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Discussion in 'Break Room' started by NewsBot, Apr 6, 2008.

  1. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    25 May 1977Star Wars is released in theaters.

    Star Wars (film)

    Star Wars (retroactively retitled Star Wars: Episode IV – A New Hope) is a 1977 American epic space opera film written and directed by George Lucas, produced by Lucasfilm and distributed by Twentieth Century-Fox. It was the first film released in the Star Wars film series and the fourth chronological chapter of the "Skywalker Saga". Set "a long time ago" in a fictional universe where the galaxy is ruled by the tyrannical Galactic Empire, the story focuses on a group of freedom fighters known as the Rebel Alliance, who aim to destroy the Empire's newest weapon, the Death Star. When Rebel leader Princess Leia is apprehended by the Empire, Luke Skywalker acquires stolen architectural plans of the Death Star and sets out to rescue her while learning the ways of a metaphysical power known as "the Force" from Jedi Master Obi-Wan Kenobi. The cast includes Mark Hamill, Harrison Ford, Carrie Fisher, Peter Cushing, Alec Guinness, Anthony Daniels, Kenny Baker, Peter Mayhew, David Prowse, and James Earl Jones.

    Lucas had the idea for a science-fiction film in the vein of Flash Gordon around the time he completed his first film, THX 1138 (1971), and began working on a treatment after the release of American Graffiti (1973). After numerous rewrites, filming took place throughout 1975 and 1976 in locations including Tunisia and Elstree Studios in Hertfordshire, England. Lucas formed the visual effects company Industrial Light & Magic to help create the film's special effects. Star Wars suffered production difficulties: the cast and crew believed the film would be a failure, and it went $3 million over budget due to delays.

    Few were confident in the film's box office prospects. It was released in a small number of theaters in the United States on May 25, 1977, and quickly became a surprise blockbuster hit, leading to it being expanded to a much wider release. Star Wars opened to critical acclaim, particularly for its special effects. It grossed $410 million worldwide during its initial run, surpassing Jaws (1975) to become the highest-grossing film until the release of E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial (1982); subsequent releases have brought its total gross to $775 million. When adjusted for inflation, Star Wars is the second-highest-grossing film in North America (behind Gone with the Wind) and the fourth-highest-grossing film of all time. It received Academy Awards, BAFTA Awards, and Saturn Awards, among others. The film has been reissued many times with Lucas's support—most significantly the 20th-anniversary theatrical "Special Edition"—and the reissues have contained many changes, including modified computer-generated effects, altered dialogue, re-edited shots, remixed soundtracks and added scenes.

    Often regarded as one of the greatest and most influential films ever made, the film became a pop-cultural phenomenon, launching an industry of tie-in products, including novels, comics, video games, amusement park attractions and merchandise such as toys, games, and clothing. It became one of the first 25 films selected by the United States Library of Congress for preservation in the National Film Registry in 1989, and its soundtrack was added to the U.S. National Recording Registry in 2004. The Empire Strikes Back (1980) and Return of the Jedi (1983) followed Star Wars, rounding out the original Star Wars trilogy. A prequel and a sequel trilogy have since been released, in addition to two anthology films and various television series.

    1. ^ "Star Wars". British Board of Film Classification. Archived from the original on January 27, 2016. Retrieved May 25, 2013.
    2. ^ "Star Wars (1977)". Archived from the original on July 9, 2017.
    3. ^ a b Cite error: The named reference BOM was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    4. ^ Cyriaque Lamar (January 13, 2012). "Behold, the 1977 budget breakdown for Star Wars". io9. Archived from the original on March 6, 2016. Retrieved March 3, 2016.
     
  2. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    25 May 1977Star Wars is released in theaters.

    Star Wars (film)

    Star Wars (retroactively retitled Star Wars: Episode IV – A New Hope) is a 1977 American epic space opera film written and directed by George Lucas, produced by Lucasfilm and distributed by Twentieth Century-Fox. It was the first film released in the Star Wars film series and the fourth chronological chapter of the "Skywalker Saga". Set "a long time ago" in a fictional universe where the galaxy is ruled by the tyrannical Galactic Empire, the story focuses on a group of freedom fighters known as the Rebel Alliance, who aim to destroy the Empire's newest weapon, the Death Star. When Rebel leader Princess Leia is apprehended by the Empire, Luke Skywalker acquires stolen architectural plans of the Death Star and sets out to rescue her while learning the ways of a metaphysical power known as "the Force" from Jedi Master Obi-Wan Kenobi. The cast includes Mark Hamill, Harrison Ford, Carrie Fisher, Peter Cushing, Alec Guinness, Anthony Daniels, Kenny Baker, Peter Mayhew, David Prowse, and James Earl Jones.

    Lucas had the idea for a science-fiction film in the vein of Flash Gordon around the time he completed his first film, THX 1138 (1971), and began working on a treatment after the release of American Graffiti (1973). After numerous rewrites, filming took place throughout 1975 and 1976 in locations including Tunisia and Elstree Studios in Hertfordshire, England. Lucas formed the visual effects company Industrial Light & Magic to help create the film's special effects. Star Wars suffered production difficulties: the cast and crew believed the film would be a failure, and it went $3 million over budget due to delays.

    Few were confident in the film's box office prospects. It was released in a small number of theaters in the United States on May 25, 1977, and quickly became a surprise blockbuster hit, leading to it being expanded to a much wider release. Star Wars opened to critical acclaim, particularly for its special effects. It grossed $410 million worldwide during its initial run, surpassing Jaws (1975) to become the highest-grossing film until the release of E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial (1982); subsequent releases have brought its total gross to $775 million. When adjusted for inflation, Star Wars is the second-highest-grossing film in North America (behind Gone with the Wind) and the fourth-highest-grossing film of all time. It received Academy Awards, BAFTA Awards, and Saturn Awards, among others. The film has been reissued many times with Lucas's support—most significantly the 20th-anniversary theatrical "Special Edition"—and the reissues have contained many changes, including modified computer-generated effects, altered dialogue, re-edited shots, remixed soundtracks and added scenes.

    Often regarded as one of the greatest and most influential films ever made, the film became a pop-cultural phenomenon, launching an industry of tie-in products, including novels, comics, video games, amusement park attractions and merchandise such as toys, games, and clothing. It became one of the first 25 films selected by the United States Library of Congress for preservation in the National Film Registry in 1989, and its soundtrack was added to the U.S. National Recording Registry in 2004. The Empire Strikes Back (1980) and Return of the Jedi (1983) followed Star Wars, rounding out the original Star Wars trilogy. A prequel and a sequel trilogy have since been released, in addition to two anthology films and various television series.

    1. ^ "Star Wars". British Board of Film Classification. Archived from the original on January 27, 2016. Retrieved May 25, 2013.
    2. ^ "Star Wars (1977)". Archived from the original on July 9, 2017.
    3. ^ a b Cite error: The named reference BOM was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    4. ^ Cyriaque Lamar (January 13, 2012). "Behold, the 1977 budget breakdown for Star Wars". io9. Archived from the original on March 6, 2016. Retrieved March 3, 2016.
     
  3. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    26 May 1896 – Charles Dow publishes the first edition of the Dow Jones Industrial Average.

    Dow Jones Industrial Average

    The Dow Jones Industrial Average (DJIA), Dow Jones, or simply the Dow (/ˈd/), is a stock market index of 30 prominent companies listed on stock exchanges in the United States.

    The DJIA is one of the oldest and most commonly followed equity indexes. Many professionals consider it to be an inadequate representation of the overall U.S. stock market compared to a broader market index such as the S&P 500. The DJIA includes only 30 large companies. It is price-weighted, unlike stock indices, which use market capitalization. Furthermore, the DJIA does not use a weighted arithmetic mean.[4][5][6][7]

    The value of the index can also be calculated as the sum of the stock prices of the companies included in the index, divided by a factor, which is approximately 0.153 as of February 2024. The factor is changed whenever a constituent company undergoes a stock split so that the value of the index is unaffected by the stock split.

    First calculated on May 26, 1896,[2] the index is the second-oldest among U.S. market indices, after the Dow Jones Transportation Average. It was created by Charles Dow, co-founder of both The Wall Street Journal and the Dow Jones & Company, and named after him and his business associate, statistician Edward Jones.

    The index is maintained by S&P Dow Jones Indices, an entity majority-owned by S&P Global. Its components are selected by a committee. The ten components with the largest dividend yields are commonly referred to as the Dogs of the Dow. As with all stock prices, the prices of the constituent stocks and consequently the value of the index itself are affected by the performance of the respective companies as well as macroeconomic factors.

    Dow Jones Industrial Average 1970–2022
    1. ^ "Dow Record Book Adds Another First". Philly.com. February 24, 1995. Archived from the original on October 4, 2013.
    2. ^ a b Judge, Ben (May 26, 2015). "26 May 1896: Charles Dow launches the Dow Jones Industrial Average". MoneyWeek. Archived from the original on October 6, 2019. Retrieved October 6, 2019.
    3. ^ "Dow Jones Industrial Average® Fact Sheet" (PDF). S&P Global.
    4. ^ "Standard & Poor's 500 Index – S&P 500". Investopedia. Archived from the original on June 14, 2012. Retrieved September 15, 2019.
    5. ^ Deporre, James (September 7, 2018). "Ignore the Misleading Dow Jones Industrial Average". TheStreet.com. Archived from the original on August 12, 2019. Retrieved August 12, 2019.
    6. ^ Floyd, David (June 25, 2019). "Discover What Makes the Dow Jones Industrial Average Stupid". Investopedia. Archived from the original on August 12, 2019. Retrieved August 12, 2019.
    7. ^ Dzombak, Dan (April 18, 2014). "Why the Dow Jones Industrial Average Is Useless". The Motley Fool. Archived from the original on August 12, 2019. Retrieved August 12, 2019.
     
  4. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    27 May 1883Alexander III is crowned Tsar of Russia.

    Alexander III of Russia

    Alexander III (Russian: Алекса́ндр III Алекса́ндрович Романов, tr. Aleksandr III Aleksandrovich Romanov; 10 March 1845 – 1 November 1894)[1] was Emperor of Russia, King of Congress Poland and Grand Duke of Finland from 13 March 1881 until his death in 1894.[2] He was highly reactionary in domestic affairs and reversed some of the liberal reforms of his father, Alexander II. This policy is known in Russia as "counter-reforms" (Russian: контрреформы). Under the influence of Konstantin Pobedonostsev (1827–1907), he opposed any socio-economic moves that limited his autocratic rule.

    During his reign, Russia fought no major wars as well. He therefore came to be known as "The Peacemaker" (Russian: Миротворец, tr. Mirotvorets, IPA: [mʲɪrɐˈtvorʲɪt͡s]), with that laudatory title enduring into the 21st Century among historians (as the Tsar’-Mirotvorets).[3] Outside of politics, Alexander was additionally known for his striking appearance, with an American historian later noting how he stood out as being a "tall, heavy-set man, of enormous muscular strength." Alexander's major foreign policy achievement was helping forge the Russo-French Alliance and thus directing a major shift in the international relations of Russian society that endured for decades. His political legacy represented a direct challenge to the European cultural order set forth by German statesman Otto von Bismarck, intermingling Russian influences with the shifting balances of power.[4]

    Alexander's long, multifaceted legacy has been commemorated in public installations across multiple nations. A notable example outside of Russia is the Pont Alexandre III, an ornate arch bridge spanning the Seine in Paris, France. That installation has received mass attention for over a century.


    Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

    1. ^ 10 March [O.S. 26 February] 1845 – 1 November [O.S. 20 October] 1894
    2. ^ 13 March [O.S. 1 March] 1881 – 1 November [O.S. 20 October] 1894.
    3. ^ Fedyashin, Anton (2023). "Book Review: Istoriia rossiiskogo gosudarstva. Tsar'-osvoboditel' i tsar'-mirotvorets. Lekarstvo dlia imperii [History of the Russian State. The Tsar-Liberator and the Tsar-Peacemaker. Medicine for the Empire] by Boris Akunin". European History Quarterly. 53 (4): 698–700. doi:10.1177/02656914231199945a. S2CID 263705950.
    4. ^ Kennan, George F. (1979). "The Decline of Bismarck's European Order". Princeton University Press. doi:10.2307/j.ctv141649s. JSTOR j.ctv141649s. S2CID 241648947. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
     
  5. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    28 May 1977 – In Southgate, Kentucky, the Beverly Hills Supper Club is engulfed in fire, killing 165 people inside.

    Beverly Hills Supper Club fire

    The Beverly Hills Supper Club fire in Southgate, Kentucky, is the seventh deadliest nightclub fire in history. It occurred on the night of May 28, 1977, during the Memorial Day holiday weekend. A total of 165 people died and more than 200 were injured as a result of the blaze.[1][2]

    1. ^ Southgate, KY Nightclub Fire Disaster, May 1977 | GenDisasters ... Genealogy in Tragedy, Disasters, Fires, Floods Archived April 25, 2013, at the Wayback Machine. .gendisasters.com. Retrieved on May 28, 2013.
    2. ^ "Deadliest public assembly and nightclub fires". National Fire Protection Association. Archived from the original on July 6, 2019. Retrieved November 9, 2023.
     
  6. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    29 May 1848Wisconsin is admitted as the 30th U.S. state.

    Wisconsin

    Wisconsin (/wɪˈskɒnsɪn/ wiss-KON-sin)[13] is a state in the Upper Midwestern region of the United States. It borders Minnesota to the west, Iowa to the southwest, Illinois to the south, Lake Michigan to the east, Michigan to the northeast, and Lake Superior to the north. Wisconsin is the 25th-largest state by land area and the 20th-most populous.

    The bulk of Wisconsin's population live in areas situated along the shores of Lake Michigan. The largest city, Milwaukee, anchors its largest metropolitan area, followed by Green Bay and Kenosha, the third- and fourth-most-populated Wisconsin cities, respectively. The state capital, Madison, is currently the second-most-populated and fastest-growing city in the state.[14] Wisconsin is divided into 72 counties and as of the 2020 census had a population of nearly 5.9 million.[15]

    Wisconsin's geography is diverse, having been greatly impacted by glaciers during the Ice Age with the exception of the Driftless Area. The Northern Highland and Western Upland along with a part of the Central Plain occupy the western part of the state, with lowlands stretching to the shore of Lake Michigan. Wisconsin is third to Ontario and Michigan in the length of its Great Lakes coastline. The northern portion of the state is home to the Chequamegon-Nicolet National Forest. At the time of European contact, the area was inhabited by Algonquian and Siouan nations, and today it is home to eleven federally recognized tribes.[16] During the 19th and early 20th centuries, many European settlers entered the state, most of whom emigrated from Germany and Scandinavia.[17][18] Wisconsin remains a center of German American and Scandinavian American culture,[19] particularly in respect to its cuisine, with foods such as bratwurst and kringle. Wisconsin is home to one UNESCO World Heritage Site, comprising two of the most significant buildings designed by Wisconsin-born architect Frank Lloyd Wright: his studio at Taliesin near Spring Green and his Jacobs I House in Madison.[20]

    The Republican Party was founded in Wisconsin in 1854. In more recent years, Wisconsin has been a battleground state in presidential elections, notably in 2016 and 2020.

