a marja' ("source of emulation"), a Mujtahid or faqīh (an expert in sharia), and author of more than 40 books. His opposition to the White Revolution resulted in his state-sponsored expulsion to Bursa in 1964. Nearly a year later, he moved to Najaf, where speeches he gave outlining his religiopolitical theory of Guardianship of the Jurist were complied into Islamic Government.

    He was Time magazine's Man of the Year in 1979 for his international influence, and Khomeini has been described as the "virtual face of Shia Islam in Western popular culture", where he was known for his support of the hostage takers during the Iran hostage crisis, his fatwa calling for the murder of British Indian novelist Salman Rushdie, and for referring to the United States as the "Great Satan" and the Soviet Union as the "Lesser Satan". Following the revolution, Khomeini became the country's first supreme leader, a position created in the constitution of the Islamic Republic as the highest-ranking political and religious authority of the nation, which he held until his death. Most of his period in power was taken up by the Iran–Iraq War of 1980–1988. He was succeeded by Ali Khamenei on 4 June 1989.

    The subject of a pervasive cult of personality, Khomeini is officially known as Imam Khomeini inside Iran and by his supporters internationally. His funeral was attended by up to 10 million people, or 1/6 of the population, the largest funeral at the time and one of the largest human gatherings in history. In Iran, his gold-domed tomb in Tehran's Behesht-e Zahrāʾ cemetery has become a shrine for his adherents, and he is legally considered "inviolable", with Iranians regularly punished for insulting him. His supporters view him as a champion of Islamic revival, anti-racism and anti-imperialism. Critics accuse him of human rights violations (including his ordering of attacks against demonstrators, execution of thousands of political prisoners, war criminals and prisoners of the Iran–Iraq War), as well as for using child soldiers extensively during the Iran-Iraq war for human wave attacks, estimates are as high as 100,000 for the number of children killed.


    Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

    1. ^ Bowering, Gerhard; Crone, Patricia; Kadi, Wadad; Stewart, Devin J.; Zaman, Muhammad Qasim; Mirza, Mahan, eds. (2012). The Princeton Encyclopedia of Islamic Political Thought. Princeton University Press. p. 518. ISBN 978-1-4008-3855-4.
    2. ^ Malise Ruthven (2004). Fundamentalism: The Search for Meaning (Reprint ed.). Oxford University Press. p. 29. ISBN 978-0-19-151738-9.
    3. ^ Jebnoun, Noureddine; Kia, Mehrdad; Kirk, Mimi, eds. (2013). Modern Middle East Authoritarianism: Roots, Ramifications, and Crisis. Routledge. p. 168. ISBN 978-1-135-00731-7.
    4. ^ "Constitution of the Islamic Republic of Iran, Chapter 1, Article 1". Constitution of the Islamic Republic of Iran.
    5. ^ a b Cite error: The named reference a was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
     
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    4 December 1881 The first edition of the Los Angeles Times is published

    Los Angeles Times

    The Los Angeles Times is a regional American daily newspaper that started publishing in Los Angeles, California in 1881. Based in the Greater Los Angeles area city of El Segundo since 2018,[3] it is the sixth-largest newspaper by circulation in the United States, as well as the largest newspaper in the western United States.[4] Owned by Patrick Soon-Shiong and published by California Times, the paper has won more than 40 Pulitzer Prizes.[5][6][7][8]

    In the 19th century, the paper developed a reputation for civic boosterism and opposition to labor unions, the latter of which led to the bombing of its headquarters in 1910. The paper's profile grew substantially in the 1960s under publisher Otis Chandler, who adopted a more national focus. As with other regional newspapers in California and the United States, the paper's readership has declined since 2010. It has also been beset by a series of ownership changes, staff reductions, and other controversies.

    In January 2018, the paper's staff voted to unionize and finalized their first union contract on October 16, 2019.[9] The paper moved out of its historic headquarters in downtown Los Angeles to a facility in El Segundo, near the Los Angeles International Airport, in July 2018. The L.A. Times' news coverage has evolved away from U.S. and international headlines and toward emphasizing California and especially Southern California stories since 2020.

    In January 2024, the paper underwent its largest percentage reduction in headcount amounting to a layoff of over 20%, including senior staff editorial positions, in an effort to stem the tide of financial losses and maintain enough cash to be viably operational through the end of the year in a struggle for survival and relevance as a regional newspaper of diminished status.[10][11][12]

    1. ^ Turvill, William (June 24, 2022). "Top 25 US newspaper circulations: Print sales fall another 12% in 2022". Press Gazette. Retrieved June 28, 2022.
    2. ^ "Top 25 U.S. Newspapers For March 2013". Alliance for Audited Media. April 30, 2013. Archived from the original on June 11, 2013. Retrieved October 21, 2015.
    3. ^ "Los Angeles Times | History, Ownership, & Facts". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved October 1, 2020.
    4. ^ Turvill, William (June 24, 2022). "Top 25 US newspaper circulations: Print sales fall another 12% in 2022". Press Gazette. Retrieved July 12, 2022.
    5. ^ Chang, Andrea; James, Andrea (April 13, 2018). "Patrick Soon-Shiong — immigrant, doctor, billionaire, and soon, newspaper owner — starts a new era at the L.A. Times". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved December 7, 2022.
    6. ^ Corey Frost; Karen Weingarten; Doug Babington; Don LePan; Maureen Okun (May 30, 2017). The Broadview Guide to Writing: A Handbook for Students (6th ed.). Broadview Press. pp. 27–. ISBN 978-1-55481-313-1. Retrieved January 12, 2021.
    7. ^ James, Meg (February 19, 2021). "Patrick Soon-Shiong affirms commitment to the Los Angeles Times". Los Angeles Times. Archived from the original on January 27, 2024. Soon-Shiong, a biotech entrepreneur, and his wife, Michele, purchased The Times and the Union-Tribune in June 2018 for $500 million. Since then the company, now called California Times, has embarked on an unprecedented hiring spree, adding more than 150 journalists to The Times.
    8. ^ Caulfield, Mike (January 8, 2017), "National Newspapers of Record", Web Literacy for Student Fact-Checkers, Pressbooks Create, retrieved July 20, 2020
    9. ^ James, Meg (October 17, 2019). "Los Angeles Times reaches historic agreement with its newsroom union". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved November 15, 2019.
    10. ^ Robertson, Katie; Mullin, Benjamin (January 23, 2024). "Los Angeles Times to Slash Newsroom by Over 20%". The New York Times. Retrieved January 27, 2024.
    11. ^ Barrionuevo, Alexei; Knolle, Sharon; Korach, Natalie (January 25, 2024). "Chaos, Fury Engulf Los Angeles Times in Historic Cuts to Newsroom". The Wrap. Retrieved January 27, 2024.
    12. ^ Meg James (January 23, 2024). "L.A. Times to lay off at least 115 people in the newsroom". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved January 27, 2024.
     
