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Discussion in 'Break Room' started by NewsBot, Apr 6, 2008.

  1. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    2 July 1644English Civil War: Battle of Marston Moor.

    Battle of Marston Moor

    Battle of Marston Moor is located in North Yorkshire
    Long Marston
    Long Marston
    York
    York
    North Yorkshire and Long Marston

    The Battle of Marston Moor was fought on 2 July 1644, during the Wars of the Three Kingdoms of 1639–1653.[a] The combined forces of the English Parliamentarians under Lord Fairfax and the Earl of Manchester and the Scottish Covenanters under the Earl of Leven defeated the Royalists commanded by Prince Rupert of the Rhine and the Marquess of Newcastle.

    During the summer of 1644, the Covenanters and Parliamentarians had been besieging York, which was defended by the Marquess of Newcastle. Rupert had gathered an army which marched through the northwest of England, gathering reinforcements and fresh recruits on the way, and across the Pennines to relieve the city. The convergence of these forces made the ensuing battle the largest of the civil wars.

    On 1 July, Rupert outmanoeuvered the Covenanters and Parliamentarians to relieve the city. The next day, he sought battle with them even though he was outnumbered. He was dissuaded from attacking immediately and during the day both sides gathered their full strength on Marston Moor, an expanse of wild meadow west of York. Towards evening, the Covenanters and Parliamentarians themselves launched a surprise attack. After a confused fight lasting two hours, Parliamentarian cavalry under Oliver Cromwell routed the Royalist cavalry from the field and, with Leven's infantry, annihilated the remaining Royalist infantry.

    After their defeat the Royalists effectively abandoned Northern England, losing much of the manpower from the northern counties of England (which were strongly Royalist in sympathy) and also losing access to the European continent through the ports on the North Sea coast. Although they partially retrieved their fortunes with victories later in the year in Southern England, the loss of the north was to prove a fatal handicap the next year, when they tried unsuccessfully to link up with the Scottish Royalists under the Marquess of Montrose.

    1. ^ Carte 1739, p. 56.


    Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

     
  2. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    3 July 1844 – The last pair of great auks is killed.

    Great auk

    The great auk (Pinguinus impennis) is a species of flightless alcid that became extinct in the mid-19th century. It was the only modern species in the genus Pinguinus. It is not closely related to the Southern Hemisphere birds now known as penguins, which were discovered later by Europeans and so named by sailors because of their physical resemblance to the great auk, which were called penguins.

    It bred on rocky, remote islands with easy access to the ocean and a plentiful food supply, a rarity in nature that provided only a few breeding sites for the great auks. When not breeding, they spent their time foraging in the waters of the North Atlantic, ranging as far south as northern Spain and along the coastlines of Canada, Greenland, Iceland, the Faroe Islands, Norway, Ireland, and Great Britain.

    The bird was 75 to 85 centimetres (30 to 33 inches) tall and weighed about 5 kilograms (11 pounds), making it the largest alcid to survive into the modern era, and the second-largest member of the alcid family overall (the prehistoric Miomancalla was larger).[6] It had a black back and a white belly. The black beak was heavy and hooked, with grooves on its surface. During summer, great auk plumage showed a white patch over each eye. During winter, the great auk lost these patches, instead developing a white band stretching between the eyes. The wings were only 15 cm (6 in) long, rendering the bird flightless. Instead, the great auk was a powerful swimmer, a trait that it used in hunting. Its favourite prey were fish, including Atlantic menhaden and capelin, and crustaceans. Although agile in the water, it was clumsy on land. Great auk pairs mated for life. They nested in extremely dense and social colonies, laying one egg on bare rock. The egg was white with variable brown marbling. Both parents participated in the incubation of the egg for around six weeks before the young hatched. The young left the nest site after two to three weeks, although the parents continued to care for it.

    The great auk was an important part of many Native American cultures, both as a food source and as a symbolic item. Many Maritime Archaic people were buried with great auk bones. One burial discovered included someone covered by more than 200 great auk beaks, which are presumed to be the remnants of a cloak made of great auks' skins. Early European explorers to the Americas used the great auk as a convenient food source or as fishing bait, reducing its numbers. The bird's down was in high demand in Europe, a factor that largely eliminated the European populations by the mid-16th century. Scientists soon began to realize that the great auk was disappearing and it became the beneficiary of many early environmental laws, but these proved ineffectual.

    Its growing rarity increased interest from European museums and private collectors in obtaining skins and eggs of the bird. On 3 June 1844, the last two confirmed specimens were killed on Eldey, off the coast of Iceland, ending the last known breeding attempt. Later reports of roaming individuals being seen or caught are unconfirmed. A report of one great auk in 1852 is considered by some to be the last sighting of a member of the species. The great auk is mentioned in several novels, and the scientific journal of the American Ornithological Society was named The Auk (now Ornithology) in honour of the bird until 2021.

    1. ^ Finlayson, Clive (2011). Avian survivors: The History and Biogeography of Palearctic Birds. Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 157. ISBN 978-1408137314.
    2. ^ BirdLife International (2021). "Pinguinus impennis". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2021: e.T22694856A205919631. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2021-3.RLTS.T22694856A205919631.en. Retrieved 19 November 2021.
    3. ^ "NatureServe Explorer 2.0". explorer.natureserve.org. Retrieved 31 March 2022.
    4. ^ Grieve, Symington (1885). The Great Auk, or Garefowl: Its history, archaeology, and remains. Thomas C. Jack, London. ISBN 978-0665066245.
    5. ^ Parkin, Thomas (1894). The Great Auk, or Garefowl. J.E. Budd, Printer. Retrieved 14 May 2010.
    6. ^ Smith, N (2015). "Evolution of body mass in the Pan-Alcidae (Aves, Charadriiformes): the effects of combining neontological and paleontological data". Paleobiology. 42 (1): 8–26. Bibcode:2016Pbio...42....8S. doi:10.1017/pab.2015.24. S2CID 83934750.
     
  3. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    4 July 1881 – In Alabama, the Tuskegee Institute opens.

    Tuskegee University

    Tuskegee University (Tuskegee or TU; formerly known as the Tuskegee Institute) is a private, historically black land-grant university in Tuskegee, Alabama. It was founded on Independence Day in 1881 by the Alabama Legislature.

    The campus was designated as the Tuskegee Institute National Historic Site by the National Park Service in 1974. The university has been home to a number of important African American figures, including scientist George Washington Carver and World War II's Tuskegee Airmen.

    Tuskegee University offers 43 bachelor's degree programs, including a five-year accredited professional degree program in architecture, 17 master's degree programs, and five doctoral degree programs, including the Doctor of Veterinary Medicine. Tuskegee is home to nearly 3,000 students from around the U.S. and over 30 countries.

    Tuskegee's campus was designed by architect Robert Robinson Taylor, the first African-American to graduate from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, in conjunction with David Williston, the first professionally trained African-American landscape architect.[8]

    1. ^ "Tuskegee University is Founded". aaregistry.org. African American Registry. Retrieved December 14, 2022.
    2. ^ "NAICU - Membership". Archived from the original on November 9, 2015.
    3. ^ "Fact Book 2018-19" (PDF). Tuskegee University. p. 42. Retrieved April 19, 2020.
    4. ^ "College Navigator - Tuskegee University".
    5. ^ a b c "Microsoft Word - Quick Facts 22FA" (PDF).
    6. ^ "Home". tucampusdigest.com.
    7. ^ Visual identity and COmmunications Policies for Tuskegee University (PDF). August 1, 2012. Archived from the original (PDF) on April 5, 2015. Retrieved September 7, 2016.
    8. ^ "First African-American landscape architect launched career at Cornell". Cornell Chronicle. Retrieved January 23, 2019.
     
  4. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    5 July 1934 – "Bloody Thursday": Police open fire on striking longshoremen in San Francisco.

    1934 West Coast waterfront strike

    The 1934 West Coast waterfront strike (also known as the 1934 West Coast longshoremen's strike, as well as a number of variations on these names) lasted 83 days, and began on May 9, 1934, when longshoremen in every US West Coast port walked out. Organized by the International Longshoremen's Association (ILA), the strike peaked with the death of two workers on "Bloody Thursday" and the subsequent San Francisco General Strike, which stopped all work in the major port city for four days and led ultimately to the settlement of the West Coast Longshoremen's Strike.[3]

    The result of the strike was the unionization of all of the West Coast ports of the United States. The San Francisco General Strike of 1934, along with the Toledo Auto-Lite Strike of 1934 led by the American Workers Party and the Minneapolis Teamsters Strike of 1934 led by the Communist League of America, were catalysts for the rise of industrial unionism in the 1930s, much of which was organized through the Congress of Industrial Organizations.[1]

    1. ^ a b Preis, Art (1974). Labor's giant step: twenty years of the CIO. Pathfinder Press. pp. 31–33. ISBN 9780873480246.
    2. ^ Kimeldorf, Howard (1988). Reds or Rackets?: The Making of Radical and Conservative Unions on the Waterfront. University of California Press. p. 101. ISBN 9780520912779.
    3. ^ David F. Selvin, A terrible anger: The 1934 waterfront and general strikes in San Francisco (Wayne State University Press, 1996).
     
  5. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    6 July 1560 – The Treaty of Edinburgh is signed by Scotland and England.

    Treaty of Edinburgh

    The Treaty of Edinburgh (also known as the Treaty of Leith) was a treaty drawn up on 5 July 1560 between the Commissioners of Queen Elizabeth I of England with the assent of the Scottish Lords of the Congregation, and the French representatives of King Francis II of France (husband of Mary Queen of Scots) to formally conclude the siege of Leith and replace the Auld Alliance with France with a new Anglo-Scottish accord, while maintaining the peace between England and France agreed by the Treaty of Cateau-Cambrésis.

     
  6. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    7 July 1980 – Institution of sharia law in Iran.

