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This day in .....

Discussion in 'Break Room' started by NewsBot, Apr 6, 2008.

  1. NewsBot

    NewsBot The Admin that posts the news.

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    1
    13 February 1955Israel obtains four of the seven Dead Sea Scrolls.

    Dead Sea Scrolls

    The Dead Sea Scrolls, also called the Qumran Caves Scrolls, are a set of ancient Jewish manuscripts from the Second Temple period. They were discovered over a period of 10 years, between 1946 and 1956, at the Qumran Caves near Ein Feshkha in the West Bank, on the northern shore of the Dead Sea. Dating from the 3rd century BCE to the 1st century CE,[1] the Dead Sea Scrolls are considered to be a keystone in the history of archaeology with great historical, religious, and linguistic significance because they include the oldest surviving manuscripts of entire books later included in the biblical canons, along with extra-biblical and deuterocanonical manuscripts that preserve evidence of the diversity of religious thought in late Second Temple Judaism. At the same time, they cast new light on the emergence of Christianity and of Rabbinic Judaism.[2] Almost all of the 15,000 scrolls and scroll fragments are held in the Shrine of the Book at the Israel Museum, located in the city of Jerusalem. The Israeli government's custody of the Dead Sea Scrolls is disputed by Jordan and the Palestinian Authority on territorial, legal, and humanitarian grounds—they were mostly discovered following the Jordanian annexation of the West Bank and were acquired by Israel after Jordan lost the 1967 Arab–Israeli War[3]—whilst Israel's claims are primarily based on historical and religious grounds, given their significance in Jewish history and in the heritage of Judaism.[4]

    Many thousands of written fragments have been discovered in the Dead Sea area. They represent the remnants of larger manuscripts damaged by natural causes or through human interference, with the vast majority holding only small scraps of text. However, a small number of well-preserved and near-intact manuscripts have survived—fewer than a dozen among those from the Qumran Caves.[1] Researchers have assembled a collection of 981 different manuscripts (discovered in 1946/1947 and in 1956) from 11 caves,[5] which lie in the immediate vicinity of the Hellenistic Jewish settlement at the site of Khirbet Qumran in the eastern Judaean Desert, in the West Bank.[6] The caves are located about 1.5 kilometres (1 mi) west of the northwestern shore of the Dead Sea, whence they derive their name. Archaeologists have long associated the scrolls with the ancient Jewish sect known as the Essenes, although some recent interpretations have challenged this connection and argue that priests in Jerusalem, or Zadokites, or other unknown Jewish groups wrote the scrolls.[7][8]

    Most of the manuscripts are written in Hebrew, with some written in Aramaic (for example the Son of God Text; in different regional dialects, including Nabataean) and a few in Greek.[9] Discoveries from the Judaean Desert add Latin (from Masada) and Arabic (from Khirbet al-Mird).[10] Most of the texts are written on parchment, some on papyrus, and one on copper.[11] Though scholarly consensus dates the Dead Sea Scrolls to between the 3rd century BCE and the 1st century CE,[12] there are manuscripts from associated Judaean Desert sites that are dated to as early as the 8th century BCE and as late as the 11th century CE.[12] Bronze coins found at the same sites form a series beginning with John Hyrcanus, a ruler of the Hasmonean Kingdom (in office 135–104 BCE), and continuing until the period of the First Jewish–Roman War (66–73 CE), supporting the paleography and radiocarbon dating of the scrolls.[13]

    Owing to the poor condition of some of the scrolls, scholars have not identified all of their texts. The identified texts fall into three general groups:

    1. About 40% are copies of texts from Hebrew scriptures.
    2. Approximately another 30% are texts from the Second Temple period that ultimately were not canonized in the Hebrew Bible, like the Book of Enoch, the Book of Jubilees, the Book of Tobit, the Wisdom of Sirach, Psalms 152–155, etc.
    3. The remainder (roughly 30%) are sectarian manuscripts of previously unknown documents that shed light on the rules and beliefs of a particular sect or groups within greater Judaism, like the Community Rule, the War Scroll, the Pesher on Habakkuk, and The Rule of the Blessing.[14]
    1. ^ a b "The Digital Dead Sea Scrolls: Nature and Significance". Israel Museum Jerusalem. Retrieved 4 November 2023.
    2. ^ "Dead Sea Scrolls | Definition, Discovery, History, & Facts | Britannica". www.britannica.com. Retrieved 17 November 2021.
    3. ^ Lash, Mordechay; Goldstein, Yossi; Shai, Itzhaq (2020). "Underground-Archaeological Research in the West Bank, 1947–1968: Management, Complexity, and Israeli Involvement". Bulletin of the History of Archaeology. 30. doi:10.5334/bha-650. S2CID 229403120.
    4. ^ Duhaime, Bernard; Labadie, Camille (18 September 2020). "Intersections and Cultural Exchange: Archaeology, Culture, International Law and the Legal Travels of the Dead Sea Scrolls". Canada's Public Diplomacy. Palgrave Macmillan Series in Global Public Diplomacy. Cham: Springer International Publishing. p. 146. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-62015-2_6. ISBN 978-3-319-62014-5. ISSN 2731-3883. S2CID 236757632. Thus, the Palestinian Authority and Jordan base their claims on territorial aspects (places of discovery of the scrolls), humanitarian (illegal deprivation following the occupation of East Jerusalem by Israel) and legal (they claim to have proof of purchase of several scrolls) while, for its part, Israel's claims are primarily based in religious notions, invoking the sacred history of the Jewish people and recalling that the scrolls discovered in Qumran are, for the majority, the oldest known copies of biblical texts and are therefore of fundamental importance for the historical and religious heritage of Judaism.
    5. ^ "Hebrew University Archaeologists Find 12th Dead Sea Scrolls Cave". The Hebrew University of Jerusalem. Archived from the original on 2 June 2017. Retrieved 7 June 2017.
    6. ^ Donahue, Michelle Z. (10 February 2017). "New Dead Sea Scroll Find May Help Detect Forgeries". nationalgeographic.com. Archived from the original on 15 June 2018. Retrieved 19 November 2017.
    7. ^ Ofri, Ilani (13 March 2009). "Scholar: The Essenes, Dead Sea Scroll 'authors,' never existed". Ha'aretz. Archived from the original on 6 January 2018. Retrieved 26 May 2017.
    8. ^ Golb, Norman (5 June 2009). "On the Jerusalem Origin of the Dead Sea Scrolls" (PDF). University of Chicago Oriental Institute. Archived (PDF) from the original on 10 June 2010. Retrieved 11 May 2010.
    9. ^ Vermes, Geza (1977). The Dead Sea Scrolls. Qumran in Perspective. London: Collins. p. 15. ISBN 978-0002161428.
    10. ^ "Languages and Scripts". Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library. Retrieved 1 November 2023.
    11. ^ McCarthy, Rory (27 August 2008). "From papyrus to cyberspace". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 22 December 2016. Retrieved 17 December 2016.
    12. ^ a b "The Digital Library: Introduction". Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library. Retrieved 1 November 2023.
    13. ^ Leaney, A. R. C. From Judaean Caves: The Story of the Dead Sea Scrolls. p. 27, Religious Education Press, 1961.
    14. ^ Abegg, Jr., Martin; Flint, Peter; Ulrich, Eugene (2002). The Dead Sea Scrolls Bible: The Oldest Known Bible Translated for the First Time into English. San Francisco: Harper. pp. xiv–xvii. ISBN 0060600640. Retrieved 24 November 2023.
     
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    14 February 1966 – Australian currency is decimalized.

    Decimalisation

    Decimalisation or decimalization (see spelling differences) is the conversion of a system of currency or of weights and measures to units related by powers of 10.

    Most countries have decimalised their currencies, converting them from non-decimal sub-units to a decimal system, with one basic currency unit and sub-units that are to a power of 10, most commonly 100, and exceptionally 1000; and sometimes at the same time changing the name of the currency or the conversion rate to the new currency. Today, only two countries have non-decimal currencies: Mauritania, where 1 ouguiya = 5 khoums, and Madagascar, where 1 ariary = 5 iraimbilanja.[1] However, these are only theoretically non-decimal, as, in both cases, the value of the main unit is so low that the sub-units are too small to be of any practical use and coins of the sub-units are no longer used. Russia was the first country to convert to a decimal currency when it decimalised under Tsar Peter the Great in 1704, resulting in the ruble being equal to 100 kopeks.[2][3]

    For weights and measures, this is also called metrication, replacing traditional units that are related in other ways, such as those formed by successive doubling or halving, or by more arbitrary conversion factors. Units of physical measurement, such as length and mass, were decimalised with the introduction of the metric system, which has been adopted by almost all countries (with the prominent exceptions of the United States, and, to a lesser extent, the United Kingdom and Canada). Thus, a kilometre is 1000 metres, while a mile is 1,760 yards. Electrical units are decimalised worldwide. Common units of time remain undecimalised; although an attempt was made during the French Revolution, this proved to be unsuccessful and was quickly abandoned.