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    5 December 1847Jefferson Davis is elected to the U.S. Senate.

    Jefferson Davis

    Jefferson F. Davis (June 3, 1808 – December 6, 1889) was an American politician who served as the first and only president of the Confederate States from 1861 to 1865. He represented Mississippi in the United States Senate and the House of Representatives as a member of the Democratic Party before the American Civil War. He was the United States Secretary of War from 1853 to 1857.

    Davis, the youngest of ten children, was born in Fairview, Kentucky, but spent most of his childhood in Wilkinson County, Mississippi. His eldest brother Joseph Emory Davis secured the younger Davis's appointment to the United States Military Academy. Upon graduating, he served six years as a lieutenant in the United States Army. After leaving the army in 1835, Davis married Sarah Knox Taylor, daughter of general and future President Zachary Taylor. Sarah died from malaria three months after the wedding. Davis became a cotton planter, building Brierfield Plantation in Mississippi on his brother Joseph's land and eventually owning as many as 113 slaves.

    In 1845, Davis married Varina Howell. During the same year, he was elected to the United States House of Representatives, serving for one year. From 1846 to 1847, he fought in the Mexican–American War as the colonel of a volunteer regiment. He was appointed to the United States Senate in 1847, resigning to unsuccessfully run as governor of Mississippi. In 1853, President Franklin Pierce appointed him Secretary of War. After Pierce's administration ended in 1857, Davis returned to the Senate. He resigned in 1861 when Mississippi seceded from the United States.

    During the Civil War, Davis guided the Confederacy's policies and served as its commander in chief. When the Confederacy was defeated in 1865, Davis was captured, accused of treason, and imprisoned at Fort Monroe. He was released without trial after two years. Immediately after the war, Davis was often blamed for the Confederacy's defeat, but after his release from prison, he became a hero of the Lost Cause of the Confederacy. In the late 19th and the 20th centuries, his legacy as Confederate leader was celebrated in the South. In the twenty-first century, he is frequently criticized as a supporter of slavery and racism, and many of the memorials dedicated to him throughout the United States have been removed.

     
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    5 December 1847Jefferson Davis is elected to the U.S. Senate.

    Jefferson Davis

    Jefferson F. Davis (June 3, 1808 – December 6, 1889) was an American politician who served as the first and only president of the Confederate States from 1861 to 1865. He represented Mississippi in the United States Senate and the House of Representatives as a member of the Democratic Party before the American Civil War. He was the United States Secretary of War from 1853 to 1857.

    Davis, the youngest of ten children, was born in Fairview, Kentucky, but spent most of his childhood in Wilkinson County, Mississippi. His eldest brother Joseph Emory Davis secured the younger Davis's appointment to the United States Military Academy. Upon graduating, he served six years as a lieutenant in the United States Army. After leaving the army in 1835, Davis married Sarah Knox Taylor, daughter of general and future President Zachary Taylor. Sarah died from malaria three months after the wedding. Davis became a cotton planter, building Brierfield Plantation in Mississippi on his brother Joseph's land and eventually owning as many as 113 slaves.

    In 1845, Davis married Varina Howell. During the same year, he was elected to the United States House of Representatives, serving for one year. From 1846 to 1847, he fought in the Mexican–American War as the colonel of a volunteer regiment. He was appointed to the United States Senate in 1847, resigning to unsuccessfully run as governor of Mississippi. In 1853, President Franklin Pierce appointed him Secretary of War. After Pierce's administration ended in 1857, Davis returned to the Senate. He resigned in 1861 when Mississippi seceded from the United States.

    During the Civil War, Davis guided the Confederacy's policies and served as its commander in chief. When the Confederacy was defeated in 1865, Davis was captured, accused of treason, and imprisoned at Fort Monroe. He was released without trial after two years. Immediately after the war, Davis was often blamed for the Confederacy's defeat, but after his release from prison, he became a hero of the Lost Cause of the Confederacy. In the late 19th and the 20th centuries, his legacy as Confederate leader was celebrated in the South. In the twenty-first century, he is frequently criticized as a supporter of slavery and racism, and many of the memorials dedicated to him throughout the United States have been removed.

     
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    6 December 1971 – Pakistan severs diplomatic relations with India, initiating the Indo-Pakistani War of 1971.

    Indo-Pakistani War of 1971

     
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    6 December 1971 – Pakistan severs diplomatic relations with India, initiating the Indo-Pakistani War of 1971.

    Indo-Pakistani War of 1971

     
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    6 December 1955 – The Flag of Europe is adopted by Council of Europe.

    Flag of Europe

    Preview warning: Page using Template:Infobox flag with unknown parameter "Type"

    The flag of Europe or European flag[note 1] consists of twelve golden stars forming a circle on a blue field. It was designed and adopted in 1955 by the Council of Europe (CoE) as a symbol for the whole of Europe.[4]

    Since 1985, the flag has also been a symbol of the European Union (EU), whose 27 member states are all also CoE members, although in that year the EU had not yet assumed its present name or constitutional form (which came in steps in 1993 and 2009). Adoption by the EU, or EC as it then was, reflected long-standing CoE desire to see the flag used by other European organisations.[5] Official EU use widened greatly in the 1990s. Nevertheless the flag has to date received no status in any of the EU's treaties. Its adoption as an official symbol was planned as part of the 2004 European Constitution but this failed to be ratified. Mention of the flag was removed in 2007 from the text of the Treaty of Lisbon, which was ratified. On the other hand, 16 EU members that year, plus France in 2017, have officially affirmed (by Declaration No. 5224) their attachment to the flag as an EU symbol.

    The flag is used by other European entities, such as unified sport teams under the rubric Team Europe.[6]

    1. ^ "The European flag". Council of Europe. Retrieved 8 December 2020.
    2. ^ "Emblème du Conseil de l'Europe". Council of Europe. 9 December 1955. Retrieved 8 December 2020.
    3. ^ Cite error: The named reference COE page was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    4. ^ The European flag, Council of Europe. Retrieved 27 October 2016.
    5. ^ "The European flag". The Council of Europe in brief. Retrieved 2 July 2020.
    6. ^ "Teams at the 2020 Ryder Cup at Whistling Straits, Kohler, WI, Sept. 22-27 brought to you by Rydercup.com". Archived from the original on 15 June 2019. Retrieved 3 October 2019.


    Cite error: There are <ref group=note> tags on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=note}} template (see the help page).

     
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    9 December 1835Texas Revolution: The Texian Army captures San Antonio, Texas.

    Texas Revolution

    The Texas Revolution (October 2, 1835 – April 21, 1836) was a rebellion of colonists from the United States and Tejanos (Hispanic Texans) against the centralist government of Mexico in the Mexican state of Coahuila y Tejas. Although the uprising was part of a larger one, the Mexican Federalist War, that included other provinces opposed to the regime of President Antonio López de Santa Anna, the Mexican government believed the United States had instigated the Texas insurrection with the goal of annexation. The Mexican Congress passed the Tornel Decree, declaring that any foreigners fighting against Mexican troops "will be deemed pirates and dealt with as such, being citizens of no nation presently at war with the Republic and fighting under no recognized flag". Only the province of Texas succeeded in breaking with Mexico, establishing the Republic of Texas. It was eventually annexed by the United States.