    Sharia

    Sharia (/ʃəˈrə/; Arabic: شَرِيعَة, romanizedsharīʿah, IPA: [ʃaˈriːʕa]) is a body of religious law that forms a part of the Islamic tradition[1][2][3] based on scriptures of Islam, particularly the Quran and hadith.[1] In Arabic, the term sharīʿah refers to God's immutable divine law and this referencing is contrasted with fiqh, which refers to its interpretations by Islamic scholars.[4][5][6] Fiqh, practical application side of sharia in a sense, was elaborated over the centuries by legal opinions issued by qualified jurists and sharia has never been the sole valid legal system in Islam historically; it has always been used alongside customary law from the beginning,[7][8] and applied in courts by ruler-appointed judges,[4][6] integrated with various economic, criminal and administrative laws issued by Muslim rulers.[9]

    Traditional theory of Islamic jurisprudence recognizes four sources of Sharia: the Quran, sunnah (a type of oral tradition narrated through a chain of transmission and recorded and classified as authentic hadith), ijma (may be understood as ijma al-ummah – a whole community consensus, or ijma al-aimmah – a consensus by religious authorities.[10]) and analogical reasoning.[note 1][13] Four legal schools of Sunni Islam are Hanafi, Maliki, Shafiʽi & Hanbali developed Sunni methodologies for deriving rulings from scriptural sources using a process known as ijtihad.[4][5] Traditional jurisprudence distinguishes two principal branches of law, rituals and social dealings; subsections family law, relationships (commercial, political / administrative) and criminal law, in a wide range of topics.[4][6] Its rulings are concerned with ethical standards as much as legal norms,[14][15] assigning actions to one of five categories: mandatory, recommended, neutral, abhorred, and prohibited.[4][5][6]

    Over time, on the basis of mentioned studies legal schools have emerged, reflecting the preferences of particular societies and governments, as well as Islamic scholars or imams on theoretical and practical applications of laws and regulations. Although sharia is presented as a form of governance[16] in addition to its other aspects, especially by the contemporary Islamist understanding, some researchers see the early history of Islam, which was also modelled and exalted by most Muslims; not a period when sharia was dominant, but a kind of "secular Arabic expansion".[17][18]

    According to human rights groups, some of the classical sharia practices involve serious violations of basic human rights, gender equality and freedom of expression, and the practices of countries governed by sharia are criticized.[19] The European Court of Human Rights in Strasbourg (ECtHR) ruled in several cases that Sharia is "incompatible with the fundamental principles of democracy".[20][21] Against this, "the concept of human rights" have been categorically excluded by the governments of countries such as Iran and Saudi Arabia by claiming that it belongs to secular and western values,[22] and the Cairo conference by the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation declares that human rights can only be respected if they are compatible with Islam.[23]

    In the 21st century, approaches to sharia in the Muslim world vary greatly and the role of Sharia has become an increasingly contested topic around the world.[5] Beyond sectarian differences, fundamentalists advocate the complete and uncompromising implementation of "exact/pure sharia" without modifications,[2][24] while modernists argue that it can/ should be brought into line with human rights and other contemporary issues such as democracy, minority rights, freedom of thought, women's rights and banking by new jurisprudences.[25][26][27] In Muslim majority countries, traditional laws have been widely used with[5][28] or changed by European models. Judicial procedures and legal education have been brought in line with European practice likewise.[5] While the constitutions of most Muslim-majority states contain references to Sharia, its rules are largely retained only in family law.[5] The Islamic revival of the late 20th century brought calls by Islamic movements for full implementation of Sharia, including hudud corporal punishments, such as stoning.[5][29]

    1. ^ a b Bassiouni, M. Cherif (2014) [2013]. "The Sharīa, Sunni Islamic Law (Fiqh), and Legal Methods (Ilm Uṣūl al-Fiqh)". In Bassiouni, M. Cherif (ed.). The Shari'a and Islamic Criminal Justice in Time of War and Peace. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 18–87. doi:10.1017/CBO9781139629249.003. ISBN 9781139629249. LCCN 2013019592. Archived from the original on 17 October 2021. Retrieved 17 October 2021.
    2. ^ a b "British & World English: sharia". Oxford: Oxford University Press. Archived from the original on 8 December 2015. Retrieved 4 December 2015.
    3. ^ Dahlén 2003, chpt. 2a.
    4. ^ a b c d e John L. Esposito, ed. (2014). "Islamic Law". The Oxford Dictionary of Islam. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Archived from the original on 31 March 2019. Retrieved 29 January 2017.
    5. ^ a b c d e f g h Vikør 2014.
    6. ^ a b c d Calder 2009.
    7. ^ "Customary law has also been an important part of Islamic law. It was used to resolve disputes that were not covered by sharia, and it also helped to adapt sharia to the needs of different societies and cultures." Islamic Law: An Introduction by John Esposito (2019) Esposito, John. Islamic Law: An Introduction. Oxford University Press, 2019. Page 31
    8. ^ "Another key principle that the early Islamic jurists developed was the concept of urf, or customary law. Urf is the customary practices of a particular community. The early jurists recognized that urf could be used to supplement or complement Islamic law. For example, if there was no clear ruling on a particular issue in the Quran or hadith, the jurists could look to urf for guidance." The Oxford Handbook of Islamic Law; Emon, Anver M., and Rumee Ahmed, editors. The Oxford Handbook of Islamic Law. Oxford University Press, 2018. p. 25.
    9. ^ Stewart 2013, p. 500.
    10. ^ Corinna Standke (30 August 2008). Sharia - The Islamic Law. GRIN Verlag. pp. 4–5. ISBN 978-3-640-14967-4. Retrieved 9 June 2012.
    11. ^ Dahlén 2003, chpt. 4c.
    12. ^ Schneider 2014.
    13. ^ John L. Esposito, Natana J. DeLong-Bas (2001), Women in Muslim family law Archived 19 October 2017 at the Wayback Machine, p. 2. Syracuse University Press, ISBN 978-0815629085. Quote: "[...], by the ninth century, the classical theory of law fixed the sources of Islamic law at four: the Quran, the Sunnah of the Prophet, qiyas (analogical reasoning), and ijma (consensus)."
    14. ^ Coulson & El Shamsy 2019.
    15. ^ Hallaq 2010, p. 145.
    16. ^ "The System of Rule in Islam". 20 June 2010.
    17. ^ Robert G. Hoyland: In God's Path. The Arab Conquests and the Creation of an Islamic Empire (2015)
    18. ^ Patricia Crone / Martin Hinds: God's Caliph: Religious Authority in the First Centuries of Islam (1986)
    19. ^ Gontowska, Luiza Maria, "Human Rights Violations Under the Sharia'a : A Comparative Study of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia and the Islamic Republic of Iran" (2005). Honors College Theses. Paper 13.
    20. ^ See Refah Partİsİ (The Welfare Party) And Others V. Turkey (Applications nos. 41340/98, 41342/98, 41343/98 and 41344/98), Judgment, Strasbourg, 13 February 2003, No. 123 (siehe S. 39): "sharia is incompatible with the fundamental principles of democracy, since principles such as pluralism in the political sphere and the constant evolution of public freedoms have no place in it and a regime based on sharia clearly diverges from Convention values"; see Alastair Mowbray, Cases, Materials, and Commentary on the European Convention on Human Rights, OUP Oxford, 2012, p 744, Google-Books preview.
    21. ^ Janisch, Wolfgang (14 September 2017). "EuGH - Gegen Scheidungen nach Scharia-Recht". Süddeutsche.de (in German). Retrieved 3 February 2023.
    22. ^ Gontowska, Luiza Maria, "Human Rights Violations Under the Sharia'a : A Comparative Study of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia and the Islamic Republic of Iran" (2005). Honors College Theses. Paper 13.
    23. ^ https://rwi.lu.se/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/2020-OIC-Declaration-of-Human-Rights.pdf
    24. ^ Amanat 2009: "Muslim fundamentalists [...] claim that Shari’a and its sources [...] constitute a divine law that regulates all aspects of Muslim life, as well as Muslim societies and Muslim states [...]. Muslim modernists, [...] on the other hand, criticize the old approaches to Shari’a by traditional Muslim jurists as obsolete and instead advocate innovative approaches to Shari’a that accommodate more pluralist and relativist views within a democratic framework."
    25. ^ An-Na'im, Abdullahi A (1996). "Islamic Foundations of Religious Human Rights". In Witte, John; van der Vyver, Johan D. (eds.). Religious Human Rights in Global Perspective: Religious Perspectives. pp. 337–59. ISBN 978-9041101792.
    26. ^ Hajjar, Lisa (2004). "Religion, State Power, and Domestic Violence in Muslim Societies: A Framework for Comparative Analysis". Law & Social Inquiry. 29 (1): 1–38. doi:10.1111/j.1747-4469.2004.tb00329.x. JSTOR 4092696. S2CID 145681085.
    27. ^ Al-Suwaidi, J. (1995). Arab and western conceptions of democracy; in Democracy, war, and peace in the Middle East (Editors: David Garnham, Mark A. Tessler), Indiana University Press, see Chapters 5 and 6; ISBN 978-0253209399[page needed]
    28. ^ Otto 2008, p. 19.
    29. ^ Mayer 2009.


    Cite error: There are <ref group=note> tags on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=note}} template (see the help page).

     
  7. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    8 July 1889 – The first issue of The Wall Street Journal is published.

    The Wall Street Journal

    The Wall Street Journal (WSJ) is an American business and economic-focused international daily newspaper based in New York City.[2] The Journal is published six days a week by Dow Jones & Company, a division of News Corp. The newspaper is published in broadsheet format and online. The Journal has been printed continuously since its inception on July 8, 1889,[3] and is regarded as a newspaper of record, particularly in terms of business and financial news.[4][5][6] The newspaper has won 39 Pulitzer Prizes, the most recent in 2023.[7][8][9]

    The Wall Street Journal is the second-largest newspaper in the United States by circulation, with a print circulation of around 654,000 and 3 million digital subscribers as of 2022.[1] The Journal publishes the luxury news and lifestyle magazine WSJ, which was originally launched as a quarterly but expanded to 12 issues in 2014. An online version was launched in 1995, which has been accessible only to subscribers since it began.[10] The editorial pages of the Journal are typically center-right in their positions,[11][12][13][14] while the newspaper itself maintains commitment to journalistic standards in its reporting.[11]

    1. ^ a b "News Corporation 2022 Annual Report on Form 10-K". U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission. August 12, 2022. Archived from the original on June 24, 2021. Retrieved June 30, 2023.
    2. ^ "Business & Finance News". The Wall Street Journal. Retrieved October 1, 2020.
    3. ^ "The Wall Street Journal Strengthens Its International Editions; Repositions To Better Serve Global Business Leaders and Advertisers". Business Wire (Press release). May 8, 2005. Retrieved September 29, 2020.
    4. ^ Caulfield, Mike (January 8, 2017), "National Newspapers of Record", Web Literacy for Student Fact-Checkers, Self-published, retrieved September 13, 2020
    5. ^ Doctor, Ken (December 3, 2015). "On The Washington Post and the 'newspaper of record' epithet". Politico Media. Retrieved September 13, 2020.
    6. ^ Library, Gelman. "Research Guides: Newspaper Research: Current Newspapers". libguides.gwu.edu. Retrieved September 13, 2020.
    7. ^ "dowjones.com: The Wall Street Journal". Archived from the original on December 9, 2022. Retrieved August 28, 2018.
    8. ^ "National Reporting". The Pulitzer Prizes. 2022. Retrieved August 3, 2022. 2019 – Staff of The Wall Street Journal: For uncovering President Trump's secret payoffs to two women during his campaign who claimed to have had affairs with him, and the web of supporters who facilitated the transactions, triggering criminal inquiries and calls for impeachment.
    9. ^ "2023 Pulitzer Prizes Winners & Finalists". www.pulitzer.org.
    10. ^ "WSJ.com". www.wsj.com. Retrieved August 31, 2022.
    11. ^ a b Yochai Benkler; Robert Faris; Hal Roberts (2018). Network Propaganda: Manipulation, Disinformation, and Radicalization in American Politics. Oxford University Press. pp. 353–354. ISBN 978-0-19-092364-8. One of our clearest and starkest findings is the near disappearance of center-right media. There is the Wall Street Journal, with its conservative editorial page but continued commitment to journalistic standards in its reporting; and to some extent The Hill plays a center-right role. Both sites appear in the center of the partisan landscape according to our data because readers on the right did not pay attention to these sites any more than readers on the left did.
    12. ^ Ember, Sydney (March 22, 2017). "Wall Street Journal Editorial Harshly Rebukes Trump". The New York Times. Archived from the original on March 22, 2017.
    13. ^ Bowden, John (January 11, 2019). "Wall Street Journal editorial: Conservatives 'could live to regret' Trump emergency declaration". The Hill.
    14. ^ Vernon, Pete (March 22, 2017). "Unpacking WSJ's 'watershed' Trump editorial". Columbia Journalism Review. ISSN 0010-194X. Archived from the original on June 21, 2017.
     
