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Discussion in 'Break Room' started by NewsBot, Apr 6, 2008.

  1. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    30 November 1979Pink Floyd's rock opera, The Wall is released.

    The Wall

    The Wall is the eleventh studio album by the English rock band Pink Floyd, released on 30 November 1979 by Harvest/EMI and Columbia/CBS Records. It is a rock opera about Pink, a jaded rock star who constructs a psychological "wall" of social isolation. The album was a commercial success, topping the US charts for 15 weeks and reaching number three in the UK. It initially received mixed reviews from critics, many of whom found it overblown and pretentious, but later received accolades as one of the greatest albums of all time.

    The bassist Roger Waters conceived The Wall during Pink Floyd's 1977 In the Flesh tour, modelling the character of Pink after himself and Pink Floyd's former member Syd Barrett. Recording spanned from December 1978 to November 1979. The producer Bob Ezrin helped to refine the album's concept and bridge tensions during recording, as the band members were struggling with personal and financial issues at the time. The Wall was the last album to feature Pink Floyd as a quartet; the keyboardist, Richard Wright, was fired by Waters during production but stayed on as a salaried musician.

    Three singles were issued from the album: "Another Brick in the Wall, Part 2" (Pink Floyd's only UK and US number-one single), "Run Like Hell", and "Comfortably Numb". From 1980 to 1981, Pink Floyd performed the full album on a tour that featured elaborate theatrical effects. In 1982, The Wall was adapted into a feature film for which Waters wrote the screenplay.

    The Wall is one of the best-known concept albums.[4] With over 30 million copies sold, it is the second best-selling album in the band's catalogue (behind 1973's The Dark Side of the Moon), the best selling double-album of all time,[5] and one of the best-selling albums of all time overall.[6] Some of the outtakes from the recording sessions were used on the group's next album, The Final Cut (1983). In 2000, it was voted number 30 in Colin Larkin's All Time Top 1000 Albums.[7] In 2003, 2012, and 2020, it was included in Rolling Stone's lists of the "500 Greatest Albums of All Time".[8] From 2010 to 2013, Waters staged a new Wall live tour that became one of the highest-grossing tours by a solo musician.

    1. ^ Murphy, Sean (17 November 2015). "The 25 Best Classic Progressive Rock Albums". PopMatters. Archived from the original on 11 June 2016. Retrieved 7 June 2016.
    2. ^ Brown, Jake (2011). Jane's Addiction: In the Studio. SCB Distributors. p. 9. ISBN 978-0-9834716-2-2. Archived from the original on 19 August 2020. Retrieved 1 November 2016.
    3. ^ Breithaupt, Don; Breithaupt, Jeff (2000), Night Moves: Pop Music in the Late '70s, St. Martin's Press, p. 71, ISBN 978-0-312-19821-3, archived from the original on 22 February 2017, retrieved 12 March 2016
    4. ^ Barker, Emily (8 July 2015). "23 of the Maddest And Most Memorable Concept Albums". NME. Archived from the original on 13 January 2017. Retrieved 23 January 2017.
    5. ^ "Pink Floyd's The Wall: The secrets behind 1980's best selling album". loudersound.com. 3 September 2018. Retrieved 13 February 2022.
    6. ^ Cite error: The named reference worldwide sales was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    7. ^ Colin Larkin (2000). All Time Top 1000 Albums (3rd ed.). Virgin Books. p. 48. ISBN 0-7535-0493-6.
    8. ^ "The 500 Greatest Albums of All Time". Rolling Stone. 22 September 2020. Archived from the original on 10 December 2020. Retrieved 24 September 2020.
     
  2. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    30 November 1979Pink Floyd's rock opera, The Wall is released.

    The Wall

    The Wall is the eleventh studio album by the English rock band Pink Floyd, released on 30 November 1979 by Harvest/EMI and Columbia/CBS Records. It is a rock opera about Pink, a jaded rock star who constructs a psychological "wall" of social isolation. The album was a commercial success, topping the US charts for 15 weeks and reaching number three in the UK. It initially received mixed reviews from critics, many of whom found it overblown and pretentious, but later received accolades as one of the greatest albums of all time.

    The bassist Roger Waters conceived The Wall during Pink Floyd's 1977 In the Flesh tour, modelling the character of Pink after himself and Pink Floyd's former member Syd Barrett. Recording spanned from December 1978 to November 1979. The producer Bob Ezrin helped to refine the album's concept and bridge tensions during recording, as the band members were struggling with personal and financial issues at the time. The Wall was the last album to feature Pink Floyd as a quartet; the keyboardist, Richard Wright, was fired by Waters during production but stayed on as a salaried musician.

    Three singles were issued from the album: "Another Brick in the Wall, Part 2" (Pink Floyd's only UK and US number-one single), "Run Like Hell", and "Comfortably Numb". From 1980 to 1981, Pink Floyd performed the full album on a tour that featured elaborate theatrical effects. In 1982, The Wall was adapted into a feature film for which Waters wrote the screenplay.

    The Wall is one of the best-known concept albums.[4] With over 30 million copies sold, it is the second best-selling album in the band's catalogue (behind 1973's The Dark Side of the Moon), the best selling double-album of all time,[5] and one of the best-selling albums of all time overall.[6] Some of the outtakes from the recording sessions were used on the group's next album, The Final Cut (1983). In 2000, it was voted number 30 in Colin Larkin's All Time Top 1000 Albums.[7] In 2003, 2012, and 2020, it was included in Rolling Stone's lists of the "500 Greatest Albums of All Time".[8] From 2010 to 2013, Waters staged a new Wall live tour that became one of the highest-grossing tours by a solo musician.

    1. ^ Murphy, Sean (17 November 2015). "The 25 Best Classic Progressive Rock Albums". PopMatters. Archived from the original on 11 June 2016. Retrieved 7 June 2016.
    2. ^ Brown, Jake (2011). Jane's Addiction: In the Studio. SCB Distributors. p. 9. ISBN 978-0-9834716-2-2. Archived from the original on 19 August 2020. Retrieved 1 November 2016.
    3. ^ Breithaupt, Don; Breithaupt, Jeff (2000), Night Moves: Pop Music in the Late '70s, St. Martin's Press, p. 71, ISBN 978-0-312-19821-3, archived from the original on 22 February 2017, retrieved 12 March 2016
    4. ^ Barker, Emily (8 July 2015). "23 of the Maddest And Most Memorable Concept Albums". NME. Archived from the original on 13 January 2017. Retrieved 23 January 2017.
    5. ^ "Pink Floyd's The Wall: The secrets behind 1980's best selling album". loudersound.com. 3 September 2018. Retrieved 13 February 2022.
    6. ^ Cite error: The named reference worldwide sales was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    7. ^ Colin Larkin (2000). All Time Top 1000 Albums (3rd ed.). Virgin Books. p. 48. ISBN 0-7535-0493-6.
    8. ^ "The 500 Greatest Albums of All Time". Rolling Stone. 22 September 2020. Archived from the original on 10 December 2020. Retrieved 24 September 2020.
     
  3. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    1 December 1988World AIDS Day was proclaimed worldwide by the UN member states.

    World AIDS Day

    World AIDS Day, designated on 1 December every year since 1988,[1] is an international day dedicated to raising awareness of the AIDS pandemic caused by the spread of HIV infection and mourning those who've died of the disease. The acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) is a life-threatening condition caused by the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). The HIV virus attacks the immune system of the patient and reduces its resistance to other diseases.[2] Government and health officials, non-governmental organizations, and individuals around the world observe the day, often with education on AIDS prevention and control.

    World AIDS Day is one of the eleven official global public health campaigns marked by the World Health Organization (WHO), along with World Health Day, World Blood Donor Day, World Immunization Week, World Tuberculosis Day, World No Tobacco Day, World Malaria Day, World Hepatitis Day, World Antimicrobial Awareness Week, World Patient Safety Day and World Chagas Disease Day.[3]

    As of 2020, AIDS has killed between 27.2 million and 47.8 million people worldwide, and an estimated 37.7 million people are living with HIV,[4] making it one of the most important global public health issues in recorded history. Thanks to recent improved access to antiretroviral treatment in many regions of the world, the death rate from AIDS epidemic has decreased by 64% since its peak in 2004 (1.9 million in 2004, compared to 680 000 in 2020).[4]

    1. ^ "About World Aids Day". worldaidsday.org. National Aids Trust. Archived from the original on 20 November 2015. Retrieved 4 December 2014.
    2. ^ "World AIDS Day 2020: Date, History, Current Theme, Importance, Significance". NDTV.com. Archived from the original on 1 December 2020. Retrieved 1 December 2020.
    3. ^ World Health Organization, WHO campaigns. Archived 31 December 2012 at the Wayback Machine
    4. ^ a b Global HIV & AIDS statistics — Fact sheet UNAIDS. Accessed 4 December 2021.
     
  4. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    2 December 2001Enron files for Chapter 11 bankruptcy.

    Enron scandal

    Logo of Enron

    The Enron scandal was an accounting scandal involving Enron Corporation, an American energy company based in Houston, Texas. When news of widespread fraud within the company became public in October 2001, the company declared bankruptcy and its accounting firm, Arthur Andersen – then one of the five largest audit and accountancy partnerships in the world – was effectively dissolved. In addition to being the largest bankruptcy reorganization in U.S. history at that time, Enron was cited as the biggest audit failure.[1]: 61 

    Enron was formed in 1985 by Kenneth Lay after merging Houston Natural Gas and InterNorth. Several years later, when Jeffrey Skilling was hired, Lay developed a staff of executives that – by the use of accounting loopholes, the misuse of mark-to-market accounting, special purpose entities, and poor financial reporting – were able to hide billions of dollars in debt from failed deals and projects. Chief Financial Officer Andrew Fastow and other executives misled Enron's board of directors and audit committee on high-risk accounting practices and pressured Arthur Andersen to ignore the issues.

    Shareholders filed a $40 billion lawsuit after the company's stock price, which achieved a high of US$90.75 per share in mid-2000, plummeted to less than $1 by the end of November 2001.[2] The Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) began an investigation, and rival Houston competitor Dynegy offered to purchase the company at a very low price. The deal failed, and on December 2, 2001, Enron filed for bankruptcy under Chapter 11 of the United States Bankruptcy Code. Enron's $63.4 billion in assets made it the largest corporate bankruptcy in U.S. history until the WorldCom scandal the following year.[3]

    Many executives at Enron were indicted for a variety of charges and some were later sentenced to prison, including former CEO Jeffrey Skilling. Then CEO and Chairman Kenneth Lay was indicted and convicted, but died before being sentenced. Arthur Andersen was found guilty of illegally destroying documents relevant to the SEC investigation, which voided its license to audit public companies and effectively closed the firm. By the time the ruling was overturned at the Supreme Court, Arthur Andersen had lost the majority of its customers and had ceased operating. Enron employees and shareholders received limited returns in lawsuits, despite losing billions in pensions and stock prices.

    As a consequence of the scandal, new regulations and legislation were enacted to expand the accuracy of financial reporting for public companies.[4] One piece of legislation, the Sarbanes–Oxley Act, increased penalties for destroying, altering, or fabricating records in federal investigations or for attempting to defraud shareholders.[5] The act also increased the accountability of auditing firms to remain unbiased and independent of their clients.[4]

    1. ^ Bratton, William W. (May 2002). "Does Corporate Law Protect the Interests of Shareholders and Other Stakeholders?: Enron and the Dark Side of Shareholder Value". Tulane Law Review (1275). New Orleans: Tulane University Law School. SSRN 301475.
    2. ^ "Enron shareholders look to SEC for support in court" (WEB). The New York Times. May 2007. Retrieved October 8, 2020.
    3. ^ Benston, George J. (November 6, 2003). "The Quality of Corporate Financial Statements and Their Auditors Before and After Enron" (PDF). Policy Analysis (497). Washington D.C.: Cato Institute: 12. Archived from the original (PDF) on June 15, 2010. Retrieved October 17, 2010.
    4. ^ a b Ayala, Astrid; Giancarlo Ibárgüen, Snr (March 2006). "A Market Proposal for Auditing the Financial Statements of Public Companies" (PDF). Journal of Management of Value. Universidad Francisco Marroquín: 1. Archived from the original (PDF) on July 21, 2011. Retrieved October 17, 2010.
    5. ^ Cohen, Daniel A.; Dey Aiyesha; Thomas Z. Lys (February 2005). "Trends in Earnings Management and Informativeness of Earnings Announcements in the Pre- and Post-Sarbanes Oxley Periods". NYU Working Paper No. 2451/27545. Evanston, Illinois: Kellogg School of Management: 5. SSRN 658782.
     