    1. ^ "Malagasy Ariary". famouswonders.com. 4 April 2011. Retrieved 2016-12-13.
    2. ^ "The Reign of Peter the Great as Represented in the ANS Collection | Pocket Change".
    3. ^ Cite error: The named reference :0 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
     
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    15 February 2001 – The first draft of the complete human genome is published in Nature.

    Human genome

    The human genome is a complete set of nucleic acid sequences for humans, encoded as DNA within the 23 chromosome pairs in cell nuclei and in a small DNA molecule found within individual mitochondria. These are usually treated separately as the nuclear genome and the mitochondrial genome.[1] Human genomes include both protein-coding DNA sequences and various types of DNA that does not encode proteins. The latter is a diverse category that includes DNA coding for non-translated RNA, such as that for ribosomal RNA, transfer RNA, ribozymes, small nuclear RNAs, and several types of regulatory RNAs. It also includes promoters and their associated gene-regulatory elements, DNA playing structural and replicatory roles, such as scaffolding regions, telomeres, centromeres, and origins of replication, plus large numbers of transposable elements, inserted viral DNA, non-functional pseudogenes and simple, highly repetitive sequences. Introns make up a large percentage of non-coding DNA. Some of this non-coding DNA is non-functional junk DNA, such as pseudogenes, but there is no firm consensus on the total amount of junk DNA.

    Although the sequence of the human genome has been completely determined by DNA sequencing in 2022, it is not yet fully understood. Most, but not all, genes have been identified by a combination of high throughput experimental and bioinformatics approaches, yet much work still needs to be done to further elucidate the biological functions of their protein and RNA products (in particular, annotation of the complete CHM13v2.0 sequence is still ongoing[2]).

    1. ^ Brown TA (2002). The Human Genome (2nd ed.). Oxford: Wiley-Liss.
    2. ^ "Homo sapiens Annotation Report". www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov. Retrieved 17 April 2022.
     
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    16 February 1985Hezbollah is founded.

    Hezbollah

    Hezbollah (/ˌhɛzbəˈlɑː/,[44] /ˌxɛz-/; Arabic: حزب الله, romanizedḤizbu 'llāh, lit.'Party of Allah' or 'Party of God')[45] is a Lebanese Shia Islamist political party and militant group,[46][47] led since 1992 by its Secretary-General Hassan Nasrallah. Hezbollah's paramilitary wing is the Jihad Council,[48] and its political wing is the Loyalty to the Resistance Bloc party in the Lebanese Parliament.

    Hezbollah was established in the wake of the 1982 Lebanon War by Lebanese clerics who studied in the Shia seminaries Hawza Najaf in Najaf. It adopted the model set out by Ayatollah Khomeini after the Iranian Revolution in 1979, and the party's founders adopted the name "Hezbollah" as chosen by Khomeini. Since then, close ties have developed between Iran and Hezbollah.[49] The organization was created with the support of 1,500 Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps (IRGC) instructors,[50] and aggregated a variety of Lebanese Shia groups into a unified organization to resist the former Israeli occupation of Southern Lebanon.[51][52][14][53] During the Lebanese Civil War, Hezbollah's 1985 manifesto listed its objectives as the expulsion of "the Americans, the French and their allies definitely from Lebanon, putting an end to any colonialist entity on our land".[54] From 1985 to 2000, Hezbollah also participated in the 1985–2000 South Lebanon conflict against the South Lebanon Army (SLA) and Israel Defense Forces (IDF), and fought again with the IDF in the 2006 Lebanon War. During the 1990s, Hezbollah also organized volunteers to fight for the Army of the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina during the Bosnian War.[55]

    Since 1990, Hezbollah has participated in Lebanese politics, in a process which is described as the Lebanonisation of Hezbollah, and it later participated in the government of Lebanon and joined political alliances. After the 2006–08 Lebanese protests[56] and clashes,[57] a national unity government was formed in 2008, with Hezbollah and its opposition allies obtaining 11 of 30 cabinet seats, enough to give them veto power.[58] In August 2008, Lebanon's new cabinet unanimously approved a draft policy statement that recognizes Hezbollah's existence as an armed organization and guarantees its right to "liberate or recover occupied lands" (such as the Shebaa Farms). Hezbollah is part of Lebanon's March 8 Alliance, in opposition to the March 14 Alliance. It maintains strong support among Lebanese Shia Muslims,[59] while Sunnis have disagreed with its agenda.[60][61] Hezbollah also has support in some Christian areas of Lebanon.[62] Since 2012, Hezbollah involvement in the Syrian civil war has seen it join the Syrian government in its fight against the Syrian opposition, which Hezbollah has described as a Zionist plot and a "Wahhabi-Zionist conspiracy" to destroy its alliance with Bashar al-Assad against Israel.[63][64] Between 2013 and 2015, the organisation deployed its militia in both Syria and Iraq to fight or train local militias to fight against the Islamic State.[65][66] In the 2018 Lebanese general election, Hezbollah held 12 seats and its alliance won the election by gaining 70 out of 128 seats in the Parliament of Lebanon.[67][68]

    Hezbollah did not disarm after the Israeli withdrawal from South Lebanon, in violation of the UN Security Council resolution 1701.[69] From 2006, the group's military strength grew significantly,[70][71] to the extent that its paramilitary wing became more powerful than the Lebanese Army.[72][73] Hezbollah has been described as a "state within a state",[74] and has grown into an organization with seats in the Lebanese government, a radio and a satellite TV station, social services and large-scale military deployment of fighters beyond Lebanon's borders.[75][76][77] The group currently receives military training, weapons, and financial support from Iran and political support from Syria,[78] although the sectarian nature of the Syrian war has damaged the group's legitimacy.[75][79][80] In 2021, Nasrallah said the group had 100,000 fighters.[81] Either the entire organization or only its military wing has been designated a terrorist organization by several countries, including by the European Union[82] and, since 2017, also by most member states of the Arab League, with two exceptions – Lebanon, where Hezbollah is one of the country's most influential political parties, and Iraq.[83] Russia does not view Hezbollah as a "terrorist organization" but as a "legitimate socio-political force".[84]