    Wisconsin is one of the nation's leading dairy producers and is known as "America's Dairyland"; it is particularly famous for its cheese.[21][22] The state is also famous for its beer, particularly and historically in Milwaukee, most notably as the headquarters of the Miller Brewing Company. Wisconsin has some of the most permissive alcohol laws in the country and is well known for its drinking culture.[23][24] Its economy is dominated by manufacturing, healthcare, information technology, and agriculture—specifically dairy, cranberries, and ginseng.[25] Tourism is also a major contributor to the state's economy.[26] The gross domestic product in 2020 was $348 billion.[27]

    1. ^ Dornfeld, Margaret; Hantula, Richard (2010). Wisconsin: It's my state!. Marshall Cavendish. p. 5. ISBN 978-1-60870-062-2. Archived from the original on September 7, 2015. Retrieved June 10, 2015.
    2. ^ Urdang, Laurence (1988). Names and Nicknames of Places and Things. Penguin Group USA. p. 8. ISBN 9780452009073. Archived from the original on September 6, 2015. Retrieved May 25, 2015. "America's Dairyland" A nickname of Wisconsin
    3. ^ Kane, Joseph Nathan; Alexander, Gerard L. (1979). Nicknames and sobriquets of U.S. cities, States, and counties. Scarecrow Press. p. 412. ISBN 9780810812550. Archived from the original on September 6, 2015. Retrieved May 25, 2015. Wisconsin—America's Dairyland, The Badger State ...The Copper State
    4. ^ Herman, Jennifer L. (2008). Wisconsin Encyclopedia, American Guide. North American Book Dist LLC. p. 10. ISBN 9781878592613. Archived from the original on September 6, 2015. Retrieved May 25, 2015. Nicknames Wisconsin is generally known as The Badger State, or America's Dairyland, although in the past it has been nicknamed The Copper State.
    5. ^ "Wisconsin State Symbols" Archived February 22, 2017, at the Wayback Machine in Wisconsin Blue Book 2005–2006, p. 966.
    6. ^ "State Area Measurements and Internal Point Coordinates". US Census Bureau. 2010.
    7. ^ a b "Elevations and Distances in the United States". United States Geological Survey. 2001. Archived from the original on October 15, 2011. Retrieved October 24, 2011.
    8. ^ a b Elevation adjusted to North American Vertical Datum of 1988.
    9. ^ Schneider, Mike. "Census: Wisconsin retains its 8 seats in Congress as South gains, Midwest loses". madison.com. Wisconsin State Journal. Archived from the original on April 26, 2021. Retrieved April 27, 2021.
    10. ^ "Explore Census Data". data.census.gov. Archived from the original on October 5, 2021. Retrieved October 5, 2021.
    11. ^ Bureau, US Census. "Historical Apportionment Data Map". Census.gov. Archived from the original on October 4, 2021. Retrieved October 5, 2021.
    12. ^ "Wisconsin Population 2022 (Demographics, Maps, Graphs)". wisconsinpopulationreview.com. Archived from the original on November 18, 2022. Retrieved November 18, 2022.
    13. ^ "Wisconsin". Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary. Retrieved March 8, 2024.
    14. ^ "Census: Madison, suburbs top list of fastest-growing cities in Wisconsin". Wisconsin State Journal. Archived from the original on July 25, 2020. Retrieved July 24, 2020.
    15. ^ "QuickFacts Wisconsin; United States". census.gov. Archived from the original on May 17, 2021. Retrieved August 17, 2021.
    16. ^ "American Indians in Wisconsin – Overview". Wisconsin Department of Health Services. August 12, 2014. Archived from the original on August 17, 2021. Retrieved August 17, 2021.
    17. ^ "Germans in Wisconsin". Wisconsin Historical Society. August 3, 2012. Archived from the original on August 17, 2021. Retrieved August 17, 2021.
    18. ^ Gordon, Scott (November 4, 2016). "How Scandinavians Transformed The Midwest, And The Midwest Transformed Them Too". WisContext. Archived from the original on August 17, 2021. Retrieved August 17, 2021.
    19. ^ "German and Scandinavian Immigrants in the American Midwest". Washington State University. Washington State University. Archived from the original on August 12, 2021. Retrieved August 17, 2021.
    20. ^ "The 20th-century Architecture of Frank Lloyd Wright". UNESCO World Heritage Centre. Archived from the original on July 9, 2019. Retrieved July 7, 2019.
    21. ^ "wisconsin.uk". Archived from the original on October 25, 2019. Retrieved October 25, 2019.
    22. ^ Our Fifty States.
    23. ^ Matthews, Christopher. "The 3 Best and 3 Worst States in America for Drinking". Time. ISSN 0040-781X. Archived from the original on September 1, 2019. Retrieved October 29, 2019.
    24. ^ White, Laurel (May 19, 2019). "High Tolerance: How State's Drinking Culture Developed". urbanmilwaukee.com. Wisconsin Public Radio. Archived from the original on December 8, 2021. Retrieved December 8, 2021.
    25. ^ Adams, Barry. "Ginseng continues rebound in central Wisconsin". Wisconsin State Journal. Archived from the original on August 11, 2018. Retrieved August 11, 2018.
    26. ^ "Evers announces $10M to promote tourism industry in Wisconsin". WDJT-TV. August 3, 2021. Archived from the original on August 17, 2021. Retrieved August 17, 2021.
    27. ^ "Wisconsin". Forbes. Archived from the original on August 17, 2021. Retrieved August 17, 2021.
     
  7. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    30 May 1635Thirty Years' War: The Peace of Prague is signed.

    Peace of Prague (1635)

    The Peace of Prague (Czech: Pražský mír, German: Prager Frieden), signed on 30 May 1635,[note 1] ended Saxony's participation in the Thirty Years War. Other German princes subsequently joined the treaty and although the Thirty Years War continued, it is generally agreed Prague ended it as a war of religion within the Holy Roman Empire.[3][4] Thereafter, the conflict was largely driven by foreign powers, including Spain, Sweden, and France.[citation needed]

    Some scholars regard the treaty merely as a step towards the terms of the 1648 Peace of Westphalia, but others recognise it as an important treaty in its own right that marked the boundaries between two historical eras.[5] European historians generally pay more attention to the Peace of Prague than their non-European colleagues, who are more focused on Westphalia.[4]

    1. ^ a b Espenhorst 2016, p. 510.
    2. ^ a b Asbach, Olaf 2014, p. 288.
    3. ^ Onnekink, David 2019, p. 62.
    4. ^ a b Espenhorst 2016, p. 512.
    5. ^ Espenhorst 2016, pp. 511–512.


    Cite error: There are <ref group=note> tags on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=note}} template (see the help page).

     
  8. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    31 May 1977 – The Trans-Alaska Pipeline System is completed.

    Trans-Alaska Pipeline System

    The Trans-Alaska Pipeline System (TAPS) is an oil transportation system spanning Alaska, including the trans-Alaska crude-oil pipeline, 12 pump stations, several hundred miles of feeder pipelines, and the Valdez Marine Terminal. TAPS is one of the world's largest pipeline systems. The core pipeline itself, which is commonly called the Alaska pipeline, trans-Alaska pipeline, or Alyeska pipeline, (or The pipeline as referred to by Alaskan residents), is an 800-mile (1,287 km) long, 48-inch (1.22 m) diameter pipeline that conveys oil from Prudhoe Bay, on Alaska's North Slope, south to Valdez, on the shores of Prince William Sound in southcentral Alaska. The crude oil pipeline is privately owned by the Alyeska Pipeline Service Company.

    Oil was first discovered in Prudhoe Bay in 1968 and the 800 miles of 48" steel pipe was ordered from Japan in 1969 (U.S. steel manufacturers did not have the capacity at that time). However, construction was delayed for nearly 5 years due to legal and environmental issues. The eight oil companies that owned the rights to the oil hired Bechtel for the pipeline design and construction and Fluor for the 12 pump stations and the Valdez Terminal. Preconstruction work during 1973 and 1974 was critical and included the building of camps to house workers, construction of roads and bridges where none existed, and carefully laying out the pipeline right of way to avoid difficult river crossings and animal habitats. Construction of the pipeline system took place between 1975 and 1977. It was important for the United States to have a domestic source of oil to offset the high rise in foreign oil and the Alaska Pipeline fulfilled that obligation.

    Building oil pipelines in the 1950s and 60s was not difficult in the contiguous United States. However, in building the Alaska Pipeline, engineers faced a wide range of difficulties, stemming mainly from the extreme cold and the difficult, isolated terrain. The construction of the pipeline was one of the first large-scale projects to deal with problems caused by permafrost, and special construction techniques had to be developed to cope with the frozen ground. The project attracted tens of thousands of workers to Alaska due to high wages, long work hours, and paid-for housing, causing a boomtown atmosphere in Valdez, Fairbanks, and Anchorage.

    The first barrel of oil traveled through the pipeline in the summer of 1977,[1][2][3][4] with full-scale production by the end of the year. Several notable incidents of oil leakage have occurred since, including those caused by sabotage, maintenance failures, and bullet holes.[5] As of 2015, it had shipped over 17 billion barrels (2.7×109 m3) of oil.[6] The pipeline has been shown capable of delivering over two million barrels of oil per day but nowadays usually operates at a fraction of maximum capacity. If flow were to stop or throughput were too little, the line could freeze. The pipeline could be extended and used to transport oil produced from controversial proposed drilling projects in the nearby Arctic National Wildlife Refuge (ANWR).

    1. ^ a b "'Pig' leading flow of oil in pipeline". Eugene Register-Guard. (Oregon). UPI. June 20, 1977. p. 1A.
    2. ^ a b "Hot North Slope oil flowing". Spokane Daily Chronicle. Washington. Associated Press. June 20, 1977. p. 1.
    3. ^ a b "Valdez celebrates arrival of first oil". Eugene Register-Guard. (Oregon). Associated Press. July 29, 1977. p. 1A.
    4. ^ "Tanker casts off with load of oil". Eugene Register-Guard. (Oregon). wire services. August 2, 1977. p. 3A.
    5. ^ Verhovek, Sam Howe (October 6, 2001). "Pipeline Crews Tackle Huge Oil Spill Caused by Shooting". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved June 7, 2023.
    6. ^ 2016 Fact Book, p. 71
     
  9. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    1 June 1533Anne Boleyn is crowned Queen of England.

    Anne Boleyn

    Anne Boleyn (/ˈbʊlɪn, bʊˈlɪn/;[7][8][9] c. 1501 or 1507 – 19 May 1536) was Queen of England from 1533 to 1536, as the second wife of King Henry VIII. The circumstances of her marriage and execution by beheading for treason, made her a key figure in the political and religious upheaval that marked the start of the English Reformation.

    Anne was the daughter of Thomas Boleyn (later Earl of Wiltshire), and his wife, Elizabeth Howard, and was educated in the Netherlands and France. Anne returned to England in early 1522, to marry her cousin James Butler, 9th Earl of Ormond; the marriage plans were broken off, and instead, she secured a post at court as maid of honour to Henry VIII's wife, Catherine of Aragon. Early in 1523, Anne was secretly betrothed to Henry Percy, son of Henry Percy, 5th Earl of Northumberland, but the betrothal was broken off when the Earl refused to support it. Cardinal Thomas Wolsey refused the match in January 1524.

    In February or March 1526, Henry VIII began his pursuit of Anne. She resisted his attempts to seduce her, refusing to become his mistress, as her sister Mary had previously been. Henry focused on annulling his marriage to Catherine, so he would be free to marry Anne. After Wolsey failed to obtain an annulment from Pope Clement VII, it became clear the marriage would not be annulled by the Catholic Church. As a result, Henry and his advisers, such as Thomas Cromwell, began the breaking the Church's power in England and closing the monasteries. Henry and Anne formally married on 25 January 1533, after a secret wedding on 14 November 1532. On 23 May 1533, the newly appointed Archbishop of Canterbury Thomas Cranmer declared Henry and Catherine's marriage null and void; five days later, he declared Henry and Anne's marriage valid; Clement excommunicated Henry and Cranmer. As a result of the marriage and excommunications, the first break between the Church of England and Catholic Church took place, and the king took control of the Church of England. Anne was crowned queen on 1 June 1533. On 7 September, she gave birth to the future Queen Elizabeth I. Henry was disappointed to have a daughter, but hoped a son would follow and professed to love Elizabeth. Anne subsequently had three miscarriages and by March 1536, Henry was courting Jane Seymour.

    Henry had Anne investigated for high treason in April 1536. On 2 May, she was arrested and sent to the Tower of London, where she was tried before a jury, including Henry Percy, her former betrothed, and her uncle Thomas Howard, 3rd Duke of Norfolk; she was convicted on 15 May and beheaded four days later. Historians view the charges, which included adultery, incest with her brother George, and plotting to kill the king, as unconvincing.[10][11]

    After her daughter, Elizabeth, became queen in 1558, Anne became venerated as a martyr and heroine of the English Reformation, particularly through the works of George Wyatt.[12] She has inspired, or been mentioned in, many cultural works and retained her hold on the popular imagination. She has been called "the most influential and important queen consort England has ever had",[13] as she provided the occasion for Henry to declare the English Church's independence from the Vatican.

    1. ^ "Doubts raised over Anne Boleyn portraits". Hever Castle. 24 February 2015. Retrieved 19 June 2021.
    2. ^ Spender, Anna. "The many faces of Anne Boleyn" (PDF). Hever Castle. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 19 June 2021.
    3. ^ "The Offspring of Thomas and Elizabeth Boleyn". The Tudor Society. 25 March 2015. Retrieved 22 October 2021.
    4. ^ "Letters and papers, foreign and domestic, of the reign of Henry VIII". Internet Archive. 13 December 1862. Retrieved 21 October 2021.
    5. ^ Cite error: The named reference Ives, p.3 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    6. ^ Weir 1991
    7. ^ Pronunciations with stress on the second syllable were rare until recently and were not mentioned by reference works until the 1960s; see The Big Book of Beastly Mispronunciations (2006) by Charles Harrington Elster
    8. ^ Jones, Daniel Everyman's English Pronouncing Dictionary 12th edition (1963)
    9. ^ Wells, John C. (1990). Longman pronunciation dictionary. Harlow, England: Longman. p. 83. ISBN 0-582-05383-8. entry "Boleyn"
    10. ^ Gairdner, James, ed. (1887). Letters and Papers, Foreign and Domestic, Henry VIII, Volume 10, January–June 1536. Her Majesty's Stationery Office. pp. 349–371.
    11. ^ Wriothesley, Charles (1875). A Chronicle of England During the Reigns of the Tudors, From A.D. 1485 to 1559. Vol. 1. Camden Society. pp. 189–226.
    12. ^ Ives 2004, pp. 48–50.
    13. ^ Ives 2004, p. xv.


    Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

     
  10. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    2 June 2012 – Former Egyptian President Hosni Mubarak is sentenced to life imprisonment for his role in the killing of demonstrators during the 2011 Egyptian revolution.

    Egyptian revolution of 2011

     
  11. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    3 June 1539Hernando de Soto claims Florida for Spain.

    Hernando de Soto

    Hernando de Soto (/də ˈst/;[4] Spanish: [eɾˈnando ðe ˈsoto]; c. 1497 – 21 May 1542) was a Spanish explorer and conquistador who was involved in expeditions in Nicaragua and the Yucatan Peninsula. He played an important role in Francisco Pizarro's conquest of the Inca Empire in Peru, but is best known for leading the first European expedition deep into the territory of the modern-day United States (through Florida, Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi, and most likely Arkansas). He is the first European documented as having crossed the Mississippi River.[5]

    De Soto's North American expedition was a vast undertaking. It ranged throughout what is now the southeastern United States, searching both for gold, which had been reported by various Native American tribes and earlier coastal explorers, and for a passage to China or the Pacific coast. De Soto died in 1542 on the banks of the Mississippi River;[6] sources disagree on the exact location, whether it was what is now Lake Village, Arkansas, or Ferriday, Louisiana.

    1. ^ Leon, P., 1998, The Discovery and Conquest of Peru: Chronicles of the New World Encounter, edited and translated by Cook and Cook, Durham: Duke University Press, ISBN 978-0822321460
    2. ^ "De Soto dies in the American wilderness". History.com.
    3. ^ "Hernando de Soto". 2 August 2023.
    4. ^ "De Soto". Collins English Dictionary.
    5. ^ Cite error: The named reference Morison1974 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    6. ^ "De Soto dies in the American wilderness". Retrieved 5 August 2017.
     
  12. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    4 June 1896Henry Ford completes the Ford Quadricycle, his first gasoline-powered automobile, and gives it a successful test run.

    Ford Quadricycle

    The Ford Quadricycle was the first vehicle developed by Henry Ford. Ford's first car was a simple frame with a gas-powered engine and four bicycle wheels mounted on it.[3]

    The earliest cars were hand built, one by one, and very expensive. The peculiar machines were seen as toys for the rich.[3] In the 1890s, the "horseless carriage" was a relatively new idea, with no one having a fixed, universal idea of what a car should look like or how it should work. Most of the first car builders were inventors, rather than businessmen, working with their imaginations and the parts they had on hand.[3] Thus, the invention of the Quadricycle marks an important innovation as a proto-automobile that would lay the foundation for the future, with more practical designs to follow.

    On June 4, 1896, in a tiny workshop behind his home on 58 Bagley Avenue, Detroit,[2][4] where the Michigan Building now stands, Ford put the finishing touches on his pure ethanol-powered motor. After more than two years of experimentation, Ford, at the age of 32, had completed his first experimental automobile. He dubbed his creation the "Quadricycle", so named because it ran on four bicycle tires, and because of the means through which the engine drove the back wheels.[5] The success of the little vehicle led to the founding of the Detroit Automobile Company in 1899, followed by the Henry Ford Company in 1901 and then later the Ford Motor Company in 1903.[6]

    The two cylinder engine could produce 4 horsepower.[7] The Quadricycle was driven by a chain. The transmission had only two gears (first for up to 10 mph (16 km/h), 2nd for up to 20 mph (32 km/h)), but did not have a reverse gear. The tiller-steered machine had wire wheels and a 3 US gal (11 L) fuel tank under the seat.[2] Ford test drove it on June 4, 1896, after various test drives, achieving a top speed of 20 mph (32 km/h).[2] Ford would later go on to found the Ford Motor Company and become one of the world's richest men.[3]

    The original Quadricycle resides at The Henry Ford Museum in Dearborn, Michigan.

    1. ^ Herndon, Ford: An Unconventional Biography of the Men and Their Times, (New York: Weybright & Talley, 1969), p. 62; also Flammang et al., Ford Chronicle, (Publications International, 1992), p. 9 (as cited in Brinkley, David, Wheels for the World: Henry Ford, His Company, and a Century of Progress, (New York: Penguin Group, 2003), p. 23
    2. ^ a b c d e Clymer, Floyd. Treasury of Early American Automobiles, 1877–1925 (New York: Bonanza Books, 1950), p. 58.
    3. ^ a b c d Doeden, Matt (2007). Crazy Cars. Lerner Publications. ISBN 978-0-8225-6565-9.
    4. ^ "Henry Ford Story Timeline - Henry Ford Heritage Association". hfha.org. Retrieved 2016-11-27.
    5. ^ Brinkley, David, Wheels for the World: Henry Ford, His Company, and a Century of Progress, (New York: Penguin Group, 2003), p. 22
    6. ^ The Showroom of Automotive History: 1896 Quadricycle Archived 2010-06-15 at the Wayback Machine
    7. ^ 1896 Ford Quadricycle RemarkableCars.com
     
  13. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    5 June 2017Montenegro becomes the 29th member of the NATO.

    Montenegro

    Montenegro (/ˌmɒntɪˈnɡr, -ˈnɡr, -ˈnɛɡr/ MON-tin-E(E)G-roh, -⁠AY-groh;[9] Montenegrin: Crna Gora[a] / Црна Гора;[b] Albanian: Mali i Zi; lit.'Black Mountain')[10][11] is a country in Southeast Europe, located in the Balkans.[12] It is bordered by Bosnia and Herzegovina to the north, Serbia to the northeast, Kosovo to the east, Albania to the southeast, and Croatia and the Adriatic Sea to the northwest with a coastline of 293.5 km.[13] Podgorica (Cyrillic: Подгорица) is the country's capital and its largest city; it covers 10.4% of Montenegro's territory of 13,812 square kilometres (5,333 sq mi), and is home to roughly 31% of its total population of 621,000.[14] Cetinje (Cyrillic: Цетиње) is the former royal capital and cultural centre of Montenegro and is the location of several national institutions, including the official residence of the President of Montenegro.[15]

    During the Early Medieval period, three principalities were located on the territory of modern-day Montenegro: Duklja, roughly corresponding to the southern half; Travunia, the west; and Rascia proper, the north.[16][17][18] The Principality of Zeta emerged in the 14th and 15th centuries. From the late 14th century to the late 18th century, large parts of southern Montenegro were ruled by the Venetian Republic and incorporated into Venetian Albania.[19] The name Montenegro was first used to refer to the country in the late 15th century. After falling under Ottoman Empire rule, Montenegro gained semi-autonomy in 1696 under the rule of the House of Petrović-Njegoš, first as a theocracy and later as a secular principality. Montenegro's independence was recognised by the Great Powers at the Congress of Berlin in 1878. In 1910, the country became a kingdom. After World War I, the kingdom became part of Yugoslavia. Following the breakup of Yugoslavia, the republics of Serbia and Montenegro together proclaimed a federation. In June 2006 Montenegro declared its independence from Serbia and Montenegro following an independence referendum, creating Montenegro and Serbia as they exist today.[20] Montenegro is therefore one of the newest internationally-recognised countries in the world.[21]

    Montenegro has an upper-middle-income economy,[22] and ranks 49th in the Human Development Index.[23] It is a member of the United Nations, NATO, the World Trade Organization, the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe, the Council of Europe, and the Central European Free Trade Agreement.[24] Montenegro is also a founding member of the Union for the Mediterranean,[25] and has been in the process of joining the European Union since 2012.[26]

    1. ^ Podgorica is the administrative capital while Cetinje is considered the old royal capital
    2. ^ "Language and alphabet Article 13". Constitution of Montenegro. WIPO. 19 October 2007. The official language in Montenegro shall be Montenegrin. Cyrillic and Latin alphabet shall be equal.
    3. ^ "Language and alphabet Article 13". Constitution of Montenegro. WIPO. 19 October 2007. Serbian, Bosnian, Albanian and Croatian shall also be in the official use.
    4. ^ a b "Census of Population, Households and Dwellings in Montenegro 2011" (PDF). Monstat. Retrieved 12 July 2011.
    5. ^ "Statistical Office of Montenegro - MONSTAT".
    6. ^ a b c d "World Economic Outlook Database, October 2023 Edition. (Montenegro)". IMF.org. International Monetary Fund. 10 October 2023. Retrieved 12 October 2023.
    7. ^ "Eurostat". ec.europa.eu. Retrieved 5 August 2022.
    8. ^ "Human Development Report 2021/2022" (PDF). United Nations Development Programme. 8 September 2022. Retrieved 8 September 2022.
    9. ^ Jones, Daniel (2011). Roach, Peter; Setter, Jane; Esling, John (eds.). Cambridge English Pronouncing Dictionary (18th ed.). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-15255-6.
    10. ^ "Влада Црне Горе". Vlada Crne Gore (in Montenegrin). Archived from the original on 14 May 2021. Retrieved 9 April 2021.
    11. ^ "Vlada Crne Gore". Влада Црне Горе (in Montenegrin). Archived from the original on 13 May 2021. Retrieved 9 April 2021.
    12. ^ "Montenegro – The World Factbook". www.cia.gov. 19 October 2021. Retrieved 6 March 2022.
    13. ^ "Montenegro – History". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 9 April 2021.
    14. ^ "Montenegro / Crna Gora – Country Profile". Montenegro. 12 October 1992. Retrieved 9 April 2021.
    15. ^ Plavi dvorac, Cetinje, waytomonte.com
    16. ^ Luscombe, David; Riley-Smith, Jonathan (2004). The New Cambridge Medieval History: Volume 4, c. 1024 – c. 1198. Cambridge University Press. pp. 266–. ISBN 9780521414111.
    17. ^ Sedlar, Jean W. (2013). East Central Europe in the Middle Ages, 1000–1500. University of Washington Press. pp. 21–. ISBN 9780295800646.
    18. ^ John Van Antwerp Fine (1983). The early medieval Balkans: a critical survey from the sixth to the late twelfth century. University of Michigan Press. p. 194. ISBN 9780472100255.
    19. ^ Cite error: The named reference :0 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    20. ^ "Serbia ends union with Montenegro". The Irish Times. 5 June 2006. Retrieved 2 September 2020.
    21. ^ Taylor, Adam (14 September 2014). "The 9 newest countries in the world". Washington Post.
    22. ^ "Montenegro Economy: Population, GDP, Inflation, Business, Trade, FDI, Corruption". The Heritage Foundation. 9 March 2021. Retrieved 16 April 2021.
    23. ^ United Nations. "Country Insights".
    24. ^ "Membership of Montenegro in International Organizations". mvp.gov.me. Archived from the original on 16 April 2021. Retrieved 16 April 2021.
    25. ^ "Montenegro". European Western Balkans. 24 February 2020. Retrieved 16 April 2021.
    26. ^ "European Neighbourhood Policy And Enlargement Negotiations – European Commission". European Neighbourhood Policy And Enlargement Negotiations – European Commission. 6 December 2016. Retrieved 16 April 2021.


    Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

     
  14. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    6 June 1749 – The Conspiracy of the Slaves in Malta is discovered.

    Conspiracy of the Slaves

     
  15. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    7 June 1981 – The Israeli Air Force destroys Iraq's Osiraq nuclear reactor during Operation Opera.

    Operation Opera

    Operation Opera (Hebrew: מִבְצָע אוֹפֵּרָה),[1] also known as Operation Babylon,[2] was a surprise airstrike conducted by the Israeli Air Force on 7 June 1981, which destroyed an unfinished Iraqi nuclear reactor located 17 kilometres (11 miles) southeast of Baghdad, Iraq.[3][4][5] The Israeli operation came a year after the Islamic Republic of Iran Air Force had caused minor damage to the same nuclear facility in Operation Scorch Sword, with the damage having been subsequently repaired by French technicians. Operation Opera, and related Israeli government statements following it, established the Begin Doctrine, which explicitly stated the strike was not an anomaly, but instead "a precedent for every future government in Israel". Israel's counter-proliferation preventive strike added another dimension to its existing policy of deliberate ambiguity, as it related to the nuclear weapons capability of other states in the region.[6]

    In 1976, Iraq purchased an Osiris-class nuclear reactor from France.[7][8] While Iraq and France maintained that the reactor, named Osirak by the French, was intended for peaceful scientific research,[9] the Israelis viewed the reactor with suspicion, believing it was designed to produce nuclear weapons that could escalate the ongoing Arab–Israeli conflict.[3] On 7 June 1981, a flight of Israeli Air Force F-16A fighter aircraft, with an escort of F-15As, bombed the Osirak reactor deep inside Iraq.[10] Israel called the operation an act of self-defense, saying that the reactor had "less than a month to go" before "it might have become critical."[11] The airstrike reportedly killed ten Iraqi soldiers and one French civilian.[12] The attack took place about three weeks before the 1981 Israeli legislative elections for the Knesset.[13]

    At the time of its occurrence, the attack was met with sharp international criticism, including in the United States, and Israel was rebuked by the United Nations Security Council and General Assembly in two separate resolutions.[14][15] Media reactions were also negative: "Israel's sneak attack ... was an act of inexcusable and short-sighted aggression",[16] wrote The New York Times, while the Los Angeles Times called it "state-sponsored terrorism".[14][better source needed] The destruction of Iraq's Osirak reactor has been cited as an example of a preventive strike in contemporary scholarship on international law.[17][18] The efficacy of the attack is debated by historians,[19] who acknowledge that it brought Iraq back from the brink of nuclear capability but drove its weapons program underground and cemented Iraqi President Saddam Hussein's future ambitions for acquiring nuclear weapons.