  8. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    9 July 1816Argentina declares independence from Spain.

    Argentine Declaration of Independence

    Allegory of the Declaration of Independence, by Luis de Servi

    What today is commonly referred as the Independence of Argentina was declared on July 9, 1816, by the Congress of Tucumán. In reality, the congressmen who were assembled in Tucumán declared the independence of the United Provinces of South America, which is one of the official names of the Argentine Republic. The Federal League Provinces,[1] at war with the United Provinces, were not allowed into the Congress. At the same time, several provinces from the Upper Peru that would later become part of present-day Bolivia, were represented at the Congress.

    1. ^ The Argentine Littoral provinces Santa Fé, Entre Ríos and Corrientes, along with the Eastern Province (present-dayUruguay)
     
  9. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    10 July 1943 – World War II: Operation Husky begins in Sicily

    Allied invasion of Sicily

    The Allied invasion of Sicily, also known as the Battle of Sicily and Operation Husky, was a major campaign of World War II in which the Allied forces invaded the island of Sicily in July 1943 and took it from the Axis powers (Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany). It began with a large amphibious and airborne operation, followed by a six-week land campaign, and initiated the Italian campaign.

    To divert some of the Axis forces to other areas, the Allies engaged in several deception operations, the most famous and successful of which was Operation Mincemeat. Husky began on the night of 9–10 July 1943 and ended on 17 August. Strategically, Husky achieved the goals set out for it by Allied planners; the Allies drove Axis air, land and naval forces from the island and the Mediterranean sea lanes were opened for Allied merchant ships for the first time since 1941. These events led to the Italian dictator, Benito Mussolini, being toppled from power in Italy on 25 July, and to the Allied invasion of Italy on 3 September.

    The German leader, Adolf Hitler, "canceled a major offensive at Kursk after only a week, in part to divert forces to Italy," resulting in a reduction of German strength on the Eastern Front.[16] The collapse of Italy necessitated German troops replacing the Italians in Italy and to a lesser extent the Balkans, resulting in one-fifth of the entire German army being diverted from the east to southern Europe, a proportion that would remain until near the end of the war.[17]

    1. ^ Tucker, Spencer C. (30 November 2011). World War II at Sea: An Encyclopedia, Volume 1 (2011 ed.). Santa Barbara, Calif.: ABC-CLIO, LLC. p. 374. ISBN 9781598844573. Retrieved 13 March 2015.
    2. ^ Gaujac, p. 68
    3. ^ Royal Australian Navy – the corvettes/minesweepers HMAS Cairns, Cessnock, HMAS Gawler, HMAS Geraldton, HMAS Ipswich, HMAS Lismore, HMAS Maryborough, and HMAS Wollongong
      Royal Australian Air ForceNo. 3 Squadron RAAF (fighters), No. 450 Squadron RAAF (fighters), No. 458 Squadron RAAF (maritime patrol), and No. 462 Squadron RAAF (heavy bombers)
    4. ^ "SICILY 1943 Battle Honors". Royal Australian Navy Official site. For service in the prescribed area, 10 July to 17 August 1943
    5. ^ "450 Squadron RAAF Roll of Honour". Queensland War Memorial Register. 16 September 2015.
    6. ^ Mitcham & von Stauffenberg (2007), p. 63
    7. ^ a b Mitcham & von Stauffenberg (2007), p. 307
    8. ^ Le Operazioni in Sicilia e in Calabria (Luglio-Settembre 1943), Alberto Santoni, p.400, Stato maggiore dell'Esercito, Ufficio storico, 1989
    9. ^ Including Navy and Air Force personnel.
    10. ^ Dickson(2001) p. 201
    11. ^ Shaw, p. 119
    12. ^ a b Hart, Basil H. Liddel (1970). A History of the Second World War. London, Weidenfeld Nicolson. p. 627.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
    13. ^ Cite error: The named reference Sicily p. 305 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    14. ^ a b Ufficio storico dello Stato Maggiore dell'Esercito (USSME) (1993). Le operazioni in Sicilia e in Calabria. Rome. pp. 400–401.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
    15. ^ "La guerra in Sicilia". Sbarchi Alleati in Italia.
    16. ^ Atkinson 2007, p. 172
    17. ^ Charles T. O'Reilly. "Forgotten Battles: Italy's War of Liberation, 1943–1945." Lexington Books, 2001. pp. 37–38.
     
  10. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    11 July 1848Waterloo railway station in London opens.

    London Waterloo station

    Waterloo station (/ˌwɔːtərˈl/),[5][6] also known as London Waterloo, is a major central London terminus on the National Rail network in the United Kingdom, in the Waterloo area of the London Borough of Lambeth. It is connected to a London Underground station of the same name and is adjacent to Waterloo East station on the South Eastern Main Line. The station is the terminus of the South West Main Line to Weymouth via Southampton, the West of England main line to Exeter via Salisbury, the Portsmouth Direct line to Portsmouth Harbour which connects with ferry services to the Isle of Wight, and several commuter services around west and south-west London, Surrey, Hampshire and Berkshire.

    The station was opened in 1848 by the London and South Western Railway, and it replaced the earlier Nine Elms as it was closer to the West End. It was never designed to be a terminus, as the original intention was to continue the line towards the City of London, and consequently the station developed in a haphazard fashion, leading to difficulty finding the correct platform. The station was rebuilt in the early 20th century, opening in 1922, and included the Victory Arch over the main entrance, which commemorated World War I. Waterloo was the last London terminus to provide steam-powered services, which ended in 1967. The station was the London terminus for Eurostar international trains from 1994 until 2007, when they were transferred to St. Pancras.

    London Waterloo is the third busiest station in the UK, and was formerly the busiest railway station in the UK, handling 57.8 million passengers in the year to March 2023.[7] It is also the UK's largest station in terms of floor space and has the greatest number of platforms.

    1. ^ "London and South East" (PDF). National Rail. September 2006. Archived from the original (PDF) on 6 March 2009.
    2. ^ "Out of Station Interchanges" (XLSX). Transport for London. 16 June 2020. Retrieved 5 November 2020.
    3. ^ a b c d e f g h i j "Estimates of station usage". Rail statistics. Office of Rail Regulation. Please note: Some methodology may vary year on year.
    4. ^ Jackson 1984, p. 215.
    5. ^ "Definition of 'Waterloo'". www.collinsdictionary.com. Retrieved 29 May 2020.
    6. ^ "Definition of Waterloo noun from the Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary". www.oxfordlearnersdictionaries.com. Retrieved 29 May 2020.
    7. ^ "Estimates of station usage". Office of Rail and Road Data Portal. Archived from the original on 2 February 2024.
     
  11. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    11 July 1848Waterloo railway station in London opens.

    London Waterloo station

    Waterloo station (/ˌwɔːtərˈl/),[5][6] also known as London Waterloo, is a major central London terminus on the National Rail network in the United Kingdom, in the Waterloo area of the London Borough of Lambeth. It is connected to a London Underground station of the same name and is adjacent to Waterloo East station on the South Eastern Main Line. The station is the terminus of the South West Main Line to Weymouth via Southampton, the West of England main line to Exeter via Salisbury, the Portsmouth Direct line to Portsmouth Harbour which connects with ferry services to the Isle of Wight, and several commuter services around west and south-west London, Surrey, Hampshire and Berkshire.

    The station was opened in 1848 by the London and South Western Railway, and it replaced the earlier Nine Elms as it was closer to the West End. It was never designed to be a terminus, as the original intention was to continue the line towards the City of London, and consequently the station developed in a haphazard fashion, leading to difficulty finding the correct platform. The station was rebuilt in the early 20th century, opening in 1922, and included the Victory Arch over the main entrance, which commemorated World War I. Waterloo was the last London terminus to provide steam-powered services, which ended in 1967. The station was the London terminus for Eurostar international trains from 1994 until 2007, when they were transferred to St. Pancras.

    London Waterloo is the third busiest station in the UK, and was formerly the busiest railway station in the UK, handling 57.8 million passengers in the year to March 2023.[7] It is also the UK's largest station in terms of floor space and has the greatest number of platforms.

    1. ^ "London and South East" (PDF). National Rail. September 2006. Archived from the original (PDF) on 6 March 2009.
    2. ^ "Out of Station Interchanges" (XLSX). Transport for London. 16 June 2020. Retrieved 5 November 2020.
    3. ^ a b c d e f g h i j "Estimates of station usage". Rail statistics. Office of Rail Regulation. Please note: Some methodology may vary year on year.
    4. ^ Jackson 1984, p. 215.
    5. ^ "Definition of 'Waterloo'". www.collinsdictionary.com. Retrieved 29 May 2020.
    6. ^ "Definition of Waterloo noun from the Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary". www.oxfordlearnersdictionaries.com. Retrieved 29 May 2020.
    7. ^ "Estimates of station usage". Office of Rail and Road Data Portal. Archived from the original on 2 February 2024.
     
  12. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    12 July 1776 – Captain James Cook begins his third voyage.

    Third voyage of James Cook

    The route of Cook's third voyage shown in red; blue shows the return route after his death.

    James Cook's third and final voyage (12 July 1776 – 4 October 1780) took the route from Plymouth via Tenerife and Cape Town to New Zealand and the Hawaiian Islands, and along the North American coast to the Bering Strait.

    Its ostensible purpose was to return Omai, a young man from Raiatea, to his homeland, but the Admiralty used this as a cover for their plan to send Cook on a voyage to discover the Northwest Passage. HMS Resolution, to be commanded by Cook, and HMS Discovery, commanded by Charles Clerke, were prepared for the voyage which started from Plymouth in 1776.

    Omai was returned to his homeland and the ships sailed onwards, encountering the Hawaiian Archipelago, before reaching the Pacific coast of North America. The two charted the west coast of the continent and passed through the Bering Strait when they were stopped by ice from sailing either east or west. The vessels returned to the Pacific and called briefly at the Aleutians before retiring towards Hawaii for the winter.

    At Kealakekua Bay, a number of quarrels broke out between the Europeans and Hawaiians culminating in Cook's death in a violent exchange on 14 February 1779. The command of the expedition was assumed by Charles Clerke who tried in vain to find the Northwest Passage before his own death from tuberculosis. Under the command of John Gore the crews returned to a subdued welcome in London in October 1780.

     
  13. Admin2

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    13 July 1985 – The Live Aid benefit concert takes place in London and Philadelphia, as well as other venues such as Moscow and Sydney.