    1. ^ "Fadlallah Hits Back at March 14 over Karam Release, Marouni Slams 'Treason Accusations'". Naharnet. 18 April 2013.
    2. ^ a b c Dalacoura, Katerina (2012). "Islamist Terrorism and National Liberation: Hamas and Hizbullah". Islamist Terrorism and Democracy in the Middle East. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 66–96. doi:10.1017/CBO9780511977367.004. ISBN 978-0-511-97736-7. LCCN 2010047275. S2CID 150958046.
    3. ^ Stepanova, Ekaterina (2008). Terrorism in Asymmetrical Conflict: Ideological and Structural Aspects (PDF). Oxford University Press. p. 113. Archived from the original (PDF) on 10 March 2016.
    4. ^ a b Philip Smyth (February 2015). The Shiite Jihad in Syria and Its Regional Effects (PDF) (Report). The Washington Institute for Near East Studies. pp. 7–8. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2 April 2015. Retrieved 13 March 2015.
    5. ^ "Hezbollah, the Lebanese Sectarian State, and Sectarianism". Middle East Institute. Retrieved 13 April 2017.
    6. ^ Bassel F, Salloukh (2015). "The Sectarian Image Reversed: The Role of Geopolitics in Hezbollah's Domestic Politics". Middle East political science.
    7. ^ "Hezbollah and the Lebanese Popular Movement".
    8. ^ Salamey, Imad; Pearson, Frederic (2007). "Hezbollah: A Proletarian Party with an Islamic Manifesto – A Sociopolitical Analysis of Islamist Populism in Lebanon and the Middle East". Small Wars & Insurgencies. 18 (3): 416–438. doi:10.1080/09592310701674358. S2CID 143896155.
    9. ^ Elie Alagha, Joseph (2011). Hizbullah's Documents: From the 1985 Open Letter to the 2009 Manifesto. Amsterdam University Press. pp. 15, 20. ISBN 978-90-8555-037-2.
      Shehata, Samer (2012). Islamist Politics in the Middle East: Movements and Change. Routledge. p. 176. ISBN 978-0-415-78361-3.
    10. ^ Husseinia, Rola El (2010). "Hezbollah and the Axis of Refusal: Hamas, Iran and Syria". Third World Quarterly. 31 (5): 803–815. doi:10.1080/01436597.2010.502695. S2CID 219628295.
    11. ^ Levitt, Matthew (2013). Hezbollah: The Global Footprint of Lebanon's Party of God. Hurst Publishers. p. 356. ISBN 978-1-84904-333-5. 'Hezbollah's anti-Western militancy began with attacks against Western targets in Lebanon, then expanded to attacks abroad intended to exact revenge for actions threatening its or Iran's interests, or to press foreign governments to release captured operatives.'
    12. ^ Hanhimäki, Jussi M.; Blumenau, Bernhard (2013). An International History of Terrorism: Western and Non-Western Experiences. Routledge. p. 267. ISBN 978-0-415-63540-0. Based upon these beliefs, Hezbollah became vehemently anti-West and anti-Israel.
    13. ^ Siegel, Larry J. (2012). Criminology: Theories, Patterns & Typology. Cengage Learning. p. 396. ISBN 978-1-133-04964-7. Hezbollah is anti-West and anti-Israel and has engaged in a series of terrorist actions including kidnappings, car bombings, and airline hijackings.
    14. ^ a b "Who Are Hezbollah?". BBC News. 21 May 2008. Retrieved 15 August 2008.
    15. ^ Julius, Anthony (2015). Trials of the Diaspora: A History of Anti-Semitism in England. OUP Oxford. ISBN 978-0-19-929705-4 – via Google Books.
    16. ^ Michael, Robert; Rosen, Philip (2015). Dictionary of Antisemitism from the Earliest Times to the Present. Scarecrow Press. ISBN 978-0-8108-5868-8 – via Google Books.
    17. ^ Perry, Mark (2015). Talking to Terrorists: Why America Must Engage with Its Enemies. Basic Books. p. 158. ISBN 978-0-465-01117-9.
    18. ^ "Analysis: Hezbollah's lethal anti-Semitism". The Jerusalem Post. 12 November 2012.
    19. ^ Joshua L. Gleis; Benedetta Berti (2012). Hezbollah and Hamas: A Comparative Study. JHU Press. ISBN 978-1-4214-0671-8.
    20. ^ "JCPA Middle East Briefing: Hezbollah" Archived 4 June 2008 at the Wayback Machine. United Jewish Communities. 14 February 2008.
    21. ^ "Hezbollah chief in new attack on same-sex relations". France 24. 29 July 2023.
    22. ^ Revolutions: A Worldwide Introduction to Political and Social Change. Routledge. 2015. ISBN 978-1-317-26457-6.
    23. ^ "Interior Ministry releases numbers of votes for new MPs". The Daily Star. 9 May 2018. Archived from the original on 8 March 2021. Retrieved 24 October 2019.
    24. ^ a b "Hezbollah fighters train Iraqi Shiite militants near Mosul". longwarjournal.org – FDD's Long War Journal. 5 November 2016.
    25. ^ "Lebanon's Hezbollah chief Nasrallah says group has never been stronger". Reuters. 18 October 2021.
    26. ^ Agencies, The New Arab Staff & (18 October 2021). "Hassan Nasrallah says Hezbollah has 100,000 fighters". english.alaraby.co.uk/.
    27. ^ "Lebanon Hezbollah chief says movement has 100,000 fighters". France 24. 18 October 2021.
    28. ^ "Hezbollah is the Long Arm of Iran – Factsheet 5". 20 September 2019. Retrieved 8 February 2023.
    29. ^ "Why Assad's alliance with Iran and Hezbollah will endure". 8 February 2019. Retrieved 8 February 2023.
    30. ^ Pardo, Ramon Pacheco (February 2011). "Beyond Iran" (PDF). The Majalla. 1561: 12–14. Archived from the original (PDF) on 15 July 2012. Retrieved 5 April 2013.
    31. ^ a b "Iraq admits Lebanese Hezbollah and Iranian RG fight alongside Iraqi security forces". 9 November 2014. Archived from the original on 15 June 2018. Retrieved 28 July 2018.
    32. ^ "Hezbollah Fights Alongside LAF Demonstrating its Continuing Control over Lebanon". The Tower. 21 August 2017. Archived from the original on 2 February 2020. Retrieved 28 July 2018.
    33. ^ "New Experience of Hezbollah with Russian Military". 2 February 2016. Archived from the original on 28 July 2018.
    34. ^ Rosenfeld, Jesse (11 January 2016). "Russia is Arming Hezbollah, Say Two of the Group's Field Commanders". The Daily Beast.
    35. ^ "Yemeni FM slams Hezbollah's Houthi support: report". The Daily Star. Archived from the original on 28 July 2018. Retrieved 28 July 2018.
    36. ^ "Lebanon's Hezbollah denies sending weapons to Yemen". Reuters. 20 November 2017.
    37. ^ "Wagner Group 'tasked to deliver Russian weapons to Hezbollah' – US intelligence". 4 November 2023.
    38. ^ "Hezbollah – International terrorist organization". Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs. 22 July 2013.
    39. ^ Francis, Xavier (21 May 2020). "Israel Impressed How Turkish Army Crushed Hezbollah In Idlib, Syria". Latest Asian, Middle-East, EurAsian, Indian News.
    40. ^ "Israel learned from Hezbollah's defeat at the hands of Turkey". The Jerusalem Post.
    41. ^ "Turkish strike in Syria kills nine Hezbollah members, according to source". Haaretz.
    42. ^ "Beware Iran's 'Axis of Resistance' | People's Mojahedin Organization of Iran (PMOI/MEK)". Archived from the original on 31 October 2021. Retrieved 16 January 2020.
    43. ^ Nimrod Raphaeli (11 February 2009). "The Iranian Roots of Hizbullah". MEMRI. Archived from the original on 11 February 2009.
    44. ^
      • "Hezbollah". The Collins English Dictionary. Glasgow: HarperCollins. 2013. Retrieved 7 May 2013.
      • "Hezbollah". Webster's New World College Dictionary. Cleveland: Wiley Publishing, Inc. 2012. Retrieved 7 May 2013.
    45. ^ Other transliterations include Hizbullah, Hizballah, Hizbollah, Hezbolla, Hezballah, Hisbollah, Hizbu'llah and Hizb Allah.
    46. ^ "Hezbollah | Meaning, History, & Ideology | Britannica". www.britannica.com. 15 December 2023. Retrieved 17 December 2023.
    47. ^ "What Is Hezbollah?". Council on Foreign Relations. Retrieved 17 December 2023.
    48. ^ Levitt, Matthew (2013). Hezbollah: The Global Footprint of Lebanon's Party of God. Hurst Publishers. p. 15. ISBN 978-1-84904-333-5. ... the Jihad Council coordinates 'resistance activity'.
      Ghattas Saab, Antoine (15 May 2014). "Hezbollah cutting costs as Iranian aid dries up". The Daily Star. Retrieved 1 June 2014. ... Hezbollah's military wing ... Known as the 'Jihad Council'
    49. ^ Hirst, David (2010) Beware of Small States. Lebanon, battleground of the Middle East. Faber and Faber. ISBN 978-0-571-23741-8 p. 189
    50. ^ Adam Shatz (29 April 2004). "In Search of Hezbollah". The New York Review of Books. Archived from the original on 22 August 2006. Retrieved 14 August 2006.
    51. ^ Dominique Avon, Anaïs-Trissa Khatchadourian, Hezbollah: A History of the "Party of God", Harvard University Press, 2012 ISBN 978-0-674-07031-8 pp. 21ff.
    52. ^ E. Azani, Hezbollah: The Story of the Party of God: From Revolution to Institutionalization, Springer, 2011 ISBN 978-0-230-11629-0 pp. 59–63
    53. ^ Mariam Farida, Religion and Hezbollah: Political Ideology and Legitimacy, Routledge, 2019 ISBN 978-1-000-45857-2 pp. 1–3.
    54. ^ Itamar Rabinovich (2008). Israel in the Middle East. UPNE. ISBN 978-0-87451-962-4. Retrieved 18 November 2010.
    55. ^ Fisk, Robert (7 September 2014). "After the atrocities committed against Muslims in Bosnia, it is no wonder today's jihadis have set out on the path to war in Syria". The Independent. Archived from the original on 17 July 2018. Retrieved 25 March 2016.
    56. ^ Ghattas, Kim (1 December 2006). "Political ferment in Lebanon". BBC News. Retrieved 15 August 2008.
    57. ^ Stern, Yoav; Issacharoff, Avi (10 May 2008). "Hezbollah fighters retreat from Beirut after 37 die in clashes". Haaretz. Archived from the original on 12 May 2008. Retrieved 20 October 2012.
    58. ^ "Hezbollah (a.k.a. Hizbollah, Hizbu'llah)". Council on Foreign Relations. 13 September 2008. Archived from the original on 13 September 2008. Retrieved 15 September 2008.
    59. ^ "Huge Beirut protest backs Syria". BBC News. 8 March 2005. Retrieved 7 February 2007.
    60. ^ "Hariri: Sunnis 'refuse' to join Hezbollah-Al Qaida war". AFP, 25 January 2014.
    61. ^ Blanford & Salim 2013.
    62. ^ Zirulnick 2012.
    63. ^ Barnard, Anne (3 January 2014). "Mystery in Hezbollah Operatives Life and Death". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 3 January 2022.
    64. ^ Barnard, Anne (9 July 2013). "Car Bombing Injures Dozens in Hezbollah Section of Beirut". The New York Times. Retrieved 30 August 2013. Hezbollah has portrayed the Syrian uprising as an Israeli-backed plot to destroy its alliance with Mr. Assad against Israel.
    65. ^ Liz Sly and Suzan Haidamous 'Lebanon's Hezbollah acknowledges battling the Islamic State in Iraq,' Washington Post 16 February 2015.
    66. ^ Ali Hashem, arrives in Iraq Archived 7 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine. Al Monitor 25 November 2014
    67. ^ "Factbox: Hezbollah and allies gain sway in Lebanon parliament". Reuters. 22 May 2018.
    68. ^ Ajroudi, Asma. "Hezbollah and allies biggest winners in Lebanon polls". Al Jazeera.
    69. ^ "Fears grow of all-out Israel-Hezbollah war as fighting escalates". The Guardian. 17 December 2023. Retrieved 27 December 2023.
    70. ^ "UN: Hezbollah has increased military strength since 2006 war". Haaretz. 25 October 2007. Retrieved 5 September 2013.
    71. ^ Frykberg, Mel (29 August 2008). "Mideast Powers, Proxies and Paymasters Bluster and Rearm". Middle East Times. Retrieved 31 May 2011. And if there is one thing that ideologically and diametrically opposed Hezbollah and Israel agree on, it is Hezbollah's growing military strength.
    72. ^ Barnard, Anne (20 May 2013). "Hezbollah's Role in Syria War Shakes the Lebanese". The New York Times. Retrieved 20 June 2013. Hezbollah, stronger than the Lebanese Army, has the power to drag the country into war without a government decision, as in 2006, when it set off the war by capturing two Israeli soldiers
    73. ^ Morris, Loveday (12 June 2013). "For Lebanon's Sunnis, growing rage at Hezbollah over role in Syria". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on 5 November 2013. Retrieved 20 June 2013. ... Hezbollah, which has a fighting force generally considered more powerful than the Lebanese army.
    74. ^ "Iran-Syria vs. Israel, Round 1: Assessments & Lessons Learned". Defense Industry Daily. 13 September 2013. Retrieved 19 February 2013.
    75. ^ a b Hubbard, Ben (20 March 2014). "Syrian Fighting Gives Hezbollah New but Diffuse Purpose". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 3 January 2022. Retrieved 30 May 2014. ... the fighting has also diluted the resources that used to go exclusively to facing Israel, exacerbated sectarian divisions in the region, and alienated large segments of the majority Sunni population who once embraced Hezbollah as a liberation force... Never before have Hezbollah guerrillas fought alongside a formal army, waged war outside Lebanon or initiated broad offensives aimed at seizing territory.
    76. ^ Deeb, Lara (31 July 2006). "Hizballah: A Primer". Middle East Report. Archived from the original on 19 October 2011. Retrieved 31 May 2011.
    77. ^ Goldman, Adam (28 May 2014). "Hezbollah operative wanted by FBI dies in fighting in Syria". The Washington Post. Retrieved 30 May 2014. ... Hasan Nasrallah has called the deployment of his fighters to Syria a 'new phase' for the movement, and it marks the first time the group has sent significant numbers of men outside Lebanon's borders.
    78. ^ Filkins, Dexter (30 September 2013). "The Shadow Commander". The New Yorker. Retrieved 4 October 2013. From 2000 to 2006, Iran contributed a hundred million dollars a year to Hezbollah. Its fighters are attractive proxies: unlike the Iranians, they speak Arabic, making them better equipped to operate in Syria and elsewhere in the Arab world.
    79. ^ "Hezbollah's Syrian Quagmires" (PDF). The Washington Institute for Near East Policy. Archived from the original (PDF) on 6 October 2014. Retrieved 17 September 2014. By siding with the Assad regime, the regime's Alawite supporters, and Iran, and taking up arms against Sunni rebels, Hezbollah has placed itself at the epicenter of a sectarian conflict that has nothing to do with the group's purported raison d'être: 'resistance' to Israeli occupation.
    80. ^ Kershner, Isabel (10 March 2014). "Israel Watches Warily as Hezbollah Gains Battle Skills in Syria". The New York Times. Retrieved 30 May 2014. ... the Lebanese group's image at home and in the broader Arab world has been severely damaged because it is fighting Sunni rebels in Syria while its legitimacy rested on its role in fighting Israel.
    81. ^ El Deeb, Sarah (18 October 2021). "Hezbollah leader declares his group has 100,000 fighters". Associated Press. Retrieved 21 October 2021.
    82. ^ Cite error: The named reference auto4 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    83. ^ Cite error: The named reference Wedeman was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    84. ^ Maria Kiselyova. Greg Mahlich (ed.). "Russia says Hezbollah not a terrorist group: Ifax". Reuters. Retrieved 19 February 2021.
     