    1. ^ Perlmutter, p. 172.
    2. ^ Amos Perlmutter, Michael I. Handel, Uri Bar-Joseph. Two Minutes over Baghdad. Routledge (2nd ed.), 2008. p. 120.
    3. ^ a b "1981: Israel bombs Baghdad nuclear reactor". BBC News. British Broadcasting Corporation. 7 June 1981. Retrieved 30 November 2010.
    4. ^ Donald Neff (1995). "Israel Bombs Iraq's Osirak Nuclear Research Facility". Washington Report on Middle East Affairs. Andrew I. Kilgore: 81–82. Retrieved 30 November 2010.
    5. ^ Cite error: The named reference fainberg was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    6. ^ Country Profiles -Israel Archived 6 October 2014 at the Wayback Machine, Nuclear Threat Initiative (NTI) updated May 2014
    7. ^ Ramberg, Bennett. Nuclear Power Plants as Weapons for the Enemy: An Unrecognized Military Peril. University of California Press, 1985. p. xvii.
    8. ^ Cordesman, Anthony H. Iraq and the War of Sanctions: Conventional Threats and Weapons of Mass Destruction. Praeger, 1999. p. 605.
    9. ^ Cite error: The named reference worldbook was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    10. ^ Shirley V. Scott, Anthony Billingsley, Christopher Michaelsen. International Law and the Use of Force: A Documentary and Reference Guide. Praeger, 2009. p. 182.
    11. ^ Scott, p. 132.
    12. ^ Polakow-Suransky, Sasha. The Unspoken Alliance: Israel's Secret Relationship with Apartheid South Africa. Pantheon (1 ed.), 2010. p. 145.
    13. ^ Cite error: The named reference perryIQP was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    14. ^ a b Jonathan Steele (7 June 2002). "The Bush doctrine makes nonsense of the UN charter". The Guardian. Retrieved 29 November 2010.
    15. ^ Cite error: The named reference scres was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    16. ^ "Israel's Illusion". Opinion. The New York Times. 9 June 1981. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 13 February 2023.
    17. ^ Shue, Henry and Rhodin, David (2007). Preemption: Military Action and Moral Justification. Oxford University Press. p. 215.
    18. ^ Cite error: The named reference council was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    19. ^ "Osirak: Threats real and imagined". 5 June 2006.
     
  16. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    8 June 1984Homosexuality is declared legal in the Australian state of New South Wales.

    Homosexuality

    Homosexuality is a sexual attraction, romantic attraction, or sexual behavior between members of the same sex or gender.[1][2][3] As a sexual orientation, homosexuality is "an enduring pattern of emotional, romantic, and/or sexual attractions" exclusively to people of the same sex or gender.[4] It "also refers to a person's sense of identity based on those attractions, related behaviors, and membership in a community of others who share those attractions."[5][6]

    Along with bisexuality and heterosexuality, homosexuality is one of the three main categories of sexual orientation within the heterosexual–homosexual continuum.[5] Scientists do not yet know the exact cause of sexual orientation, but they theorize that it is caused by a complex interplay of genetic, hormonal, and environmental influences[7][8] and do not view it as a choice.[7][9] Although no single theory on the cause of sexual orientation has yet gained widespread support, scientists favor biologically based theories.[7] There is considerably more evidence supporting nonsocial, biological causes of sexual orientation than social ones, especially for males.[10][11][12] There is no substantive evidence which suggests parenting or early childhood experiences play a role with regard to sexual orientation.[13] While some believe that homosexual activity is unnatural,[14] scientific research shows that homosexuality is a normal and natural variation in human sexuality and is not in and of itself a source of negative psychological effects.[5][15] There is insufficient evidence to support the use of psychological interventions to change sexual orientation.[16][17]

    The most common terms for homosexual people are lesbian for females and gay for males, but the term gay also commonly refers to both homosexual females and males. The percentage of people who are gay or lesbian and the proportion of people who are in same-sex romantic relationships or have had same-sex sexual experiences are difficult for researchers to estimate reliably for a variety of reasons, including many gay and lesbian people not openly identifying as such due to prejudice or discrimination such as homophobia and heterosexism.[18] Homosexual behavior has also been documented in many non-human animal species,[24] though humans are one of only two species known to exhibit a homosexual orientation (the other is sheep).[10]

    Many gay and lesbian people are in committed same-sex relationships. These relationships are equivalent to heterosexual relationships in essential psychological respects.[6] Homosexual relationships and acts have been admired as well as condemned throughout recorded history, depending on the form they took and the culture in which they occurred.[25] Since the end of the 20th century, there has been a global movement towards freedom and equality for gay people, including the introduction of anti-bullying legislation to protect gay children at school, legislation ensuring non-discrimination, equal ability to serve in the military, equal access to health care, equal ability to adopt and parent, and the establishment of marriage equality.

    1. ^ "Definitions Related to Sexual Orientation and Gender Diversity in APA Documents" (PDF). American Psychological Association. 2015. p. 6. Archived from the original (PDF) on 19 April 2022. Retrieved 6 February 2020. Sexual orientation refers to the sex of those to whom one is sexually and romantically attracted. ... [It is] one's enduring sexual attraction to male partners, female partners, or both. Sexual orientation may be heterosexual, samesex (gay or lesbian), or bisexual. ... A person may be attracted to men, women, both, neither, or to people who are genderqueer, androgynous, or have other gender identities. Individuals may identify as lesbian, gay, heterosexual, bisexual, queer, pansexual, or asexual, among others. ... Categories of sexual orientation typically have included attraction to members of one's own sex (gay men or lesbians), attraction to members of the other sex (heterosexuals), and attraction to members of both sexes (bisexuals). While these categories continue to be widely used, research has suggested that sexual orientation does not always appear in such definable categories and instead occurs on a continuum .... Some people identify as pansexual or queer in terms of their sexual orientation, which means they define their sexual orientation outside of the gender binary of 'male' and 'female' only.
    2. ^ Eric B. Shiraev; David A. Levy (2016). Cross-Cultural Psychology: Critical Thinking and Contemporary Applications, Sixth Edition. Taylor & Francis. p. 216. ISBN 978-1134871315. Archived from the original on 24 November 2021. Retrieved 15 September 2021. Sexual orientation refers to romantic or sexual attraction to people of a specific sex or gender. ... Heterosexuality, along with bisexuality and homosexuality are at least three main categories of the continuum of sexual orientation. ... Homosexuality is a romantic or sexual attraction between persons of the same sex or gender.
    3. ^ James R. Lehman; Kristine Diaz; Henry Ng; Elizabeth M. Petty; Meena Thatikunta; Kristen Eckstrand, eds. (2019). The Equal Curriculum: The Student and Educator Guide to LGBTQ Health. Springer Nature. p. 5. ISBN 978-3030240257. Archived from the original on 24 November 2021. Retrieved 15 September 2021. Homosexual, literally meaning "same sex", is used as an adjective to describe same-sex or same-gender attraction. ... The term introduces ambiguity because is often applied as an identity label to a person or group based on their behaviors, not because of self-identified sexual orientation or sexual desires. ... in addition to having potentially negative connotations, homosexual is unclear as to what group of people it describes...
    4. ^ "General Definitions". LGBT Resource Center. Retrieved 4 August 2023.
    5. ^ a b c "Sexual orientation, homosexuality and bisexuality". American Psychological Association. Archived from the original on 8 August 2013. Retrieved 10 August 2013.
    6. ^ a b "Case No. S147999 in the Supreme Court of the State of California, In re Marriage Cases Judicial Council Coordination Proceeding No. 4365... – APA California Amicus Brief — As Filed" (PDF). p. 30. Archived (PDF) from the original on 3 January 2020. Retrieved 21 December 2010.
    7. ^ a b c Frankowski BL; American Academy of Pediatrics Committee on Adolescence (June 2004). "Sexual orientation and adolescents". Pediatrics. 113 (6): 1827–32. doi:10.1542/peds.113.6.1827. PMID 15173519. Archived from the original on 20 March 2013. Retrieved 18 September 2012.
    8. ^ Gail Wiscarz Stuart (2014). Principles and Practice of Psychiatric Nursing. Elsevier Health Sciences. p. 502. ISBN 978-0323294126. Archived from the original on 30 November 2016. Retrieved 11 February 2016. No conclusive evidence supports any one specific cause of homosexuality; however, most researchers agree that biological and social factors influence the development of sexual orientation.
    9. ^ Gloria Kersey-Matusiak (2012). Delivering Culturally Competent Nursing Care. Springer Publishing Company. p. 169. ISBN 978-0826193810. Archived from the original on 30 November 2016. Retrieved 10 February 2016. Most health and mental health organizations do not view sexual orientation as a 'choice.'
    10. ^ a b Bailey JM, Vasey PL, Diamond LM, Breedlove SM, Vilain E, Epprecht M (2016). "Sexual Orientation, Controversy, and Science". Psychological Science in the Public Interest. 17 (21): 45–101. doi:10.1177/1529100616637616. PMID 27113562.
    11. ^ LeVay, Simon (2017). Gay, Straight, and the Reason Why: The Science of Sexual Orientation. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780199752966. Archived from the original on 22 October 2020. Retrieved 27 July 2019.
    12. ^ Balthazart, Jacques (2012). The Biology of Homosexuality. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780199838820. Archived from the original on 26 January 2021. Retrieved 27 July 2019.
    13. ^ "Submission to the Church of England's Listening Exercise on Human Sexuality". The Royal College of Psychiatrists. Archived from the original on 16 October 2015. Retrieved 13 June 2013.
    14. ^ Robinson, B. A. (2010). "Divergent beliefs about the nature of homosexuality". Religious Tolerance.org. Archived from the original on 10 May 2019. Retrieved 12 September 2011.
    15. ^ "'Therapies' to change sexual orientation lack medical justification and threaten health". Pan American Health Organization. Archived from the original on 23 May 2012. Retrieved 26 May 2012.
    16. ^ "Resolution on Appropriate Affirmative Responses to Sexual Orientation Distress and Change Efforts". American Psychological Association. 2009. Archived from the original on 23 April 2022. Retrieved 18 August 2022.
    17. ^ "Psychological practices that attempt to change sexual orientation: Position statement". Australian Psychological Society. Archived from the original on 12 November 2020. Retrieved 28 January 2020.
    18. ^ LeVay, Simon (1996). Queer Science: The Use and Abuse of Research into Homosexuality Archived 13 December 2017 at the Wayback Machine. Cambridge: The MIT Press ISBN 0-262-12199-9
    19. ^ "Same-sex Behavior Seen in Nearly All Animals, Review Finds". ScienceDaily. Archived from the original on 18 June 2009. Retrieved 9 March 2018.
    20. ^ "1,500 animal species practice homosexuality. The Medical News, 23 October 2006". Archived from the original on 10 February 2011.
    21. ^ Sommer, Volker & Paul L. Vasey (2006), Homosexual Behaviour in Animals, An Evolutionary Perspective. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. ISBN 0-521-86446-1
    22. ^ (Bagemihl 1999)
    23. ^ Cite error: The named reference Biological Exuberance: Animal was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    24. ^ [19][20][21][22][23]
    25. ^ Sexual Orientation Archived 26 July 2011 at the Wayback Machine. American Psychiatric Association.
     
  17. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    9 June 1934Donald Duck makes his debut in The Wise Little Hen.

    The Wise Little Hen

    The Wise Little Hen is a 1934 Walt Disney's Silly Symphony cartoon, based on the fable The Little Red Hen. The cartoon features the debut of Donald Duck, dancing to "The Sailor's Hornpipe".[3] Donald and his friend Peter Pig try to avoid work by faking stomach aches until Mrs. Hen teaches them the value of labor.

    1. ^ "Happy Birthday Donald Duck! Walt Disney's "The Wise Little Hen" (1934) |". Cartoon Research. Retrieved March 14, 2018.
    2. ^ Kaufman, J.B. (June 8, 2020). "When's Your Birthday?". Cartoon Research. Retrieved September 26, 2020.
    3. ^ Lenburg, Jeff (1999). The Encyclopedia of Animated Cartoons. Checkmark Books. pp. 74–76. ISBN 0-8160-3831-7. Retrieved June 6, 2020.
     
  18. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    10 June 1947Saab produces its first automobile.

    Saab Automobile

    Saab Automobile AB[1][2] (/sɑːb/) was a car manufacturer that was founded in Sweden in 1945 when its parent company, Saab AB, began a project to design a small automobile. The first production model, the Saab 92, was launched in 1949. In 1968 the parent company merged with Scania-Vabis, and ten years later the Saab 900 was launched, in time becoming Saab's best-selling model. In the mid-1980s the new Saab 9000 model also appeared.

    In 1989, the automobile division of Saab-Scania was restructured into an independent company, Saab Automobile AB. The American manufacturer General Motors (GM) took 50 percent ownership. Two well-known models to come out of this period were the Saab 9-3 and the Saab 9-5. Then in 2000, GM exercised its option to acquire the remaining 50 percent. In 2010 GM sold Saab Automobile AB to the Dutch automobile manufacturer Spyker Cars N.V.[3][4]

    Saab 900

    After many years establishing a sound engineering reputation and ultimately a luxury price tag, Saab failed to build its customer base beyond its niche following.[5] After struggling to avoid insolvency throughout 2011, the company petitioned for bankruptcy following the failure of a Chinese consortium to complete a purchase of the company; the purchase had been blocked by the former owner GM, which opposed the transfer of technology and production rights to a Chinese company.[6] On 13 June 2012, it was announced that a newly formed company called National Electric Vehicle Sweden (NEVS) had bought Saab Automobile's bankrupt estate.[7] According to "Saab United", the first NEVS Saab 9-3 drove off its pre-production line on 19 September 2013.[8] Full production restarted on 2 December 2013,[9] initially the same petrol-powered 9-3 Aero sedans that were built before Saab went bankrupt, and intended to get the car manufacturer's supply chain re-established as it attempted development of a new line of NEVS-Saab products.[10][11] NEVS lost its license to manufacture automobiles under the Saab name (which the namesake aerospace company still owns) in the summer of 2014 and later produced electric cars based on the Saab 9-3 but under its own new car designation "NEVS".[12][13]

    1. ^ "History and Background: Timeline, Video". US: Saab Group. 1 January 1980. Archived from the original on 23 February 2009. Retrieved 11 February 2009.
    2. ^ "The History of Svenska Aeroplan Aktiebolaget or Saab". Saab history. Retrieved 30 January 2010.[permanent dead link]
    3. ^ Durrenberger, E. Paul (15 August 2017). Uncertain Times: Anthropological Approaches to Labor in a Neoliberal World. University Press of Colorado. ISBN 978-1-60732-631-1. Archived from the original on 3 September 2023. Retrieved 28 October 2020.
    4. ^ "Spyker Cars finalises the purchase of Saab" (PDF) (Press release). Spyker. 23 February 2010. Archived (PDF) from the original on 7 August 2011. Retrieved 17 December 2013.
    5. ^ "The People Who Will Miss Saab the Most; With the bankruptcy and impending doom facing Saab, we mourn with the certain, loyal fans that will miss the Swedish auto-maker". US: The Atlantic. 19 December 2011. Archived from the original on 7 November 2019. Retrieved 7 November 2019.
    6. ^ "Saab Automobile Files for Bankruptcy" (Press release). Saab Automobile. 19 December 2011. Archived from the original on 7 January 2012. Retrieved 20 December 2011..
    7. ^ Zachariasson, Helena (13 June 2012). "Saab har fatt en kopare" [Saab's new owners will hire hundreds]. SVT (in Swedish). SE. Archived from the original on 23 October 2012. Retrieved 20 October 2012.
    8. ^ "First Nevs Saab Rolls off Pre-Production Line" (Youtube) (video Posted). Trollhättan: Saab Group. 19 September 2013. Archived from the original on 3 December 2013. Retrieved 6 October 2013.
    9. ^ Lönnroth, Valdemar (28 November 2014), "Lööf på plats nar Nevs drar igang produktion" [Lööf in place when Nevs kicks off production], Ttela (in Swedish), SE[permanent dead link].
    10. ^ Gastelu, Gary (2 December 2013). "Saab restarts production". Fox News. Archived from the original on 18 February 2015. Retrieved 21 February 2015.
    11. ^ Stoll, John D. (2 December 2013). "Saab Automobile Is Poised to Resume Production". Gasgoo Automotive News. Archived from the original on 21 February 2015. Retrieved 21 February 2015.
    12. ^ Saab carmaker NEVS granted creditor protection by court but loses right to use Saab name; Automotive News Europe, 29 August 2014, at europe.autonews.com Archived 15 September 2019 at the Wayback Machine Accessed 8 November 2017
    13. ^ "nevs.com: NEVS launches its new trademark". Archived from the original on 14 September 2016.
     