    The revolution began in October 1835, after a decade of political and cultural clashes between the Mexican government and the increasingly large population of Anglo-American settlers in Texas. The Mexican government had become increasingly centralized and the rights of its citizens had become increasingly curtailed, particularly regarding immigration from the United States. Mexico had officially abolished slavery in Texas in 1829, and the desire of Anglo Texans to maintain the institution of chattel slavery in Texas was also a major cause of secession.[1][2][3][4][5] Colonists and Tejanos disagreed on whether the ultimate goal was independence or a return to the Mexican Constitution of 1824. While delegates at the Consultation (provisional government) debated the war's motives, Texians and a flood of volunteers from the United States defeated the small garrisons of Mexican soldiers by mid-December 1835. The Consultation declined to declare independence and installed an interim government, whose infighting led to political paralysis and a dearth of effective governance in Texas. An ill-conceived proposal to invade Matamoros siphoned much-needed volunteers and provisions from the fledgling Texian Army. In March 1836, a second political convention declared independence and appointed leadership for the new Republic of Texas.

    Determined to avenge Mexico's honor, Santa Anna vowed to personally retake Texas. His Army of Operations entered Texas in mid-February 1836 and found the Texians completely unprepared. Mexican General José de Urrea led a contingent of troops on the Goliad Campaign up the Texas coast, defeating all Texian troops in his path and executing most of those who surrendered. Santa Anna led a larger force to San Antonio de Béxar (or Béxar), where his troops defeated the Texian garrison in the Battle of the Alamo, killing almost all of the defenders.

    A newly created Texian army under the command of Sam Houston was constantly on the move, while terrified civilians fled with the army, in a melee known as the Runaway Scrape. On March 31, Houston paused his men at Groce's Landing on the Brazos River, and for the next two weeks, the Texians received rigorous military training. Becoming complacent and underestimating the strength of his foes, Santa Anna further subdivided his troops. On April 21, Houston's army staged a surprise assault on Santa Anna and his vanguard force at the Battle of San Jacinto. The Mexican troops were quickly routed, and vengeful Texians executed many who tried to surrender. Santa Anna was taken hostage; in exchange for his life, he ordered the Mexican army to retreat south of the Rio Grande. Mexico refused to recognize the Republic of Texas, and intermittent conflicts between the two countries continued into the 1840s. The annexation of Texas as the 28th state of the United States, in 1845, led directly to the Mexican–American War.

    1. ^ Torget 2015, p. 140.
    2. ^ Carrigan 1999, p. 66.
    3. ^ Kelley 2004, p. 716.
    4. ^ Campbell 1991, p. 256.
    5. ^ Lack 1985, p. 190.
     
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    10 December 1884Mark Twain's Adventures of Huckleberry Finn is published.

    Adventures of Huckleberry Finn

    Adventures of Huckleberry Finn is a novel by American author Mark Twain, which was first published in the United Kingdom in December 1884 and in the United States in February 1885.

    Commonly named among the Great American Novels, the work is among the first in major American literature to be written throughout in vernacular English, characterized by local color regionalism. It is told in the first person by Huckleberry "Huck" Finn, the narrator of two other Twain novels (Tom Sawyer Abroad and Tom Sawyer, Detective) and a friend of Tom Sawyer. It is a direct sequel to The Adventures of Tom Sawyer.

    The book is noted for "changing the course of children's literature" in the United States for the "deeply felt portrayal of boyhood".[2][better source needed] It is also known for its colorful description of people and places along the Mississippi River. Set in a Southern antebellum society that had ceased to exist over 20 years before the work was published, Adventures of Huckleberry Finn is an often scathing satire on entrenched attitudes, particularly racism and freedom.

    Perennially popular with readers, Adventures of Huckleberry Finn has also been the continued object of study by literary critics since its publication. The book was widely criticized upon release because of its extensive use of coarse language and racial epithets. Throughout the 20th century, and despite arguments that the protagonist and the tenor of the book are anti-racist,[3][4] criticism of the book continued due to both its perceived use of racial stereotypes and its frequent use of the racial slur "nigger".

    1. ^ Adventures of Huckleberry Finn (Tom Sawyer's comrade)…. 1885.
    2. ^ "Adventures of Huckleberry Finn | Summary & Characters". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved August 6, 2021.
    3. ^ Twain, Mark (October 1885). Adventures of Huckleberry Finn (Tom Sawyer's comrade).... ... - Full View – HathiTrust Digital Library – HathiTrust Digital Library. C. L. Webster.
    4. ^ Jacob O'Leary, "Critical Annotation of "Minstrel Shackles and Nineteenth Century 'Liberality' in Huckleberry Finn" (Fredrick Woodard and Donnarae MacCann)," Wiki Service, University of Iowa, last modified February 11, 2012, accessed April 12, 2012 Archived March 12, 2011, at the Wayback Machine
     
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    11 December 2008Bernard Madoff is arrested and charged with securities fraud in a $50 billion Ponzi scheme.

    Bernard Madoff

    Redirect to:

     
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    12 December 1911Delhi replaces Calcutta as the capital of India.

    Delhi

    Preview warning: Page using Template:Infobox settlement with unknown parameter "established_date8"
    Preview warning: Page using Template:Infobox settlement with unknown parameter "established_title8"

    Delhi,[a] officially the National Capital Territory (NCT) of Delhi (ISO: Rāṣṭrīya Rājadhānī Kṣētra Dillī), is a city and a union territory of India containing New Delhi, the capital of India. Lying on both sides of the Yamuna river, but chiefly to the west, or beyond its right bank, Delhi shares borders with the state of Uttar Pradesh in the east and with the state of Haryana in the remaining directions. Delhi became a union territory on 1 November 1956 and the NCT in 1995.[21] The NCT covers an area of 1,484 square kilometres (573 sq mi).[4] According to the 2011 census, Delhi's city proper population was over 11 million,[5][22] while the NCT's population was about 16.8 million.[6]

    Delhi's urban agglomeration, which includes the satellite cities Ghaziabad, Faridabad, Gurgaon, Noida, Greater Noida and YEIDA city located in an area known as the National Capital Region (NCR), has an estimated population of over 28 million, making it the largest metropolitan area in India and the second-largest in the world (after Tokyo).[7]

    The topography of the medieval fort Purana Qila on the banks of the river Yamuna matches the literary description of the citadel Indraprastha in the Sanskrit epic Mahabharata; however, excavations in the area have revealed no signs of an ancient built environment. From the early 13th century until the mid-19th century, Delhi was the capital of two major empires, the Delhi Sultanate and the Mughal Empire, which covered large parts of South Asia. All three UNESCO World Heritage Sites in the city, the Qutub Minar, Humayun's Tomb, and the Red Fort, belong to this period. Delhi was the early centre of Sufism and Qawwali music. The names of Nizamuddin Auliya and Amir Khusrau are prominently associated with it. The Dehlavi dialect of Delhi was the earliest stage of the Hindustani language and part of a linguistic development that gave rise to the literature of Urdu and later Modern Standard Hindi. Major Urdu poets from Delhi include Mir Taqi Mir and Mirza Ghalib. Delhi was a notable centre of the Indian Rebellion of 1857. In 1911, New Delhi, a southern region within Delhi, became the capital of the British Indian Empire. During the Partition of India in 1947, Delhi was transformed from a Mughal city to a Punjabi one, losing two-thirds of its Muslim residents, in part due to the pressure brought to bear by arriving Hindu and Sikh refugees from western Punjab.[23] After independence in 1947, New Delhi continued as the capital of the Dominion of India, and after 1950 of the Republic of India.