  5. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    3 December 2009 – A suicide bombing at a hotel in Mogadishu, Somalia, kills 25 people, including three ministers of the Transitional Federal Government.

    2009 Hotel Shamo bombing

    The 2009 Hotel Shamo bombing was a suicide bombing at the Hotel Shamo in Mogadishu, Somalia, on 3 December 2009. The bombing killed 25 people, including three ministers of the Transitional Federal Government,[1] and injured 60 more,[2] making it the deadliest attack in Somalia since the Beledweyne bombing on 18 June 2009 that claimed more than 30 lives.[3]

    1. ^ "4th minister dies of wounds". The Straits Times. 6 December 2009. Retrieved 6 December 2009.
    2. ^ "Somalia al-Shabab Islamists deny causing deadly bomb". BBC News. 4 December 2009. Retrieved 4 December 2009.
    3. ^ Guled, Abdi; Ibrahim Mohamed (4 December 2009). "Bomber kills 19 in Somalia". National Post. Retrieved 4 December 2009.[permanent dead link]
     
  6. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    4 December 1954 – The first Burger King is opened in Miami, Florida.

    Burger King

    Burger King Corporation (BK, stylized in all caps) is an American multinational chain of hamburger fast food restaurants. Headquartered in Miami-Dade County, Florida, the company was founded in 1953 as Insta-Burger King, a Jacksonville, Florida–based restaurant chain. After Insta-Burger King ran into financial difficulties, its two Miami-based franchisees David Edgerton (1927–2018) and James McLamore (1926–1996) purchased the company in 1959 and renamed it "Burger King".[5] Over the next half-century, the company changed hands four times and its third set of owners, a partnership of TPG Capital, Bain Capital, and Goldman Sachs Capital Partners, took it public in 2002. In late 2010, 3G Capital of Brazil acquired a majority stake in the company, in a deal valued at US$3.26 billion. The new owners promptly initiated a restructuring of the company to reverse its fortunes. 3G, along with partner Berkshire Hathaway, eventually merged the company with the Canadian-based doughnut chain Tim Hortons, under the auspices of a new Canadian-based parent company named Restaurant Brands International.

    The 1970s were the "Golden Age" of the company's advertising, but beginning in the mid-1980s, Burger King advertising began losing focus. A series of less successful advertising campaigns created by a procession of advertising agencies continued for the next two decades. In 2003, Burger King hired the Miami-based advertising agency Crispin Porter + Bogusky (CP+B), which completely reorganized its advertising with a series of new campaigns centered on a redesigned Burger King character nicknamed "The King", accompanied by a new online presence. While highly successful, some of CP+B's commercials were derided for perceived sexism or cultural insensitivity. Burger King's new owner, 3G Capital, later terminated the relationship with CP+B in 2011 and moved its advertising to McGarryBowen, to begin a new product-oriented campaign with expanded demographic targeting.

    Burger King's menu has expanded from a basic offering of burgers, French fries, sodas, and milkshakes to a larger and more diverse set of products. In 1957, the "Whopper" became the first major addition to the menu, and it has become Burger King's signature product since. Conversely, Burger King has introduced many products which failed to catch hold in the marketplace. Some of these failures in the United States have seen success in foreign markets, where Burger King has also tailored its menu for regional tastes. From 2002 to 2010, Burger King aggressively targeted the 18–34 male demographic with larger products that often carried correspondingly large amounts of unhealthy fats and trans-fats. This tactic would eventually damage the company's financial underpinnings, and cast a negative pall on its earnings. Beginning in 2011, the company began to move away from its previous male-oriented menu and introduce new menu items, product reformulations and packaging, as part of its current owner 3G Capital's restructuring plans of the company.[6]

    As of December 31, 2018, Burger King reported that it had 17,796 outlets in 100 countries.[7][8] Of these, nearly half are located in the United States, and 99.7% are privately owned and operated,[8] with its new owners moving to an almost entirely franchised model in 2013. Burger King has historically used several variations of franchising to expand its operations. The manner in which the company licenses its franchisees varies depending on the region, with some regional franchises, known as master franchises, responsible for selling franchise sub-licenses on the company's behalf. Burger King's relationship with its franchises has not always been harmonious. Occasional spats between the two have caused numerous issues, and in several instances, the company's and its licensees' relations have degenerated into precedent-setting court cases. Burger King's Australian franchise Hungry Jack's is the only franchise to operate under a different name, due to a trademark dispute with a similarly-named restaurant in Adelaide, South Australia and a series of legal cases between the two.[9]

    1. ^ a b c d e f "2021 Annual Report (Form 10-K)". Restaurant Brands International. February 23, 2022. Retrieved September 8, 2022 – via SEC.
    2. ^ a b c d e f "Restaurant Brands International Inc. Reports Full Year and Fourth Quarter 2021 Results". Restaurant Brands International IR. February 15, 2022. Retrieved September 8, 2022.
    3. ^ "RBI 10K report" (PDF). rbi.com. Archived from the original (PDF) on July 18, 2019. Retrieved April 1, 2019.
    4. ^ "Restaurant Brand International: Burger King". rbi.com. Retrieved April 1, 2019.[permanent dead link]
    5. ^ "How Burger King Went From "Insta-Burger King" to Fast-Food Royalty". Yahoo. December 4, 2018. Retrieved January 2, 2022.
    6. ^ "Burger King Holdings, Inc. Reports First Quarter 2012 Results" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on July 11, 2017.
    7. ^ "RESTAURANT BRANDS INTERNATIONAL INC" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on July 18, 2019. Retrieved March 25, 2019.
    8. ^ a b "The World's Largest Fast Food Restaurant Chains". Archived from the original on June 12, 2018. Retrieved June 9, 2018.
    9. ^ Andrew Terry; Heatrher Forrest (2008). "Where's the Beef? Why Burger King Is Hungry Jack's in Australia and Other Complications in Building a Global Franchise Brand". Northwestern Journal of International Law and Business, 2008. 28 (2): 171–214. ISSN 0196-3228.
     
  7. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    5 December 1971Battle of Gazipur: Pakistani forces stand defeated as India cedes Gazipur to Bangladesh.

    Battle of Gazipur

    The Battle of Gazipur (Bengali: গাজীপুরের যুদ্ধ) was a military engagement on 4 and 5 December 1971, during the Bangladesh liberation war. It took place at the Gazipur Tea Estate near Kulaura, in the Sylhet District of what was then East Pakistan. The advancing 4/5 Gorkha rifles attacked the 22 Baluch Regiment of the Pakistan Army. This battle was a prelude to the Battle of Sylhet.[2][3]

    1. ^ Sarkar, Col Bhaskar (8 December 2020). "Battle of Sylhet 1971 War". Indian Defence Review. Retrieved 6 December 2023.
    2. ^ said, Kishor Rao on (8 December 2020). "Battle of Sylhet 1971 War". Indian Defence Review. Retrieved 6 December 2023.
    3. ^ "Battle of Sylhet". defenceindia.com. Archived from the original on 10 August 2007.[self-published source]
     
  8. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    6 December 1912 – The Nefertiti Bust is discovered.

    Nefertiti Bust

    The Nefertiti Bust is a painted stucco-coated limestone bust of Nefertiti, the Great Royal Wife of Egyptian pharaoh Akhenaten.[1] It is on display in the Egyptian Museum of Berlin.

    The work is believed to have been crafted in 1345 BCE by Thutmose because it was found in his workshop in Tell-el Amarna, Egypt.[2] It is one of the most-copied works of ancient Egypt. Nefertiti has become one of the most famous women of the ancient world and an icon of feminine beauty.

    A German archaeological team led by Ludwig Borchardt discovered the bust in 1912 in Thutmose's workshop.[3] Despite provisions that prohibited any items of great archaeological value from leaving Egypt, Borchardt concealed the nature of the bust by covering it in a layer of clay and smuggled it out of the country in 1913.[4] It has been kept at various locations in Germany since its discovery, including the cellar of a bank, a salt-mine in Merkers-Kieselbach, the Dahlem museum, the Egyptian Museum in Charlottenburg and the Altes Museum.[3] It is displayed at the Neues Museum in Berlin, where it was originally displayed before World War II.[3]

    The Nefertiti bust has become not only a defining emblem of ancient Egypt, but also a symbol of the impact that European colonialism has had on Egypt's history and culture. It has been the subject of an argument between Egypt and Germany over Egyptian demands for its repatriation, which began in 1924, once the bust was first displayed to the public, and more generally it fuelled discussions over the role museums play in undoing colonialism.[5] Today, Egypt continues to demand the repatriation of the bust, whereas German officials and the Berlin Museum assert their ownership by citing an official protocol, signed by the German excavators and the French-led Egyptian Antiquities Service of the time.

    1. ^ "Nefertiti – Ancient History". History.com. Retrieved 18 November 2016.
    2. ^ e.V., Verein zur Förderung des Ägyptischen Museums und Papyrussammlung Berlin. "Nefertiti: (Society for the Promotion of the Egyptian Museum Berlin)". www.egyptian-museum-berlin.com. Retrieved 18 November 2016.
    3. ^ a b c Tharoor, Ishaan. "The Bust of Nefertiti: Remembering Ancient Egypt's Famous Queen". Time. ISSN 0040-781X. Retrieved 18 November 2016.
    4. ^ "Egypt renews demands to retrieve Nefertiti bust from Germany - Al-Monitor: Independent, trusted coverage of the Middle East". www.al-monitor.com. October 2020. Retrieved 15 April 2023.
    5. ^ Diamond, Kelly-Anne (6 April 2019). "DO MUSEUMS PLAY A ROLE IN UNDOING COLONIALISM?". Hindsights. Retrieved 15 April 2023.
     
  9. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    7 December 1732 – The Royal Opera House opens at Covent Garden, London, England.

    Royal Opera House

    The Royal Opera House (ROH) is a historic opera house and major performing arts venue in Covent Garden, central London. The large building is often referred to as simply Covent Garden, after a previous use of the site. It is the home of The Royal Opera, The Royal Ballet, and the Orchestra of the Royal Opera House. The first theatre on the site, the Theatre Royal (1732), served primarily as a playhouse for the first hundred years of its history. In 1734, the first ballet was presented. A year later, the first season of operas, by George Frideric Handel, began. Many of his operas and oratorios were specifically written for Covent Garden and had their premieres there.

    The current building is the third theatre on the site, following disastrous fires in 1808 and 1856 to previous buildings.[2] The façade, foyer, and auditorium date from 1858, but almost every other element of the present complex dates from an extensive reconstruction in the 1990s. The main auditorium seats 2,256 people, making it the third largest in London, and consists of four tiers of boxes and balconies and the amphitheatre gallery. The proscenium is 14.80 metres (48 ft 7 in) wide, with the stage of the same depth and 12.20 metres (40 ft 0 in) high. The main auditorium is a Grade I listed building.[3]

    1. ^ Historic England (9 January 1970). "The Royal Opera House (1066392)". National Heritage List for England. Retrieved 9 July 2015.
    2. ^ "11 Secrets of London's Royal Opera House". Londonist. 16 February 2017.
    3. ^ "Royal Opera House (London)" Archived 23 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine description on theatrestrust.org.uk Retrieved 10 May 2013
     
  10. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    8 December 1974 – A plebiscite results in the abolition of monarchy in Greece.