  19. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    11 June 1837 – The Broad Street Riot occurs in Boston, fueled by ethnic tensions between Yankees and Irish.

    Broad Street Riot

    The Broad Street Riot was a massive brawl that occurred in Boston, Massachusetts, on June 11, 1837, between Irish Americans and Yankee firefighters. An estimated 800 people were involved in the actual fighting, with at least 10,000 spectators egging them on. Nearby homes were sacked and vandalized, and the occupants beaten. Many on both sides were seriously injured, but no immediate deaths resulted from the violence. After raging for hours, the riot was quelled when Mayor Samuel Eliot called in the state militia.

    In the wake of the riot, Boston's police and fire departments were established.

     
  20. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    12 June 1776 – The Virginia Declaration of Rights is adopted.

    Virginia Declaration of Rights

    The Virginia Declaration of Rights was drafted in 1776 to proclaim the inherent rights of men, including the right to reform or abolish "inadequate" government.[2] It influenced a number of later documents, including the United States Declaration of Independence (1776) and the United States Bill of Rights (1789).[3]

    1. ^ "American Treasures of the Library of Congress". Library of Congress. August 2007. Retrieved May 2, 2019.
    2. ^ "The Virginia Declaration of Rights; Article 3". Archived from the original on June 3, 2013. Retrieved May 1, 2015.
    3. ^ McDonald, Robert (2008). "Mason, George (1725–1792)". In Hamowy, Ronald (ed.). The Encyclopedia of Libertarianism. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE; Cato Institute. p. 321. doi:10.4135/9781412965811.n194. ISBN 978-1-4129-6580-4. LCCN 2008009151. OCLC 750831024.
     
  21. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    13 June 1996 – The Montana Freemen surrender after an 81-day standoff with FBI agents.

    Montana Freemen

    The Montana Freemen were an anti-government Christian Patriot militia based outside the town of Jordan, Montana, United States. The members of the group referred to their land as "Justus Township" and had declared their leaders and followers "sovereign citizens" no longer under the authority of any outside government. They became the center of public attention in 1996 when they engaged in a prolonged armed standoff with agents of the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI).

     
  22. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    14 June 1777 – The Stars and Stripes is adopted by Congress as the Flag of the United States.

    Flag of the United States

    The national flag of the United States, often referred to as the American flag or the U.S. flag, consists of thirteen equal horizontal stripes of red (top and bottom) alternating with white, with a blue rectangle in the canton, referred to as the union and bearing fifty small, white, five-pointed stars arranged in nine offset horizontal rows, where rows of six stars (top and bottom) alternate with rows of five stars. The 50 stars on the flag represent the 50 U.S. states, and the 13 stripes represent the thirteen British colonies that declared independence from Great Britain, which they obtained in their victory in the American Revolutionary War.[1]

    During the Revolutionary War era, the "Rebellious Stripes" were considered as the most important element of United States flag designs, and were always mentioned before the stars. The "Stripes and Stars" was a popular phrase into the 19th century. Credit for the term "Stars and Stripes" has been given to the Marquis de Lafayette, a French soldier who volunteered his aid to the Continental Army, led by George Washington, in the Revolutionary War against Britain.[2]

    Nicknames for the flag include the Stars and Stripes,[3] Old Glory, and The Star-Spangled Banner.

    1. ^ Warner, John (1998). "Senate Concurrent Resolution 61" (PDF). U.S. Government Printing Office. Archived (PDF) from the original on May 6, 2009. Retrieved April 5, 2014.
    2. ^ "USFlag.org: A website dedicated to the Flag of the United States of America – "OLD GLORY!"". www.usflag.org. Retrieved December 13, 2015.
    3. ^ "History of the American Flag". www.infoplease.com. Retrieved December 13, 2015.
     
  23. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    15 June 2012Nik Wallenda becomes the first person to successfully tightrope walk directly over Niagara Falls.

    Nik Wallenda

    Nikolas Wallenda (born January 24, 1979) is an American acrobat, aerialist, daredevil, high wire artist, and author. He is known for his high-wire performances without a safety net. He holds 11 Guinness World Records for various acrobatic feats, and is best known as the first person to walk a tightrope stretched directly over Niagara Falls. Wallenda walked 1,800 feet (550 m) on a steel cable over Masaya Volcano in Nicaragua, his longest walk, on March 4, 2020.

    Wallenda is a 7th-generation member of The Flying Wallendas family, and he participated in various circus acts as a child. He made his professional tightrope walking debut at the age of 13, and he chose high-wire walking as his career in 1998 after joining family members in a seven-person pyramid on the wire. In 2001, he was part of the world's first eight-person high-wire pyramid. He performed with his family at various venues from 2002 to 2005, forming his own troupe in 2005. He performed with Bello Nock in 2007 and 2008 in a double version of the Wheel of Steel that he helped invent. In 2009, he set new personal bests for highest and longest tightrope walks, completing a total of 15 walks above 100 feet (30 m) in the air that year.

    In 2008, while performing with Ringling Bros., Wallenda set Guinness World Records for longest and highest bicycle ride on a high-wire 250-foot-long (76 m) at 135 feet (41 m) above the ground in New Jersey. He nearly doubled the height record in 2010 to 260 feet (79 m). On the same day in 2010, he upped his personal best by tightrope walking over 2,000 feet (610 m) in a single performance. He set a world record in 2011 by performing on the Wheel of Death atop the 23 story Tropicana Casino and Resort. Later that year, he and his mother tightrope walked between the two towers of Condado Plaza Hotel in Puerto Rico. The feat was a re-creation of the one that killed Karl Wallenda, Nik's great-grandfather and primary source of inspiration. On June 10, 2011, Wallenda hung from a helicopter 250 feet (76 m) off the ground using only his toes to hold on.[3] Some time after that, he walked on top of a turning Ferris wheel at the Santa Cruz Beach Boardwalk in California.

    Wallenda crossed Niagara Falls on June 15, 2012 on a live ABC special, following a two-year legal battle involving both sides of the Canada–United States border to gain approval. He was required to wear a safety harness for the first time in his life. A reality show aired on the Science Channel which followed his feats. In 2013, he released a memoir entitled Balance. He became the first person to high-wire walk across the Grand Canyon on June 23, 2013. The feat aired live on the Discovery Channel breaking rating records for the network. He followed that up with Skyscraper Live, a live Discovery special that aired on November 2, 2014, in which he completed two tightrope walks and set two new Guinness World Records: one for walking the steepest tightrope incline over 600 feet (180 m) up between two skyscrapers, and the other for the highest tightrope walk while blindfolded.

    Wallenda is married with three children, and considers his Christian faith to be a central aspect of his life.

    1. ^ Cite error: The named reference Today was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    2. ^ Cite error: The named reference Chicago was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    3. ^ "Nik Wallenda hangs from helicopter by his toes". June 10, 2011. Retrieved April 19, 2017.
     
  24. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    16 June 1940 – A Communist government is installed in Lithuania.

    Lithuania

    Lithuania (/ˌlɪθjuˈniə/ LITH-yoo-AYN-ee-ə;[13] Lithuanian: Lietuva [lʲɪɛtʊˈvɐ]), officially the Republic of Lithuania (Lithuanian: Lietuvos Respublika [lʲɪɛtʊˈvoːs rʲɛsˈpʊblʲɪkɐ]), is a country in the Baltic region of Europe.[a] It is one of three Baltic states and lies on the eastern shore of the Baltic Sea. It borders Latvia to the north, Belarus to the east and south, Poland to the south, and Russia to the southwest,[b] with a maritime border with Sweden to the west. Lithuania covers an area of 65,300 km2 (25,200 sq mi), with a population of 2.86 million. Its capital and largest city is Vilnius; other major cities are Kaunas, Klaipėda, Šiauliai and Panevėžys. Lithuanians belong to the ethnolinguistic group of the Balts and speak Lithuanian, one of only a few living Baltic languages, and the most widely spoken.

    For millennia, the southeastern shores of the Baltic Sea were inhabited by various Baltic tribes. In the 1230s, Lithuanian lands were united for the first time by Mindaugas, who formed the Kingdom of Lithuania on 6 July 1253. Subsequent expansion and consolidation resulted in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, which by the 14th century was the largest country in Europe.[20] In 1386, the Grand Duchy entered into a de facto personal union with the Crown of the Kingdom of Poland. The two realms were united into the bi-confederal Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth in 1569, forming one of the largest and most prosperous states in Europe. The Commonwealth lasted more than two centuries, until neighbouring countries gradually dismantled it between 1772 and 1795, with the Russian Empire annexing most of Lithuania's territory. Towards the end of World War I, Lithuania declared Independence in 1918, founding the modern Republic of Lithuania. In World War II, Lithuania was occupied by the Soviet Union, then by Nazi Germany, before being reoccupied by the Soviets in 1944. Lithuanian armed resistance to the Soviet occupation lasted until the early 1950s. On 11 March 1990, a year before the formal dissolution of the Soviet Union, Lithuania became the first Soviet republic to break away when it proclaimed the restoration of its independence.[21]

    Lithuania is a developed country with a high income, advanced economy, ranking 35th in the Human Development Index. Lithuania is a member of the European Union, the Council of Europe, the eurozone, the Nordic Investment Bank, the Schengen Agreement, NATO, and OECD. It also participates in the Nordic-Baltic Eight (NB8) regional co-operation format.

    1. ^ "Lithuania's Constitution of 1992 with Amendments through 2019" (PDF). Constitute Project.
    2. ^ "Rodiklių duomenų bazė - Oficialiosios statistikos portalas". osp.stat.gov.lt.
    3. ^ "Population by religious community indicated, municipalities (2021)" (in Lithuanian). Statistics Lithuania. Retrieved 2 January 2022.
    4. ^ Kulikauskienė, Lina (2002). Lietuvos Respublikos Konstitucija [The Constitution of the Republic of Lithuania] (in Lithuanian). Native History, CD. ISBN 978-9986-9216-7-7.
    5. ^ Veser, Ernst (23 September 1997). "Semi-Presidentialism-Duverger's Concept – A New Political System Model" (PDF) (in English and Chinese). Department of Education, School of Education, University of Cologne. pp. 39–60. Archived from the original (PDF) on 24 April 2021. Retrieved 23 August 2017. Duhamel has developed the approach further: He stresses that the French construction does not correspond to either parliamentary or the presidential form of government, and then develops the distinction of 'système politique' and 'régime constitutionnel'. While the former comprises the exercise of power that results from the dominant institutional practice, the latter is the totality of the rules for the dominant institutional practice of the power. In this way, France appears as 'presidentialist system' endowed with a 'semi-presidential regime' (1983: 587). By this standard he recognizes Duverger's pléiade as semi-presidential regimes, as well as Poland, Romania, Bulgaria and Lithuania (1993: 87).
    6. ^ Shugart, Matthew Søberg (September 2005). "Semi-Presidential Systems: Dual Executive and Mixed Authority Patterns" (PDF). Graduate School of International Relations and Pacific Studies. United States: University of California, San Diego. Archived from the original (PDF) on 19 August 2008. Retrieved 23 August 2017.
    7. ^ Shugart, Matthew Søberg (December 2005). "Semi-Presidential Systems: Dual Executive And Mixed Authority Patterns". French Politics. Palgrave Macmillan Journals. 3 (3): 323–351. doi:10.1057/palgrave.fp.8200087. A pattern similar to the French case of compatible majorities alternating with periods of cohabitation emerged in Lithuania, where Talat-Kelpsa (2001) notes that the ability of the Lithuanian president to influence government formation and policy declined abruptly when he lost the sympathetic majority in parliament.
    8. ^ "Surface water and surface water change". Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). Retrieved 11 October 2020.
    9. ^ "Pradžia – Oficialiosios statistikos portalas". osp.stat.gov.lt.
    10. ^ a b c d "World Economic Outlook Database, October 2023 Edition. (Lithuania)". International Monetary Fund. 10 October 2023. Retrieved 11 October 2023.
    11. ^ "Gini coefficient of equivalised disposable income". Eurostat. Archived from the original on 9 October 2020. Retrieved 22 June 2022.
    12. ^ "Human Development Report 2021/2022" (PDF). United Nations Development Programme. 8 September 2022. Retrieved 8 September 2022.
    13. ^ Jones, Daniel (2011). Roach, Peter; Setter, Jane; Esling, John (eds.). Cambridge English Pronouncing Dictionary (18th ed.). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-15253-2.
    14. ^ "United Nations Statistics Division- Standard Country and Area Codes Classifications (M49)-Geographic Regions". Unstats.un.org.
    15. ^ "Lithuania - EU Vocabularies - Publications Office of the EU". op.europa.eu. Retrieved 9 March 2023.
    16. ^ "Lithuania". CIA World Factbook. 22 September 2021.
    17. ^ "Lithuania". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 1 September 2017.
    18. ^ "Lithuania". Europe Direct Strasbourg.
    19. ^ Bershidsky, Leonid (10 January 2017). "Why the Baltics Want to Move to Another Part of Europe". Bloomberg. Retrieved 1 September 2017.
    20. ^ Cite error: The named reference Bideleux was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    21. ^ "Lithuania breaks away from the Soviet Union". The Guardian. London. 12 March 1990. Retrieved 7 June 2018. Lithuania last night became the first republic to break away from the Soviet Union, by proclaiming the restoration of its pre-war independence. The newly-elected parliament, 'reflecting the people's will,' decreed the restoration of 'the sovereign rights of the Lithuanian state, infringed by alien forces in 1940,' and declared that from that moment Lithuania was again an independent state


    Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

     
  25. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    16 June 1940 – A Communist government is installed in Lithuania.