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    16 February 1985Hezbollah is founded.

    Hezbollah

    Hezbollah (/ˌhɛzbəˈlɑː/,[44] /ˌxɛz-/; Arabic: حزب الله, romanizedḤizbu 'llāh, lit.'Party of Allah' or 'Party of God')[45] is a Lebanese Shia Islamist political party and militant group,[46][47] led since 1992 by its Secretary-General Hassan Nasrallah. Hezbollah's paramilitary wing is the Jihad Council,[48] and its political wing is the Loyalty to the Resistance Bloc party in the Lebanese Parliament.

    Hezbollah was established in the wake of the 1982 Lebanon War by Lebanese clerics who studied in the Shia seminaries Hawza Najaf in Najaf. It adopted the model set out by Ayatollah Khomeini after the Iranian Revolution in 1979, and the party's founders adopted the name "Hezbollah" as chosen by Khomeini. Since then, close ties have developed between Iran and Hezbollah.[49] The organization was created with the support of 1,500 Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps (IRGC) instructors,[50] and aggregated a variety of Lebanese Shia groups into a unified organization to resist the former Israeli occupation of Southern Lebanon.[51][52][14][53] During the Lebanese Civil War, Hezbollah's 1985 manifesto listed its objectives as the expulsion of "the Americans, the French and their allies definitely from Lebanon, putting an end to any colonialist entity on our land".[54] From 1985 to 2000, Hezbollah also participated in the 1985–2000 South Lebanon conflict against the South Lebanon Army (SLA) and Israel Defense Forces (IDF), and fought again with the IDF in the 2006 Lebanon War. During the 1990s, Hezbollah also organized volunteers to fight for the Army of the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina during the Bosnian War.[55]