    Live Aid

    Live Aid was a multi-venue benefit concert held on Saturday 13 July 1985, as well as a music-based fundraising initiative. The original event was organised by Bob Geldof and Midge Ure to raise further funds for relief of the 1983–1985 famine in Ethiopia, a movement that started with the release of the successful charity single "Do They Know It's Christmas?" in December 1984. Billed as the "global jukebox", Live Aid was held simultaneously at Wembley Stadium in London, attended by about 72,000 people, and John F. Kennedy Stadium in Philadelphia, attended by 89,484 people.[1][2]

    On the same day, concerts inspired by the initiative were held in other countries, such as the Soviet Union, Canada, Japan, Yugoslavia, Austria, Australia, and West Germany. It was one of the largest satellite link-ups and television broadcasts of all time; an estimated audience of 1.9 billion, in 150 nations, watched the live broadcast, nearly 40 percent of the world population.[3][4]

    The impact of Live Aid on famine relief has been debated for years. One aid relief worker stated that following the publicity generated by the concert, "humanitarian concern is now at the centre of foreign policy" for Western governments.[5] Geldof has said, "We took an issue that was nowhere on the political agenda and, through the lingua franca of the planet – which is not English but rock 'n' roll – we were able to address the intellectual absurdity and the moral repulsion of people dying of want in a world of surplus."[6] In another interview he stated that Live Aid "created something permanent and self-sustaining" but also asked why Africa is getting poorer.[5] The organisers of Live Aid tried to run aid efforts directly, channelling millions of pounds to NGOs in Ethiopia. It has been alleged that much of this went to the Ethiopian government of Mengistu Haile Mariam – a regime the UK Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher opposed[7] – and it is also alleged some funds were spent on guns.[5][8] While the BBC World Service programme Assignment reported in March 2010 that the funds had been diverted, the BBC Editorial Complaints Unit later found "that there was no evidence to support such statements."[9] Brian Barder, British Ambassador to Ethiopia from 1982 to 1986, wrote on his website that "the diversion of aid related only to the tiny proportion that was supplied by some NGOs to rebel-held areas."[10]

    1. ^ Live Aid on Bob Geldof's official site Archived 5 February 2011 at the Wayback Machine
    2. ^ "Billboard Boxscore". Billboard. 27 July 1985. Retrieved 6 March 2020.
    3. ^ Cite error: The named reference CNN was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    4. ^ World Population Prospects: The 2017 Revision Archived 19 September 2016 at the Wayback Machine. United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs. Retrieved 7 June 2018.
    5. ^ a b c "Cruel to be kind?". The Guardian. Retrieved 31 March 2019.
    6. ^ "Live Aid index: Bob Geldof". The Guardian. Retrieved 14 June 2019.
    7. ^ "Margaret Thatcher demanded UK find ways to 'destabilise' Ethiopian regime in power during 1984 famine". The Independent. Retrieved 10 April 2019.
    8. ^ "Live Aid: The Terrible Truth". Spin. 13 July 2015. Retrieved 30 March 2019.
    9. ^ "BBC apologises over Band Aid money reports". BBC. Retrieved 19 July 2020.
    10. ^ "Ethiopia famine relief aid: misinterpreted allegations out of control". Barder.com. Retrieved 18 July 2020.
     
  14. Admin2

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    14 July 2016A terrorist vehicular attack in Nice, France kills 86 civilians and injures over 400 others.

    2016 Nice truck attack

    On the evening of 14 July 2016, a 19-tonne cargo truck was deliberately driven into crowds of people celebrating Bastille Day on the Promenade des Anglais in Nice, France, resulting in the deaths of 86 people[n 1] and the injury of 434 others.[4] The driver was Mohamed Lahouaiej-Bouhlel, a Tunisian living in France.[5][6] The attack ended following an exchange of gunfire, during which he was shot and killed by police.

    The Islamic State claimed responsibility for the attack, saying Lahouaiej-Bouhlel answered its "calls to target citizens of coalition nations that fight the Islamic State". On 15 July, François Molins, the prosecutor for the Public Ministry, which is overseeing the investigation, said the attack bore the hallmarks of jihadist terrorism.[7]

    On 15 July, French President François Hollande called the attack an act of Islamic terrorism, announced an extension of the state of emergency (which had been declared following the November 2015 Paris attacks) for a further three months, and announced an intensification of French airstrikes on ISIL in Syria and Iraq.[8][9] France later extended the state of emergency until 26 January 2017.[10] The French government declared three days of national mourning starting on 16 July. Thousands of extra police and soldiers were deployed while the government called on citizens to join the reserve forces.

    On 21 July, prosecutor François Molins said that Lahouaiej-Bouhlel planned the attack for months and had help from accomplices.[11][12][13] By 1 August, six suspects had been taken into custody on charges of "criminal terrorist conspiracy", three of whom were also charged for complicity in murder in relation to a terrorist enterprise. On 16 December three further suspects, allegedly involved in the supply of illegal weapons to Lahouaiej-Bouhlel, were charged.[14][15][16] The attack has been classified as jihadist terrorism by Europol.[17]

    1. ^ Breeden, Aurelien (15 July 2016). "News of the Attack in Nice, France". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 20 July 2016. Retrieved 20 July 2016. In the truck's cabin, officials said, the police discovered an automatic 7.65 mm pistol, a cartridge clip, several used and unused 7.65 mm cartridges, as well as a fake automatic pistol, two fake assault rifles — a replica AK-47 and a replica M-16 — a grenade, a mobile phone and documents.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link)
    2. ^ a b "Death toll from France truck attack rises to 85". BNO News. 4 August 2016.
    3. ^ a b "Nice truck attack claims 86th victim". Star Tribune. 19 August 2016. Archived from the original on 21 August 2016. Retrieved 23 August 2016.
    4. ^ Rubin, Alissa J.; Breeden, Aurelien (15 July 2017). "France Remembers the Nice Attack:We Will Never Find the Words". The New York Times. NYT. Retrieved 16 February 2022.
    5. ^ "Attentat de Nice : ce que l'on sait du chauffeur, Mohamed Lahouaiej Bouhlel". Nouvel Obs (in French). Retrieved 15 July 2016.
    6. ^ "Attentat à Nice : le suspect a été formellement identifié" (in French). Europe1. Retrieved 15 July 2016.
    7. ^ "France lorry attack: As it happened (all updates from start until 15 July, 21:54)". BBC. Retrieved 15 July 2016.
    8. ^ Cite error: The named reference monde15Jul was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    9. ^ Cite error: The named reference nrc15Jul,address was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    10. ^ "Temporary Reintroduction of Border Control". European Commission. Retrieved 15 September 2016.
    11. ^ "Nice attacker plotted for months with 'accomplices'". CNN. 21 July 2016.
    12. ^ "Nice attack: Prosecutor says suspect had accomplices". BBC. 21 July 2016. Archived from the original on 21 July 2016. Retrieved 21 July 2016.
    13. ^ "Nice truck killer had support, accomplices for carefully planned attack". France24. 21 July 2016. Retrieved 21 July 2016.
    14. ^ "Truck attack in Nice: Three more people charged with helping killer". Sky News. 17 December 2016. Retrieved 27 December 2016.
    15. ^ "Attentat de Nice: trois suspects présentés à la justice". Libération (in French). 16 December 2016. Archived from the original on 8 January 2017. Retrieved 27 December 2016.
    16. ^ "Attentat de Nice: trois suspects mis en examen et écroués". La Dépêche du Midi (in French). 18 December 2016. Retrieved 27 December 2016.
    17. ^ "EU Terrorism Situation and Trend Report (TE-SAT) 2017". EU Terrorism Situation & Trend Report (Te-Sat). Europol: 22–28. 2017. ISBN 978-92-95200-79-1.


    Cite error: There are <ref group=n> tags on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=n}} template (see the help page).

     
  15. Admin2

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    15 July 1834 – The Spanish Inquisition is officially disbanded after nearly 356 years.

    Spanish Inquisition

    The Tribunal of the Holy Office of the Inquisition (Spanish: Tribunal del Santo Oficio de la Inquisición), commonly known as the Spanish Inquisition (Inquisición española), was established in 1478 by the Catholic Monarchs, King Ferdinand II of Aragon and Queen Isabella I of Castile. It began toward the end of the Reconquista and was intended to maintain Catholic orthodoxy in their kingdoms and to replace the Medieval Inquisition, which was under papal control. It became the most substantive of the three different manifestations of the wider Catholic Inquisition, along with the Roman Inquisition and the Portuguese Inquisition. The "Spanish Inquisition" may be defined broadly as operating in Spain and in all Spanish colonies and territories, which included the Canary Islands, the Kingdom of Naples,[citation needed] and all Spanish possessions in North America and South America. According to modern estimates, around 150,000 people were prosecuted for various offences during the three-century duration of the Spanish Inquisition, of whom between 3,000 and 5,000 were executed, approximately 2.7 percent of all cases.[1] The Inquisition, however, since the creation of the American courts, has never had jurisdiction over the indigenous. The King of Spain ordered "that the inquisitors should never proceed against the Indians, but against the old Christians and their descendants and other persons against whom in these kingdoms of Spain it is customary to proceed".[2]

    The Inquisition was originally intended primarily to identify heretics among those who converted from Judaism and Islam to Catholicism. The regulation of the faith of newly converted Catholics was intensified following royal decrees issued in 1492 and 1502 ordering Jews and Muslims to convert to Catholicism or die Castile, resulting in hundreds of thousands of forced conversions, the persecution of conversos and moriscos, and the mass expulsions of Jews and of Muslims from Spain.[3] The Inquisition was abolished in 1834, during the reign of Isabella II, after a period of declining influence in the preceding century.

    1. ^ Data for executions for witchcraft: Levack, Brian P. (199). The Witch-Hunt in Early Modern Europe (2nd ed.). London and New York: Longman. ISBN 978-0582080690. OCLC 30154582. And see Witch trials in Early Modern Europe for more detail.
    2. ^ Splendiani, Ana María (1997). Cincuenta años de la inquisición en el Tribunal de Cartagena de Indias. p. 86. the American Inquisition was never involved in the conversion and evangelisation of the Indians, as they were outside its jurisdiction from the very promulgation of the edicts founding the American courts.
    3. ^ Hans-Jürgen Prien (2012). Christianity in Latin America: Revised and Expanded Edition. Brill. p. 11. ISBN 978-90-04-22262-5.
     
  16. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    16 July 1935 – The world's first parking meter is installed in Oklahoma City, Oklahoma.

    Parking meter

    A digital CivicSmart brand parking meter which accepts coins or credit cards

    A parking meter is a device used to collect money in exchange for the right to park a vehicle in a particular place for a limited amount of time. Parking meters can be used by municipalities as a tool for enforcing their integrated on-street parking policy, usually related to their traffic and mobility management policies, but are also used for revenue.

     
  17. Admin2

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    17 July 1955Disneyland is dedicated and opened by Walt Disney in Anaheim, California

    Disneyland

    Disneyland is a theme park at the Disneyland Resort in Anaheim, California. It was the first theme park opened by the Walt Disney Company and the only one designed and constructed under the direct supervision of Walt Disney, and opened on July 17, 1955.