    Lithuania

    Lithuania (/ˌlɪθjuˈniə/ LITH-yoo-AYN-ee-ə;[13] Lithuanian: Lietuva [lʲɪɛtʊˈvɐ]), officially the Republic of Lithuania (Lithuanian: Lietuvos Respublika [lʲɪɛtʊˈvoːs rʲɛsˈpʊblʲɪkɐ]), is a country in the Baltic region of Europe.[a] It is one of three Baltic states and lies on the eastern shore of the Baltic Sea. It borders Latvia to the north, Belarus to the east and south, Poland to the south, and Russia to the southwest,[b] with a maritime border with Sweden to the west. Lithuania covers an area of 65,300 km2 (25,200 sq mi), with a population of 2.86 million. Its capital and largest city is Vilnius; other major cities are Kaunas, Klaipėda, Šiauliai and Panevėžys. Lithuanians belong to the ethnolinguistic group of the Balts and speak Lithuanian, one of only a few living Baltic languages, and the most widely spoken.

    For millennia, the southeastern shores of the Baltic Sea were inhabited by various Baltic tribes. In the 1230s, Lithuanian lands were united for the first time by Mindaugas, who formed the Kingdom of Lithuania on 6 July 1253. Subsequent expansion and consolidation resulted in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, which by the 14th century was the largest country in Europe.[20] In 1386, the Grand Duchy entered into a de facto personal union with the Crown of the Kingdom of Poland. The two realms were united into the bi-confederal Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth in 1569, forming one of the largest and most prosperous states in Europe. The Commonwealth lasted more than two centuries, until neighbouring countries gradually dismantled it between 1772 and 1795, with the Russian Empire annexing most of Lithuania's territory. Towards the end of World War I, Lithuania declared Independence in 1918, founding the modern Republic of Lithuania. In World War II, Lithuania was occupied by the Soviet Union, then by Nazi Germany, before being reoccupied by the Soviets in 1944. Lithuanian armed resistance to the Soviet occupation lasted until the early 1950s. On 11 March 1990, a year before the formal dissolution of the Soviet Union, Lithuania became the first Soviet republic to break away when it proclaimed the restoration of its independence.[21]

    Lithuania is a developed country with a high income, advanced economy, ranking 35th in the Human Development Index. Lithuania is a member of the European Union, the Council of Europe, the eurozone, the Nordic Investment Bank, the Schengen Agreement, NATO, and OECD. It also participates in the Nordic-Baltic Eight (NB8) regional co-operation format.

    1. ^ "Lithuania's Constitution of 1992 with Amendments through 2019" (PDF). Constitute Project.
    2. ^ "Rodiklių duomenų bazė - Oficialiosios statistikos portalas". osp.stat.gov.lt.
    3. ^ "Population by religious community indicated, municipalities (2021)" (in Lithuanian). Statistics Lithuania. Retrieved 2 January 2022.
    4. ^ Kulikauskienė, Lina (2002). Lietuvos Respublikos Konstitucija [The Constitution of the Republic of Lithuania] (in Lithuanian). Native History, CD. ISBN 978-9986-9216-7-7.
    5. ^ Veser, Ernst (23 September 1997). "Semi-Presidentialism-Duverger's Concept – A New Political System Model" (PDF) (in English and Chinese). Department of Education, School of Education, University of Cologne. pp. 39–60. Archived from the original (PDF) on 24 April 2021. Retrieved 23 August 2017. Duhamel has developed the approach further: He stresses that the French construction does not correspond to either parliamentary or the presidential form of government, and then develops the distinction of 'système politique' and 'régime constitutionnel'. While the former comprises the exercise of power that results from the dominant institutional practice, the latter is the totality of the rules for the dominant institutional practice of the power. In this way, France appears as 'presidentialist system' endowed with a 'semi-presidential regime' (1983: 587). By this standard he recognizes Duverger's pléiade as semi-presidential regimes, as well as Poland, Romania, Bulgaria and Lithuania (1993: 87).
    6. ^ Shugart, Matthew Søberg (September 2005). "Semi-Presidential Systems: Dual Executive and Mixed Authority Patterns" (PDF). Graduate School of International Relations and Pacific Studies. United States: University of California, San Diego. Archived from the original (PDF) on 19 August 2008. Retrieved 23 August 2017.
    7. ^ Shugart, Matthew Søberg (December 2005). "Semi-Presidential Systems: Dual Executive And Mixed Authority Patterns". French Politics. Palgrave Macmillan Journals. 3 (3): 323–351. doi:10.1057/palgrave.fp.8200087. A pattern similar to the French case of compatible majorities alternating with periods of cohabitation emerged in Lithuania, where Talat-Kelpsa (2001) notes that the ability of the Lithuanian president to influence government formation and policy declined abruptly when he lost the sympathetic majority in parliament.
    8. ^ "Surface water and surface water change". Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). Retrieved 11 October 2020.
    9. ^ "Pradžia – Oficialiosios statistikos portalas". osp.stat.gov.lt.
    10. ^ a b c d "World Economic Outlook Database, October 2023 Edition. (Lithuania)". International Monetary Fund. 10 October 2023. Retrieved 11 October 2023.
    11. ^ "Gini coefficient of equivalised disposable income". Eurostat. Archived from the original on 9 October 2020. Retrieved 22 June 2022.
    12. ^ "Human Development Report 2021/2022" (PDF). United Nations Development Programme. 8 September 2022. Retrieved 8 September 2022.
    13. ^ Jones, Daniel (2011). Roach, Peter; Setter, Jane; Esling, John (eds.). Cambridge English Pronouncing Dictionary (18th ed.). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-15253-2.
    14. ^ "United Nations Statistics Division- Standard Country and Area Codes Classifications (M49)-Geographic Regions". Unstats.un.org.
    15. ^ "Lithuania - EU Vocabularies - Publications Office of the EU". op.europa.eu. Retrieved 9 March 2023.
    16. ^ "Lithuania". CIA World Factbook. 22 September 2021.
    17. ^ "Lithuania". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 1 September 2017.
    18. ^ "Lithuania". Europe Direct Strasbourg.
    19. ^ Bershidsky, Leonid (10 January 2017). "Why the Baltics Want to Move to Another Part of Europe". Bloomberg. Retrieved 1 September 2017.
    20. ^ Cite error: The named reference Bideleux was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    21. ^ "Lithuania breaks away from the Soviet Union". The Guardian. London. 12 March 1990. Retrieved 7 June 2018. Lithuania last night became the first republic to break away from the Soviet Union, by proclaiming the restoration of its pre-war independence. The newly-elected parliament, 'reflecting the people's will,' decreed the restoration of 'the sovereign rights of the Lithuanian state, infringed by alien forces in 1940,' and declared that from that moment Lithuania was again an independent state


    Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

     
  26. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    17 June 1843 – The Wairau Affray, the first serious clash of arms between Māori and British settlers in the New Zealand Wars, takes place.

    Wairau Affray

    The Wairau Affray of 17 June 1843,[1] also called the Wairau Massacre and the Wairau Incident, was the first serious clash of arms between British settlers and Māori in New Zealand after the signing of the Treaty of Waitangi and the only one to take place in the South Island.[2]: 182  The incident was sparked when a magistrate and a representative of the New Zealand Company, who held a duplicitous deed to land in the Wairau Valley in Marlborough in the north of the South Island, led a group of European settlers to attempt to arrest Ngāti Toa chiefs Te Rauparaha and Te Rangihaeata.[3] Fighting broke out and 22 British settlers were killed, nine after their surrender. Four Māori were killed, including Te Rongo, who was Te Rangihaeata's wife.

    The incident heightened fears among settlers of an armed Māori insurrection.[4]: 236–237  It created the first major challenge for Governor Robert FitzRoy, who took up his posting in New Zealand six months later. FitzRoy investigated the incident and exonerated Te Rauparaha and Te Rangihaeata, for which he was strongly criticised by settlers and the New Zealand Company. In 1944 a land claims commission investigation determined that the Wairau Valley had not been legally sold. The government was to pay compensation to the Rangitāne iwi, determined to be the original owners (until the early 1830s, when Te Rauparaha had driven them from the area).

    1. ^ "Wairau Affray". Southern Cross. Vol. 2, no. 69. 10 August 1844. p. 2.
    2. ^ King, Michael (2003). The Penguin History of New Zealand. Penguin Books.
    3. ^ Baker, Matiu (12 June 2015). "The Blenkinsop Indenture: Dirty deeds done dirt cheap!". Te Papa’s Blog. Retrieved 19 September 2023.
    4. ^ Burns, Patricia (1989). Fatal Success: A History of the New Zealand Company (1st ed.). Auckland: Heinemann Reed.
     
  27. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    18 June 1887 – The Reinsurance Treaty between Germany and Russia is signed.

    Reinsurance Treaty

    The Reinsurance Treaty was a diplomatic agreement between the German Empire and the Russian Empire that was in effect from 1887 to 1890. The existence of the agreement was not known to the general public, and as such, was only known to a handful of officials in Berlin and St. Petersburg. The treaty played a critical role in German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck's network of alliances and agreements, which aimed to keep the peace in Europe as well as maintaining Germany's economic, diplomatic and political dominance. It helped calm tensions between both Russia and Germany.

    The treaty provided that both parties would remain neutral if the other became involved in a war with a third great power, with the exception of if Germany attacked France or if Russia attacked Austria-Hungary. Germany made concessions to Russia by changing its stance on Bulgaria and Eastern Rumelia (now part of southern Bulgaria), agreeing that they were in the Russian sphere of influence and agreeing to support Russian action to keep the Black Sea as its own preserve. After Bismarck had lost power in 1890, his enemies in the Foreign Ministry convinced the Kaiser that the treaty was too much in Russia's favor and should not be renewed. The cancellation, as with the treaty itself, was generally held from the public. Russia, however, had not wanted to terminate the alliance. Needing new allies, Russia opened negotiations with Germany's enemy, France. The resulting Franco-Russian Alliance of 1891–1892 to 1917 rapidly began to take shape. Historians consider the new alliance a major disaster for Germany and one of the long-term causes of the First World War.[1]

    1. ^ George F. Kennan, "The Aftermath of the Reinsurance Treaty" in his The Decline of Bismarck's European Order (Princeton UP, 1981) pp. 343–358.
     
  28. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    19 June 1991 – The Soviet occupation of Hungary ends.

    Hungary–Soviet Union relations

    Hungarian–Soviet relations were characterized by political, economic, and cultural interventions by the Soviet Union in internal Hungarian politics for 45 years, the length of the Cold War. Hungary became a member of the Warsaw Pact in 1955; since the end of World War II, Soviet troops were stationed in the country, intervening at the time of the Hungarian Revolution of 1956. Starting in March 1990, the Soviet Army began leaving Hungary, with the last troops being withdrawn on June 19, 1991.

     
  29. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    20 June 1837Queen Victoria succeeds to the British throne.

    Queen Victoria

    Victoria (Alexandrina Victoria; 24 May 1819 – 22 January 1901) was Queen of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland from 20 June 1837 until her death in 1901. Her reign of 63 years and 216 days, which was longer than those of any of her predecessors, is known as the Victorian era. It was a period of industrial, political, scientific, and military change within the United Kingdom, and was marked by a great expansion of the British Empire. In 1876, the British Parliament voted to grant her the additional title of Empress of India.

    Victoria was the daughter of Prince Edward, Duke of Kent and Strathearn (the fourth son of King George III), and Princess Victoria of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld. After the deaths of her father and grandfather in 1820, she was raised under close supervision by her mother and her comptroller, John Conroy. She inherited the throne aged 18 after her father's three elder brothers died without surviving legitimate issue. Victoria, a constitutional monarch, attempted privately to influence government policy and ministerial appointments; publicly, she became a national icon who was identified with strict standards of personal morality.

    Victoria married her first cousin, Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, in 1840. Their nine children married into royal and noble families across the continent, earning Victoria the sobriquet "grandmother of Europe". After Albert's death in 1861, Victoria plunged into deep mourning and avoided public appearances. As a result of her seclusion, British republicanism temporarily gained strength, but in the latter half of her reign, her popularity recovered. Her Golden and Diamond jubilees were times of public celebration. Victoria died in 1901 at Osborne House on the Isle of Wight, at the age of 81. The last British monarch of the House of Hanover, she was succeeded by her son Edward VII of the House of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha.
    Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

     
  30. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    21 June 2006Pluto's newly discovered moons are officially named Nix and Hydra.

    Pluto

    Pluto (minor-planet designation: 134340 Pluto) is a dwarf planet in the Kuiper belt, a ring of bodies beyond the orbit of Neptune. It is the ninth-largest and tenth-most-massive known object to directly orbit the Sun. It is the largest known trans-Neptunian object by volume, by a small margin, but is less massive than Eris. Like other Kuiper belt objects, Pluto is made primarily of ice and rock and is much smaller than the inner planets. Pluto has only one sixth the mass of Earth's moon, and one third its volume.

    Pluto has a moderately eccentric and inclined orbit, ranging from 30 to 49 astronomical units (4.5 to 7.3 billion kilometers; 2.8 to 4.6 billion miles) from the Sun. Light from the Sun takes 5.5 hours to reach Pluto at its orbital distance of 39.5 AU (5.91 billion km; 3.67 billion mi). Pluto's eccentric orbit periodically brings it closer to the Sun than Neptune, but a stable orbital resonance prevents them from colliding.

    Pluto has five known moons: Charon, the largest, whose diameter is just over half that of Pluto; Styx; Nix; Kerberos; and Hydra. Pluto and Charon are sometimes considered a binary system because the barycenter of their orbits does not lie within either body, and they are tidally locked. The New Horizons mission was the first spacecraft to visit Pluto and its moons, making a flyby on July 14, 2015, and taking detailed measurements and observations.

    Pluto was discovered in 1930 by Clyde W. Tombaugh, making it by far the first known object in the Kuiper belt. It was immediately hailed as the ninth planet, but it was always the odd object out,[14]: 27  and its planetary status was questioned when it was found to be much smaller than expected. These doubts increased following the discovery of additional objects in the Kuiper belt starting in the 1990s, and particularly the more massive scattered disk object Eris in 2005. In 2006, the International Astronomical Union (IAU) formally redefined the term planet to exclude dwarf planets such as Pluto. Many planetary astronomers, however, continue to consider Pluto and other dwarf planets to be planets.


    Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

    1. ^ "Plutonian". Oxford English Dictionary (Online ed.). Oxford University Press. (Subscription or participating institution membership required.)
    2. ^ Cite error: The named reference TOP2013 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    3. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k Cite error: The named reference Pluto Fact Sheet was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    4. ^ Cite error: The named reference jpl-ssd-horizons was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    5. ^ a b Nimmo, Francis; et al. (2017). "Mean radius and shape of Pluto and Charon from New Horizons images". Icarus. 287: 12–29. arXiv:1603.00821. Bibcode:2017Icar..287...12N. doi:10.1016/j.icarus.2016.06.027. S2CID 44935431.
    6. ^ a b Stern, S.A.; Grundy, W.; McKinnon, W.B.; Weaver, H.A.; Young, L.A. (2017). "The Pluto System After New Horizons". Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics. 2018: 357–392. arXiv:1712.05669. Bibcode:2018ARA&A..56..357S. doi:10.1146/annurev-astro-081817-051935. S2CID 119072504.
    7. ^ a b c d Stern, S.A.; et al. (2015). "The Pluto system: Initial results from its exploration by New Horizons". Science. 350 (6258): 249–352. arXiv:1510.07704. Bibcode:2015Sci...350.1815S. doi:10.1126/science.aad1815. PMID 26472913. S2CID 1220226.
    8. ^ Seligman, Courtney. "Rotation Period and Day Length". Archived from the original on September 29, 2018. Retrieved June 12, 2021.
    9. ^ a b Cite error: The named reference Archinal was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    10. ^ Cite error: The named reference AstDys-Pluto was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    11. ^ Cite error: The named reference jpldata was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    12. ^ Amos, Jonathan (July 23, 2015). "New Horizons: Pluto may have 'nitrogen glaciers'". BBC News. Archived from the original on October 27, 2017. Retrieved July 26, 2015. It could tell from the passage of sunlight and radiowaves through the Plutonian "air" that the pressure was only about 10 microbars at the surface
    13. ^ Cite error: The named reference Physorg April 19, 2011 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    14. ^ Cite error: The named reference T&M was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
     
  31. Admin2

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    22 June 1918 – The Hammond Circus Train Wreck kills 86 and injures 127 near Hammond, Indiana.

    Hammond Circus Train Wreck

    The Hammond Circus Train Wreck occurred on June 22, 1918, and was one of the worst train wrecks in U.S. history. Eighty-six people were reported to have died and another 127 were injured when a locomotive engineer fell asleep and ran his troop train into the rear of a circus train near Hammond, Indiana. The circus train held 400 performers and roustabouts of the Hagenbeck–Wallace Circus.

     
  32. Admin2

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    23 June 1926 – The College Board administers the first SAT exam.

    SAT

    The SAT (/ˌɛsˌˈt/ ess-ay-TEE) is a standardized test widely used for college admissions in the United States. Since its debut in 1926, its name and scoring have changed several times. For much of its history, it was called the Scholastic Aptitude Test and had two components, Verbal and Mathematical, each of which was scored on a range from 200 to 800. Later it was called the Scholastic Assessment Test, then the SAT I: Reasoning Test, then the SAT Reasoning Test, then simply the SAT.

    The SAT is wholly owned, developed, and published by the College Board, a private, not-for-profit organization in the United States. It is administered on behalf of the College Board by the Educational Testing Service,[5] which until shortly before the 2016 redesign of the SAT developed the test and maintained a repository of items (test questions) as well.[6] The test is intended to assess students' readiness for college. Originally designed not to be aligned with high school curricula,[7] several adjustments were made for the version of the SAT introduced in 2016. College Board president David Coleman added that he wanted to make the test reflect more closely what students learn in high school with the new Common Core standards,[8] which have been adopted by the District of Columbia and many states.

    Starting with the 2015–16 school year, the College Board began working with Khan Academy to provide free SAT preparation.[9] On January 19, 2021, the College Board announced the discontinuation of the optional essay section, as well as its SAT Subject Tests, after June 2021.[10][11] In January 2022, the College Board announced that the test would move from paper and pencil to a digital format. This change occurred in March 2023 for international test-takers and on March 9, 2024 in the U.S.[12][13]

    While a considerable amount of research has been done on the SAT, many questions and misconceptions remain.[14][15] Outside of college admissions, the SAT is also used by researchers studying human intelligence in general and intellectual precociousness in particular,[16][17][18] and by some employers in the recruitment process.[19][20][21]

    1. ^ "How the SAT is Structured". College Board. Archived from the original on March 6, 2024. Retrieved March 10, 2024.
    2. ^ Goldberg, Emma (2020-09-27). "Put Down Your No. 2 Pencils. But Not Your Face Mask". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on 2020-12-04. Retrieved 2020-12-04.
    3. ^ Cite error: The named reference test takers was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    4. ^ "Fees And Costs". The College Board. Archived from the original on October 10, 2014. Retrieved October 13, 2014.
    5. ^ "Frequently Asked Questions About ETS". ETS. Archived from the original on July 15, 2014. Retrieved June 6, 2014.
    6. ^ "'Massive' breach exposes hundreds of questions for upcoming SAT exams". Reuters. Archived from the original on 19 July 2017. Retrieved 20 July 2017.
    7. ^ Baird, Katherine (2012). Trapped in Mediocrity: Why Our Schools Aren't World-Class and What We Can Do About It. Lanham: Rowman and Littlefield Publishers. "And a separate process that began in 1926 was complete by 1942: the much easier SAT—a test not aligned to any particular curriculum and thus better suited to a nation where high school students did not take a common curriculum—replaced the old college boards as the nations's college entrance exam. This broke the once tight link between academic coursework and college admission, a break that remains to this day."
    8. ^ Lewin, Tamar (March 5, 2014). "A New SAT Aims to Realign With Schoolwork". The New York Times. Archived from the original on May 13, 2014. Retrieved May 14, 2014. He said he also wanted to make the test reflect more closely what students did in high school and, perhaps most important, rein in the intense coaching and tutoring on how to take the test that often gave affluent students an advantage.
    9. ^ Balf, Todd (March 5, 2014). "The Story Behind the SAT Overhaul". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on June 16, 2017. Retrieved June 21, 2017.
    10. ^ "College Board Will No Longer Offer SAT Subject Tests or SAT with Essay – College Board Blog". College Board. Archived from the original on August 21, 2023. Retrieved February 14, 2021.
    11. ^ Hartocollis, Anemona; Taylor, Kate; Saul, Stephanie (January 20, 2021). "Retooling During Pandemic, the SAT Will Drop Essay and Subject Tests". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on 2021-12-28. Retrieved February 14, 2021.
    12. ^ Cite error: The named reference Thompson-2022 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    13. ^ Goldstein, Dana (March 8, 2024). "No More No. 2 Pencils: The SAT Goes Fully Digital". The New York Times. Archived from the original on March 8, 2024. Retrieved March 10, 2024.
    14. ^ Cite error: The named reference Frey-2019 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    15. ^ Cite error: The named reference Hambrick-2014 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    16. ^ Cite error: The named reference O'Boyle-2005 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    17. ^ Cite error: The named reference Haier-2018 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    18. ^ Cite error: The named reference Lubinsky-2018 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    19. ^ Cite error: The named reference Weber-2004 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    20. ^ Cite error: The named reference Treu-2014 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    21. ^ Cite error: The named reference Dewan-2014 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).


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  33. Admin2

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    24 June 1949 – The first television western, Hopalong Cassidy, is aired on NBC starring William Boyd.

    Hopalong Cassidy

    Hopalong Cassidy is a fictional cowboy hero created in 1904 by the author Clarence E. Mulford, who wrote a series of short stories and novels based on the character. Mulford portrayed the character as rude, dangerous, and rough-talking. He was shot in the leg during a gun fight which caused him to walk with a little "hop", hence the nickname.

    From the 1930s to the 1950s, the character became indelibly associated with actor William Boyd, who portrayed Cassidy first in a series of sixty-six films from 1935 to 1948, then in children-oriented radio and TV series, both of which lasted until 1952. Boyd's portrayal of Cassidy had little in common with the literary character, being instead a clean-cut, sarsaparilla-drinking hero who never shot first. The plots of the film, radio and TV series were generally not taken from Mulford's writings.

    At the peak of the character's popularity in the early 1950s, he spawned enormous amounts of merchandise, as well as a comic strip, additional novels by Louis L'Amour (writing as Tex Burns), and even a short-lived amusement park, "Hoppyland", in Venice, Los Angeles.

     
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    25 June 1975 – Prime Minister Indira Gandhi declares a state of internal emergency in India.

    The Emergency (India)

    On the advice of Prime Minister Indira Gandhi, President Fakhruddin Ali Ahmed proclaimed a state of national emergency on 25 June 1975.

    The Emergency in India was a 21-month period from 1975 to 1977 when Prime Minister Indira Gandhi had a state of emergency declared across the country.

    Officially issued by President Fakhruddin Ali Ahmed under Article 352 of the Constitution because of prevailing "internal disturbance", the Emergency was in effect from 25 June 1975 and ended on 21 March 1977. The order bestowed upon the prime minister the authority to rule by decree, allowing elections to be cancelled and civil liberties to be suspended. For much of the Emergency, most of Gandhi's political opponents were imprisoned and the press were censored. Several other human rights violations were reported from the time, including a mass campaign for vasectomy spearheaded by her son Sanjay Gandhi. The Emergency is one of the most controversial periods of Indian history since its independence. The final decision to impose an emergency was proposed by Indira Gandhi, agreed upon by the President of India, and ratified by the Cabinet and the Parliament from July to August 1975. It was based on the rationale that there were imminent internal and external threats to the Indian state.[1][2]

    1. ^ "Interview with Indira Gandhi". Interview relecast through India times. TV Eye. 18 December 2016. Retrieved 14 June 2018.
    2. ^ "Recalling the Emergency years". The Indian Express. 29 June 2015. Retrieved 14 June 2018.
     
  35. Admin2

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    26 June 1906 – The first Grand Prix motor racing event held

    1906 French Grand Prix

    The 1906 Grand Prix de l'Automobile Club de France, commonly known as the 1906 French Grand Prix, was a motor race held on 26 and 27 June 1906, on closed public roads outside the city of Le Mans. The Grand Prix was organised by the Automobile Club de France (ACF) at the prompting of the French automobile industry as an alternative to the Gordon Bennett races, which limited each competing country's number of entries regardless of the size of its industry. France had the largest automobile industry in Europe at the time, and in an attempt to better reflect this the Grand Prix had no limit to the number of entries by any particular country. The ACF chose a 103.18-kilometre (64.11 mi) circuit, composed primarily of dust roads sealed with tar, which would be lapped six times on both days by each competitor, a combined race distance of 1,238.16 kilometres (769.36 mi). Lasting for more than 12 hours overall, the race was won by Ferenc Szisz driving for the Renault team. FIAT driver Felice Nazzaro finished second, and Albert Clément was third in a Clément-Bayard.

    Paul Baras of Brasier set the fastest lap of the race on his first lap. He held on to the lead until the third lap, when Szisz took over first position, defending it to the finish. Hot conditions melted the road tar, which the cars kicked up into the faces of the drivers, blinding them and making the racing treacherous. Punctures were common; tyre manufacturer Michelin introduced a detachable rim with a tyre already affixed, which could be quickly swapped onto a car after a puncture, saving a significant amount of time over manually replacing the tyre. This helped Nazzaro pass Clément on the second day, as the FIAT—unlike the Clément-Bayard—made use of the rims.

    Renault's victory contributed to an increase in sales for the French manufacturer in the years following the race. Despite being the second to carry the title, the race has become known as the first Grand Prix. The success of the 1906 French Grand Prix prompted the ACF to run the Grand Prix again the following year, and the German automobile industry to organise the Kaiserpreis, the forerunner to the German Grand Prix, in 1907.

    1. ^ Hodges (1967), pp. 2–3.


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  36. Admin2

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    26 June 2007Tony Blair resigns as British Prime Minister, a position he had held since 1997.

    Tony Blair

    Sir Anthony Charles Lynton Blair KG (born 6 May 1953) is a British politician who served as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from 1997 to 2007 and Leader of the Labour Party from 1994 to 2007. He served as Leader of the Opposition from 1994 to 1997 and held various shadow cabinet posts from 1987 to 1994. Blair was Member of Parliament (MP) for Sedgefield from 1983 to 2007. He is the second-longest-serving prime minister in post-war British history (after Margaret Thatcher) and the longest-serving Labour politician to have held the office.

    Blair attended the independent school Fettes College, studied law at St John's College, Oxford, and qualified as a barrister. He became involved in the Labour Party and was elected to the House of Commons in 1983 for the Sedgefield constituency in County Durham. As a backbencher, Blair supported moving the party to the political centre of British politics. He was appointed to Neil Kinnock's shadow cabinet in 1988 and was appointed shadow home secretary by John Smith in 1992. Following Smith's death in 1994, Blair won a leadership election to succeed him. As leader, Blair began a historic rebranding of the party, which became known as "New Labour".

    Blair became the youngest prime minister of the 20th century after winning the 1997 general election, Labour's largest general election victory in history. During his first term, Blair enacted constitutional reforms and significantly increased public spending on healthcare and education while also introducing controversial market-based reforms in these areas. In addition, Blair saw the introduction of a minimum wage, tuition fees for higher education, constitutional reform such as devolution in Scotland and Wales, an extensive expansion of LGBT rights in the UK, and significant progress in the Northern Ireland peace process with the passing of the landmark Good Friday Agreement. On foreign policy, Blair oversaw British interventions in Kosovo in 1999 and Sierra Leone in 2000, which were generally perceived to be successful. Blair was re-elected in a second landslide in 2001. Three months into his second term, Blair's premiership was shaped by the 9/11 terrorist attacks, resulting in the start of the war on terror. Blair supported the foreign policy of the George W. Bush administration by ensuring that the British Armed Forces participated in the War in Afghanistan to overthrow the Taliban, destroy al-Qaeda, and capture Osama bin Laden. In 2003, Blair supported the invasion of Iraq and had the British Armed Forces participate in the Iraq War, on the false claims that Saddam Hussein's regime possessed weapons of mass destruction and developed close ties with al-Qaeda.