    Since 1990, Hezbollah has participated in Lebanese politics, in a process which is described as the Lebanonisation of Hezbollah, and it later participated in the government of Lebanon and joined political alliances. After the 2006–08 Lebanese protests[56] and clashes,[57] a national unity government was formed in 2008, with Hezbollah and its opposition allies obtaining 11 of 30 cabinet seats, enough to give them veto power.[58] In August 2008, Lebanon's new cabinet unanimously approved a draft policy statement that recognizes Hezbollah's existence as an armed organization and guarantees its right to "liberate or recover occupied lands" (such as the Shebaa Farms). Hezbollah is part of Lebanon's March 8 Alliance, in opposition to the March 14 Alliance. It maintains strong support among Lebanese Shia Muslims,[59] while Sunnis have disagreed with its agenda.[60][61] Hezbollah also has support in some Christian areas of Lebanon.[62] Since 2012, Hezbollah involvement in the Syrian civil war has seen it join the Syrian government in its fight against the Syrian opposition, which Hezbollah has described as a Zionist plot and a "Wahhabi-Zionist conspiracy" to destroy its alliance with Bashar al-Assad against Israel.[63][64] Between 2013 and 2015, the organisation deployed its militia in both Syria and Iraq to fight or train local militias to fight against the Islamic State.[65][66] In the 2018 Lebanese general election, Hezbollah held 12 seats and its alliance won the election by gaining 70 out of 128 seats in the Parliament of Lebanon.[67][68]

    Hezbollah did not disarm after the Israeli withdrawal from South Lebanon, in violation of the UN Security Council resolution 1701.[69] From 2006, the group's military strength grew significantly,[70][71] to the extent that its paramilitary wing became more powerful than the Lebanese Army.[72][73] Hezbollah has been described as a "state within a state",[74] and has grown into an organization with seats in the Lebanese government, a radio and a satellite TV station, social services and large-scale military deployment of fighters beyond Lebanon's borders.[75][76][77] The group currently receives military training, weapons, and financial support from Iran and political support from Syria,[78] although the sectarian nature of the Syrian war has damaged the group's legitimacy.[75][79][80] In 2021, Nasrallah said the group had 100,000 fighters.[81] Either the entire organization or only its military wing has been designated a terrorist organization by several countries, including by the European Union[82] and, since 2017, also by most member states of the Arab League, with two exceptions – Lebanon, where Hezbollah is one of the country's most influential political parties, and Iraq.[83] Russia does not view Hezbollah as a "terrorist organization" but as a "legitimate socio-political force".[84]