    Delhi ranks fifth among the Indian states and union territories in human development index,[24] and has the second-highest GDP per capita in India (after Goa).[9] Although a union territory, the political administration of the NCT of Delhi today more closely resembles that of a state of India, with its own legislature, high court and an executive council of ministers headed by a chief minister. New Delhi is jointly administered by the federal government of India and the local government of Delhi, and serves as the capital of the nation as well as the NCT of Delhi. Delhi is also the centre of the National Capital Region, which is an "interstate regional planning" area created in 1985.[25][26] Delhi hosted the inaugural 1951 Asian Games, the 1982 Asian Games, the 1983 Non-Aligned Movement summit, the 2010 Men's Hockey World Cup, the 2010 Commonwealth Games, the 2012 BRICS summit, the 2023 G20 summit, and was one of the major host cities of the 2011 and 2023 Cricket World Cups.

    1. ^ Cite error: The named reference 7thAmend56 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    2. ^ Cite error: The named reference ReorgAct56 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    3. ^ "Vinai Kumar Saxena appointed Delhi Lieutenant Governor after Anil Bajial's exit". Hindustan Times. 23 May 2022. Retrieved 23 May 2022.
    4. ^ a b "Delhi Info". unccdcop14india.gov.in. Archived from the original on 29 November 2020. Retrieved 24 November 2020.
    5. ^ a b c "Census of India: Provisional Population Totals Paper 1 of 2011, NCT of Delhi". Census of India. 2011. Archived from the original on 19 January 2022. Retrieved 12 February 2022.
    6. ^ a b "Delhi (India): Union Territory, Major Agglomerations & Towns – Population Statistics in Maps and Charts". City Population. Archived from the original on 2 March 2017. Retrieved 28 February 2017.
    7. ^ a b "The World's Cities in 2018" (PDF). United Nations. Archived (PDF) from the original on 31 August 2021. Retrieved 2 September 2021.
    8. ^ a b "Official Language Act 2000" (PDF). Government of Delhi. 2 July 2003. Archived from the original (PDF) on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 17 July 2015.
    9. ^ a b "Gross State Domestic Product of Delhi" (PDF). Planning Department, Government of Delhi. p. 16. Archived (PDF) from the original on 1 July 2020. Retrieved 12 February 2022.
    10. ^ "Handbook of Statistics of Indian States" (PDF). Reserve Bank of India. pp. 37–42. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 11 February 2022.
    11. ^ Gross State Domestic Product (Current Prices) (Report). Reserve Bank of India. Retrieved 25 March 2024.
    12. ^ Per Capita Net State Domestic Product (Current Prices) (Report). Reserve Bank of India.
    13. ^ "Delhi NCT, India". C40 Cities.
    14. ^ "Find Pin Code". Department of Posts. Archived from the original on 3 June 2019. Retrieved 5 June 2019.
    15. ^ "Gendering Human Development". Retrieved 27 January 2023.
    16. ^ a b "Census 2011 (Final Data) – Demographic details, Literate Population (Total, Rural & Urban)" (PDF). planningcommission.gov.in. Planning Commission, Government of India. Archived from the original (PDF) on 27 January 2018. Retrieved 3 October 2018.
    17. ^ Cite error: The named reference NCTact was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    18. ^ Platts, John Thompson (1960) [First published 1884]. A dictionary of Urdu, classical Hindi, and English. London: Oxford University Press. p. 546. ISBN 0-19-864309-8. OCLC 3201841. Archived from the original on 9 January 2022. Retrieved 12 November 2020.
    19. ^ "The Constitution (Sixty-Ninth Amendment) Act, 1991". Ministry of Law and Justice, Government of India. Archived from the original on 21 August 2016. Retrieved 23 November 2014.
    20. ^ Habib, Irfan (1999). The agrarian system of Mughal India, 1556–1707. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-562329-1. Archived from the original on 1 January 2016. Retrieved 6 November 2015. The current Survey of India spellings are followed for place names except where they vary rather noticeably from the spellings in our sources: thus I read 'Dehli' not 'Delhi ...
    21. ^ Springer Nature Limited, ed. (2022), The Statesman's Yearbook 2023: The Politics, Cultures, and Economies of the World, London: Palgrave Macmillan, p. 589, ISBN 978-1-349-96055-2, Delhi became a Union Territory on 1 Nov. 1956 and was designated the National Capital Territory in 1995. Delhi has an area of 1,483 sq. km. Its population (2011 census) is 16,787,941.
    22. ^ "This study settles the Delhi versus Mumbai debate: The Capital's economy is streets ahead". 2 October 2018. Archived from the original on 21 December 2018. Retrieved 21 December 2018.
    23. ^
      • Talbot, Ian; Singh, Gurharpal (2009), The Partition of India, Cambridge University Press, pp. 118–119, ISBN 978-0-521-85661-4, archived from the original on 2 December 2021, retrieved 3 December 2021, It is now almost a cliché that the Partition transformed Delhi from a Mughal to a Punjabi city. The bitter experiences of the refugees at the hands of Islamists in Pakistan encouraged them to support right-wing Hindu parties. ... Trouble began in September (1947) after the arrival of refugees from Pakistan who were determined on revenge and driving Muslims out of properties which they could then occupy. Gandhi in his prayer meetings in Birla House denounced the 'crooked and ungentlemanly' squeezing out of Muslims who left for Pakistan. Despite these exhortations, two-thirds of the city's Muslims were to abandon India's capital eventually.
      • Pandey, Gyanendra (2001), "Folding the national into the local: Delhi 1947–1948", Remembering Partition: Violence, Nationalism and History in India, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 9780521807593
    24. ^ "Sub-national HDI – Area Database". Global Data Lab. Institute for Management Research, Radboud University. Archived from the original on 23 September 2018. Retrieved 25 September 2018.
    25. ^ "Rationale". ncrpb.nic.in. NCR Planning Board. Archived from the original on 16 December 2012. Retrieved 5 March 2017. The National Capital Region (NCR) in India was constituted under the NCRPB Act, 1985
    26. ^ "Census 2011" (PDF). National Capital Region Planning Board. National Informatics Centre. p. 3. Archived (PDF) from the original on 6 April 2016. Retrieved 26 March 2016.


    Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

     
  29. Admin2

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    13 December 1959Archbishop Makarios III becomes the first President of Cyprus.

    List of archbishops of Cyprus

    St. Barnabas

    This is a list of Archbishops of Cyprus since its foundation with known dates of enthronement. According to tradition, the Church of Cyprus was created by St. Barnabas in 45 AD. The see of Cyprus was declared autocephalous by the Council of Ephesus, on 30 July 431; its autocephaly was abolished in 1260, and was restored in 1571. As the head of the Church of Cyprus, the holder is styled Archbishop of Nova Justiniana and All Cyprus.

     
  30. Admin2

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    14 December 1836 – The Toledo War unofficially ends.

    Toledo War

    The Toledo War (1835–36), also known as the Michigan–Ohio War or the Ohio–Michigan War, was a boundary dispute between the U.S. state of Ohio and the adjoining territory of Michigan over what is now known as the Toledo Strip. Control of the mouth of the Maumee River and the inland shipping opportunities it represented, and the good farmland to the west were seen by both parties as valuable economic assets.

    Poor geographical understanding of the Great Lakes helped produce conflicting state and federal legislation between 1787 and 1805, and varying interpretations of the laws led the governments of Ohio and Michigan to both claim jurisdiction over a 468-square-mile (1,210 km2) region along their border. The situation came to a head when Michigan petitioned for statehood in 1835 and sought to include the disputed territory within its boundaries. Both sides passed legislation attempting to force the other side's capitulation, and Ohio's Governor Robert Lucas and Michigan's 24-year-old "Boy Governor" Stevens T. Mason helped institute criminal penalties for residents submitting to the other's authority. Both states deployed militias on opposite sides of the Maumee River near Toledo, but besides mutual taunting, there was little interaction between the two forces. The single military confrontation of the "war" ended with a report of shots being fired into the air, incurring no casualties. The only blood spilled was the non-fatal stabbing of a law enforcement officer.

    During the summer of 1836, the United States Congress proposed a compromise whereby Michigan gave up its claim to the strip in exchange for its statehood and the remaining three-quarters of the Upper Peninsula. The northern region's mineral wealth later became an economic asset to Michigan, but at the time the compromise was considered a poor deal for the new state, and voters in a statehood convention in September soundly rejected it. But in December, facing a dire financial crisis and pressure from Congress and President Andrew Jackson, the Michigan government called another convention (called the "Frostbitten Convention"), which accepted the compromise, resolving the Toledo War.

     
  31. Admin2

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    15 December 1960Richard Pavlick is arrested for plotting to assassinate U.S. President-Elect John F. Kennedy.

    Richard Paul Pavlick

    Richard Paul Pavlick (February 13, 1887 – November 11, 1975) was a retired postal worker[1] from New Hampshire who stalked Senator and U.S. president-elect John F. Kennedy, with the intent of assassinating him. On December 11, 1960, in Palm Beach, Florida, Pavlick positioned himself to carry out the assassination by blowing up Kennedy and himself with dynamite, but delayed the attempt because Kennedy was with his wife Jacqueline and their two young children.[2] He was arrested before he was able to stage another attempt.[3]

    1. ^ Oliver, Willard; Marion, Nancy E. (2010). Killing the President: Assassinations, Attempts, and Rumored Attempts on U.S. Commanders-in-Chief: Assassinations, Attempts, and Rumored Attempts on U.S. Commanders-in-Chief. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 9780313364754.
    2. ^ Hunsicker, A. (2007). The Fine Art of Executive Protection: Handbook for the Executive Protection Officer. Universal-Publishers. ISBN 9781581129847.
    3. ^ Russo, Gus; Molton, Stephen (2010). Brothers in Arms: The Kennedys, the Castros, and the Politics of Murder. Bloomsbury Publishing USA. ISBN 9781608192472.
     
  32. Admin2

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    16 December 1901Beatrix Potter privately publishes The Tale of Peter Rabbit. It goes on to sell over 45 million copies worldwide.

    The Tale of Peter Rabbit

    The Tale of Peter Rabbit is a children's book written and illustrated by Beatrix Potter that follows mischievous and disobedient young Peter Rabbit as he gets into, and is chased around, the garden of Mr. McGregor. He escapes and returns home to his mother, who puts him to bed after offering him chamomile tea. The tale was written for five-year-old Noel Moore, the son of Potter's former governess, Annie Carter Moore, in 1893. It was revised and privately printed by Potter in 1901 after several publishers' rejections, but was printed in a trade edition by Frederick Warne & Co. in 1902. The book was a success, and multiple reprints were issued in the years immediately following its debut. It has been translated into 36 languages, and with 45 million copies sold it is one of the best-selling books in history.

    Since its release, the book has generated considerable merchandise for both children and adults, including toys, dishes, foods, clothing, and videos. Potter was one of the first to be responsible for such merchandise when she patented a Peter Rabbit doll in 1903 and followed it almost immediately with a Peter Rabbit board game. Peter Rabbit has remained popular amongst children for more than a century and continues to be adapted into new book editions, television programmes, and films.

    Scholars of literature have commented on themes in the book, such as its radical quality, Peter Rabbit's rebellious nature, and the story's ruthlessness, stating that these offer readers a chance to imagine going to similar extremes.

     
  33. Admin2

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    17 December 1892 – First issue of Vogue is published.

    Vogue (magazine)

    Vogue U.S., also known as American Vogue, or simply Vogue, is a monthly fashion and lifestyle magazine that covers style news, including haute couture fashion, beauty, culture, living, and runway. It is part of the global collection of Condé Nast's VOGUE media.

    Headquartered at One World Trade Center in the Financial District of Lower Manhattan, Vogue began in 1892 as a weekly newspaper before becoming a monthly magazine years later. Since its founding, Vogue has featured numerous actors, musicians, models, athletes, and other prominent celebrities. The largest issue published by Vogue magazine was the September 2012 edition featuring Lady Gaga in the cover, which contained 900 pages.

    British Vogue, launched in 1916, was the first international edition, while the Italian version Vogue Italia has been called the top fashion magazine in the world.[2] As of March 2024, there are 28 international editions. 11 of these editions are published by Condé Nast (British Vogue, Vogue China, Vogue France, Vogue Germany, Vogue India, Vogue Japan, Vogue México y Latinoamérica, Vogue Spain, Vogue Taiwan, and Vogue U.S.). The remaining 17 editions are published as licensees of VOGUE.

    1. ^ "Consumer Magazines". Alliance for Audited Media. Archived from the original on January 23, 2017. Retrieved July 5, 2017.
    2. ^ Press, Debbie (2004). Your Modeling Career: You Don't Have to Be a Superstar to Succeed. New York: Allworth Press. ISBN 978-1-58115-359-0. Archived from the original on August 10, 2023. Retrieved February 11, 2018.
     