    Blair was re-elected in 2005, in part thanks to the UK's strong economic performance, but with a substantially reduced majority, due to the UK's involvement in the Iraq War. During his third term, Blair pushed for more systemic public sector reform and brokered a settlement to restore powersharing to Northern Ireland. The Afghanistan and Iraq wars continued, and in 2006, Blair announced he would resign within a year. He resigned the party leadership on 24 June 2007 and as prime minister on 27 June, and was succeeded by Gordon Brown, his chancellor. After leaving office, Blair gave up his seat and was appointed special envoy of the Quartet on the Middle East, a diplomatic post he held until 2015. He has been the executive chairman of the Tony Blair Institute for Global Change since 2016 and has made occasional political interventions. He was knighted by Queen Elizabeth II as a Knight Companion of the Garter in 2022.

    At various points in his premiership, Blair was among both the most popular and most unpopular politicians in British history. As prime minister, he achieved the highest recorded approval ratings during his first few years in office but also one of the lowest ratings during and after the Iraq War.[1][2][3][4]


    Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

    1. ^ Seldon, Anthony (10 August 2015). "Why is Tony Blair so unpopular?". BBC News. Archived from the original on 15 May 2023. Retrieved 15 May 2023.
    2. ^ "Tony Blair: a controversial knight". The Week. 7 January 2022. Archived from the original on 15 May 2023. Retrieved 15 May 2023.
    3. ^ Wintour, Patrick (20 March 2023). "How Iraq war destroyed UK's trust in politicians and left Labour in turmoil". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Archived from the original on 15 May 2023. Retrieved 15 May 2023.
    4. ^ Farand, Chloe (1 August 2017). "A huge number of Britons want to see Tony Blair tried for Iraq war crimes". The Independent. Archived from the original on 15 May 2023. Retrieved 15 May 2023.
     
  37. Admin2

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    28 June 1098 – Fighters of the First Crusade defeat Kerbogha of Mosul.

    First Crusade

    The First Crusade (1096–1099) was the first of a series of religious wars, or Crusades, initiated, supported and at times directed by the Latin Church in the middle ages. The objective was the recovery of the Holy Land from Islamic rule. While Jerusalem had been under Muslim rule for hundreds of years, by the 11th century the Seljuk takeover of the region threatened local Christian populations, pilgrimages from the West, and the Byzantine Empire itself. The earliest initiative for the First Crusade began in 1095 when Byzantine emperor Alexios I Komnenos requested military support from the Council of Piacenza in the empire's conflict with the Seljuk-led Turks. This was followed later in the year by the Council of Clermont, during which Pope Urban II supported the Byzantine request for military assistance and also urged faithful Christians to undertake an armed pilgrimage to Jerusalem.

    This call was met with an enthusiastic popular response across all social classes in western Europe. Mobs of predominantly poor Christians numbering in the thousands, led by Peter the Hermit, a French priest, were the first to respond. What has become known as the People's Crusade passed through Germany and indulged in wide-ranging anti-Jewish activities, including the Rhineland massacres. On leaving Byzantine-controlled territory in Anatolia, they were annihilated in a Turkish ambush led by the Seljuk Kilij Arslan I at the Battle of Civetot in October 1096.

    In what has become known as the Princes' Crusade, members of the high nobility and their followers embarked in late-summer 1096 and arrived at Constantinople between November and April the following year. This was a large feudal host led by notable Western European princes: southern French forces under Raymond IV of Toulouse and Adhemar of Le Puy; men from Upper and Lower Lorraine led by Godfrey of Bouillon and his brother Baldwin of Boulogne; Italo-Norman forces led by Bohemond of Taranto and his nephew Tancred; as well as various contingents consisting of northern French and Flemish forces under Robert Curthose of Normandy, Stephen of Blois, Hugh of Vermandois, and Robert II of Flanders. In total and including non-combatants, the forces are estimated to have numbered as many as 100,000.

    The crusader forces gradually arrived in Anatolia. With Kilij Arslan absent, a Frankish attack and Byzantine naval assault during the Siege of Nicaea in June 1097 resulted in an initial crusader victory. In July, the crusaders won the Battle of Dorylaeum, fighting Turkish lightly armoured mounted archers. After a difficult march through Anatolia, the crusaders began the Siege of Antioch, capturing the city in June 1098. Jerusalem, then under the Fatimids, was reached in June 1099 and the Siege of Jerusalem resulted in the city being taken by assault from 7 June to 15 July 1099, during which its residents were ruthlessly massacred. A Fatimid counterattack was repulsed later that year at the Battle of Ascalon, ending the First Crusade. Afterwards, the majority of the crusaders returned home.

    Four Crusader states were established in the Holy Land: the Kingdom of Jerusalem, the County of Edessa, the Principality of Antioch, and the County of Tripoli. The Crusader presence remained in the region in some form until the loss of the last major Crusader stronghold in the Siege of Acre in 1291. After this loss of all Crusader territory in the Levant, there were no further substantive attempts to recover the Holy Land.


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    1. ^ Asbridge 2012, p. 42, The Call of the Cross.
     
  38. Admin2

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    29 June 1974Isabel Perón is sworn in as the first female President of Argentina.

    Isabel Martínez de Perón

    Redirect to:

     
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    30 June 1953 – The first Chevrolet Corvette rolls off the assembly line in Flint, Michigan.

    Chevrolet Corvette

    The Chevrolet Corvette is a line of American two-door, two-seater sports cars, manufactured and marketed by GM, under the Chevrolet marque, since 1953.[1][2]

    Over the course of eight generations, indicated sequentially as C1 to C8, the Corvette is noted for its performance, distinctive styling, lightweight fiberglass or composite bodywork, and competitive pricing. Since the cessation of Ford and Chrysler's competitors,[3] the Corvette is the only two-seat sports car produced by a major United States auto manufacturer and serves as Chevrolet's halo car.[4]

    Since its introduction in 1953, the two-seater has steadily moved upmarket. Originally a relatively modest, lightweight 6‑cylinder convertible, subsequent introductions of V8 engines, competitive chassis innovations, and rear mid-engined layout have positioned the Corvette in the supercar class. The first three Corvette generations (1953–1983) employed body-on-frame construction, and since the C4 generation, introduced in 1983 as an early 1984 model, Corvettes have used GM's unibody Y‑body platform.[5] All Corvettes used front mid-engine configuration for seven generations, through 2019, and transitioned to a rear mid-engined layout with the C8 generation.[6]

    In 1953, GM executives accepted a suggestion by Myron Scott, then the assistant director of the Public Relations department, to name the company's new sports car after the corvette, a small maneuverable warship.[7] The first model, a convertible, was introduced at the 1953 GM Motorama as a concept car; production models went on sale later that year. In 1963, the second generation was introduced in coupe and convertible styles. Originally manufactured in Flint, Michigan, and St. Louis, Missouri, the Corvette has been produced in Bowling Green, Kentucky, since 1981, which is also the location of the National Corvette Museum.

    The Corvette has become widely known as "America's Sports Car."[8] Automotive News wrote that after being featured in the early 1960s television show Route 66, "the Corvette became synonymous with freedom and adventure," ultimately becoming both "the most successful concept car in history and the most popular sports car in history."[9]

    1. ^ "2017 Corvette Stingray: Sports Cars - Chevrolet".
    2. ^ Miller, Ray; Embree, Glenn (1975). The Real Corvette: An Illustrated History of Chevrolet's Sports Car. Evergreen Press. ISBN 978-0913056066.
    3. ^ the Ford GT and Dodge Viper respectively,
    4. ^ Oldham, Scott (July 24, 2018). "25 Corvette facts that every enthusiast should know". Hagerty. Retrieved June 14, 2022.
    5. ^ McNessor, Mike (August 24, 2020). "How the Corvette's chassis evolved over more than 60 years". RK Motors Charlotte.
    6. ^ Capparella, Joey (April 11, 2019). "The Mid-Engined 2020 Chevrolet Corvette C8 Is Real, GM Confesses, and It Will Debut July 18". Car and Driver. Retrieved April 11, 2019.
    7. ^ Falconer, Tom (2003). The Complete Corvette. Crestline. p. 9. ISBN 978-0-7603-1474-6. Retrieved September 30, 2012.
    8. ^ Bryant, Thos L. (November 6, 2012). "America's Sports Car". Road & Track.
    9. ^ Burton, Jerry (October 31, 2011). "Corvette: A pop culture classic". Automotive News. Retrieved May 31, 2022.
     
  40. Admin2

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    1 July 1863 – American Civil War: The Battle of Gettysburg begins.

    Battle of Gettysburg

    This 1863 oval-shaped map depicts the Gettysburg Battlefield during July 1–3, 1863, showing troop and artillery positions and movements, relief hachures, drainage, roads, railroads, and houses with the names of residents at the time of the Battle of Gettysburg.
    This November 1862 Harper's Magazine illustration shows Confederate Army troops escorting captured African American civilians south into slavery. En route to Gettysburg, the Army of Northern Virginia kidnapped between 40 and nearly 60 Black civilians and sent them south into slavery.[12][13]

    The Battle of Gettysburg (locally /ˈɡɛtɪsbɜːrɡ/ )[14] was a three-day battle in the American Civil War fought between Union and Confederate forces between July 1 and July 3, 1863, in and around Gettysburg, Pennsylvania. The battle, which was won by the Union, is widely considered the Civil War's turning point, ending the Confederacy's aspirations to establish an independent nation. It was the Civil War's bloodiest battle, claiming over 50,000 combined casualties over three days.[15]

    In the Battle of Gettysburg, Union Major General George Meade's Army of the Potomac defeated attacks by Confederate General Robert E. Lee's Army of Northern Virginia, halting Lee's invasion of the North and forcing his retreat.[fn 1][16]

    After his success at Chancellorsville in Virginia in May 1863, Lee led his army through the Shenandoah Valley to begin his second invasion of the North, known as the Gettysburg Campaign. With his army in high spirits, Lee intended to shift the focus of the summer campaign from war-ravaged Northern Virginia and hoped to influence Northern politicians to give up their prosecution of the war by penetrating as far as Harrisburg, Pennsylvania, or even Philadelphia. Prodded by President Abraham Lincoln, Major General Joseph Hooker moved his army in pursuit, but was relieved of command just three days before the battle and replaced by Meade.

    Elements of the two armies initially collided at Gettysburg on July 1, 1863, as Lee urgently concentrated his forces there, his objective being to engage the Union army and destroy it. Low ridges to the northwest of town were defended initially by a Union cavalry division under Brigadier General John Buford, and soon reinforced with two corps of Union infantry. However, two large Confederate corps assaulted them from the northwest and north, collapsing the hastily developed Union lines, sending the defenders retreating through the streets of the town to the hills just to the south.[17] On the second day of battle, most of both armies had assembled. The Union line was laid out in a defensive formation resembling a fishhook. In the late afternoon of July 2, Lee launched a heavy assault on the Union left flank, and fierce fighting raged at Little Round Top, the Wheatfield, Devil's Den, and the Peach Orchard. On the Union right, Confederate demonstrations escalated into full-scale assaults on Culp's Hill and Cemetery Hill. All across the battlefield, despite significant losses, the Union defenders held their lines.

    On the third day of battle, fighting resumed on Culp's Hill, and cavalry battles raged to the east and south, but the main event was a dramatic infantry assault by around 12,000 Confederates against the center of the Union line on Cemetery Ridge, known as Pickett's Charge. The charge was repelled by Union rifle and artillery fire, at great loss to the Confederate army. Lee led his army on the torturous Retreat from Gettysburg to Virginia. Between 46,000 and 51,000 soldiers from both armies were casualties in the three-day battle, the most costly in US history. On November 19, President Lincoln used the dedication ceremony for the Gettysburg National Cemetery to honor the fallen Union soldiers and redefine the purpose of the war in his historic Gettysburg Address.

    1. ^ Coddington, p. 573. See the discussion regarding historians' judgment on whether Gettysburg should be considered a decisive victory.
    2. ^ Official Records, Series I, Volume XXVII, Part 1, pages 155–168 Archived July 24, 2017, at the Wayback Machine
    3. ^ Official Records, Series I, Volume XXVII, Part 2, pages 283–291 Archived July 24, 2017, at the Wayback Machine
    4. ^ Official Records, Series I, Volume XXVII, Part 1, page 151 Archived July 24, 2017, at the Wayback Machine
    5. ^ Coddington, p. 673, references the official number of the Union Army forces but says the number could have been in the "neighborhood" of 115,000. Busey and Martin, p. 125: "Engaged strength" at the battle was 93,921. Eicher, p. 503, gives a similar number of 93,500. Sears, p. 539 quotes the official number of just over 104,000 but with reinforcements of another 8,000 men about to arrive.
    6. ^ https://history.army.mil/staffRides/_docs/staffRide_Gettysburg.pdf[bare URL PDF]
    7. ^ Busey and Martin, p. 260, state that Confederate "engaged strength" at the battle was 71,699; McPherson, p. 648, lists the Confederate strength at the start of the campaign as 75,000, while Eicher, p. 503 gives a lower number of 70,200. Noting that Confederate returns often did not include officers, Coddington, p. 676 states that estimated Confederate strength of 75,000 is "a conservative one". Confederate Captain John Esten Cooke in A Life of Gen. Robert E. Lee, New York: D. Appleton, 1871, p. 328, gives the number of the entire Confederate force "at about eighty thousand". Sears, p. 149 states that eyewitnesses observed the Confederate force to be about 100,000 but, although Meade used this in making his battle plans, it was an overcount of about 20 percent.
    8. ^ Official Records, Series I, Volume XXVII, Part 1, page 187 Archived July 24, 2017, at the Wayback Machine
    9. ^ Busey and Martin, p. 125.
    10. ^ Busey and Martin, p. 260, cite 23,231 total (4,708 killed;12,693 wounded;5,830 captured/missing).
      See the section on casualties for a discussion of alternative Confederate casualty estimates, which have been cited as high as 28,000.
    11. ^ Official Records, Series I, Volume XXVII, Part 2, pages 338–346 Archived July 24, 2017, at the Wayback Machine
    12. ^ Wynstra, p. 81
    13. ^ Symonds, pp. 53, 57
    14. ^ Robert D. Quigley, Civil War Spoken Here: A Dictionary of Mispronounced People, Places and Things of the 1860s (Collingswood, NJ: C. W. Historicals, 1993), p. 68. ISBN 0-9637745-0-6.
    15. ^ "Gettysburg" at Battlefields
    16. ^ Rawley, p. 147; Sauers, p. 827; Gallagher, Lee and His Army, p. 83; McPherson, p. 665; Eicher, p. 550. Gallagher and McPherson cite the combination of Gettysburg and Vicksburg as the turning point. Eicher uses the arguably related expression, "High-water mark of the Confederacy".
    17. ^ Eicher, David J. (2001), The Longest Night: A Military History of the Civil War, New York: Simon & Schuster, pp. 515–517, ISBN 978-0-684-84944-7


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