    1974 Greek republic referendum

    A referendum on retaining the republic was held in Greece on 8 December 1974.[1][2] After the collapse of the military junta that ruled the country since 1967, the issue of the form of government remained unsolved. The Junta had already staged a referendum held on 29 July 1973, which resulted in the establishment of the Republic. However, after the fall of the military regime, the new government, under Prime Minister Constantine Karamanlis, decided to hold another one, as Junta constituent acts were considered void. Constantine II, the former king, was banned by the new government from returning to Greece to campaign in the referendum, but the Karamanlis government allowed him to make a televised address to the nation.[3] A total of 69.2% of voters favoured retaining the republic with a turnout of 75.6%.[4]

    1. ^ Steven V. Roberts (9 December 1974). "Greeks Reject Monarchy By Wide Margin of Votes". The New York Times. Retrieved 10 August 2020.
    2. ^ Dieter Nohlen & Philip Stöver (2010) Elections in Europe: A data handbook, p830 ISBN 978-3-8329-5609-7
    3. ^ Hope, Kevin. Referendum plan faces hurdles. Financial Times 1 November 2011.
    4. ^ Nohlen & Stöver, p838
     
  11. NewsBot

    NewsBot The Admin that posts the news.

    Articles:
    1
    9 December 1948 – The Genocide Convention is adopted.

    Genocide Convention

    The Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (CPPCG), or the Genocide Convention, is an international treaty that criminalizes genocide and obligates state parties to pursue the enforcement of its prohibition. It was the first legal instrument to codify genocide as a crime, and the first human rights treaty unanimously adopted by the United Nations General Assembly, on 9 December 1948, during the third session of the United Nations General Assembly.[1] The Convention entered into force on 12 January 1951 and has 152 state parties as of 2022.

    The Genocide Convention was conceived largely in response to World War II, which saw atrocities such as the Holocaust that lacked an adequate description or legal definition. Polish-Jewish lawyer Raphael Lemkin, who had coined the term genocide in 1944 to describe Nazi policies in occupied Europe and the Armenian genocide, campaigned for its recognition as a crime under international law.[2] This culminated in 1946 in a landmark resolution by the General Assembly that recognized genocide as an international crime and called for the creation of a binding treaty to prevent and punish its perpetration.[3] Subsequent discussions and negotiations among UN member states resulted in the CPPCG.

    The Convention defines genocide as any of five "acts committed with intent to destroy, in whole or in part, a national, ethnical, racial or religious group." These five acts include killing members of the group, causing them serious bodily or mental harm, imposing living conditions intended to destroy the group, preventing births, and forcibly transferring children out of the group. Victims are targeted because of their real or perceived membership of a group, not randomly.[4] The convention further criminalizes "complicity, attempt, or incitement of its commission." Member states are prohibited from engaging in genocide and obligated to pursue the enforcement of this prohibition. All perpetrators are to be tried regardless of whether they are private individuals, public officials, or political leaders with sovereign immunity.

    The CPPCG has influenced law at both the national and international level. Its definition of genocide has been adopted by international and hybrid tribunals, such as the International Criminal Court, and incorporated into the domestic law of several countries.[5] Its provisions are widely considered to be reflective of customary law and therefore binding on all nations whether or not they are parties. The International Court of Justice (ICJ) has likewise ruled that the principles underlying the Convention represent a peremptory norm against genocide that no government can derogate.[6] The Genocide Convention authorizes the mandatory jurisdiction of the ICJ to adjudicate disputes, leading to international litigation such as the Rohingya genocide case and dispute over the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine.

    1. ^ "Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide" (PDF). United Nations Audiovisual Library of International Law. Retrieved 5 January 2020.
    2. ^ Auron, Yair, The Banality of Denial, (Transaction Publishers, 2004), 9.
    3. ^ "A/RES/96(I) - E - A/RES/96(I) -Desktop". undocs.org. Retrieved 3 June 2021.
    4. ^ "Genocide Background". United Nations Office on Genocide Prevention and the Responsibility to Protect.
    5. ^ "United Nations Office on Genocide Prevention and the Responsibility to Protect". www.un.org. Retrieved 3 June 2021.
    6. ^ "United Nations Office on Genocide Prevention and the Responsibility to Protect". United Nations. Retrieved 24 November 2023. The ICJ has also stated that the prohibition of genocide is a peremptory norm of international law (or ius cogens) and consequently, no derogation from it is allowed.
     
  12. NewsBot

    NewsBot The Admin that posts the news.

    Articles:
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    10 December 1901 – The first Nobel Prize ceremony is held in Stockholm on the fifth anniversary of Alfred Nobel's death.

    Nobel Prize

    The Nobel Prizes (/nˈbɛl/ noh-BEL; Swedish: Nobelpriset [nʊˈbɛ̂lːˌpriːsɛt]; Norwegian: Nobelprisen Norwegian: [nʊˈbɛ̀lːˌpriːsn̩] ) are five separate prizes awarded to "those who, during the preceding year, have conferred the greatest benefit to humankind," as established by the 1895 will of Swedish chemist, engineer, and industrialist Alfred Nobel, in the year before he died. Prizes were first awarded in 1901 by the Nobel Foundation.[2] Nobel's will indicated that the awards should be granted in the fields of Physics, Chemistry, Physiology or Medicine, Literature, and Peace. A sixth prize for Economic Sciences, endowed by Sweden's central bank, Sveriges Riksbank, and first presented in 1969, is also frequently included, as it is also administered by the Nobel Foundation.[2][4][5] The Nobel Prizes are widely regarded as the most prestigious awards available in their respective fields.[6][7]

    The prize ceremonies take place annually. Each recipient, known as a laureate, receives a green gold medal plated with 24 karat gold, a diploma, and a monetary award. As of 2023, the Nobel Prize monetary award is 11,000,000 SEK. (1,061,846 USD)[3] A prize may not be shared among more than three individuals, although the Nobel Peace Prize can be awarded to organisations of more than three people.[8] Nobel Prizes are not awarded posthumously, but if a person is awarded a prize and dies before receiving it, the prize is presented.[9]

    The Nobel Prizes, beginning in 1901, and the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences, beginning in 1969, have been awarded 609 times to 975 people and 25 organisations. Five individuals and two organisations have received more than one Nobel Prize.[10]

    1. ^ "THE SVERIGES RIKSBANK PRIZE IN ECONOMIC SCIENCES IN MEMORY OF ALFRED NOBEL". Archived from the original on 5 December 2018. Retrieved 4 October 2021.
    2. ^ a b c d "Alfred Nobel's will". Nobel Prize. Nobel Foundation. Archived from the original on 27 June 2020. Retrieved 8 December 2020.
    3. ^ a b "The Nobel Prize amounts". The Nobel Prize. Retrieved 29 September 2023.
    4. ^ "All Nobel Prizes". The Nobel Foundation. Archived from the original on 15 June 2020. Retrieved 6 October 2022.
    5. ^ "Nomination and selection of Laureates in Economic Sciences". Archived from the original on 10 May 2020. Retrieved 25 June 2018.
    6. ^ "Top Award, ShanghaiRanking Academic Excellence Survey 201" (PDF). IREG Observatory on Academic Ranking and Excellence. Archived from the original on 12 March 2019.[clarification needed]|
    7. ^ Shalev, p. 8
    8. ^ Schmidhuber, Jürgen (2010). "Evolution of National Nobel Prize Shares in the 20th century". Archived from the original on 27 March 2014. Retrieved 9 October 2010.
    9. ^ "Montreal-born doctor gets posthumous Nobel honour". CBC News. 3 October 2011. Archived from the original on 6 February 2013. Retrieved 3 October 2011.
    10. ^ Multiple Nobel Laureates Archived 6 November 2018 at the Wayback Machine. Nobel Foundation. Retrieved 8 December 2020.
     
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    11 December 1968The Rolling Stones Rock and Roll Circus, featuring the Rolling Stones, Jethro Tull, the Who, Taj Mahal, Marianne Faithfull, and the Dirty Mac with Yoko Ono, is filmed in Wembley, London.

    The Rolling Stones Rock and Roll Circus

    The Rolling Stones Rock and Roll Circus was a concert film hosted by and featuring the Rolling Stones, filmed on 11–12 December 1968. It was directed by Michael Lindsay-Hogg, who proposed the idea of a "rock and roll circus" to Jagger.[3] The show was filmed on a makeshift circus stage with Jethro Tull, The Who, Taj Mahal, Marianne Faithfull, and the Rolling Stones. John Lennon and his fiancee Yoko Ono performed as part of a one-shot supergroup called The Dirty Mac, featuring Eric Clapton on guitar, Mitch Mitchell (of The Jimi Hendrix Experience) on drums, and the Stones' Keith Richards on bass. The recently formed Led Zeppelin had been considered for inclusion, but the idea was rejected.[4] (As the Who's Pete Townshend recalled, an earlier idea for a circus-themed concert tour had been floated; it would have featured the Stones, the Who, and the Small Faces.)[5]

    The film was meant to be aired on the BBC, but the Rolling Stones withheld it, contending that they did so because they felt their performance was substandard; they were clearly exhausted after 15 hours of filming (and some indulgence in drugs).[6] It was Brian Jones' last appearance with the Rolling Stones; he drowned some seven months later while the film was being edited. Some speculate that another reason for not releasing the film was that the Who, who were fresh off a concert tour, upstaged the Stones on their own production.[7] The show was not released commercially until October 1996.

    1. ^ a b c "The Rolling Stones Rock and Roll Circus". Turner Classic Movies. Atlanta: Turner Broadcasting System (Time Warner). Retrieved 19 July 2016.
    2. ^ a b c Cite error: The named reference nyt96maslin was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    3. ^ Luck and Circumstance: A Coming of Age in Hollywood, New York, and Points Beyond. Alfred A. Knopf. 2011. ISBN 9780307594686.
    4. ^ Luck and Circumstance: A Coming of Age in Hollywood, New York, and Points Beyond. Alfred A. Knopf. 2011. ISBN 9780307594686.
    5. ^ ""Radically Festive": The Rolling Stones' Rock and Roll Circus. By Mat Snow : Articles, reviews and interviews from Rock's Backpages".
    6. ^ "The Story of 'The Rolling Stones Rock and Roll Circus'". Ultimate Classic Rock. 11 December 2015.
    7. ^ "The Rolling Stones Rock and Roll Circus". CD Universe Store.
      - The Rolling Stones Rock and Roll Circus at IMDb Edit this at Wikidata
      - Brusie, David (12 February 2009). "1996: The Rolling Stones – The Rolling Stones Rock and Roll Circus". Tiny Mix Tapes.
      - See infobox picture for appearances
      - Fischer, Russ (4 February 2008). "STONES ON FILM: THE ROLLING STONES ROCK AND ROLL CIRCUS (1968/1996)". Chud.com. Archived from the original on 15 December 2013. Retrieved 25 February 2012.
     
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    12 December 2015 – The Paris Agreement relating to United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change is adopted.

    Paris Agreement

    The Paris Agreement (French: Accord de Paris), often referred to as the Paris Accords or the Paris Climate Accords, is an international treaty on climate change. Adopted in 2015, the agreement covers climate change mitigation, adaptation, and finance. The Paris Agreement was negotiated by 196 parties at the 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference near Paris, France. As of February 2023, 195 members of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) are parties to the agreement. Of the three UNFCCC member states which have not ratified the agreement, the only major emitter is Iran. The United States withdrew from the agreement in 2020, but rejoined in 2021.

    The Paris Agreement's long-term temperature goal is to keep the rise in mean global temperature to well below 2 °C (3.6 °F) above pre-industrial levels, and preferably limit the increase to 1.5 °C (2.7 °F), recognizing that this would substantially reduce the effects of climate change. To achieve this goal, emissions should be reduced as soon as possible and reach net zero by the middle of the 21st century.[3] To stay below 1.5 °C of global warming, emissions need to be cut by roughly 50% by 2030. This is an aggregate of each country's nationally determined contributions.[4]

    It aims to help countries adapt to climate change effects, and mobilize enough finance. Under the agreement, each country must determine, plan, and regularly report on its contributions. No mechanism forces a country to set specific emissions targets, but each target should go beyond previous targets. In contrast to the 1997 Kyoto Protocol, the distinction between developed and developing countries is blurred, so that the latter also have to submit plans for emission reductions.

    The Paris Agreement was opened for signature on 22 April 2016 (Earth Day) at a ceremony inside the UN Headquarters in New York. After the European Union ratified the agreement, sufficient countries had ratified the agreement responsible for enough of the world's greenhouse gases for the agreement to enter into force on 4 November 2016.