  34. Admin2

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    18 December 2006 – United Arab Emirates holds its first-ever elections.

    2006 Emirati parliamentary election

    Parliamentary elections were held for the first time in the United Arab Emirates between 16 and 20 December 2006 to elect half of the 40 members of Federal National Council. Voting took place in Abu Dhabi and Fujairah on 16 December, in Dubai and Ras Al Khaimah on 18 December, and in Sharjah, Ajman and Umm Al Quwain on 20 December.[1]

    1. ^ Poll opens for first UAE elections Al Jazeera, 16 December 2006
     
  35. Admin2

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    19 December 1946 – Start of the First Indochina War.

    First Indochina War

    The First Indochina War (generally known as the Indochina War in France, and as the Anti-French Resistance War in Vietnam) was fought between France and Việt Minh (Democratic Republic of Vietnam), and their respective allies, from 19 December 1946 until 20 July 1954.[26] Việt Minh was led by Võ Nguyên Giáp and Hồ Chí Minh.[27][28] Most of the fighting took place in Tonkin in Northern Vietnam, although the conflict engulfed the entire country and also extended into the neighboring French Indochina protectorates of Laos and Cambodia.

    At the Potsdam Conference in July 1945, the allied Combined Chiefs of Staff decided that Indochina south of latitude 16° north was to be included in the Southeast Asia Command under British Admiral Mountbatten. On V-J Day, September 2, Hồ Chí Minh proclaimed in Hanoi (Tonkin's capital) the establishment of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam (DRV). In late September 1945, Chinese forces entered Tonkin, and Japanese forces to the north of that line surrendered to Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek. At the same time, British forces landed in Saigon (Cochinchina's capital), and Japanese forces in the south surrendered to the British. The Chinese accepted the DRV under Hồ Chí Minh, then in power in Hanoi. The British refused to do likewise in Saigon, and deferred to the French, despite the previous support of the Việt Minh by American OSS representatives. The DRV ruled as the only civil government in all of Vietnam for a period of about 20 days, after the abdication of Emperor Bảo Đại, who had governed under the Japanese rule. On 23 September 1945, with the knowledge of the British commander in Saigon, French forces overthrew the local DRV government, and declared French authority restored in Cochinchina. Guerrilla warfare began around Saigon immediately,[29] but the French gradually retook control of Indochina. Hồ Chí Minh agreed to talk with France but negotiations failed. After one year of low-level conflict, all-out war broke out in December 1946 between French and Việt Minh forces as Hồ Chí Minh and his government went underground. The French tried to stabilize Indochina by reorganizing it as a Federation of Associated States. In 1949, they put former Emperor Bảo Đại back in power, as the ruler of a newly established State of Vietnam.

    The first few years of the war involved a low-level rural insurgency against the French. By 1949 the conflict had turned into a conventional war between two armies equipped with modern weapons, with the French supplied by the United States, and the Việt Minh supplied by the Soviet Union and a newly communist China.[30] French Union forces included colonial troops from the empire – North Africans; Laotian, Cambodian and Vietnamese ethnic minorities; Sub-Saharan Africans – and professional French troops, European volunteers, and units of the Foreign Legion. The use of metropolitan recruits was forbidden by the government to prevent the war from becoming more unpopular at home. It was called the "dirty war" (la sale guerre) by leftists in France.[31]

    The French strategy of inducing the Việt Minh to attack well-defended bases in remote areas at the end of their logistical trails was validated during the Battle of Nà Sản. French efforts were hampered by the limited usefulness of tanks in a forested environment, the lack of a strong air force, and reliance on soldiers from French colonies. The Việt Minh used novel and efficient tactics, including direct artillery fire, convoy ambushes, and anti-aircraft weaponry to impede land and air resupplies together with a strategy based on recruiting a sizable regular army facilitated by large popular support. They used guerrilla warfare doctrine and instruction translated from early Chinese text, and used war materiel provided by the Soviet Union. This combination proved fatal for the French bases, culminating in a decisive French defeat at the Battle of Điện Biên Phủ.[32]

    An estimated 400,000 to 842,707 soldiers died during the war[21][16] as well as between 125,000 and 400,000 civilians.[16][25] Both sides committed war crimes during the conflict, including killings of civilians (such as the Mỹ Trạch massacre by French troops), rape and torture.[33] At the International Geneva Conference on 21 July 1954, the new socialist French government and the Việt Minh made an agreement which gave the Việt Minh control of North Vietnam above the 17th parallel, an agreement that was rejected by the State of Vietnam and the United States. A year later, Bảo Đại would be deposed by his prime minister, Ngô Đình Diệm, creating the Republic of Vietnam (South Vietnam). Soon an insurgency, backed by the communist north, developed against Diệm's anti-communist government. This conflict, known as the Vietnam War, included large U.S. military intervention in support of the South Vietnamese and ended in 1975 with the defeat of South Vietnam to the North Vietnamese and the reunification of Vietnam.