    1. ^ "Fadlallah Hits Back at March 14 over Karam Release, Marouni Slams 'Treason Accusations'". Naharnet. 18 April 2013.
    2. ^ a b c Dalacoura, Katerina (2012). "Islamist Terrorism and National Liberation: Hamas and Hizbullah". Islamist Terrorism and Democracy in the Middle East. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 66–96. doi:10.1017/CBO9780511977367.004. ISBN 978-0-511-97736-7. LCCN 2010047275. S2CID 150958046.
    3. ^ Stepanova, Ekaterina (2008). Terrorism in Asymmetrical Conflict: Ideological and Structural Aspects (PDF). Oxford University Press. p. 113. Archived from the original (PDF) on 10 March 2016.
    4. ^ a b Philip Smyth (February 2015). The Shiite Jihad in Syria and Its Regional Effects (PDF) (Report). The Washington Institute for Near East Studies. pp. 7–8. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2 April 2015. Retrieved 13 March 2015.
    5. ^ "Hezbollah, the Lebanese Sectarian State, and Sectarianism". Middle East Institute. Retrieved 13 April 2017.
    6. ^ Bassel F, Salloukh (2015). "The Sectarian Image Reversed: The Role of Geopolitics in Hezbollah's Domestic Politics". Middle East political science.
    7. ^ "Hezbollah and the Lebanese Popular Movement".
    8. ^ Salamey, Imad; Pearson, Frederic (2007). "Hezbollah: A Proletarian Party with an Islamic Manifesto – A Sociopolitical Analysis of Islamist Populism in Lebanon and the Middle East". Small Wars & Insurgencies. 18 (3): 416–438. doi:10.1080/09592310701674358. S2CID 143896155.
    9. ^ Elie Alagha, Joseph (2011). Hizbullah's Documents: From the 1985 Open Letter to the 2009 Manifesto. Amsterdam University Press. pp. 15, 20. ISBN 978-90-8555-037-2.
      Shehata, Samer (2012). Islamist Politics in the Middle East: Movements and Change. Routledge. p. 176. ISBN 978-0-415-78361-3.
    10. ^ Husseinia, Rola El (2010). "Hezbollah and the Axis of Refusal: Hamas, Iran and Syria". Third World Quarterly. 31 (5): 803–815. doi:10.1080/01436597.2010.502695. S2CID 219628295.
    11. ^ Levitt, Matthew (2013). Hezbollah: The Global Footprint of Lebanon's Party of God. Hurst Publishers. p. 356. ISBN 978-1-84904-333-5. 'Hezbollah's anti-Western militancy began with attacks against Western targets in Lebanon, then expanded to attacks abroad intended to exact revenge for actions threatening its or Iran's interests, or to press foreign governments to release captured operatives.'
    12. ^ Hanhimäki, Jussi M.; Blumenau, Bernhard (2013). An International History of Terrorism: Western and Non-Western Experiences. Routledge. p. 267. ISBN 978-0-415-63540-0. Based upon these beliefs, Hezbollah became vehemently anti-West and anti-Israel.
    13. ^ Siegel, Larry J. (2012). Criminology: Theories, Patterns & Typology. Cengage Learning. p. 396. ISBN 978-1-133-04964-7. Hezbollah is anti-West and anti-Israel and has engaged in a series of terrorist actions including kidnappings, car bombings, and airline hijackings.
    14. ^ a b "Who Are Hezbollah?". BBC News. 21 May 2008. Retrieved 15 August 2008.
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    21. ^ "Hezbollah chief in new attack on same-sex relations". France 24. 29 July 2023.
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    33. ^ "New Experience of Hezbollah with Russian Military". 2 February 2016. Archived from the original on 28 July 2018.
    34. ^ Rosenfeld, Jesse (11 January 2016). "Russia is Arming Hezbollah, Say Two of the Group's Field Commanders". The Daily Beast.
    35. ^ "Yemeni FM slams Hezbollah's Houthi support: report". The Daily Star. Archived from the original on 28 July 2018. Retrieved 28 July 2018.
    36. ^ "Lebanon's Hezbollah denies sending weapons to Yemen". Reuters. 20 November 2017.
    37. ^ "Wagner Group 'tasked to deliver Russian weapons to Hezbollah' – US intelligence". 4 November 2023.
    38. ^ "Hezbollah – International terrorist organization". Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs. 22 July 2013.
    39. ^ Francis, Xavier (21 May 2020). "Israel Impressed How Turkish Army Crushed Hezbollah In Idlib, Syria". Latest Asian, Middle-East, EurAsian, Indian News.
    40. ^ "Israel learned from Hezbollah's defeat at the hands of Turkey". The Jerusalem Post.
    41. ^ "Turkish strike in Syria kills nine Hezbollah members, according to source". Haaretz.
    42. ^ "Beware Iran's 'Axis of Resistance' | People's Mojahedin Organization of Iran (PMOI/MEK)". Archived from the original on 31 October 2021. Retrieved 16 January 2020.
    43. ^ Nimrod Raphaeli (11 February 2009). "The Iranian Roots of Hizbullah". MEMRI. Archived from the original on 11 February 2009.
    44. ^
      • "Hezbollah". The Collins English Dictionary. Glasgow: HarperCollins. 2013. Retrieved 7 May 2013.
      • "Hezbollah". Webster's New World College Dictionary. Cleveland: Wiley Publishing, Inc. 2012. Retrieved 7 May 2013.
    45. ^ Other transliterations include Hizbullah, Hizballah, Hizbollah, Hezbolla, Hezballah, Hisbollah, Hizbu'llah and Hizb Allah.
    46. ^ "Hezbollah | Meaning, History, & Ideology | Britannica". www.britannica.com. 15 December 2023. Retrieved 17 December 2023.
    47. ^ "What Is Hezbollah?". Council on Foreign Relations. Retrieved 17 December 2023.
    48. ^ Levitt, Matthew (2013). Hezbollah: The Global Footprint of Lebanon's Party of God. Hurst Publishers. p. 15. ISBN 978-1-84904-333-5. ... the Jihad Council coordinates 'resistance activity'.
      Ghattas Saab, Antoine (15 May 2014). "Hezbollah cutting costs as Iranian aid dries up". The Daily Star. Retrieved 1 June 2014. ... Hezbollah's military wing ... Known as the 'Jihad Council'
    49. ^ Hirst, David (2010) Beware of Small States. Lebanon, battleground of the Middle East. Faber and Faber. ISBN 978-0-571-23741-8 p. 189
    50. ^ Adam Shatz (29 April 2004). "In Search of Hezbollah". The New York Review of Books. Archived from the original on 22 August 2006. Retrieved 14 August 2006.
    51. ^ Dominique Avon, Anaïs-Trissa Khatchadourian, Hezbollah: A History of the "Party of God", Harvard University Press, 2012 ISBN 978-0-674-07031-8 pp. 21ff.
    52. ^ E. Azani, Hezbollah: The Story of the Party of God: From Revolution to Institutionalization, Springer, 2011 ISBN 978-0-230-11629-0 pp. 59–63
    53. ^ Mariam Farida, Religion and Hezbollah: Political Ideology and Legitimacy, Routledge, 2019 ISBN 978-1-000-45857-2 pp. 1–3.
    54. ^ Itamar Rabinovich (2008). Israel in the Middle East. UPNE. ISBN 978-0-87451-962-4. Retrieved 18 November 2010.
    55. ^ Fisk, Robert (7 September 2014). "After the atrocities committed against Muslims in Bosnia, it is no wonder today's jihadis have set out on the path to war in Syria". The Independent. Archived from the original on 17 July 2018. Retrieved 25 March 2016.
    56. ^ Ghattas, Kim (1 December 2006). "Political ferment in Lebanon". BBC News. Retrieved 15 August 2008.
    57. ^ Stern, Yoav; Issacharoff, Avi (10 May 2008). "Hezbollah fighters retreat from Beirut after 37 die in clashes". Haaretz. Archived from the original on 12 May 2008. Retrieved 20 October 2012.
    58. ^ "Hezbollah (a.k.a. Hizbollah, Hizbu'llah)". Council on Foreign Relations. 13 September 2008. Archived from the original on 13 September 2008. Retrieved 15 September 2008.
    59. ^ "Huge Beirut protest backs Syria". BBC News. 8 March 2005. Retrieved 7 February 2007.
    60. ^ "Hariri: Sunnis 'refuse' to join Hezbollah-Al Qaida war". AFP, 25 January 2014.
    61. ^ Blanford & Salim 2013.
    62. ^ Zirulnick 2012.
    63. ^ Barnard, Anne (3 January 2014). "Mystery in Hezbollah Operatives Life and Death". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 3 January 2022.
    64. ^ Barnard, Anne (9 July 2013). "Car Bombing Injures Dozens in Hezbollah Section of Beirut". The New York Times. Retrieved 30 August 2013. Hezbollah has portrayed the Syrian uprising as an Israeli-backed plot to destroy its alliance with Mr. Assad against Israel.
    65. ^ Liz Sly and Suzan Haidamous 'Lebanon's Hezbollah acknowledges battling the Islamic State in Iraq,' Washington Post 16 February 2015.
    66. ^ Ali Hashem, arrives in Iraq Archived 7 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine. Al Monitor 25 November 2014
    67. ^ "Factbox: Hezbollah and allies gain sway in Lebanon parliament". Reuters. 22 May 2018.
    68. ^ Ajroudi, Asma. "Hezbollah and allies biggest winners in Lebanon polls". Al Jazeera.
    69. ^ "Fears grow of all-out Israel-Hezbollah war as fighting escalates". The Guardian. 17 December 2023. Retrieved 27 December 2023.
    70. ^ "UN: Hezbollah has increased military strength since 2006 war". Haaretz. 25 October 2007. Retrieved 5 September 2013.
    71. ^ Frykberg, Mel (29 August 2008). "Mideast Powers, Proxies and Paymasters Bluster and Rearm". Middle East Times. Retrieved 31 May 2011. And if there is one thing that ideologically and diametrically opposed Hezbollah and Israel agree on, it is Hezbollah's growing military strength.
    72. ^ Barnard, Anne (20 May 2013). "Hezbollah's Role in Syria War Shakes the Lebanese". The New York Times. Retrieved 20 June 2013. Hezbollah, stronger than the Lebanese Army, has the power to drag the country into war without a government decision, as in 2006, when it set off the war by capturing two Israeli soldiers
    73. ^ Morris, Loveday (12 June 2013). "For Lebanon's Sunnis, growing rage at Hezbollah over role in Syria". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on 5 November 2013. Retrieved 20 June 2013. ... Hezbollah, which has a fighting force generally considered more powerful than the Lebanese army.
    74. ^ "Iran-Syria vs. Israel, Round 1: Assessments & Lessons Learned". Defense Industry Daily. 13 September 2013. Retrieved 19 February 2013.
    75. ^ a b Hubbard, Ben (20 March 2014). "Syrian Fighting Gives Hezbollah New but Diffuse Purpose". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 3 January 2022. Retrieved 30 May 2014. ... the fighting has also diluted the resources that used to go exclusively to facing Israel, exacerbated sectarian divisions in the region, and alienated large segments of the majority Sunni population who once embraced Hezbollah as a liberation force... Never before have Hezbollah guerrillas fought alongside a formal army, waged war outside Lebanon or initiated broad offensives aimed at seizing territory.
    76. ^ Deeb, Lara (31 July 2006). "Hizballah: A Primer". Middle East Report. Archived from the original on 19 October 2011. Retrieved 31 May 2011.
    77. ^ Goldman, Adam (28 May 2014). "Hezbollah operative wanted by FBI dies in fighting in Syria". The Washington Post. Retrieved 30 May 2014. ... Hasan Nasrallah has called the deployment of his fighters to Syria a 'new phase' for the movement, and it marks the first time the group has sent significant numbers of men outside Lebanon's borders.
    78. ^ Filkins, Dexter (30 September 2013). "The Shadow Commander". The New Yorker. Retrieved 4 October 2013. From 2000 to 2006, Iran contributed a hundred million dollars a year to Hezbollah. Its fighters are attractive proxies: unlike the Iranians, they speak Arabic, making them better equipped to operate in Syria and elsewhere in the Arab world.
    79. ^ "Hezbollah's Syrian Quagmires" (PDF). The Washington Institute for Near East Policy. Archived from the original (PDF) on 6 October 2014. Retrieved 17 September 2014. By siding with the Assad regime, the regime's Alawite supporters, and Iran, and taking up arms against Sunni rebels, Hezbollah has placed itself at the epicenter of a sectarian conflict that has nothing to do with the group's purported raison d'être: 'resistance' to Israeli occupation.
    80. ^ Kershner, Isabel (10 March 2014). "Israel Watches Warily as Hezbollah Gains Battle Skills in Syria". The New York Times. Retrieved 30 May 2014. ... the Lebanese group's image at home and in the broader Arab world has been severely damaged because it is fighting Sunni rebels in Syria while its legitimacy rested on its role in fighting Israel.
    81. ^ El Deeb, Sarah (18 October 2021). "Hezbollah leader declares his group has 100,000 fighters". Associated Press. Retrieved 21 October 2021.
    82. ^ Cite error: The named reference auto4 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    83. ^ Cite error: The named reference Wedeman was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    84. ^ Maria Kiselyova. Greg Mahlich (ed.). "Russia says Hezbollah not a terrorist group: Ifax". Reuters. Retrieved 19 February 2021.
     
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    17 February 2015 – Eighteen people are killed and 78 injured in a stampede at a Mardi Gras parade in Haiti.