    The agreement was lauded by world leaders, but criticized as insufficiently binding by some environmentalists and analysts. There is debate about the effectiveness of the agreement. While current pledges under the Paris Agreement are insufficient for reaching the set temperature goals, there is a mechanism of increased ambition. The Paris Agreement has been successfully used in climate litigation forcing countries and an oil company to strengthen climate action.[5][6]

    1. ^ a b c Cite error: The named reference depo2 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    2. ^ "Paris Climate Agreement Becomes International Law". ABC News. Archived from the original on 4 November 2016. Retrieved 4 November 2016.
    3. ^ UNFCCC. "The Paris Agreement". unfccc.int. Archived from the original on 19 March 2021. Retrieved 18 September 2021.
    4. ^ Schleussner, Carl-Friedrich. "The Paris Agreement – the 1.5 °C Temperature Goal". Climate Analytics. Retrieved 29 January 2022.
    5. ^ Cite error: The named reference :18 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    6. ^ Cite error: The named reference :19 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
     
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    13 December 1988PLO Chairman Yasser Arafat gives a speech at a UN General Assembly meeting in Geneva, Switzerland, after United States authorities refused to grant him a visa to visit UN headquarters in New York.

    Yasser Arafat

    Yasser Arafat (/ˈærəfæt/, US also /ˈɑːrəfɑːt/;[2] August 1929 – 11 November 2004) was a Palestinian political leader. He was chairman of the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) from 1969 to 2004 and president of the Palestinian National Authority (PNA) from 1994 to 2004.[3] Ideologically an Arab nationalist and a socialist, Arafat was a founding member of the Fatah political party, which he led from 1959 until 2004.

    Arafat was born to Palestinian parents in Cairo, Egypt, where he spent most of his youth. He studied at the University of King Fuad I. While a student, he embraced Arab nationalist and anti-Zionist ideas. Opposed to the 1948 creation of the State of Israel, he fought alongside the Muslim Brotherhood during the 1948 Arab–Israeli War. Following the defeat of Arab forces, Arafat returned to Cairo and served as president of the General Union of Palestinian Students from 1952 to 1956.

    In the latter part of the 1950s, Arafat co-founded Fatah, a paramilitary organization which sought Israel's replacement with a Palestinian state. Fatah operated within several Arab countries, from where it launched attacks on Israeli targets. In the latter part of the 1960s Arafat's profile grew; in 1967 he joined the Palestinian Liberation Organization (PLO) and in 1969 was elected chair of the Palestinian National Council (PNC). Fatah's growing presence in Jordan resulted in military clashes with King Hussein's Jordanian government and in the early 1970s it relocated to Lebanon. There, Fatah assisted the Lebanese National Movement during the Lebanese Civil War and continued its attacks on Israel, resulting in the organization becoming a major target of Israeli invasions during the 1978 South Lebanon conflict and 1982 Lebanon War.

    From 1983 to 1993, Arafat based himself in Tunisia, and began to shift his approach from open conflict with the Israelis to negotiation. In 1988, he acknowledged Israel's right to exist and sought a two-state solution to the Israeli–Palestinian conflict. In 1994, he returned to Palestine, settling in Gaza City and promoting self-governance for the Palestinian territories. He engaged in a series of negotiations with the Israeli government to end the conflict between it and the PLO. These included the Madrid Conference of 1991, the 1993 Oslo Accords and the 2000 Camp David Summit. The success of the negotiations in Oslo led to Arafat being awarded the Nobel Peace Prize, alongside Israeli Prime Ministers Yitzhak Rabin and Shimon Peres, in 1994. At the time, Fatah's support among the Palestinians declined with the growth of Hamas and other militant rivals. In late 2004, after effectively being confined within his Ramallah compound for over two years by the Israeli army, Arafat fell into a coma and died. While the cause of Arafat's death has remained the subject of speculation, investigations by Russian and French teams determined no foul play was involved.[4][5][6]

    Arafat remains a controversial figure. Palestinians generally view him as a martyr who symbolized the national aspirations of his people, while many Israelis regarded him as a terrorist.[7][8][9][10] Palestinian rivals, including Islamists and several PLO radicals, frequently denounced him as corrupt or too submissive in his concessions to the Israeli government.

    1. ^ Helena Cobban (before Yasser Arafat's marriage): "Yasser Arafat is not married, but is called 'Abu 'Ammar' as an inversion of the name of the heroic early Muslim warrior 'Ammar bin ('son of) Yasser. The idea, presumably, that if Yasser Arafat had a son, he would or should be as heroic as the earlier Ammar [ibn Yasir]", The Palestinian Liberation Organisation: People, Power and Politics (Cambridge Middle East Library), p. 272, Retrieved 18 January 2021.
    2. ^ "Definition of Arafat". www.dictionary.com. Random House. Retrieved 12 February 2023.
    3. ^ Some sources use the term Chairman, rather than President; the Arabic word for both titles is the same. See President of the Palestinian National Authority for further information.
    4. ^ "Yasser Arafat: French rule out foul play in former Palestinian leader's death". The Guardian. 16 March 2015.
    5. ^ "France drops investigation into Arafat's death". The Jerusalem Post. 2 September 2015.
    6. ^ "Yasser Arafat investigation: Russian probe finds death not caused by radiation". CBS News. 26 December 2013.
    7. ^ Creed, Richard D. Jr. (2014). Eighteen Years in Lebanon and Two Intifadas: The Israeli Defense Force and the U.S. Army Operational Environment. Pickle Partners Publishing. p. 53. ISBN 978-1-78289-593-0.
    8. ^ As'ad Ghanem Palestinian Politics after Arafat: A Failed National Movement:Palestinian Politics after Arafat, Indiana University Press, 2010 p.259.
    9. ^ Kershner, Isabel (4 July 2012). "Palestinians May Exhume Arafat After Report of Poisoning". The New York Times. Retrieved 5 August 2012.
    10. ^ Hockstader, Lee (11 November 2004). "A Dreamer Who Forced His Cause Onto World Stage". The Washington Post. Retrieved 31 October 2007.
     
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    13 December 1988PLO Chairman Yasser Arafat gives a speech at a UN General Assembly meeting in Geneva, Switzerland, after United States authorities refused to grant him a visa to visit UN headquarters in New York.

    Yasser Arafat

    Yasser Arafat (/ˈærəfæt/, US also /ˈɑːrəfɑːt/;[2] August 1929 – 11 November 2004) was a Palestinian political leader. He was chairman of the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) from 1969 to 2004 and president of the Palestinian National Authority (PNA) from 1994 to 2004.[3] Ideologically an Arab nationalist and a socialist, Arafat was a founding member of the Fatah political party, which he led from 1959 until 2004.

    Arafat was born to Palestinian parents in Cairo, Egypt, where he spent most of his youth. He studied at the University of King Fuad I. While a student, he embraced Arab nationalist and anti-Zionist ideas. Opposed to the 1948 creation of the State of Israel, he fought alongside the Muslim Brotherhood during the 1948 Arab–Israeli War. Following the defeat of Arab forces, Arafat returned to Cairo and served as president of the General Union of Palestinian Students from 1952 to 1956.

    In the latter part of the 1950s, Arafat co-founded Fatah, a paramilitary organization which sought Israel's replacement with a Palestinian state. Fatah operated within several Arab countries, from where it launched attacks on Israeli targets. In the latter part of the 1960s Arafat's profile grew; in 1967 he joined the Palestinian Liberation Organization (PLO) and in 1969 was elected chair of the Palestinian National Council (PNC). Fatah's growing presence in Jordan resulted in military clashes with King Hussein's Jordanian government and in the early 1970s it relocated to Lebanon. There, Fatah assisted the Lebanese National Movement during the Lebanese Civil War and continued its attacks on Israel, resulting in the organization becoming a major target of Israeli invasions during the 1978 South Lebanon conflict and 1982 Lebanon War.

    From 1983 to 1993, Arafat based himself in Tunisia, and began to shift his approach from open conflict with the Israelis to negotiation. In 1988, he acknowledged Israel's right to exist and sought a two-state solution to the Israeli–Palestinian conflict. In 1994, he returned to Palestine, settling in Gaza City and promoting self-governance for the Palestinian territories. He engaged in a series of negotiations with the Israeli government to end the conflict between it and the PLO. These included the Madrid Conference of 1991, the 1993 Oslo Accords and the 2000 Camp David Summit. The success of the negotiations in Oslo led to Arafat being awarded the Nobel Peace Prize, alongside Israeli Prime Ministers Yitzhak Rabin and Shimon Peres, in 1994. At the time, Fatah's support among the Palestinians declined with the growth of Hamas and other militant rivals. In late 2004, after effectively being confined within his Ramallah compound for over two years by the Israeli army, Arafat fell into a coma and died. While the cause of Arafat's death has remained the subject of speculation, investigations by Russian and French teams determined no foul play was involved.[4][5][6]

    Arafat remains a controversial figure. Palestinians generally view him as a martyr who symbolized the national aspirations of his people, while many Israelis regarded him as a terrorist.[7][8][9][10] Palestinian rivals, including Islamists and several PLO radicals, frequently denounced him as corrupt or too submissive in his concessions to the Israeli government.

    1. ^ Helena Cobban (before Yasser Arafat's marriage): "Yasser Arafat is not married, but is called 'Abu 'Ammar' as an inversion of the name of the heroic early Muslim warrior 'Ammar bin ('son of) Yasser. The idea, presumably, that if Yasser Arafat had a son, he would or should be as heroic as the earlier Ammar [ibn Yasir]", The Palestinian Liberation Organisation: People, Power and Politics (Cambridge Middle East Library), p. 272, Retrieved 18 January 2021.
    2. ^ "Definition of Arafat". www.dictionary.com. Random House. Retrieved 12 February 2023.
    3. ^ Some sources use the term Chairman, rather than President; the Arabic word for both titles is the same. See President of the Palestinian National Authority for further information.
    4. ^ "Yasser Arafat: French rule out foul play in former Palestinian leader's death". The Guardian. 16 March 2015.
    5. ^ "France drops investigation into Arafat's death". The Jerusalem Post. 2 September 2015.
    6. ^ "Yasser Arafat investigation: Russian probe finds death not caused by radiation". CBS News. 26 December 2013.
    7. ^ Creed, Richard D. Jr. (2014). Eighteen Years in Lebanon and Two Intifadas: The Israeli Defense Force and the U.S. Army Operational Environment. Pickle Partners Publishing. p. 53. ISBN 978-1-78289-593-0.
    8. ^ As'ad Ghanem Palestinian Politics after Arafat: A Failed National Movement:Palestinian Politics after Arafat, Indiana University Press, 2010 p.259.
    9. ^ Kershner, Isabel (4 July 2012). "Palestinians May Exhume Arafat After Report of Poisoning". The New York Times. Retrieved 5 August 2012.
    10. ^ Hockstader, Lee (11 November 2004). "A Dreamer Who Forced His Cause Onto World Stage". The Washington Post. Retrieved 31 October 2007.
     
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    14 December 1971Bangladesh Liberation War: Over 200 of East Pakistan's intellectuals are executed by the Pakistan Army and their local allies. (The date is commemorated in Bangladesh as Martyred Intellectuals Day.)

    Bangladesh Liberation War

    The Bangladesh Liberation War[note 2] (Bengali: মুক্তিযুদ্ধ, pronounced [mukt̪iɟud̪d̪ʱo]), also known as the Bangladesh War of Independence, or simply the Liberation War in Bangladesh, was a revolution and armed conflict sparked by the rise of the Bengali nationalist and self-determination movement in East Pakistan, which resulted in the independence of Bangladesh. The war began when the Pakistani military junta based in West Pakistan—under the orders of Yahya Khan—launched Operation Searchlight against the people of East Pakistan on the night of 25 March 1971, initiating the Bangladesh genocide.