    Disney initially envisioned building a tourist attraction adjacent to his studios in Burbank to entertain fans who wished to visit; however, he soon realized that the proposed site was too small for the ideas that he had. After hiring the Stanford Research Institute to perform a feasibility study determining an appropriate site for his project, Disney bought a 160-acre (65 ha) site near Anaheim in 1953. The park was designed by a creative team hand-picked by Walt from internal and outside talent. They founded WED Enterprises, the precursor to today's Walt Disney Imagineering. Construction began in 1954 and the park was unveiled during a special televised press event on the ABC Television Network on July 17, 1955. Since its opening, Disneyland has undergone expansions and major renovations, including the addition of New Orleans Square in 1966, Bear Country in 1972, Mickey's Toontown in 1993, and Star Wars: Galaxy's Edge in 2019.[2] Additionally, Disney California Adventure Park opened in 2001 on the site of Disneyland's original parking lot.

    Disneyland has a larger cumulative attendance than any other theme park in the world, with 757 million visits since it opened (as of December 2021).[3] In 2022, the park had approximately 16.9 million visits, making it the second most visited amusement park in the world that year, behind only Magic Kingdom, the very park it inspired.[4] According to a 2005 Disney report, 65,700 jobs are supported by the Disneyland Resort, including about 20,000 direct Disney employees and 3,800 third-party employees (independent contractors or their employees).[5] Disney announced "Project Stardust" in 2019, which included major structural renovations to the park to account for higher attendance numbers.[6]

    1. ^ "Disneyland Celebrates 56 Years on July 17". Disney Parks Blog. July 15, 2011. Archived from the original on January 20, 2013. Retrieved September 6, 2013.
    2. ^ Savvas, George (February 7, 2017). "Star Wars-Themed Lands at Disney Parks Set to Open in 2019". Disney Parks Blog. Archived from the original on February 8, 2017. Retrieved February 7, 2017.
    3. ^ "Attendance at the Disneyland theme park (Anaheim, California) from 2009 to 2021". Statista. Retrieved November 17, 2022.
    4. ^ "TEA/AECOM 2022 Global Attractions Attendance Report" (PDF). 2023. Retrieved June 23, 2023.
    5. ^ "News from the Disney Board — March 04, 2005". The Walt Disney Company. March 4, 2005. Archived from the original on March 10, 2014.
    6. ^ "Disneyland Resort Celebrates 60 Years of 'Sleeping Beauty'". Disney Parks Blog. January 24, 2019. Retrieved April 4, 2019.
     
  18. Admin2

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    18 July 1925Adolf Hitler publishes Mein Kampf.

    Mein Kampf

    Mein Kampf (German: [maɪn ˈkampf]; lit.'My Struggle') is a 1925 autobiographical manifesto by Nazi Party leader Adolf Hitler. The work describes the process by which Hitler became antisemitic and outlines his political ideology and future plans for Germany. Volume 1 of Mein Kampf was published in 1925 and Volume 2 in 1926.[1] The book was edited first by Emil Maurice, then by Hitler's deputy Rudolf Hess.[2][3]

    Hitler began Mein Kampf while imprisoned following his failed coup in Munich in November 1923 and a trial in February 1924 for high treason, in which he received a sentence of five years. Although he received many visitors initially, he soon devoted himself entirely to the book. As he continued, he realized that it would have to be a two-volume work, with the first volume scheduled for release in early 1925. The governor of Landsberg noted at the time that "he [Hitler] hopes the book will run into many editions, thus enabling him to fulfill his financial obligations and to defray the expenses incurred at the time of his trial."[4][5] After slow initial sales, the book became a bestseller in Germany following Hitler's rise to power in 1933.[6]

    After Hitler's death, copyright of Mein Kampf passed to the state government of Bavaria, which refused to allow any copying or printing of the book in Germany. In 2016, following the expiration of the copyright held by the Bavarian state government, Mein Kampf was republished in Germany for the first time since 1945, which prompted public debate and divided reactions from Jewish groups. A team of scholars from the Institute of Contemporary History in Munich published a German language two-volume almost 2,000-page edition annotated with about 3,500 notes. This was followed in 2021 by a 1,000-page French edition based on the German annotated version, with about twice as much commentary as text.[7]

    1. ^ Mein Kampf ("My Struggle"), Adolf Hitler (originally 1925–1926), Reissue edition (15 September 1998), Publisher: Mariner Books, Language: English, paperback, 720 pages, ISBN 978-1495333347
    2. ^ Shirer 1960, p. 85.
    3. ^ Robert G.L. Waite, The Psychopathic God: Adolf Hitler, Basic Books, 1977, pp. 237–243
    4. ^ Heinz, Heinz (1934). Germany's Hitler. Hurst & Blackett. p. 191.
    5. ^ Payne, Robert (1973). The Life and Death of Adolf Hitler. Popular Library. p. 203.
    6. ^ Shirer 1960, pp. 80–81.
    7. ^ Cite error: The named reference historicizing was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
     
  19. Admin2

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    19 July 1903Maurice Garin wins the first Tour de France

    1903 Tour de France

    The 1903 Tour de France was the first cycling race set up and sponsored by the newspaper L'Auto, ancestor of the current daily, L'Équipe. It ran from 1 to 19 July in six stages over 2,428 km (1,509 mi), and was won by Maurice Garin.[1]

    The race was invented to boost the circulation of L'Auto, after its circulation started to plummet from competition with the long-standing Le Vélo. Originally scheduled to start in June, the race was postponed one month, and the prize money was increased, after a disappointing level of applications from competitors. The 1903 Tour de France was the first stage road race, and compared to modern Grand Tours, it had relatively few stages, but each was much longer than those raced today. The cyclists did not have to compete in all six stages, although this was necessary to qualify for the general classification.

    The pre-race favourite, Maurice Garin, won the first stage, and retained the lead throughout. He also won the last two stages, and had a margin of almost three hours over the next cyclist. The circulation of L'Auto increased more than sixfold during and after the race, so the race was considered successful enough to be rerun in 1904, by which time Le Vélo had been forced out of business.

    1. ^ Augendre 2016, p. 108.
     
  20. Admin2

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    20 July 1969Apollo program: Apollo 11's crew successfully makes the first manned landing on the Moon in the Sea of Tranquility. Americans Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin become the first humans to walk on the Moon six and a half hours later.

    Apollo 11

    Apollo 11 (July 16–24, 1969) was the American spaceflight that first landed humans on the Moon. Commander Neil Armstrong and Lunar Module Pilot Buzz Aldrin landed the Apollo Lunar Module Eagle on July 20, 1969, at 20:17 UTC, and Armstrong became the first person to step onto the Moon's surface six hours and 39 minutes later, on July 21 at 02:56 UTC. Aldrin joined him 19 minutes later, and they spent about two and a quarter hours together exploring the site they had named Tranquility Base upon landing. Armstrong and Aldrin collected 47.5 pounds (21.5 kg) of lunar material to bring back to Earth as pilot Michael Collins flew the Command Module Columbia in lunar orbit, and were on the Moon's surface for 21 hours, 36 minutes before lifting off to rejoin Columbia.

    Apollo 11 was launched by a Saturn V rocket from Kennedy Space Center on Merritt Island, Florida, on July 16 at 13:32 UTC, and it was the fifth crewed mission of NASA's Apollo program. The Apollo spacecraft had three parts: a command module (CM) with a cabin for the three astronauts, the only part that returned to Earth; a service module (SM), which supported the command module with propulsion, electrical power, oxygen, and water; and a lunar module (LM) that had two stages—a descent stage for landing on the Moon and an ascent stage to place the astronauts back into lunar orbit.

    After being sent to the Moon by the Saturn V's third stage, the astronauts separated the spacecraft from it and traveled for three days until they entered lunar orbit. Armstrong and Aldrin then moved into Eagle and landed in the Sea of Tranquility on July 20. The astronauts used Eagle's ascent stage to lift off from the lunar surface and rejoin Collins in the command module. They jettisoned Eagle before they performed the maneuvers that propelled Columbia out of the last of its 30 lunar orbits onto a trajectory back to Earth.[9] They returned to Earth and splashed down in the Pacific Ocean on July 24 after more than eight days in space.

    Armstrong's first step onto the lunar surface was broadcast on live TV to a worldwide audience. He described the event as "one small step for [a] man, one giant leap for mankind."[a][15] Apollo 11 effectively proved U.S. victory in the Space Race to demonstrate spaceflight superiority, by fulfilling a national goal proposed in 1961 by President John F. Kennedy, "before this decade is out, of landing a man on the Moon and returning him safely to the Earth."[16]

    1. ^ Byrne., Dave (July 8, 2019). "Apollo 11 Image Library". hq.nasa.gov. Archived from the original on February 24, 2020. Retrieved June 10, 2021.
    2. ^ "Apollo 11 Command and Service Module (CSM)". NASA Space Science Data Coordinated Archive. Archived from the original on February 10, 2021. Retrieved November 20, 2019.
    3. ^ "Apollo 11 Lunar Module / EASEP". NASA Space Science Data Coordinated Archive. Archived from the original on August 3, 2019. Retrieved November 20, 2019.
    4. ^ a b "Apollo 11 Press Kit" (PDF). history.nasa.gov. Archived from the original (PDF) on January 6, 2023. Retrieved December 16, 2022.
    5. ^ "Ground Ignition Weights". history.nasa.gov. Retrieved May 31, 2022.
    6. ^ Cite error: The named reference Mission Overview was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    7. ^ a b c d e "Apollo 11 Mission Summary". Smithsonian Air and Space Museum. Archived from the original on February 9, 2021. Retrieved September 6, 2019.
    8. ^ a b Orloff 2000, p. 106.
    9. ^ a b c d Orloff 2000, p. 109.
    10. ^ Cite error: The named reference ALSJ 1 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    11. ^ Orloff 2000, p. 97.
    12. ^ Williams, David R. (December 11, 2003). "Apollo Landing Site Coordinates". NASA Space Science Data Coordinated Archive. NASA. Archived from the original on December 25, 2018. Retrieved October 18, 2021.
    13. ^ Orloff 2000, p. 107.
    14. ^ Jones, Eric (April 8, 2018). "One Small Step". Apollo 11 Lunar Surface Journal. Archived from the original on September 3, 2019. Retrieved September 6, 2019.
    15. ^ Cite error: The named reference ALSJ 4 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    16. ^ Stenger, Richard (May 25, 2001). "Man on the Moon: Kennedy speech ignited the dream". CNN. Archived from the original on June 6, 2010. Retrieved December 30, 2018.


    Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

     
  21. Admin2

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    21 July 1970 – After 11 years of construction, the Aswan High Dam in Egypt is completed.

    Aswan Dam

    The Aswan Dam, or more specifically since the 1980s, the Aswan High Dam, is one of the world's largest embankment dams, which was built across the Nile in Aswan, Egypt, between 1960 and 1970. When it was completed, it was the tallest earthen dam in the world, eclipsing the United States' Chatuge Dam.[2] Its significance largely upstaged the previous Aswan Low Dam initially completed in 1902 downstream. Based on the success of the Low Dam, then at its maximum utilization, construction of the High Dam became a key objective of the new regime the Free Officers movement of 1952; with its ability to better control flooding, provide increased water storage for irrigation and generate hydroelectricity, the dam was seen as pivotal to Egypt's planned industrialization. Like the earlier implementation, the High Dam has had a significant effect on the economy and culture of Egypt.