    2015 Haiti Carnival stampede

    On February 17, 2015, starting at around 2:48 AM,[1] a stampede occurred during the traditional Mardi Gras parade on Champ de Mars in the Haitian capital Port-au-Prince. Initial reports stated that at least 16 people had died in the accident.[2] The number was revised to 18 dead (15 men and 3 women) according to the Haitian Minister of Communications, Rotchild François Junior.[3] Nadia Lochard, of the Department of Civil Protection, stated that 20 people were killed in the accident.[4] In addition, 78 people were injured, according to Haiti Prime Minister Evans Paul.[4]

    The stampede occurred after a man participating on top of a Carnival float during the Mardi Gras was shocked by high-voltage wires. Video footage of the incident shows visible sparks that triggered the stampede.[5] The man, known by his stage name Fantom, and part of the Haitian hip hop band Barikad Crew, survived the shock[4] and was in stable condition.[6]

    1. ^ "Haiti cancels last day of Carnival after at least 16 die in power line tragedy". The Guardian. Associated Press. 17 February 2015. Retrieved 17 February 2015.
    2. ^ "Float Accident at Haiti Carnival Parade Kills at Least 16". Wall Street Journal. Associated Press. 17 February 2015. Retrieved 17 February 2015.
    3. ^ Baron, Amelie (18 February 2015). "Haiti to implement safety measures after Carnival tragedy". Reuters. Retrieved 18 February 2015.
    4. ^ a b c "Float Accident at Haiti Carnival Parade Kills at Least 16". ABC News. Associated Press. 17 February 2015. Retrieved 17 February 2015.
    5. ^ San Diego Union Tribune. "Burned Singer Describes Deadly Haiti Carnival Accident". San Diego Union Tribune.
    6. ^ Bacon, John (17 February 2015). "At least 16 die in Haiti Carnival accident". USA Today. Retrieved 17 February 2015.
     
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    18 February 1954 – The first Church of Scientology is established in Los Angeles.

    Church of Scientology

    The Church of Scientology is a group of interconnected corporate entities and other organizations devoted to the practice, administration and dissemination of Scientology, which is variously defined as a cult, a business, or a new religious movement.[7] The movement has been the subject of a number of controversies, and the Church of Scientology has been described by government inquiries, international parliamentary bodies, scholars, law lords, and numerous superior court judgements as both a dangerous cult and a manipulative profit-making business.[13] In 1979, several executives of the organization were convicted and imprisoned for multiple offenses by a U.S. Federal Court.[14][15]: 168  The Church of Scientology itself was convicted of fraud by a French court in 2009, a decision upheld by the supreme Court of Cassation in 2013.[16] The German government classifies Scientology as an unconstitutional sect.[17][18] In France, it has been classified as a dangerous cult.[19] In some countries, it has attained legal recognition as a religion.[20]

    The Church of Scientology International (CSI) is officially the "Mother Church", and is responsible for guiding the other Scientology centers.[21][22]: 270  Its international headquarters are located at the Gold Base in Riverside County, California.[23]: 275  The Church of Spiritual Technology (CST) is the organization that owns all the copyrights of the estate of L. Ron Hubbard.[6]

    All Scientology management organizations are controlled exclusively by members of the Sea Org, which is a legally nonexistent paramilitary organization for the "elite, innermost dedicated core of Scientologists".[6][24] David Miscavige is described by the Scientology organization as the highest-ranking Sea Org officer, and is referred to by the organization as its captain.

    1. ^ a b Behar, Richard (May 6, 1991). "The Thriving Cult of Greed and Power". Time. Archived from the original on June 18, 2019. Retrieved June 17, 2019.
    2. ^ Kent, Stephen (2001). "Brainwashing Programs in The Family/Children of God and Scientology". In Zablocki, Benjamin; Robbins, Thomas (eds.). Misunderstanding Cults: Searching for Objectivity in a Controversial Field. University of Toronto Press. pp. 349–358. ISBN 9780802081889.
    3. ^ a b Anderson, Kevin Victor (1965). Report of the Board of Enquiry into Scientology (Report). State of Victoria, Australia. p. 179. Archived (PDF) from the original on August 29, 2018. Retrieved June 30, 2019. In reality it is a dangerous medical cult. Alternative link
    4. ^ a b Edge, Peter W. (2006). Religion and law: an introduction. Ashgate Publishing. ISBN 978-0-7546-3048-7.
    5. ^ a b Hunt, John; de Puig, Luis; Espersen, Ole (February 5, 1992). European Council, Recommendation 1178: Sects and New Religious Movements (Report). Council of Europe. Retrieved June 30, 2019. It is a cool, cynical, manipulating business and nothing else.
    6. ^ a b c Urban, Hugh B. (2015). New Age, Neopagan, and New Religious Movements: Alternative Spirituality in Contemporary America. Univ of California Press. p. 144. ISBN 978-0520281172.
    7. ^ [1][2][3][4][5][6]
    8. ^ "Scientology (Written answer)". Parliamentary Debates (Hansard). United Kingdom: House of Commons. July 25, 1968. col. 189–191W.
    9. ^ Cottrell, Richard (1999). Recommendation 1412: Concernant les activités illégales des sectes (Report). Conseil d'Europe.
    10. ^ "Church of Scientology". Parliamentary Debates (Hansard). United Kingdom: House of Lords. December 17, 1996. col. 1392–1394.
    11. ^ Hubbard and another v. Vosper and another, 1 All ER 1023 (Court of Appeal November 19, 1971).
    12. ^ RE B & G (Minors: Custody), F.L.R. 493 (Court of Appeal September 19, 1984).
    13. ^ [1][3][4][5][8][9][10][11][12]
    14. ^ United States v. Heldt, 668 F.2d 1238 (United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit October 2, 1981).
    15. ^ Cite error: The named reference urban2011 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    16. ^ "Scientology's fraud conviction upheld in France". The Daily Telegraph. London. AFP. October 17, 2013. Archived from the original on May 30, 2014. Retrieved July 3, 2020.
    17. ^ "Hubbard's Church 'Unconstitutional': Germany Prepares to Ban Scientology – SPIEGEL ONLINE". Der Spiegel. December 7, 2007. Archived from the original on December 25, 2018. Retrieved March 13, 2017.
    18. ^ "National Assembly of France report No. 2468". assemblee-nationale.fr. Archived from the original on December 25, 2018. Retrieved March 13, 2017.
    19. ^ Cite error: The named reference lobs was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    20. ^ Weird, Sure. A Cult, No. Archived November 7, 2017, at the Wayback Machine Washington Post By Mark Oppenheimer, August 5, 2007
    21. ^ "Church of Scientology International". Church of Scientology. Retrieved March 25, 2023. The Church of Scientology International (CSI) is the mother church of the Scientology religion. It provides ecclesiastical direction, planning and guidance to the network of churches, missions and field auditors which make up the Church of Scientology hierarchy.
    22. ^ Cite error: The named reference atack was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    23. ^ Cite error: The named reference reitman was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    24. ^ Cite error: The named reference nrmarlia2003 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
     
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    21 February 1848Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels publish The Communist Manifesto.

    The Communist Manifesto

    The Communist Manifesto (German: Das Kommunistische Manifest), originally the Manifesto of the Communist Party (Manifest der Kommunistischen Partei), is a political pamphlet written by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, commissioned by the Communist League and originally published in London in 1848. The text is the first and most systematic attempt by Marx and Engels to codify for wide consumption the historical materialist idea that "the history of all hitherto existing society is the history of class struggles", in which social classes are defined by the relationship of people to the means of production. Published amid the Revolutions of 1848 in Europe, the Manifesto remains one of the world's most influential political documents.

    Marx and Engels combine philosophical materialism with the Hegelian dialectical method in order to analyze the development of European society through its modes of production, including primitive communism, antiquity, feudalism, and capitalism, noting the emergence of a new, dominant class at each stage. The text outlines the relationship between the means of production, relations of production, forces of production, and the mode of production, and posits that changes in society's economic "base" effect changes in its "superstructure". Marx and Engels assert that capitalism is marked by the exploitation of the proletariat (working class of wage labourers) by the ruling bourgeoisie, which is "constantly revolutionising the instruments [and] relations of production, and with them the whole relations of society". They argue that capital's need for a flexible labour force dissolves the old relations, and that its global expansion in search of new markets creates "a world after its own image".

    The Manifesto concludes that capitalism does not offer humanity the possibility of self-realization, instead ensuring that humans are perpetually stunted and alienated. It theorizes that capitalism will bring about its own destruction by polarizing and unifying the proletariat, and predicts that a revolution will lead to the emergence of communism, a classless society in which "the free development of each is the condition for the free development of all". Marx and Engels propose the following transitional policies: the abolition of private property in land and inheritance; introduction of a progressive income tax; confiscation of rebels' property; nationalisation of credit, communication and transport; expansion and integration of industry and agriculture; enforcement of universal obligation of labour; and provision of universal education and abolition of child labour. The text ends with a decisive and famous call for solidarity, popularized as the slogan "Workers of the world, unite! You have nothing to lose but your chains".