    In response to the violence, members of the Mukti Bahini—a guerrilla resistance movement formed by Bengali military, paramilitary and civilians—launched a mass guerrilla war against the Pakistani military, liberating numerous towns and cities in the war's initial months. At first, the Pakistan Army regained momentum during the monsoon, but Bengali guerrillas counterattacked by carrying out widespread sabotage, including through Operation Jackpot against the Pakistan Navy, while the nascent Bangladesh Air Force flew sorties against Pakistani military bases.[16] India joined the war on 3 December 1971, after Pakistan launched preemptive air strikes on northern India. The subsequent Indo-Pakistani War involved fighting on two fronts; with air supremacy achieved in the eastern theatre, and the rapid advance of the Allied Forces of Mukti Bahini and the Indian military, Pakistan surrendered in Dhaka on 16 December 1971, in what remains to date the largest surrender of armed personnel since the Second World War.[17]

    Rural and urban areas across East Pakistan saw extensive military operations and air strikes to suppress the tide of civil disobedience that formed after the 1970 election stalemate. The Pakistan Army, backed by Islamists, created radical religious militias—the Razakars, Al-Badr and Al-Shams—to assist it during raids on the local populace.[18][19][20][21][22] Members of the Pakistani military and supporting militias engaged in mass murder, deportation and genocidal rape, pursuing a systematic campaign of annihilation against nationalist Bengali civilians, students, intelligentsia, religious minorities and armed personnel. The capital, Dhaka, was the scene of numerous massacres, including the Dhaka University massacre. Sectarian violence also broke out between Bengalis and Urdu-speaking Biharis. An estimated 10 million Bengali refugees fled to neighbouring India, while 30 million were internally displaced.[23]

    The war changed the geopolitical landscape of South Asia, with the emergence of Bangladesh as the world's seventh-most populous country. Due to complex regional alliances, the war was a major episode in Cold War tensions involving the United States, the Soviet Union and the People's Republic of China. The majority of member states in the United Nations recognised Bangladesh as a sovereign nation in 1972.

    1. ^ "Instrument of Surrender of Pakistan forces in Dacca". mea.gov.in. Archived from the original on 27 September 2018. Retrieved 14 July 2017. The Pakistan Eastern Command agree to surrender all Pakistan Armed Forces in Bangladesh to Lieutenant General Jagjit Singh Aurora, General Officer Commanding-in –chief of the Indian and Bangladesh forces in the eastern theatre.
    2. ^ Rizwana Shamshad (3 October 2017). Bangladeshi Migrants in India: Foreigners, Refugees, or Infiltrators?. OUP India. pp. 119–. ISBN 978-0-19-909159-1. Archived from the original on 7 February 2023. Retrieved 8 October 2020.
    3. ^ Jing Lu (30 October 2018). On State Secession from International Law Perspectives. Springer. pp. 211–. ISBN 978-3-319-97448-4. Archived from the original on 7 February 2023. Retrieved 8 October 2020.
    4. ^ J.L. Kaul; Anupam Jha (8 January 2018). Shifting Horizons of Public International Law: A South Asian Perspective. Springer. pp. 241–. ISBN 978-81-322-3724-2. Archived from the original on 7 February 2023. Retrieved 8 October 2020.
    5. ^ a b c Cite error: The named reference ACIG was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    6. ^ Pakistan & the Karakoram Highway By Owen Bennett-Jones, Lindsay Brown, John Mock, Sarina Singh, Pg 30
    7. ^ Cloughley, Brian (2016) [First published 1999]. A History of the Pakistan Army: Wars and Insurrections (4th ed.). Simon and Schuster. pp. 149, 222. ISBN 978-1-63144-039-7.
    8. ^ Praval, K. C. (1987). Indian Army after Independence. Lancer International. p. 442. ISBN 81-7062-014-7.
    9. ^ Thiranagama, Sharika; Kelly, Tobias, eds. (2012). Traitors : suspicion, intimacy, and the ethics of state-building. Philadelphia, Pa.: University of Pennsylvania Press. ISBN 978-0812222371.
    10. ^ a b "Bangladesh Islamist leader Ghulam Azam charged". BBC. 13 May 2012. Archived from the original on 15 December 2018. Retrieved 13 May 2012.
    11. ^ a b c Figures from The Fall of Dacca by Jagjit Singh Aurora in The Illustrated Weekly of India dated 23 December 1973 quoted in Praval, K. C. (1987). Indian Army after Independence. Lancer International. p. 486. ISBN 81-7062-014-7.
    12. ^ Khan, Shahnawaz (19 January 2005). "54 Indian PoWs of 1971 war still in Pakistan". Daily Times. Lahore. Archived from the original on 19 September 2015. Retrieved 11 October 2011.
    13. ^ Figure from Pakistani Prisoners of War in India by Col S. P. Salunke p. 10 quoted in Praval, K. C. (1987). Indian Army after Independence. Lancer International. p. 485. ISBN 81-7062-014-7.)
    14. ^ Historical Dictionary of Bangladesh, Page 289
    15. ^ Moss, Peter (2005). Secondary Social Studies For Pakistan. Karachi: Oxford University Press. p. 93. ISBN 9780195977042. OCLC 651126824.
    16. ^ Jamal, Ahmed (5–17 October 2008). "Mukti Bahini and the liberation war of Bangladesh: A review of conflicting views" (PDF). Asian Affairs. 30. Archived from the original (PDF) on 3 January 2015. Retrieved 29 April 2015.
    17. ^ Srinivasaraju, Sugata (21 December 2021). "The Bangladeshi liberation has lessons for India today". The Times of India. Archived from the original on 22 December 2021. Retrieved 29 December 2021.
    18. ^ Schneider, B.; Post, J.; Kindt, M. (2009). The World's Most Threatening Terrorist Networks and Criminal Gangs. Springer. p. 57. ISBN 9780230623293. Archived from the original on 7 February 2023. Retrieved 8 March 2017.
    19. ^ Kalia, Ravi (2012). Pakistan: From the Rhetoric of Democracy to the Rise of Militancy. Routledge. p. 168. ISBN 9781136516412. Archived from the original on 7 February 2023. Retrieved 8 March 2017.
    20. ^ Pg 600. Schmid, Alex, ed. (2011). The Routledge Handbook of Terrorism Research. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-41157-8.
    21. ^ Pg. 240 Tomsen, Peter (2011). The Wars of Afghanistan: Messianic Terrorism, Tribal Conflicts, and the Failures of Great Powers. Public Affairs. ISBN 978-1-58648-763-8.
    22. ^ Roy, Kaushik; Gates, Professor Scott (2014). Unconventional Warfare in South Asia: Shadow Warriors and Counterinsurgency. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. ISBN 9781472405791. Archived from the original on 7 February 2023. Retrieved 21 August 2017.
    23. ^ Totten, Samuel; Bartrop, Paul Robert (2008). Dictionary of Genocide: A-L. ABC-CLIO. p. 34. ISBN 9780313346422. Archived from the original on 11 January 2023. Retrieved 8 November 2020.


    Cite error: There are <ref group=note> tags on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=note}} template (see the help page).

     
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    15 December 2001 – The Leaning Tower of Pisa reopens after 11 years and $27,000,000 spent to stabilize it, without fixing its famous lean.

    Leaning Tower of Pisa

    The Leaning Tower of Pisa (Italian: torre pendente di Pisa), or simply the Tower of Pisa (torre di Pisa [ˈtorre di ˈpiːza; ˈpiːsa][1]), is the campanile, or freestanding bell tower, of Pisa Cathedral. It is known for its nearly four-degree lean, the result of an unstable foundation. The tower is one of three structures in the Pisa's Cathedral Square (Piazza del Duomo), which includes the cathedral and Pisa Baptistry.

    The height of the tower is 55.86 metres (183 feet 3 inches) from the ground on the low side and 56.67 m (185 ft 11 in) on the high side. The width of the walls at the base is 2.44 m (8 ft 0 in). Its weight is estimated at 14,500 tonnes (16,000 short tons).[2] The tower has 296 or 294 steps; the seventh floor has two fewer steps on the north-facing staircase.

    The tower began to lean during construction in the 12th century, due to soft ground which could not properly support the structure's weight. It worsened through the completion of construction in the 14th century. By 1990, the tilt had reached 5.5 degrees.[3][4][5] The structure was stabilized by remedial work between 1993 and 2001, which reduced the tilt to 3.97 degrees.[6]

    1. ^ "DiPI Online". Dizionario di Pronuncia Italiana (in Italian). Archived from the original on 30 October 2020. Retrieved 26 December 2020.
    2. ^ "Leaning Tower of Pisa Facts". Leaning Tower of Pisa. Archived from the original on 11 September 2013. Retrieved 5 October 2013.
    3. ^ "Europe | Saving the Leaning Tower". BBC News. 15 December 2001. Archived from the original on 21 September 2013. Retrieved 9 May 2009.
    4. ^ "Tower of Pisa". Archidose.org. 17 June 2001. Archived from the original on 26 June 2009. Retrieved 9 May 2009.
    5. ^ "Leaning Tower of Pisa (tower, Pisa, Italy)". Britannica Online Encyclopedia. Archived from the original on 8 March 2013. Retrieved 9 May 2009.
    6. ^ "Leaning tower of Pisa loses crooked crown". Irish News. Archived from the original on 28 November 2020. Retrieved 10 June 2020.
     
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    16 December 2013 – A bus falls from an elevated highway in the Philippines capital Manila killing at least 18 people with 20 injured.

    2013 Manila Skyway bus accident

     
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    17 December 1967Harold Holt, Prime Minister of Australia, disappears while swimming near Portsea, Victoria, and is presumed drowned.

    Disappearance of Harold Holt

    On 17 December 1967, Harold Holt, the 17th prime minister of Australia, disappeared while swimming in the sea near Portsea, Victoria. An enormous search operation was mounted in and around Cheviot Beach, but his body was never recovered. Holt was presumed to have died, and his memorial service five days later was attended by many world leaders.

    It is generally agreed that Holt's disappearance was a simple case of an accidental drowning, but a number of conspiracy theories surfaced, most famously the suggestion that he was a spy from the People's Republic of China and had been collected by a Chinese submarine. Holt was the third Australian prime minister to die in office, after Joseph Lyons in 1939 and John Curtin in 1945.

    Holt was initially replaced in a caretaker capacity by John McEwen, and then by John Gorton following the 1968 Liberal Party leadership election. Holt's death has entered Australian folklore, and was commemorated by, among other things, the Harold Holt Memorial Swimming Centre.

     
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    18 December 1958Project SCORE, the world's first communications satellite, is launched.

    SCORE (satellite)

    The message recorded of Eisenhower.

    SCORE (Signal Communications by Orbiting Relay Equipment) was the world's first purpose-built communications satellite. Launched aboard an American Atlas rocket on December 18, 1958, SCORE provided the second test of a communications relay system in space (the first having been provided by the USAF/NASA's Pioneer 1),[3] the first broadcast of a human voice from space, and the first successful use of the Atlas as a launch vehicle. It captured world attention by broadcasting a Christmas message via shortwave radio from U.S. President Dwight D. Eisenhower through an on-board tape recorder.[4] The satellite was popularly dubbed "The Talking Atlas"[citation needed] as well as "Chatterbox".[5] SCORE, as a geopolitical strategy, placed the United States at an even technological par with the Soviet Union as a highly functional response to the Sputnik 1 and Sputnik 2 satellites.

    1. ^ Cite error: The named reference Display was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    2. ^ Cite error: The named reference Trajectory was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    3. ^ Marcus, Gideon. "Pioneering Space II" (PDF). Quest Space Quarterly.)
    4. ^ "SCORE (Signal Communications by Orbiting Relay Equipment)". GlobalSecurity.org. 20 September 2006. Retrieved 2010-12-16.
    5. ^ "Today in History: December 18, Donald Trump is impeached for the first time". WTOP-FM. December 18, 2023. Retrieved December 18, 2023 – via Associated Press.
     
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    19 December 2001 – Argentine economic crisis: December riots: Riots erupt in Buenos Aires, Argentina.

    December 2001 riots in Argentina

    The December 2001 crisis, sometimes known as the Argentinazo[2][3][4][5] (pronounced [aɾxentiˈnaso]), was a period of civil unrest and rioting in Argentina, which took place during December 2001, with the most violent incidents taking place on 19 and 20 December in the capital, Buenos Aires, Rosario and other large cities around the country. It was preceded by a popular revolt against the Argentine government, rallying behind the motto "All of them must go!" (Spanish: ¡Que se vayan todos!), which caused the resignation of then-president Fernando de la Rúa, giving way to a period of political instability during which five government officials performed the duties of the Argentine presidency. This period of instability occurred during the larger period of crisis known as the Argentine great depression, an economic, political, and social crisis that lasted from 1998 until 2002.