    Before the High Dam was built, even with the old dam in place, the annual flooding of the Nile during late summer had continued to pass largely unimpeded down the valley from its East African drainage basin. These floods brought high water with natural nutrients and minerals that annually enriched the fertile soil along its floodplain and delta; this predictability had made the Nile valley ideal for farming since ancient times. However, this natural flooding varied, since high-water years could destroy the whole crop, while low-water years could create widespread drought and consequently famine. Both these events had continued to occur periodically. As Egypt's population grew and technology increased, both a desire and the ability developed to completely control the flooding, and thus both protect and support farmland and its economically important cotton crop. With the greatly increased reservoir storage provided by the High Aswan Dam, the floods could be controlled and the water could be stored for later release over multiple years.

    The Aswan Dam was designed by Nikolai Aleksandrovich Malyshev of the Moscow-based Hydroproject Institute.[3][4] Designed for both irrigation and power generation, the dam incorporates a number of relatively new features, including a very deep grout curtain below its base. Although the reservoir will eventually silt in, even the most conservative estimates indicate the dam will give at least 200 years of service.[5]

    1. ^ "Aswan High Dam". Carbon Monitoring for Action. Archived from the original on 2015-01-15. Retrieved 2015-01-15.
    2. ^ Moore, Carl S. (1 Jan 2007). "Impact of National Forest & TVA Chatuge Dam". Clay County, NC Then and Now: A Written and Pictorial History. Genealogy Publishing Service. ISBN 9781881851240.
    3. ^ Cite error: The named reference Malyshev was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    4. ^ Cite error: The named reference Smith was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    5. ^ "INTELLIGENCE MEMORANDUM ECONOMIC IMPRACT OF THE ASWAN HIGH DAM" (PDF). October 1971.
     
  22. Admin2

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    22 July 1977 – Chinese leader Deng Xiaoping is restored to power.

    Deng Xiaoping

    Deng Xiaoping[a] (22 August 1904 – 19 February 1997) was a Chinese revolutionary and statesman who served as the paramount leader of the People's Republic of China (PRC) from December 1978 to November 1989. After Chinese Communist Party chairman Mao Zedong's death in 1976, Deng rose to power and led China through its process of Reform and Opening Up and the development of China's socialist market economy. Deng developed a reputation as the "Architect of Modern China" and his ideological contributions to socialism with Chinese characteristics are described as Deng Xiaoping Theory.

    Born in Sichuan during the end of the Qing dynasty, Deng moved to France in 1921 as a teenager, where he worked and studied; in the coming years he became attracted to the theories of Vladimir Lenin, and in 1924 he joined the Chinese Communist Party (CCP). In early 1926, Deng travelled to Moscow to study political science, becoming a commissar for the Red Army upon his return to China. Near the end of 1929, Deng led local Red Army uprisings in Guangxi. In 1931, he was demoted within the party due to his support for Mao, but was again promoted during the Zunyi Conference. Deng was an important figure throughout the Chinese Civil War (1927–1949), including during the Long March (1934–1935) and in fighting against the Japanese (1937–1945). He, Liu Bocheng and Chen Yi led the newly formed People's Liberation Army (PLA) into the former Kuomintang capital of Nanjing during the final stretch of the civil war. Following the proclamation of the People's Republic of China on 1 October 1949, Deng served in Tibet and southwestern China as the regional party chief, working to consolidate party control in the region. In 1952, he returned to Beijing and held a central position in the State Council. As the party's Secretary-General under Chairman Mao Zedong, and Vice Premier under Premier Zhou Enlai during the 1950s, Deng presided over the Anti-Rightist Campaign spearheaded by Mao, and became instrumental in China's economic reconstruction following the Great Leap Forward (1958–1960). However, his right-leaning political and economic stances eventually caused him to fall out of favor with Mao, and he was the target of purges twice during the Cultural Revolution (1966–1976).

    Following Mao's death in September 1976, Deng outmaneuvered Mao's chosen successor Hua Guofeng, and became China's paramount leader during the 3rd Plenary Session of the 11th Central Committee in December 1978. Because of the institutional disorder and political turmoil from the later Mao-era, Deng and his allies launched the Boluan Fanzheng program. The program sought to restore order, rehabilitating veteran CCP leadership, as well as millions of people were persecuted during the Cultural Revolution. From 1977 to early 1979, he resumed the National College Entrance Examination that had not taken place for ten years, and initiated the Reform and Opening-up program that introduced elements of market capitalism to the Chinese economy. This included designating special economic zones, such as Shenzhen. Still embroiled in the Sino-Soviet split that began during the 1960s, Deng's China fought a one-month war with Vietnam. On 1 January 1979, the PRC officially established diplomatic relations with the United States after years of prelude, and Deng became the first paramount leader of China to visit the US. In August 1980, Deng embarked on a series of political reforms, setting constitutional term limits for state officials and other systematic revisions, which were incorporated in the country's third constitution (1982). In the 1980s, Deng advocated for the one-child policy to deal with China's perceived overpopulation crisis, helped establish China's nine-year compulsory education, launched the 863 Program for science and technology, and downsized the PLA by one million. Deng also proposed the One Country, Two Systems principle for the governance of Hong Kong and Macau, as well as the future unification with Taiwan. During Deng's tenure, his protégés Hu Yaobang and Zhao Ziyang were head of the party and the government, but both of whom were later ousted from power. Deng stepped down from all his official positions in November 1989, in the wake of an eruption of protests in Tiananmen Square.

    The reforms carried out by Deng and his allies gradually led China away from a planned economy and Maoist ideologies, opened it up to foreign investments and technology, and introduced its vast labor force to the global market, thus elevating a billion people from poverty and turning China into one of the world's fastest-growing economies.[5] Deng and his chosen successors Jiang Zemin and Hu Jintao contributed to China becoming the world's second-largest economy by nominal GDP in 2010.[6][7] Despite never holding office as either the PRC's state representative or head of government nor as the head of CCP, Deng is generally viewed as the "core" of the CCP's second-generation leadership, a status enshrined within the party's constitution.[8] Deng was named the Time Person of the Year for 1978 and 1985.[9][10] He was criticized for ordering a military crackdown on the 1989 Tiananmen Square protests, yet was praised for his reaffirmation of the reform program in his Southern Tour of 1992 as well as the reversion of Hong Kong to Chinese control in 1997 and the return of Macau in 1999.

    1. ^ "Deng Xiaoping". Collins English Dictionary. HarperCollins. Archived from the original on 4 June 2019. Retrieved 8 March 2019.
    2. ^ "Deng Xiaoping". Archived from the original on 4 June 2019. (US) and "Deng Xiaoping". Oxford Dictionaries UK English Dictionary. Oxford University Press. Archived from the original on 8 March 2019.
    3. ^ "Teng Hsiao-p'ing". Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary. Retrieved 8 March 2019.
    4. ^ "Mao's last hurrah: the campaign against Teng Hsiao-Ping" (PDF). CIA. August 1976. Archived from the original (PDF) on 13 April 2021.
    5. ^ Denmark, Abraham. "40 years ago, Deng Xiaoping changed China — and the world". The Washington Post. ISSN 0190-8286. Archived from the original on 8 May 2019. Retrieved 19 April 2021.
    6. ^ "China overtakes Japan as world's second-largest economy". The Guardian. 16 August 2010. Archived from the original on 12 June 2022. Retrieved 12 June 2022.
    7. ^ Barboza, David (16 August 2010). "China Passes Japan as Second-Largest Economy". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on 11 April 2021. Retrieved 12 June 2022.
    8. ^ "Constitution of the Communist Party of China" (PDF). Xinhuanet. Archived (PDF) from the original on 26 October 2021. Retrieved 18 February 2021.
    9. ^ "Man of the Year: Teng Hsiao-p'ing: Visions of a New China". Time. 1 January 1979. Archived from the original on 19 April 2021. Retrieved 19 April 2021.
    10. ^ "Man of the Year: Deng Xiaoping". Time. 6 January 1986. Archived from the original on 9 December 2019. Retrieved 19 April 2021.


    Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

     
  23. Admin2

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    23 July 1995Comet Hale–Bopp is discovered; it becomes visible to the naked eye on Earth nearly a year later.

    Comet Hale–Bopp

    Comet Hale–Bopp (formally designated C/1995 O1) is a comet that was one of the most widely observed of the 20th century and one of the brightest seen for many decades.

    Alan Hale and Thomas Bopp discovered Comet Hale–Bopp separately on July 23, 1995, before it became visible to the naked eye. It is difficult to predict the maximum brightness of new comets with any degree of certainty, but Hale–Bopp exceeded most predictions when it passed perihelion on April 1, 1997, reaching about magnitude −1.8. It was visible to the naked eye for a record 18 months, due to its massive nucleus size. This is twice as long as the Great Comet of 1811, the previous record holder. Accordingly, Hale–Bopp was dubbed the great comet of 1997.

    1. ^ a b c d Cite error: The named reference jpldata was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    2. ^ a b "JPL SBDB Epoch 1996". Archived from the original on July 30, 2021.
    3. ^ Horizons output. "Barycentric Osculating Orbital Elements for Comet C/1995 O1 (Hale-Bopp)". Retrieved September 18, 2022. (Solution using the Solar System barycenter. "PR = 8.763E+05 / 365.25 days" = 2399 years)
    4. ^ Syuichi Nakano (February 12, 2008). "OAA computing section circular NK 1553". OAA Computing and Minor Planet Sections. Retrieved December 17, 2009.
    5. ^ Cite error: The named reference MPEC1995-P01 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    6. ^ Cite error: The named reference Marsden1997 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    7. ^ "Solex 10 estimate for Next Perihelion of C/1995 O1 (Hale-Bopp)". Archived from the original on August 10, 2012. Retrieved December 18, 2009.
     
  24. Admin2

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    24 July 1977 – End of a four-day-long Libyan–Egyptian War.

    Libyan–Egyptian War

     
  25. Admin2

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    25 July 1814War of 1812: An American attack on Canada is repulsed.

    Battle of Lundy's Lane

    The Battle of Lundy's Lane, also known as the Battle of Niagara,[8] was fought on 25 July 1814, during the War of 1812, between an invading American army and a British and Canadian army near present-day Niagara Falls, Ontario. It was one of the bloodiest battles of the war,[9] and one of the deadliest battles fought in Canada,[10] with approximately 1,720 casualties including 258 killed.

    The engagement was marked by intense musketry at close range and instances of friendly fire on both sides amidst the smoke and confusion, which caused several units to break entirely.[11] The two armies fought each other to a stalemate; neither side held firm control of the field following the engagement. However, the casualties suffered by the Americans precipitated their withdrawal, and the British held the strategic initiative.

    1. ^ Graves (1997), pp. 261–262.
    2. ^ Graves (1997), pp. 257–258.
    3. ^ Graves (1993), p. 173.
    4. ^ Graves (1993), p. 174.
    5. ^ Wood, p. 164.
    6. ^ Graves (1993), p. 175.
    7. ^ Whitehorne, pp. 149–150.
    8. ^ The War of 1812 Archived 14 August 2010 at the Wayback Machine
    9. ^ Heidler (2004), p. 161.
    10. ^ Belanger (2009), p. 72.
    11. ^ Elting (1995), p. 194.
     