    1. ^ a b Dalloz, Jacques (1987). La Guerre d'Indochine 1945–1954 [The Indochina War 1945–1954] (in French). Paris: Seuil. pp. 129–130, 206.
    2. ^ Kiernan, Ben (1985). How Pol Pot Came to Power. London: Verso Books. p. 80.
    3. ^ henrisalvador (17 May 2007). "John Foster Dulles on the fall of Dien Bien Phu". Dailymotion. Retrieved August 19, 2015.
    4. ^ a b "Viện trợ của Trung Quốc đối với cuộc kháng chiến chống Pháp của Việt Nam" [China's aid to Vietnam's anti-French resistance war] (in Vietnamese). Archived from the original on December 2, 2013. Retrieved August 19, 2015.
    5. ^ "France honors CIA pilots". CNN. February 28, 2005. Retrieved August 19, 2015.
    6. ^ Lee Lanning, Michael (2008). Inside the VC and the NVA. Texas A&M University Press. p. 119. ISBN 978-1-60344-059-2.
    7. ^ Crozier, Brian (2005). Political Victory: The Elusive Prize Of Military Wars. Transaction Publishers. p. 47. ISBN 978-0-7658-0290-3.
    8. ^ Fall 1994, p. 63.
    9. ^ Logevall, Fredrik (2012). Embers of War: the fall of an empire and the making of America's Vietnam. Random House. pp. 596–599. ISBN 978-0-375-75647-4.
    10. ^ Windrow 1998, p. 23.
    11. ^ Ford, Dan. "Japanese soldiers with the Việt Minh".
    12. ^ Aboulfaraj, Zaïnab. "Indochine : Quand 85 déserteurs marocains ont été rapatriés du Vietnam vers le Maroc" [Indochina: When 85 Moroccan deserters were repatriated from Vietnam to Morocco]. Yabiladi (in French). Retrieved 2022-10-25.
    13. ^ Windrow 1998, p. 11
    14. ^ Fall, Bernard, The Two Vietnams (1963)
    15. ^ Eckhardt, William, World Military and Social Expenditures 1987–88 (12th ed., 1987) by Ruth Leger Sivard.
    16. ^ a b c d e Clodfelter, Micheal (1995). Vietnam in Military Statistics.
    17. ^ Stanley Kutler, Encyclopedia of the Vietnam War (1996)
    18. ^ "Chuyên đề 4 CÔNG TÁC TÌM KIẾM, QUY TẬP HÀI CỐT LIỆT SĨ TỪ NAY ĐẾN NĂM 2020 VÀ NHỮNG NĂM TIẾP THEO, datafile.chinhsachquandoi.gov.vn/Quản%20lý%20chỉ%20đạo/Chuyên%20đề%204.doc". Retrieved 4 April 2023.
    19. ^ Clodfelter 2008, p. 657.
    20. ^ Dommen, Arthur J. (2001), The Indochinese Experience of the French and the Americans, Indiana University Press, p. 252
    21. ^ a b Lomperis, T. (1996). From People's War to People's Rule.
    22. ^ Karnow, S. (1983). Vietnam: a History.
    23. ^ Smedberg, M. (2008). Vietnamkrigen: 1880–1980 [The Vietnam War: 1880–1980] (in Danish). Historiska Media. p. 88.
    24. ^ Eckhardt, William (1987). World Military and Social Expenditures 1987–88 (12th ed.). Ruth Leger Sivard.
    25. ^ a b Dommen, Arthur J. (2001). The Indochinese Experience of the French and the Americans. Indiana University Press. p. 252.
    26. ^ Vo, Nghia M. (August 31, 2011). Saigon: A History. McFarland. ISBN 978-0-7864-8634-2 – via Google Books.
    27. ^ "Ho Chi Minh, President of North Vietnam". Encyclopaedia Britannica. 15 May 2023.
    28. ^ "Vo Nguyen Giap, Vietnamese general". Encyclopaedia Britannica.
    29. ^ The Pentagon Papers, Part I, via Wikisource
    30. ^ Fall 1994, p. 17.
    31. ^ Rice-Maximin, Edward (1986). Accommodation and Resistance: The French Left, Indochina, and the Cold War, 1944–1954. Greenwood.
    32. ^ Flitton, Dave. "Battlefield Vietnam – Dien Bien Phu, the legacy". Public Broadcasting System. Archived from the original on 2021-10-30. Retrieved 29 July 2015.
    33. ^ Goscha, Christopher (2016). The Penguin History of Modern Vietnam. London: Penguin Books. p. 260. ISBN 978-0-14-194665-8 – via Google Books.
     
  36. Admin2

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    20 December 1995 – American Airlines Flight 965, a Boeing 757, crashes into a mountain 50 km north of Cali, Colombia killing 159.

    American Airlines Flight 965

    American Airlines Flight 965 was a regularly scheduled flight from Miami International Airport in Miami, Florida, to Alfonso Bonilla Aragón International Airport in Cali, Colombia. On December 20, 1995, the Boeing 757-200 flying this route (registration N651AA[1]) crashed into a mountain in Buga, Colombia, around 9:40 pm killing 151 of the 155 passengers and all eight crew members.[2][3]

    The crash was the first U.S.-owned 757 accident and is currently the deadliest aviation accident to occur in Colombia.[2][4] It was also the deadliest accident involving a Boeing 757 at that time,[5] but was surpassed by Birgenair Flight 301 which crashed seven weeks later with 189 fatalities.[6] Flight 965 was the deadliest air disaster involving a U.S. carrier since the bombing of Pan Am Flight 103 in 1988.[7]

    The Colombian Special Administrative Unit of Civil Aeronautics investigated the accident and determined it was caused by navigational errors by the flight crew.[8]

    1. ^ "FAA Registry (N651AA)". Federal Aviation Administration.
    2. ^ a b Ranter, Harro. "ASN Aircraft accident Boeing 757–223 N651AA Buga". Aviation Safety Network. Flight Safety Foundation. Retrieved February 1, 2019.
    3. ^ AA965 Cali Accident Report Aeronautica Civil
    4. ^ Ranter, Harro. "Colombia air safety profile". Aviation Safety Network. Flight Safety Foundation. Retrieved February 1, 2019.
    5. ^ Ranter, Harro. "Boeing 757". Aviation Safety Network. Flight Safety Foundation. Retrieved February 1, 2019.
    6. ^ Ranter, Harro. "ASN Aircraft accident Boeing 757–225 TC-GEN Puerto Plata, Dominican Republic". Aviation Safety Network. Flight Safety Foundation. Retrieved February 1, 2019.
    7. ^ Acohido, Byron (January 18, 1996). "American Airlines jet crashes in the Andes". The Seattle Times. Retrieved May 6, 2009.
    8. ^ "Controlled Flight Into Terrain, American Airlines Flight 965, Boeing 757–223, N651AA, Near Cali, Colombia, December 20, 1995" (PDF). Special Administrative Unit of Civil Aeronautics. September 6, 1996. Archived (PDF) from the original on January 24, 2021. Retrieved January 4, 2020 – via Aviation Safety Network.
     
  37. Admin2

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    21 December 1970 – First flight of F-14 multi-role combat aircraft.

    Grumman F-14 Tomcat

    The Grumman F-14 Tomcat is an American carrier-capable supersonic, twin-engine, two-seat, twin-tail, all-weather-capable variable-sweep wing fighter aircraft. The Tomcat was developed for the United States Navy's Naval Fighter Experimental (VFX) program after the collapse of the General Dynamics-Grumman F-111B project. A large and well-equipped fighter, the F-14 was the first of the American Teen Series fighters, which were designed incorporating air combat experience against MiG fighters during the Vietnam War.

    The F-14 first flew on 21 December 1970 and made its first deployment in 1974 with the U.S. Navy aboard USS Enterprise (CVN-65), replacing the McDonnell Douglas F-4 Phantom II. The F-14 served as the U.S. Navy's primary maritime air superiority fighter, fleet defense interceptor, and tactical aerial reconnaissance platform into the 2000s. The Low Altitude Navigation and Targeting Infrared for Night (LANTIRN) pod system was added in the 1990s and the Tomcat began performing precision ground-attack missions.[1]

    The Tomcat was retired by U.S. Navy on 22 September 2006, supplanted by the Boeing F/A-18E/F Super Hornet. Several retired F-14s have been put on display across the US.

    Having been exported to Pahlavi Iran under the Western-aligned Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi in 1976, F-14s were used as land-based interceptors by the Imperial Iranian Air Force. Following the Iranian Revolution in 1979, the Islamic Republic of Iran Air Force used them during the Iran–Iraq War. Iran claimed their F-14s shot down at least 160 Iraqi aircraft during the war (only 55 of these confirmed, according to historian Tom Cooper),[2] while 16 Tomcats were lost, including seven losses to accidents.[2][3] As of 2022, the F-14 remains in service with Iran's air force, though in low numbers of combat-ready aircraft due to a lack of spare parts.