    The December 2001 crisis was a direct response to the government's imposition of "Corral" policies (Spanish: Corralito) at the behest of economic minister Domingo Cavallo, which restricted people's ability to withdraw cash from banks. Rioting and protests became widespread on 19 December 2001, immediately following the president's declaration of a state of emergency and his resignation on the following day. A state of extreme institutional instability continued for the next twelve days, during which the successor president Adolfo Rodríguez Saá resigned as well. While the degree of instability subsided, the events of December 2001 would become a blow against the legitimacy of the Argentine government that would persist for the following years.[citation needed]

    The majority of the participants in the protests were unaffiliated with any political party or organization. Over the course of the protests, 39 people were killed by police and security forces,[1] most of them during sackings in provinces governed by the Peronists opposition. Of the 39 killed, nine were minors.

    1. ^ a b "¿Cuántos muertos dejó la crisis del 2001?". El Cronista. Buenos Aires, Argentina. 20 December 2021. Retrieved 20 December 2022.
    2. ^ Moreno, Federico (27 January 2006). "Four years after the Argentinazo". Socialist Worker. Retrieved 6 May 2018.
    3. ^ Klein, Naomi (24 January 2003). "Out of the ordinary". The Guardian. Retrieved 6 May 2018.
    4. ^ Dennis, Rodgers (April 2005). "Unintentional democratisation? The Argentinazo and the politics of participatory budgeting in Buenos Aires, 2001-2004". eprints.lse.ac.uk. Retrieved 7 May 2018.
    5. ^ Sáenz, Robert; Cruz Bernal, Isidora (Spring 2003). "The driving forces behind the 'Argentinazo'". International Socialism Journal. 98. Archived from the original on 24 February 2021. Retrieved 7 May 2018 – via Socialist Review and International Socialism Journal Index.
     
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    20 December 1924Adolf Hitler is released from Landsberg Prison.

    Adolf Hitler

    Adolf Hitler[a] (20 April 1889 – 30 April 1945) was an Austrian-born German politician who was the dictator of Germany from 1933 until his suicide in 1945. He rose to power as the leader of the Nazi Party,[c] becoming the chancellor in 1933 and then taking the title of Führer und Reichskanzler in 1934.[d] During his dictatorship, he initiated World War II in Europe by invading Poland on 1 September 1939. He was closely involved in military operations throughout the war and was central to the perpetration of the genocide of about six million Jews and millions of other victims.

    Hitler was born in Braunau am Inn in Austria-Hungary and was raised near Linz. He lived in Vienna later in the first decade of the 1900s before moving to Germany in 1913. He was decorated during his service in the German Army in World War I. In 1919, he joined the German Workers' Party (DAP), the precursor of the Nazi Party, and in 1921 was appointed leader of the Nazi Party. In 1923, he attempted to seize governmental power in a failed coup in Munich and was sentenced to five years in prison, serving just over a year of his sentence. While there, he dictated the first volume of his autobiography and political manifesto Mein Kampf ("My Struggle"). After his early release in 1924, Hitler gained popular support by attacking the Treaty of Versailles and promoting pan-Germanism, anti-Semitism and anti-communism with charismatic oratory and Nazi propaganda. He frequently denounced capitalism and communism as part of an international Jewish conspiracy.

    By November 1932, the Nazi Party held the most seats in the Reichstag but did not have a majority. No political parties were able to form a majority coalition in support of a candidate for chancellor. Former chancellor Franz von Papen and other conservative leaders convinced President Paul von Hindenburg to appoint Hitler as chancellor on 30 January 1933. Shortly thereafter, the Reichstag passed the Enabling Act of 1933 which began the process of transforming the Weimar Republic into Nazi Germany, a one-party dictatorship based on the totalitarian and autocratic ideology of Nazism. Upon Hindenburg's death on 2 August 1934, Hitler succeeded him, becoming simultaneously the head of state and government with absolute power. Domestically, Hitler implemented numerous racist policies and sought to deport or kill German Jews. His first six years in power resulted in rapid economic recovery from the Great Depression, the abrogation of restrictions imposed on Germany after World War I, and the annexation of territories inhabited by millions of ethnic Germans, which initially gave him significant popular support.

    One of Hitler's key goals was Lebensraum (lit.'living space') for the German people in Eastern Europe, and his aggressive, expansionist foreign policy is considered the primary cause of World War II in Europe. He directed large-scale rearmament and, on 1 September 1939, invaded Poland, resulting in Britain and France declaring war on Germany. In June 1941, Hitler ordered an invasion of the Soviet Union. In December 1941, he declared war on the United States. By the end of 1941, German forces and the European Axis powers occupied most of Europe and North Africa. These gains were gradually reversed after 1941, and in 1945 the Allied armies defeated the German army. On 29 April 1945, he married his long-term partner, Eva Braun, in the Führerbunker in Berlin. On the following day, the couple committed suicide to avoid capture by the Soviet Red Army. In accordance with Hitler's wishes, their corpses were burned.

    The historian and biographer Ian Kershaw describes Hitler as "the embodiment of modern political evil".[3] Under Hitler's leadership and racist ideology, the Nazi regime was responsible for the genocide of an estimated six million Jews and millions of other victims, whom he and his followers deemed Untermenschen (subhumans) or socially undesirable. Hitler and the Nazi regime were also responsible for the deliberate killing of an estimated 19.3 million civilians and prisoners of war. In addition, 28.7 million soldiers and civilians died as a result of military action in the European theatre. The number of civilians killed during World War II was unprecedented in warfare, and the casualties constitute the deadliest conflict in history.


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    1. ^ Shirer 1960, pp. 226–227.
    2. ^ Overy 2005, p. 63.
    3. ^ Kershaw 2000b, p. xvii.
     
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    21 December 1963"Bloody Christmas" begins in Cyprus, ultimately resulting in the displacement of 25,000–30,000 Turkish Cypriots and destruction of more than 100 villages.

    Bloody Christmas (1963)

    Bloody Christmas (Turkish: Kanlı Noel), in Turkish Cypriot and Turkish historiography, refers to the resumption of intercommunal violence between the Greek Cypriots and the Turkish Cypriots during the Cyprus crisis of 1963–64, on the night of 20–21 December 1963 and the subsequent period of island-wide violence[1] amounting to civil war.[2] This initial episode of violence lasted until 31 December and was somewhat subdued with the start of peace talks at the London Conference, but outbursts of violence continued thereafter.[3] The violence precipitated the end of Turkish Cypriot representation in the Republic of Cyprus.

    The death toll for the entire conflict between December and August amounts to 364 Turkish Cypriots and 174 Greek Cypriots, of whom [4] 136 Turkish Cypriots and 30 Greek Cypriots were killed in the initial period between 21 December and 1 January.[5]

    Approximately 25,000 Turkish Cypriots from 104 villages, amounting to a quarter of the Turkish Cypriot population, fled their villages and were displaced into enclaves.[6] Thousands of Turkish Cypriot houses left behind were ransacked or completely destroyed.[7] Around 1,200 Armenian Cypriots and 500 Greek Cypriots were also displaced.

    1. ^ Hadjipavlou 2016, p. 2017; Hazou 2013.
    2. ^ Richter 2010, p. 120.
    3. ^ Patrick 1976, p. 47.
    4. ^ Oberling 1982, p. 120.
    5. ^ Patrick 1976, p. 48.
    6. ^ Bryant 2012, p. 5–15; Hoffmeister 2006, p. 17–20; Risini 2018, p. 117; Smit 2012, p. 51; United Nations 1964: "The trade of the Turkish community had considerably declined during the period, due to the existing situation, and unemployment reached a very high level as approximately 25,000 Turkish Cypriots had beccme refugees"
    7. ^ Bryant 2012, p. 5–15; United Nations 1964.
     
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    22 December 1990Lech Wałęsa is elected President of Poland.

    Lech Wałęsa

    Lech Wałęsa[a][b] (born 29 September 1943) is a Polish statesman, dissident, and Nobel Peace Prize laureate, who served as the president of Poland between 1990 and 1995. After winning the 1990 election, Wałęsa became the first democratically elected president of Poland since 1926 and the first-ever Polish president elected by popular vote. A shipyard electrician by trade, Wałęsa became the leader of the Solidarity movement, and led a successful pro-democratic effort, which in 1989 ended Communist rule in Poland and ushered in the end of the Cold War.

    While working at the Lenin Shipyard (now Gdańsk Shipyard), Wałęsa, an electrician, became a trade-union activist, for which he was persecuted by the government, placed under surveillance, fired in 1976, and arrested several times. In August 1980, he was instrumental in political negotiations that led to the ground-breaking Gdańsk Agreement between striking workers and the government. He co-founded the Solidarity trade-union, whose membership rose to over ten million.

    After martial law in Poland was imposed and Solidarity was outlawed, Wałęsa was again arrested. Released from custody, he continued his activism and was prominent in the establishment of the Round Table Agreement that led to the semi-free 1989 Polish legislative election and a Solidarity-led government. He presided over Poland's transition from Marxist–Leninist state socialism into a free-market capitalist liberal democracy, but his active role in Polish politics diminished after he narrowly lost the 1995 Polish presidential election. In 1995, he established the Lech Wałęsa Institute.

    Since 1980, Wałęsa has received hundreds of prizes, honors and awards from multiple countries and organizations worldwide. He was named the Time Person of the Year (1981) and one of Time's 100 most important people of the 20th century (1999). He has received over forty honorary degrees, including from Harvard University and Columbia University, as well as dozens of the highest state orders, including the Presidential Medal of Freedom, the Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath, and the French Grand Cross of Legion of Honour. In 1989, Wałęsa was the first foreign non-head of state to address the Joint Meeting of the U.S. Congress. The Gdańsk Lech Wałęsa Airport has borne his name since 2004.[1]


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    1. ^ "BBC NEWS - Europe - Profile: Lech Walesa". news.bbc.co.uk. Retrieved 14 January 2020.
     
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    23 December 2007 – An agreement is made for the Kingdom of Nepal to be abolished and the country to become a federal republic with the Prime Minister becoming head of state.

    Kingdom of Nepal

    The Kingdom of Nepal (Nepali: नेपाल अधिराज्य) was a Hindu kingdom in South Asia, formed in 1768 by the expansion of the Gorkha Kingdom, which lasted until 2008 when the kingdom became the Federal Democratic Republic of Nepal.[2] It was also known as the Gorkha Empire (Nepali: गोरखा अधिराज्य), or sometimes Asal Hindustan (Nepali: असल हिन्दुस्तान, lit.'Real Land of the Hindus').[note 1] Founded by King Prithvi Narayan Shah, a Gorkha monarch who claimed to be of Khas Thakuri origin,[4][note 2] it existed for 240 years until the abolition of the Nepalese monarchy in 2008. During this period, Nepal was formally under the rule of the Shah dynasty, which exercised varying degrees of power during the kingdom's existence.

    After the invasion of Tibet and plundering of Digarcha by Nepali forces under Prince Regent Bahadur Shah in 1792, the Dalai Lama and Chinese Ambans reported to the Chinese administration for military support. The Chinese and Tibetan forces under Fuk'anggan attacked Nepal but went for negotiations after failure at Nuwakot.[6] Mulkaji Damodar Pande, who was the most influential among the four Kajis, was appointed after the removal of Bahadur Shah. Chief Kaji (Mulkaji) Kirtiman Singh Basnyat,[7] tried to protect king Girvan Yuddha Shah and keep former king, Rana Bahadur Shah away from Nepal. However, on 4 March 1804, the former king came back and took over as Mukhtiyar and Damodar Pande was then beheaded in Thankot.[8] The 1806 Bhandarkhal massacre instigated upon the death of Rana Bahadur Shah, set forth the rise of the authoritative Mukhtiyar Bhimsen Thapa,[9] who became the de facto ruler of Nepal from 1806 to 1837.[10] During the early nineteenth century, however, the expansion of the East India Company's rule in India led to the Anglo-Nepalese War (1814–1816), which resulted in Nepal's defeat. Under the Treaty of Sugauli, the kingdom retained its internal independence, but in exchange for territorial concessions, marking the Mechi and Sharda rivers as the boundary of Nepalese territories.[11] The territory of the kingdom before the Sugauli treaty is sometimes nascently referred to as Greater Nepal. In the political scenario, the death of Mukhtiyar Mathbar Singh Thapa ended the Thapa hegemony and set the stage for the Kot massacre.[12] This resulted in the ascendancy of the Rana dynasty of Khas (Chhetri) and made the office of the Prime Minister of Nepal hereditary in their family for the next century, from 1843 to 1951. Beginning with Jung Bahadur, the first Rana ruler, the Rana dynasty reduced the Shah monarch to a figurehead role. The Rana rule was marked by tyranny, debauchery, economic exploitation and religious persecution.[13][14]

    In July 1950, the newly independent Republic of India signed a friendship treaty in which both nations agreed to respect the other's sovereignty as well as continue to have an open border. In November of the same year, India played an important role in supporting King Tribhuvan, whom the Rana leader Mohan Shumsher Jang Bahadur Rana had attempted to depose and replace with his infant grandson who would later become King Gyanendra. With Indian support for a new government consisting largely of the Nepali Congress, King Tribhuvan ended the Rana regime in 1951.