  26. Admin2

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    26 July 1814 – The Swedish–Norwegian War begins.

    Swedish–Norwegian War (1814)

     
  27. Admin2

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    27 July 1996 – In Atlanta, United States, a pipe bomb explodes at Centennial Olympic Park during the 1996 Summer Olympics.

    Centennial Olympic Park bombing

    The Centennial Olympic Park bombing was a domestic terrorist pipe bombing attack on Centennial Olympic Park in Atlanta, Georgia, on Saturday, July 27, 1996, during the Summer Olympics. The blast directly killed one person and injured 111 others; another person later died of a heart attack. It was the first of four bombings committed by Eric Rudolph in a terrorism campaign against what he called "the ideals of global socialism" and against "abortion on demand".[1][2] Security guard Richard Jewell discovered the bomb before detonation, notified Georgia Bureau of Investigation officers, and began clearing spectators out of the park along with other security guards.

    After the bombing, Jewell was initially investigated as a suspect by the Federal Bureau of Investigation and news media aggressively focused on him as the presumed culprit when he was actually innocent. In October 1996, the FBI declared Jewell was no longer a person of interest. Following three more bombings in 1997 and 1998, Rudolph was identified by the FBI as the suspect. In 2003, Rudolph was finally captured and arrested, and in 2005 he agreed to plead guilty to avoid a potential death sentence. Rudolph was sentenced to life imprisonment without parole for his crimes.

    1. ^ Gross, Doug (April 14, 2005). "Eric Rudolph Lays Out the Arguments that Fueled His Two-Year Bomb Attacks". San Diego Union-Tribune. Associated Press. Archived from the original on September 2, 2018. Retrieved March 27, 2019.
    2. ^ Cite error: The named reference NPR was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
     
  28. Admin2

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    28 July 1984 – The 1984 Summer Olympics officially known as the games of the XXIII were opened in Los Angeles.

    1984 Summer Olympics

    The 1984 Summer Olympics (officially the Games of the XXIII Olympiad and commonly known as Los Angeles 1984) were an international multi-sport event held from July 28 to August 12, 1984, in Los Angeles, California, United States. It marked the second time that Los Angeles had hosted the Games, the first being in 1932. California was the home state of the incumbent U.S. President Ronald Reagan, who officially opened the Games. These were the first Summer Olympic Games under the IOC presidency of Juan Antonio Samaranch.

    The 1984 Games were boycotted by fourteen Eastern Bloc countries, including the Soviet Union and East Germany, in response to the American-led boycott of the 1980 Summer Olympics in Moscow, Russia, in protest of the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan; Romania was the only Soviet Bloc state that opted to attend the Games. Albania, Iran and Libya also chose to boycott the Games for unrelated reasons.

    Despite the field being depleted in certain sports due to the boycott, 140 National Olympic Committees took part in the 1984 Games, a record number at the time.[2][3] The United States won the most gold and overall medals, followed by Romania and West Germany.

    The 1984 Summer Olympics are widely considered to be the most financially successful modern Olympics,[4] serving as an example on how to run an Olympic games. As a result of low construction costs, due to the use of existing sport infrastructure, coupled with a reliance on private corporate funding,[5] the 1984 Games generated a profit of over US$250 million.

    On July 18, 2009, a 25th anniversary celebration of the 1984 Games was held at the Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum. The celebration included a speech by former Los Angeles Olympic Organizing Committee president Peter Ueberroth, as well as a re-enactment of the lighting of the Olympic cauldron.

    Los Angeles will host the Summer Olympics for the third time in 2028.[6]

    1. ^ a b "Factsheet - Opening Ceremony of the Games of the Olympiad" (PDF) (Press release). International Olympic Committee. October 9, 2014. Archived (PDF) from the original on August 14, 2016. Retrieved December 22, 2018.
    2. ^ "NO BOYCOTT BLUES". olympic.org. Retrieved January 6, 2017.
    3. ^ "Games of the XXIII Olympiad". International Olympic Committee. Archived from the original on August 30, 2008. Retrieved August 31, 2008.
    4. ^ Abrahamson, Alan (July 25, 2004). "LA the Best Site, Bid Group Insists; Olympics: Despite USOC rejection". Los Angeles Times. Archived from the original on November 5, 2012. Retrieved August 17, 2008.
    5. ^ Clarke, Norm (April 7, 1984). "It's official: Sponsors help pay for Olympics". Spokesman-Review. (Spokane, Washington). Associated Press. p. 18.
    6. ^ "L.A. officially awarded 2028 Olympic Games". Los Angeles Times. September 2017. Retrieved September 13, 2017.
     
  29. Admin2

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    29 July 1935 – First flight of the Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress.

    Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress

    The Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress is an American four-engined heavy bomber aircraft developed in the 1930s for the United States Army Air Corps (USAAC). A fast and high-flying bomber of its era, the B-17 was used primarily in the European Theater of Operations and dropped more bombs than any other aircraft during World War II. It is the third-most produced bomber of all time, behind the American four-engined Consolidated B-24 Liberator and the German multirole, twin-engined Junkers Ju 88. It was also employed as a transport, antisubmarine aircraft, drone controller, and search-and-rescue aircraft.

    In a USAAC competition, Boeing's prototype Model 299/XB-17 outperformed two other entries but crashed, losing the initial 200-bomber contract to the Douglas B-18 Bolo. Still, the Air Corps ordered 13 more B-17s for further evaluation, which were introduced into service in 1938. The B-17 evolved through numerous design advances[4][5] but from its inception, the USAAC (from 1941 the United States Army Air Forces, USAAF) promoted the aircraft as a strategic weapon. It was a relatively fast, high-flying, long-range bomber with heavy defensive armament at the expense of bombload. It also developed a reputation for toughness based upon stories and photos of badly damaged B-17s safely returning to base.

    The B-17 saw early action in the Pacific War, where it conducted raids against Japanese shipping and airfields.[6] But it was primarily employed by the USAAF in the daylight component of the Allied strategic bombing campaign over Europe, complementing RAF Bomber Command's night bombers in attacking German industrial, military and civilian targets.[7] Of the roughly 1.5 million tons of bombs dropped on Nazi Germany and its occupied territories by Allied aircraft, over 640 000 tons (42.6%) were dropped from B-17s.[8]

    As of February 2024, six aircraft remain airworthy, none of which had been flown in combat. Dozens more are in storage or on static display, the oldest of which is The Swoose, a B-17D which was flown in combat in the Pacific on the first day of the United States' involvement in World War II.

    1. ^ Cite error: The named reference first flight was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    2. ^ Cite error: The named reference Yenne.p8 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    3. ^ Angelucci and Matricardi 1988, p. 46.
    4. ^ Parker 2013, pp. 35, 40–48.
    5. ^ Herman 2012, pp. 292–299, 305, 333.
    6. ^ Parker 2013, p. 41.
    7. ^ Cite error: The named reference Carey Pointblank was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    8. ^ Cite error: The named reference Yenne.p46 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
     
  30. Admin2

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    29 July 1935 – First flight of the Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress.

    Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress

    The Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress is an American four-engined heavy bomber aircraft developed in the 1930s for the United States Army Air Corps (USAAC). A fast and high-flying bomber of its era, the B-17 was used primarily in the European Theater of Operations and dropped more bombs than any other aircraft during World War II. It is the third-most produced bomber of all time, behind the American four-engined Consolidated B-24 Liberator and the German multirole, twin-engined Junkers Ju 88. It was also employed as a transport, antisubmarine aircraft, drone controller, and search-and-rescue aircraft.

    In a USAAC competition, Boeing's prototype Model 299/XB-17 outperformed two other entries but crashed, losing the initial 200-bomber contract to the Douglas B-18 Bolo. Still, the Air Corps ordered 13 more B-17s for further evaluation, which were introduced into service in 1938. The B-17 evolved through numerous design advances[4][5] but from its inception, the USAAC (from 1941 the United States Army Air Forces, USAAF) promoted the aircraft as a strategic weapon. It was a relatively fast, high-flying, long-range bomber with heavy defensive armament at the expense of bombload. It also developed a reputation for toughness based upon stories and photos of badly damaged B-17s safely returning to base.

    The B-17 saw early action in the Pacific War, where it conducted raids against Japanese shipping and airfields.[6] But it was primarily employed by the USAAF in the daylight component of the Allied strategic bombing campaign over Europe, complementing RAF Bomber Command's night bombers in attacking German industrial, military and civilian targets.[7] Of the roughly 1.5 million tons of bombs dropped on Nazi Germany and its occupied territories by Allied aircraft, over 640 000 tons (42.6%) were dropped from B-17s.[8]

    As of February 2024, six aircraft remain airworthy, none of which had been flown in combat. Dozens more are in storage or on static display, the oldest of which is The Swoose, a B-17D which was flown in combat in the Pacific on the first day of the United States' involvement in World War II.

    1. ^ Cite error: The named reference first flight was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    2. ^ Cite error: The named reference Yenne.p8 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    3. ^ Angelucci and Matricardi 1988, p. 46.
    4. ^ Parker 2013, pp. 35, 40–48.
    5. ^ Herman 2012, pp. 292–299, 305, 333.
    6. ^ Parker 2013, p. 41.
    7. ^ Cite error: The named reference Carey Pointblank was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    8. ^ Cite error: The named reference Yenne.p46 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
     
  31. Admin2

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    30 July 1980 – Israel's Knesset passes the Jerusalem Law.

    Jerusalem Law

    Jerusalem Law (Hebrew: חוֹק יְסוֹד: יְרוּשָׁלַיִם בִּירַת יִשְׂרָאֵל, Arabic: قانون القدس) is a common name of Basic Law: Jerusalem, Capital of Israel passed by the Knesset on 30 July 1980 (17th Av, 5740).

    Although the law did not use the term, the Israeli Supreme Court interpreted the law as an effective annexation of East Jerusalem.[1] The United Nations Security Council condemned the attempted change in status to Jerusalem and ruled the law "null and void" in United Nations Security Council Resolution 478.

    1. ^ Eyal Benvenisti (23 February 2012). The International Law of Occupation. OUP Oxford. pp. 205–. ISBN 978-0-19-958889-3.
     
  32. Admin2

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    31 July 1588 – The Spanish Armada is spotted off the coast of England.

    Spanish Armada

    The Spanish Armada (a.k.a. the Invincible Armada or the Enterprise of England, Spanish: Grande y Felicísima Armada, lit.'Great and Most Fortunate Navy') was a Spanish fleet that sailed from Lisbon in late May 1588, commanded by the Alonso de Guzmán, Duke of Medina Sidonia, an aristocrat without previous naval experience appointed by Philip II of Spain. His orders were to sail up the English Channel, join with the Duke of Parma in Flanders, and escort an invasion force that would land in England and overthrow Elizabeth I. Its purpose was to reinstate Catholicism in England, end support for the Dutch Republic, and prevent attacks by English and Dutch privateers against Spanish interests in the Americas.