    1. ^ "F-14 Tomcat fighter fact file". United States Navy. 5 July 2003. Archived from the original on 2 April 2006. Retrieved 20 January 2007.
    2. ^ a b Cite error: The named reference Persian Cats was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    3. ^ Cooper, Tom and Farzad Bishop. Iranian F-14 Tomcat Units in Combat, p. 84. Oxford: Osprey Publishing, 2004. ISBN 1 84176 787 5.
     
  38. Admin2

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    22 December 401Pope Innocent I is elected.

    Pope Innocent I

    Pope Innocent I (Latin: Innocentius I) was the bishop of Rome from 401 to his death on 12 March 417. From the beginning of his papacy, he was seen as the general arbitrator of ecclesiastical disputes in both the East and the West. He confirmed the prerogatives of the Archbishop of Thessalonica, and issued a decretal on disciplinary matters referred to him by the Bishop of Rouen. He defended the exiled John Chrysostom and consulted with the bishops of Africa concerning the Pelagian controversy, confirming the decisions of the African synods.

    The Catholic priest-scholar Johann Peter Kirsch, 1500 years later, described Innocent as a very energetic and highly gifted individual "...who fulfilled admirably the duties of his office".[2]

    1. ^ "Saint Innocent I | pope".
    2. ^ Cite error: The named reference ce attribution was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
     
  39. Admin2

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    23 December 1972 – The 16 survivors of the Andes flight disaster are rescued after 73 days, having reportedly survived by cannibalism.

    Uruguayan Air Force Flight 571

    Uruguayan Air Force Flight 571 is located in Argentina
    Crash site
    Crash site
    Santiago
    Santiago
    Montevideo
    Montevideo
    Mendoza
    Mendoza
    Location of the crash site in west central Argentina

    Uruguayan Air Force Flight 571 was the chartered flight of a Fairchild FH-227D from Montevideo, Uruguay, to Santiago, Chile, that crashed in the Andes mountains on 13 October 1972. The accident and subsequent survival became known as the Andes flight disaster (Tragedia de los Andes, literally Tragedy of the Andes) and the Miracle of the Andes (Milagro de los Andes).

    The inexperienced co-pilot, Lieutenant-Colonel Dante Héctor Lagurara, was piloting the aircraft at the time of the accident. He mistakenly believed the aircraft had overflown Curicó, the turning point to fly north, and began descending towards what he thought was Pudahuel Airport in Santiago de Chile. He failed to notice that instrument readings indicated he was still 60–69 km (37–43 mi) east of Curicó. Lagurara, upon regaining visual flight conditions, saw the mountain and unsuccessfully tried to gain altitude. The aircraft struck a mountain ridge, shearing off both wings and the tail cone. The remaining portion of the fuselage slid down a glacier at an estimated 350 km/h (220 mph), descending 725 metres (2,379 ft) before ramming into an ice and snow mound.

    The flight was carrying 45 passengers and crew, including 19 members of the Old Christians Club rugby union team, along with their families, supporters and friends. Three crew members and nine passengers died immediately and several more died soon after due to the frigid temperatures and the severity of their injuries. The crash site is located at an elevation of 3,570 metres (11,710 ft) in the remote Andes mountains of western Argentina, just east of the border with Chile. Search and rescue aircraft overflew the crash site several times during the following days, but failed to see the white fuselage against the snow. Search efforts were called off after eight days of searching.[1]

    During the 72 days following the crash, the survivors suffered from extreme hardships, including sub-zero temperatures, exposure, starvation, and an avalanche, which led to the deaths of 13 more passengers. The remaining passengers resorted to cannibalism to survive. Convinced they would die if they did not seek help, two survivors, Nando Parrado and Roberto Canessa, set out across the mountains on December 12. Using only materials found in the aircraft wreck, they climbed 839 metres (2,753 ft) from the crash site up 30-to-60 degree slopes to a 4,503-metre (14,774 ft) ridge to the west of the summit of Mount Seler. From there they trekked 53.9 kilometres (33.5 mi) for 10 days into Chile before finding help. On 22 and 23 December 1972, two and a half months after the crash, the 14 remaining survivors were rescued. The news of their survival made worldwide news.

    1. ^ Tikkanen, Amy. "Uruguayan Air Force Flight 571". Archived from the original on 14 June 2018. Retrieved 12 March 2020.
     
  40. Admin2

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    24 December 1974Cyclone Tracy devastates Darwin, Australia.

    Cyclone Tracy

    Preview warning: The article title was redundantly supplied in |name=. Remove this parameter; the article title is used as the name by default.

    Severe Tropical Cyclone Tracy was a small tropical cyclone that devastated the city of Darwin, in the Northern Territory of Australia, in December 1974. The small, developing, easterly storm was originally expected to pass clear of the city, but it would turn towards it early on 24 December. After 10:00 p.m. ACST, damage became severe, with wind gusts reaching 217 km/h (134.84 mph) before instruments failed. The anemometer in Darwin Airport control tower had its needle bent in half by the strength of the gusts.[1]

    Residents of Darwin were celebrating Christmas, and they did not immediately acknowledge the emergency, partly because they had been alerted to an earlier cyclone (Selma) which passed west of the city, not affecting it in any way. Additionally, news outlets had only a skeleton crew on duty over the holiday.

    Tracy killed 66 people and caused $837 million in damage (1974 AUD, about $7.69 billion in 2022), or about US$5.2 billion (2022 dollars). It destroyed more than 70 percent of Darwin's buildings, including 80 percent of houses.[2][3] It left more than 25,000 out of the 47,000 inhabitants of the city homeless prior to landfall and required the evacuation of over 30,000 people,[4] of whom many never returned. After the storm passed, the city was rebuilt using more stringent standards "to cyclone code". The storm is the second-smallest tropical cyclone on record (in terms of gale-force wind diameter), behind only the North Atlantic's Tropical Storm Marco in 2008.[5]

    1. ^ "National Museum of Australia - Cyclone Tracy". www.nma.gov.au. Retrieved 10 January 2024.
    2. ^ "NT coroner hands down finding on Cyclone Tracy deaths". ABC News. 18 March 2005. Archived from the original on 5 April 2005. Retrieved 24 March 2006.
    3. ^ "Tropical cyclone extremes". Bureau of Meteorology. Archived from the original on 21 July 2015. Retrieved 19 July 2015.
    4. ^ "Event – Cyclone Tracy". Attorney-General’s Department Disasters Database. Australian Emergency Management Institute. Archived from the original on 26 April 2012. Retrieved 3 December 2011.
    5. ^ James L. Franklin (4 November 2008). "Tropical Cyclone Report: Tropical Storm Marco" (PDF). National Hurricane Center. Retrieved 23 January 2009.
     

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