    Unsuccessful attempts were made to implement reforms and adopt a constitution during the 1960s and 1970s. An economic crisis at the end of the 1980s led to a popular movement that brought about parliamentary elections and the adoption of a constitutional monarchy in 1990. The 1990s saw the beginning of the Nepalese Civil War (1996–2006), a conflict between government forces and the insurgent forces of the Communist Party of Nepal (Maoist). The situation of the Nepalese monarchy was further destabilised by the 2001 Nepalese royal massacre.

    As a result of the massacre, King Gyanendra returned to the throne. His imposition of direct rule in 2005 provoked a protest movement unifying the Maoist insurgency and pro-democracy activists. He was eventually forced to restore the House of Representatives, which in 2007 adopted an interim constitution greatly restricting the powers of the Nepalese monarchy. Following an election held the next year, the Nepalese Constituent Assembly formally abolished the kingdom in its first session on 28 May 2008, declaring the Federal Democratic Republic of Nepal in its place.

    Until the abolition of the monarchy, Nepal was the world's only country to have Hinduism as its state religion; since becoming a republic, the country is now formally a secular state.[15][16]

    1. ^ Subba, Sanghamitra (20 December 2019). "A future written in the stars". Nepali Times. Archived from the original on 31 January 2021. Retrieved 31 January 2021.
    2. ^ Kirkpatrick, Colonel (1811). An Account of the Kingdom of Nepaul. London: William Miller. pp. 382–386. Retrieved 17 October 2012.
    3. ^ Acharya, Baburam; Naraharinath, Yogi (2014). Badamaharaj Prithivi Narayan Shah ko Divya Upadesh (2014 Reprint ed.). Kathmandu: Shree Krishna Acharya. pp. 4, 5. ISBN 978-99933-912-1-0.
    4. ^ Karl J. Schmidt (20 May 2015). An Atlas and Survey of South Asian History. Routledge. pp. 138–. ISBN 978-1-317-47681-8. Archived from the original on 16 February 2017. Retrieved 5 February 2017.
    5. ^ Hamilton 1819, p. 26.
    6. ^ "Nepal and Tibetan conflict". Official website of Nepal Army. Archived from the original on 20 December 2016. Retrieved 29 April 2017.
    7. ^ Pradhan 2012, p. 12.
    8. ^ Nepal:The Struggle for Power Archived 5 July 2009 at the Wayback Machine (Sourced to U.S. Library of Congress)
    9. ^ Acharya 2012, pp. 71–72.
    10. ^ Whelpton 1991, p. 21.
    11. ^ "History of Nepal: A Sovereign Kingdom". Official website of Nepal Army. Archived from the original on 28 December 2017. Retrieved 29 April 2017.
    12. ^ Acharya 2012, pp. 11–12.
    13. ^ Dietrich, Angela (1996). "Buddhist Monks and Rana Rulers: A History of Persecution". Buddhist Himalaya: A Journal of Nagarjuna Institute of Exact Methods. Archived from the original on 1 October 2013. Retrieved 17 September 2013.
    14. ^ Lal, C. K. (16 February 2001). "The Rana resonance". Nepali Times. Archived from the original on 28 September 2013. Retrieved 17 September 2013.
    15. ^ "Why Monarchy is necessary in Nepal?". 28 October 2009. Archived from the original on 12 April 2020. Retrieved 3 November 2009.
    16. ^ George Conger (18 January 2008). "Nepal moves to become a secular republic". Religious Intelligence. Archived from the original on 30 January 2009.


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    12 December 1800 – The Plot of the rue Saint-Nicaise fails to kill Napoleon Bonaparte.

    Plot of the rue Saint-Nicaise

    The Plot of the Rue Saint-Nicaise, etching

    The Plot of the rue Saint-Nicaise, also known as the Machine infernale plot, was an assassination attempt on the First Consul of France, Napoleon Bonaparte, in Paris on 24 December 1800. It followed the conspiration des poignards of 10 October 1800, and was one of many Royalist and Catholic plots. Though Napoleon and his wife Josephine narrowly escaped the attempt, five people were killed and twenty-six others were injured.[1]

    The name of the Machine Infernale, the "infernal device", was in reference to an episode during the sixteenth-century revolt against Spanish rule in Flanders. In 1585, during the Siege of Antwerp by the Spaniards, an Italian engineer in Spanish service had made an explosive device from a barrel bound with iron hoops, filled with gunpowder, flammable materials and bullets, and set off by a blunderbuss triggered from a distance by a string. The Italian engineer called it la macchina infernale.

    1. ^ Roberts, Andrew (2014). Napoleon: A Life. Penguin. p. 362.
     
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    25 December 1914 – A series of unofficial truces occur across the Western Front to celebrate Christmas.

    Christmas truce

    A cross, left in Saint-Yves (Saint-Yvon – Ploegsteert; Comines-Warneton in Belgium) in 1999, to commemorate the site of the Christmas Truce. The text reads:
    "1914 – The Khaki Chums Christmas Truce – 1999 – 85 Years – Lest We Forget"

    The Christmas truce (German: Weihnachtsfrieden; French: Trêve de Noël; Dutch: Kerstbestand) was a series of widespread unofficial ceasefires along the Western Front of the First World War around Christmas 1914.

    The truce occurred five months after hostilities had begun. Lulls occurred in the fighting as armies ran out of men and munitions and commanders reconsidered their strategies following the stalemate of the Race to the Sea and the indecisive result of the First Battle of Ypres. In the week leading up to 25 December, French, German and British soldiers crossed trenches to exchange seasonal greetings and talk. In some areas, men from both sides ventured into no man's land on Christmas Eve and Christmas Day to mingle and exchange food and souvenirs. There were joint burial ceremonies and prisoner swaps, while several meetings ended in carolling. Men played games of soccer with one another, creating one of the most memorable images of the truce.[1] Hostilities continued in some sectors, while in others the sides settled on little more than arrangements to recover bodies.

    The following year, a few units arranged ceasefires but the truces were not nearly as widespread as in 1914; this was, in part, due to strongly worded orders from commanders, prohibiting truces. Soldiers were no longer amenable to truce by 1916; the war had become increasingly bitter after the human losses suffered during the battles of 1915.

    The truces were not unique to the Christmas period and reflected a mood of "live and let live", where infantry close together would stop fighting and fraternise, engaging in conversation. In some sectors, there were occasional ceasefires to allow soldiers to go between the lines and recover wounded or dead comrades; in others, there was a tacit agreement not to shoot while men rested, exercised or worked in view of the enemy. The Christmas truces were particularly significant due to the number of men involved and the level of their participation—even in quiet sectors, dozens of men openly congregating in daylight was remarkable—and are often seen as a symbolic moment of peace and humanity amidst one of the most violent conflicts in human history.

    1. ^ John Woodcock (17 November 2013). "England v Germany: when rivals staged beautiful game on the Somme" Archived 12 June 2020 at the Wayback Machine, The Daily Telegraph.
     
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    26 December 1805 – Austria and France sign the Treaty of Pressburg.

    Peace of Pressburg (1805)

    Contemporary print advertising the Peace of Pressburg

    The Peace of Pressburg[a] was signed in Pressburg (today Bratislava) on 26 December 1805 between French Emperor Napoleon Bonaparte and Holy Roman Emperor Francis II, as a consequence of the French victory over the Russians and Austrians at the Battle of Austerlitz (2 December). A truce was agreed on 4 December, and negotiations for the treaty began. The treaty was signed by Johann I Joseph, Prince of Liechtenstein, and the Hungarian Count Ignác Gyulay for the Austrian Empire and Charles Maurice de Talleyrand for France.

    Beyond the clauses establishing "peace and amity" and the Austrian withdrawal from the Third Coalition, the treaty also mandated substantial territorial concessions by the Austrian Empire. The French gains of the previous treaties of Campo Formio and Lunéville were reiterated, while recent Austrian acquisitions in Italy and southern Germany were ceded to France and Bavaria, respectively. The scattered Austrian holdings in Swabia were passed to French allies – the King of Württemberg, and the Elector of Baden – while Bavaria received Tyrol and Vorarlberg. Austrian claims on those German states were renounced without exception. Venetia, Istria, and Dalmatia were incorporated into the Kingdom of Italy, of which Napoleon had become king earlier that year. The Principality of Lucca and Piombino was recognized as independent from the Holy Empire. Augsburg, previously an independent Free Imperial City, was ceded to Bavaria. As a minor compensation, the Austrian Empire annexed the Electorate of Salzburg, which had been under Habsburg rule since 1803. The elector, the Austrian Emperor's brother, was compensated with the Grand Duchy of Würzburg.

    The Primate's Palace, where the Peace of Pressburg was signed

    Francis II also recognized the kingly titles assumed by the Electors of Bavaria and Württemberg, which foreshadowed the end of the Holy Roman Empire. Within months of the signing of the treaty and after a new entity, the Confederation of the Rhine, had been created by Napoleon, Francis II renounced his title as Holy Roman Emperor. An indemnity of 40 million francs to France was also provided for in the treaty.[1]

    Some remaining territorial issues, including the effective establishment of the new border along the Isonzo river, were finally resolved by the Treaty of Fontainebleau (October 10, 1807).[2]


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    1. ^ Phillipson, Coleman (2008). Termination of War and Treaties of Peace. The Lawbook Exchange. p. 273. ISBN 9781584778608.
    2. ^ Siemann 2019, p. 225-226.
     
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    27 December 1945 – The International Monetary Fund is created with the signing of an agreement by 29 nations.

    International Monetary Fund

    The International Monetary Fund (IMF) is a major financial agency of the United Nations, and an international financial institution funded by 190 member countries, with headquarters in Washington, D.C. It is regarded as the global lender of last resort to national governments, and a leading supporter of exchange-rate stability. Its stated mission is "working to foster global monetary cooperation, secure financial stability, facilitate international trade, promote high employment and sustainable economic growth, and reduce poverty around the world."[1][9] Established on December 27, 1945[10] at the Bretton Woods Conference, primarily according to the ideas of Harry Dexter White and John Maynard Keynes, it started with 29 member countries and the goal of reconstructing the international monetary system after World War II. It now plays a central role in the management of balance of payments difficulties and international financial crises.[11] Through a quota system, countries contribute funds to a pool from which countries can borrow if they experience balance of payments problems. As of 2016, the fund had SDR 477 billion (about US$667 billion).[10]

    The IMF works to stabilize and foster the economies of its member countries by its use of the fund, as well as other activities such as gathering and analyzing economic statistics and surveillance of its members' economies.[12][13] IMF funds come from two major sources: quotas and loans. Quotas, which are pooled funds from member nations, generate most IMF funds. The size of members' quotas increase according to their economic and financial importance in the world. The quotas are increased periodically as a means of boosting the IMF's resources in the form of special drawing rights.[14]

    The current managing director (MD) and chairwoman of the IMF is Bulgarian economist Kristalina Georgieva, who has held the post since October 1, 2019.[15] Indian-American economist Gita Gopinath, previously the chief economist, was appointed as first deputy managing director, effective January 21, 2022.[16] Pierre-Olivier Gourinchas was appointed chief economist on January 24, 2022.[17]