    The Spanish were opposed by an English fleet based in Plymouth. Faster and more manoeuvrable than the larger Spanish galleons, they were able to attack the Armada as it sailed up the Channel. Several subordinates advised Medina Sidonia to anchor in The Solent and occupy the Isle of Wight, but he refused to deviate from his instructions to join with Parma. Although the Armada reached Calais largely intact, while awaiting communication from Parma, it was attacked at night by English fire ships and forced to scatter. The Armada suffered further losses in the ensuing Battle of Gravelines, and was in danger of running aground on the Dutch coast when the wind changed, allowing it to escape into the North Sea. Pursued by the English, the Spanish ships returned home via Scotland and Ireland. Up to 24 ships were wrecked along the way before the rest managed to get home. Among the factors contributing to the defeat and withdrawal of the Armada were bad weather conditions and the better employment of naval guns and battle tactics by the English.

    The expedition was the largest engagement of the undeclared Anglo-Spanish War. The following year, England organized a similar large-scale campaign against Spain, known as the "English Armada", and sometimes called the "counter-Armada of 1589", which failed. Three further Spanish armadas were sent against England and Ireland in 1596, 1597, and 1601,[23] but these likewise ended in failure.

    1. ^ Mattingly p. 401: "the defeat of the Spanish armada really was decisive"
    2. ^ Parker & Martin p. 5: "an unmitigated disaster"
    3. ^ Vego p. 148: "the decisive defeat of the Spanish armada"
    4. ^ a b Martin & Parker 1999, p. 40.
    5. ^ a b Martin & Parker 1999, p. 65.
    6. ^ a b c d Casado Soto 1991, p. 117.
    7. ^ Kinard, Jeff. Artillery: An Illustrated History of Its Impact. p. 92.
    8. ^ Burke, Peter. The New Cambridge Modern History: Volume 13, Companion Volume.
    9. ^ Martin & Parker 1999, pp. 60–63.
    10. ^ Kamen, Henry (2014). Spain, 1469–1714: A Society of Conflict. Routledge. p. 123.
    11. ^ Martin & Parker 1999, p. 94.
    12. ^ Lewis 1960, p. 184.
    13. ^ John Knox Laughton,State Papers Relating to the Defeat of the Spanish Armada, Anno 1588, printed for the Navy Records Society, MDCCCXCV, Vol. II, pp. 8–9, Wynter to Walsyngham: indicates that the ships used as fire-ships were drawn from those at hand in the fleet and not hulks from Dover.
    14. ^ Bicheno 2012, p. 262.
    15. ^ Lewis 1960, p. 182.
    16. ^ Aubrey N. Newman, David T. Johnson, P.M. Jones (1985) The Eighteenth Century Annual Bulletin of Historical Literature 69 (1), 108 doi:10.1111/j.1467-8314.1985.tb00698.
    17. ^ Casado Soto 1991, p. 122.
    18. ^ Mattingly 2005, p. 426.
    19. ^ Lewis 1960, p. 208.
    20. ^ Gracia Rivas, Manuel: The Medical Services of the ‘’Gran Armada’’, in Rodríguez-Salgado, M. J. and Simon Adams (eds.): "England, Spain and the Gran Armada, 1585–1604". Barnes & Noble, 1991. ISBN 0389209554, p. 212
    21. ^ Lewis 1960, pp. 208–209.
    22. ^ Hanson 2011, p. 563.
    23. ^ Graham 1972, pp. 258–61.
     
  33. Admin2

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    1 August 527Justinian I becomes the sole ruler of the Byzantine Empire.

    Justinian I

    Justinian I (/ʌˈstɪniən/ just-IN-ee-ən; Latin: Iustinianus, Classical Latin: [juːstiːniˈaːnʊs]; Greek: Ἰουστινιανός, translit. Ioustinianós, Medieval Greek: [i.ustini.aˈnos]; 482 – 14 November 565),[b] also known as Justinian the Great,[c] was the Eastern Roman emperor from 527 to 565.

    His reign was marked by the ambitious but only partly realized renovatio imperii, or "restoration of the Empire".[5] This ambition was expressed by the partial recovery of the territories of the defunct Western Roman Empire.[6] His general, Belisarius, swiftly conquered the Vandal Kingdom in North Africa. Subsequently, Belisarius, Narses, and other generals conquered the Ostrogothic kingdom, restoring Dalmatia, Sicily, Italy, and Rome to the empire after more than half a century of rule by the Ostrogoths. The praetorian prefect Liberius reclaimed the south of the Iberian Peninsula, establishing the province of Spania. These campaigns re-established Roman control over the western Mediterranean, increasing the Empire's annual revenue by over a million solidi.[7] During his reign, Justinian also subdued the Tzani, a people on the east coast of the Black Sea that had never been under Roman rule before.[8] He engaged the Sasanian Empire in the east during Kavad I's reign, and later again during Khosrow I's reign; this second conflict was partially initiated due to his ambitions in the west.

    A still more resonant aspect of his legacy was the uniform rewriting of Roman law, the Corpus Juris Civilis, which is still the basis of civil law in many modern states.[9] His reign also marked a blossoming of Eastern Roman (Byzantine) culture, and his building program yielded works such as the Hagia Sophia.

    1. ^ J. B. Bury (2008) [1889] History of the Later Roman Empire from Arcadius to Irene II. Cosimo, Inc. ISBN 1605204056, p. 7.
    2. ^ PLRE.
    3. ^ Cameron, Alan (1988). "Flavius: a Nicety of Protocol". Latomus. 47 (1): 26–33. JSTOR 41540754.
    4. ^ Abdy, John Thomas (1876). The Institutes of Justinian. Cambridge University Press. p. 21.
    5. ^ J. F. Haldon, Byzantium in the seventh century (Cambridge, 2003), 17–19.
    6. ^ On the western Roman Empire, see now H. Börm, Westrom (Stuttgart 2013).
    7. ^ "History 303: Finances under Justinian". Tulane.edu. Archived from the original on 9 March 2008. Retrieved 14 November 2012.
    8. ^ Evans, J. A. S., The Age of Justinian: the circumstances of imperial power. pp. 93–94
    9. ^ John Henry Merryman and Rogelio Pérez-Perdomo, The Civil Law Tradition: An Introduction to the Legal Systems of Europe and Latin America, 3rd ed. (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2007), pp. 9–11.


    Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

     
  34. Admin2

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    2 August 1980 – A bomb explodes at the railway station in Bologna, Italy, killing 85 people and wounding more than 200

    Bologna massacre

    The Bologna massacre (Italian: strage di Bologna) was a terrorist bombing of the Bologna Centrale railway station in Bologna, Italy, on the morning of 2 August 1980, which killed 85 people and wounded over 200.[1] Several members of the neo-fascist terrorist organization Nuclei Armati Rivoluzionari (NAR, Armed Revolutionary Nuclei) were sentenced for the bombing,[2] although the group denied involvement.

    1. ^ "Strage di Bologna". Rai Storia. 19 December 2017. Archived from the original on 19 December 2017. Retrieved 5 April 2022.
    2. ^ Tassinari, Ugo Maria (2008). Fascisteria (in Italian). Milano: Sperling & Kupfer. ISBN 978-88-200-4449-7. OCLC 209335674. p. 626.
     
  35. Admin2

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  36. Admin2

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    4 August 1824 – The Battle of Kos is fought between Turkish and Greek forces.

    Battle of Kos

    Location of Kos in the Aegean Sea

    The Battle of Kos (Greek: Μάχη της Κω) was a brief battle in World War II between British/Italian and German forces for control of the Greek island of Kos, in the then Italian-held Dodecanese Islands of the Aegean Sea. The battle was precipitated by the Allied Armistice with Italy. German forces with strong air support quickly overwhelmed the Italian garrison and the recent British reinforcements, denying the Allies a base to attack the German presence in the Balkans and leading to the expulsion and death of the island's Jewish population.

     
  37. Admin2

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    5 August 1781 – The Battle of Dogger Bank takes place.

    Battle of Dogger Bank (1781)

    The Battle of Dogger Bank was a naval battle that took place on 5 August 1781 during the Fourth Anglo-Dutch War, contemporaneously related to the American Revolutionary War, in the North Sea. It was a bloody encounter between a British squadron under Vice Admiral Sir Hyde Parker and a Dutch squadron under Vice Admiral Johan Zoutman, both of which were escorting convoys.

    1. ^ a b c d Van Nimwegen 2023, p. 228.
    2. ^ a b Cite error: The named reference C508 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).


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  38. Admin2

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    6 August 2012NASA's Curiosity rover lands on the surface of Mars.

    Curiosity (rover)

    Curiosity is a car-sized Mars rover exploring Gale crater and Mount Sharp on Mars as part of NASA's Mars Science Laboratory (MSL) mission.[2] Curiosity was launched from Cape Canaveral (CCAFS) on November 26, 2011, at 15:02:00 UTC and landed on Aeolis Palus inside Gale crater on Mars on August 6, 2012, 05:17:57 UTC.[3][4][5] The Bradbury Landing site was less than 2.4 km (1.5 mi) from the center of the rover's touchdown target after a 560 million km (350 million mi) journey.[6][7]

    Mission goals include an investigation of the Martian climate and geology, assessment of whether the selected field site inside Gale has ever offered environmental conditions favorable for microbial life (including investigation of the role of water), and planetary habitability studies in preparation for human exploration.[8][9]

    In December 2012, Curiosity's two-year mission was extended indefinitely,[10] and on August 5, 2017, NASA celebrated the fifth anniversary of the Curiosity rover landing.[11][12] On August 6, 2022, a detailed overview of accomplishments by the Curiosity rover for the last ten years was reported.[13] The rover is still operational, and as of 17 March 2024, Curiosity has been active on Mars for 4128 sols (4241 total days; 11 years, 224 days) since its landing (see current status).

    The NASA/JPL Mars Science Laboratory/Curiosity Project Team was awarded the 2012 Robert J. Collier Trophy by the National Aeronautic Association "In recognition of the extraordinary achievements of successfully landing Curiosity on Mars, advancing the nation's technological and engineering capabilities, and significantly improving humanity's understanding of ancient Martian habitable environments."[14] Curiosity's rover design serves as the basis for NASA's 2021 Perseverance mission, which carries different scientific instruments.

    1. ^ "Where Is Curiosity?". mars.nasa.gov. NASA. Retrieved December 29, 2023. Public Domain This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.
    2. ^ Cite error: The named reference NASA-Curiosity was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
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    13. ^ Chang, Ailsa (August 6, 2022). "What a decade of Curiosity has taught us about life on Mars". NPR. Retrieved August 6, 2022.
    14. ^ Cite error: The named reference NAA-20130312 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
     
  39. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    7 August 936 – Coronation of King Otto I of Germany.

    Otto I, Holy Roman Emperor

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  40. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    8 August 1793 – The insurrection of Lyon occurs during the French Revolution.

    Revolt of Lyon against the National Convention

    The revolt of Lyon against the National Convention was a counter-revolutionary movement in the city of Lyon during the time of the French Revolution. It was a revolt of moderates against the more radical National Convention, the third government during the French Revolution. It broke out in June 1793[1] and was put down in October of the same year, after government forces had besieged the city.

    1. ^ Peter Kropotkin (1909). "Chapter 54". The Great French Revolution, 1789–1793. Translated by N. F. Dryhurst. New York: Vanguard Printings.
     

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