    1. ^ a b c "About the IMF". International Monetary Fund. Archived from the original on 16 October 2012. Retrieved 14 October 2012.
    2. ^ "IMF Members' Quotas and Voting Power, and IMF Board of Governors". IMF. 17 October 2020.
    3. ^ Boughton 2001, p. 7 n.5.
    4. ^ "First Deputy Managing Director Geoffrey Okamoto to Leave IMF, Gita Gopinath to Be IMF's New First Deputy Managing Director". International Monetary Fund.
    5. ^ "IMF Managing Director Names Pierre-Olivier Gourinchas as IMF Economic Counsellor and Head of Research Department". International Monetary Fund.
    6. ^ "Factsheet: The IMF and the World Bank". International Monetary Fund. 21 September 2015. Archived from the original on 3 June 2004. Retrieved 1 December 2015.
    7. ^ "About the IMF Overview". International Monetary Fund. Retrieved 1 August 2017.
    8. ^ "IMF Executive Board Approves FY 2022–FY 2024 Medium-Term Budget". International Monetary Fund. 27 May 2021. Retrieved 9 April 2022.
    9. ^ "Articles of Agreement, International Monetary Fund" (PDF). International Monetary Fund. 2011. Archived (PDF) from the original on 4 November 2011.
    10. ^ a b "The IMF at a Glance". International Monetary Fund. Retrieved 15 December 2016.
    11. ^ Lipscy, Phillip Y. (2015). "Explaining Institutional Change: Policy Areas, Outside Options, and the Bretton Woods Institutions". American Journal of Political Science. 59 (2): 341–356. doi:10.1111/ajps.12130.
    12. ^ Schlefer, Jonathan (10 April 2012). "There is No Invisible Hand". Harvard Business Review. Harvard Business Publishing – via hbr.org.
    13. ^ Escobar, Arturo (1980). "Power and Visibility: Development and the Invention and Management of the Third World". Cultural Anthropology. 3 (4): 428–443. doi:10.1525/can.1988.3.4.02a00060.
    14. ^ "IMF Quotas". International Monetary Fund. Retrieved 4 February 2020.
    15. ^ Crutsinger, Martin (25 September 2019). "Economist who grew up in communist Bulgaria is new IMF chief". APNews.com. Associated Press. Retrieved 18 June 2020.
    16. ^ "First Deputy Managing Director Geoffrey Okamoto to Leave IMF, Gita Gopinath to Be IMF's New First Deputy Managing Director". IMF. Retrieved 4 February 2022.
    17. ^ "IMF Managing Director Names Pierre-Olivier Gourinchas as IMF Economic Counsellor and Head of Research Department". IMF. Retrieved 4 February 2022.
     
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    28 December 2014Indonesia AirAsia Flight 8501 crashes into the Karimata Strait en route from Surabaya to Singapore, killing all 162 people aboard.

    Indonesia AirAsia Flight 8501

    Indonesia AirAsia Flight 8501 was a scheduled international passenger flight operated by Indonesia AirAsia from Surabaya, Java, Indonesia, to Singapore. On 28 December 2014, the Airbus A320 flying the route crashed into the Java Sea, killing all 162 people on board. When search operations ended in March 2015, only 116 bodies had been recovered.

    In December 2015, the Indonesian National Transportation Safety Committee (KNKT or NTSC) released a report concluding that a non-critical malfunction in the rudder control system prompted the captain to perform a non-standard reset of the on-board flight control computers. Control of the aircraft was subsequently lost, resulting in a stall and uncontrolled descent into the sea. Miscommunication between the two pilots was cited as a contributing factor.[1][2][3]


    Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

    1. ^ Karmini, Niniek (1 December 2015). "AirAsia crash caused by faulty rudder system, pilot response, Indonesia says". Toronto Star. Toronto, Canada. Associated Press. Retrieved 1 December 2015.
    2. ^ Sherwell, Philip (1 December 2015). "Pilots responding to malfuctioning plane part caused AirAsia crash which killed 162 passengers off Indonesia". The Telegraphy. London, England. Retrieved 1 December 2015.
    3. ^ Lamb, Kate (1 December 2015). "AirAsia crash: crew lost control of plane after apparent misunderstanding". The Guardian. London, England. ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved 1 December 2015.
     
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    29 December 1975 – A bomb explodes at LaGuardia Airport in New York City, killing 11 people and injuring 74.

    1975 LaGuardia Airport bombing

    On December 29, 1975, a bomb detonated near the TWA baggage reclaim terminal at LaGuardia Airport in New York City. The blast killed 11 people and seriously injured 74 others. The perpetrators were never officially identified or charged, although the most common consensus is that it was either anti-Yugoslavian Croats that were part of OTPOR or a Yugoslavian UDBA working to malign OTPOR through sabotage (a common strategy of theirs).[1] The attack occurred during a four-year period of heightened terrorism within the United States: 1975 was especially volatile, with bombings in New York City and Washington, D.C., and two assassination attempts on President Gerald Ford.[2]

    The LaGuardia Airport bombing was at the time the deadliest attack by a non-state actor to occur on American soil since the 1927 Bath School bombing attacks, which killed 45 people (including the perpetrator). It was the deadliest attack in New York City since the 1920 Wall Street bombing, which killed 38 people, until the September 11 attacks in 2001 which killed 2,977.[2][3]

    1. ^ "Why Hasn't Washington Explained the 1975 LaGuardia Airport Bombing?". The New York Observer. January 4, 2016.
    2. ^ a b Joseph T. McCann (2006). Terrorism on American soil : a concise history of plots and perpetrators from the famous to the forgotten. pp. 119–121. ISBN 9781591810490.
    3. ^ Cite error: The named reference NYT was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
     
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    30 December 2006Madrid–Barajas Airport is bombed.

    2006 Madrid–Barajas Airport bombing

    On December 30, 2006, a van bomb exploded in the Terminal 4 parking area at the Madrid–Barajas Airport in Spain, killing two and injuring 52. On January 9, 2007, the Basque nationalist and separatist organisation ETA claimed responsibility for the attack. The attack, one of the most powerful carried out by ETA, damaged the airport terminal and destroyed the entire parking structure. The bombing ended a nine-month ceasefire declared by the armed organisation and prompted the government to halt plans for negotiations with the organisation. Despite the attack, ETA claimed that the ceasefire was still in place and regretted the death of civilians. The organisation eventually announced the end of the ceasefire in June 2007.

    Ordered and planned by then head of commandos Miguel Garikoitz Aspiazu Rubina alias Txeroki, the attack was carried out by the "commando Elurra", whose members were arrested in early 2008 and sentenced for the attack in May 2010. Txeroki was arrested in November 2008 and was condemned to prison in 2011.

     
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    31 December 2014 – A New Year's Eve celebration stampede in Shanghai kills at least 36 people and injures 49 others.

    2014 Shanghai stampede

    On 31 December 2014, a deadly crush occurred in Shanghai, near Chen Yi Square on the Bund, where around 300,000 people had gathered for the new year celebration. 36 people were killed and another 49 were injured, 13 seriously.[1]

    1. ^ "Shanghai new year crush kills 35". BBC News. 31 December 2014. Retrieved 31 December 2014.
     
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    1 January 2007Bulgaria and Romania join the EU.

    2007 enlargement of the European Union

      EU member states in 2007
      New EU member states admitted in 2007

    On 1 January 2007, Bulgaria and Romania became member states of the European Union (EU) in the fifth wave of EU enlargement.[1]

     
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    2 January 1971 – The second Ibrox disaster kills 66 fans at a Rangers-Celtic association football (soccer) match

    1971 Ibrox disaster

    The 1971 Ibrox disaster, also known as the Second Ibrox Disaster, was a crush among the crowd at an Old Firm football game (Rangers v Celtic), which led to 66 deaths and more than 200 injuries. It happened on 2 January 1971 in an exit stairway at Ibrox Park (now Ibrox Stadium) in Glasgow, Scotland. It was the worst football disaster until the Bradford City stadium fire in Bradford, England, in 1985. This was followed by 97 deaths in the Hillsborough disaster in Sheffield, England, in 1989.

    The stadium's owner, Rangers F.C., was later ruled to be at fault in a sheriff's judgement on one of the deaths.[1] Rangers did not dispute this ruling, and was sued for damages in 60 other cases brought by relatives of the dead.[2]

    1. ^ Cite error: The named reference Irvine Smith was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    2. ^ Cite error: The named reference 1972/1/3 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
     
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    3 January 2000 – Final daily edition of the Peanuts comic strip.

    Peanuts

    Peanuts is a syndicated daily and Sunday American comic strip written and illustrated by Charles M. Schulz. The strip's original run extended from 1950 to 2000, continuing in reruns afterward. Peanuts is among the most popular and influential in the history of comic strips, with 17,897 strips published in all,[1] making it "arguably the longest story ever told by one human being";[2] it is considered to be the grandfather of slice of life cartoons.[not verified in body] At the time of Schulz's death in 2000, Peanuts ran in over 2,600 newspapers, with a readership of roughly 355 million across 75 countries, and had been translated into 21 languages.[3] It helped to cement the four-panel gag strip as the standard in the United States,[4] and together with its merchandise earned Schulz more than $1 billion.[1]

    Peanuts focuses on a social circle of young children, where adults exist but are rarely seen or heard. The main character, Charlie Brown, is meek, nervous, and lacks self-confidence. He is unable to fly a kite, win a baseball game, or kick a football held by his irascible friend Lucy, who always pulls it away at the last instant.[5] Peanuts is a literate strip with philosophical, psychological, and sociological overtones, which was innovative in the 1950s.[6] Its humor is psychologically complex and driven by the characters' interactions and relationships. The comic strip has been adapted in animation and theater.

    Schulz drew the strip for nearly 50 years, with no assistants, even in the lettering and coloring process.[7]

    1. ^ a b Bethune 2007.
    2. ^ Boxer 2000.
    3. ^ Podger 2000.
    4. ^ Walker 2002, p. [page needed].
    5. ^ The World Encyclopedia of Comics, edited by Maurice Horn, published in 1977 by Avon Books
    6. ^ "comic strip :: The first half of the 20th century: the evolution of the form". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved December 10, 2015.
    7. ^ Yoe, Craig, Clean Cartoonists' Dirty Drawings. San Francisco, Calif.: Last Gasp, 2007, p. 36; Michaelis, David, Schulz and Peanuts: A Biography. New York: HarperPerennial, 2008, p. ix.
     
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    4 January 2018Hennenman–Kroonstad train crash: A passenger train operated by Shosholoza Meyl collides with a truck on a level crossing at Geneva Station between Hennenman and Kroonstad, Free State, South Africa. Twenty people are killed and 260 injured.

    Hennenman–Kroonstad train crash

    On 4 January 2018, a passenger train operated by Shosholoza Meyl collided with a truck at a level crossing at Geneva Station between Hennenman and Kroonstad, in the Free State, South Africa. The train derailed, and seven of the twelve carriages caught fire. Twenty-one people were killed and 254 others were injured.

     
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    5 January 1975 – The Tasman Bridge in Tasmania, Australia, is struck by the bulk ore carrier Lake Illawarra, killing twelve people

    Tasman Bridge disaster

    View of the bridge as it stands today

    The Tasman Bridge disaster occurred on the evening of 5 January 1975, in Hobart, the capital city of Australia's island state of Tasmania, when the bulk carrier Lake Illawarra, travelling up the Derwent River, collided with several pylons of the Tasman Bridge and caused a large section of the bridge deck to collapse onto the ship and into the river below. Twelve people were killed, including seven crew on board Lake Illawarra, and the five occupants of four cars which fell 45 m (150 feet) after driving off the bridge. Hobart was cut off from its eastern suburbs, and the loss of the road connection had a major social impact. The ship's master was officially penalised for inattention and failure to handle his vessel in a seamanlike manner.

     
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    6 January 1907Maria Montessori opens her first school and daycare center for working class children in Rome, Italy.

    Maria Montessori

    Maria Tecla Artemisia Montessori (/ˌmɒntɪˈsɔːri/ MON-tiss-OR-ee, Italian: [maˈriːa montesˈsɔːri]; 31 August 1870 – 6 May 1952) was an Italian physician and educator best known for her philosophy of education and her writing on scientific pedagogy. At an early age, Montessori enrolled in classes at an all-boys technical school, with hopes of becoming an engineer. She soon had a change of heart and began medical school at the Sapienza University of Rome, becoming one of the first women to attend medical school in Italy; she graduated with honors in 1896. Her educational method is in use today in many public and private schools globally.

     

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