     
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    21 February 1848Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels publish The Communist Manifesto.

    The Communist Manifesto

    The Communist Manifesto (German: Das Kommunistische Manifest), originally the Manifesto of the Communist Party (Manifest der Kommunistischen Partei), is a political pamphlet written by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, commissioned by the Communist League and originally published in London in 1848. The text is the first and most systematic attempt by Marx and Engels to codify for wide consumption the historical materialist idea that "the history of all hitherto existing society is the history of class struggles", in which social classes are defined by the relationship of people to the means of production. Published amid the Revolutions of 1848 in Europe, the Manifesto remains one of the world's most influential political documents.

    Marx and Engels combine philosophical materialism with the Hegelian dialectical method in order to analyze the development of European society through its modes of production, including primitive communism, antiquity, feudalism, and capitalism, noting the emergence of a new, dominant class at each stage. The text outlines the relationship between the means of production, relations of production, forces of production, and the mode of production, and posits that changes in society's economic "base" effect changes in its "superstructure". Marx and Engels assert that capitalism is marked by the exploitation of the proletariat (working class of wage labourers) by the ruling bourgeoisie, which is "constantly revolutionising the instruments [and] relations of production, and with them the whole relations of society". They argue that capital's need for a flexible labour force dissolves the old relations, and that its global expansion in search of new markets creates "a world after its own image".

    The Manifesto concludes that capitalism does not offer humanity the possibility of self-realization, instead ensuring that humans are perpetually stunted and alienated. It theorizes that capitalism will bring about its own destruction by polarizing and unifying the proletariat, and predicts that a revolution will lead to the emergence of communism, a classless society in which "the free development of each is the condition for the free development of all". Marx and Engels propose the following transitional policies: the abolition of private property in land and inheritance; introduction of a progressive income tax; confiscation of rebels' property; nationalisation of credit, communication and transport; expansion and integration of industry and agriculture; enforcement of universal obligation of labour; and provision of universal education and abolition of child labour. The text ends with a decisive and famous call for solidarity, popularized as the slogan "Workers of the world, unite! You have nothing to lose but your chains".

     
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    22 February 1959Lee Petty wins the first Daytona 500.

    Daytona 500

    Preview warning: Page using Template:Infobox motor race with unknown parameter "Last race."

    The Daytona 500 is a 500-mile-long (805 km) NASCAR Cup Series motor race held annually at Daytona International Speedway in Daytona Beach, Florida. It is the first of two Cup races held every year at Daytona, the second being the Coke Zero Sugar 400, and one of three held in Florida, with the annual fall showdown Dixie Vodka 400 being held at Homestead south of Miami. From 1988 to 2019, it was one of the four restrictor plate races on the Cup schedule. The inaugural Daytona 500 was held in 1959 coinciding with the opening of the speedway and since 1982, it has been the season-opening race of the Cup series.[1]

    The Daytona 500 is regarded as the most important and prestigious race on the NASCAR calendar, carrying by far the largest purse.[2] Championship points awarded are equal to that of any other NASCAR Cup Series race. It is also the series' first race of the year; this phenomenon is unique in sports, which tend to have championships or other major events at the end of the season rather than the start. From 19952020, U.S. television ratings for the Daytona 500 have been the highest for any auto race of the year, surpassing the traditional leader, the Indianapolis 500 which in turn greatly surpasses the Daytona 500 in in-track attendance and international viewing; however, in 2021 the Indianapolis 500 surpassed the Daytona 500 in TV ratings and viewership.[3][4] The 2006 Daytona 500 attracted the sixth largest average live global TV audience of any sporting event that year with 20 million viewers.[5]

    The race serves as the final event of Speedweeks and is also known as "The Great American Race" or the "Super Bowl of Stock Car Racing".[6][7][8] Since its inception, the race has been held in mid-to-late February. From 1971 to 2011, and again since 2018, the event has been as associated with Presidents Day weekend,[9] taking place on the third Sunday of February and since 2022, it was held on the same day that the NBA All-Star Game was held and one week after the Super Bowl. On eight occasions, the race has been run on Valentine's Day.

    Since 1997, the winner of the Daytona 500 has been presented with the Harley J. Earl Trophy in Victory Lane, and the winning car is displayed in race-winning condition for one year at Daytona 500 Experience, a museum and gallery adjacent to Daytona International Speedway.

    1. ^ Chad Culver (2014). Dover International Speedway: The Monster Mile. Arcadia Publishing. p. 127. ISBN 978-1467121378.
    2. ^ "Culture, Class, Distinction"Bennett, Tony. Culture, Class, Distinction. Routledge (2009) Disaggregating cultural capital. English translation ISBN 0-415-42242-6 (hardcover).
    3. ^ Staff, The Athletic. "Daytona 500 posts record-worst TV rating, in part due to rain delay". The Athletic. Archived from the original on 2021-10-20. Retrieved 2021-10-20.
    4. ^ "Indy 500 viewership highest in five years". June 2, 2021. Archived from the original on October 20, 2021. Retrieved October 20, 2021.
    5. ^ "World's most watched TV sports events: 2006 Rank & Trends report". Initiative. 2007-01-19. Archived from the original on 2007-02-08. Retrieved 2007-01-30.
    6. ^ "A History of the Daytona 500". TicketCity. Archived from the original on May 9, 2012. Retrieved November 24, 2015.
    7. ^ Crossman, Matt (February 22, 2015). "Daytona 500 Magic Hour: Best 60 minutes in sports". NASCAR. Archived from the original on November 25, 2015. Retrieved November 24, 2015.
    8. ^ Briggs, Josh (10 February 2009). "How Daytona Qualifying Works". HowStuffWorks. Archived from the original on November 25, 2015. Retrieved November 24, 2015.
    9. ^ "Your Gateway to Knowledge". Knowledge Zone. Retrieved 2024-01-31.
     
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    22 February 1959Lee Petty wins the first Daytona 500.

    Daytona 500

    Preview warning: Page using Template:Infobox motor race with unknown parameter "Last race."

    The Daytona 500 is a 500-mile-long (805 km) NASCAR Cup Series motor race held annually at Daytona International Speedway in Daytona Beach, Florida. It is the first of two Cup races held every year at Daytona, the second being the Coke Zero Sugar 400, and one of three held in Florida, with the annual fall showdown Dixie Vodka 400 being held at Homestead south of Miami. From 1988 to 2019, it was one of the four restrictor plate races on the Cup schedule. The inaugural Daytona 500 was held in 1959 coinciding with the opening of the speedway and since 1982, it has been the season-opening race of the Cup series.[1]

    The Daytona 500 is regarded as the most important and prestigious race on the NASCAR calendar, carrying by far the largest purse.[2] Championship points awarded are equal to that of any other NASCAR Cup Series race. It is also the series' first race of the year; this phenomenon is unique in sports, which tend to have championships or other major events at the end of the season rather than the start. From 19952020, U.S. television ratings for the Daytona 500 have been the highest for any auto race of the year, surpassing the traditional leader, the Indianapolis 500 which in turn greatly surpasses the Daytona 500 in in-track attendance and international viewing; however, in 2021 the Indianapolis 500 surpassed the Daytona 500 in TV ratings and viewership.[3][4] The 2006 Daytona 500 attracted the sixth largest average live global TV audience of any sporting event that year with 20 million viewers.[5]

    The race serves as the final event of Speedweeks and is also known as "The Great American Race" or the "Super Bowl of Stock Car Racing".[6][7][8] Since its inception, the race has been held in mid-to-late February. From 1971 to 2011, and again since 2018, the event has been as associated with Presidents Day weekend,[9] taking place on the third Sunday of February and since 2022, it was held on the same day that the NBA All-Star Game was held and one week after the Super Bowl. On eight occasions, the race has been run on Valentine's Day.

    Since 1997, the winner of the Daytona 500 has been presented with the Harley J. Earl Trophy in Victory Lane, and the winning car is displayed in race-winning condition for one year at Daytona 500 Experience, a museum and gallery adjacent to Daytona International Speedway.

    1. ^ Chad Culver (2014). Dover International Speedway: The Monster Mile. Arcadia Publishing. p. 127. ISBN 978-1467121378.
    2. ^ "Culture, Class, Distinction"Bennett, Tony. Culture, Class, Distinction. Routledge (2009) Disaggregating cultural capital. English translation ISBN 0-415-42242-6 (hardcover).
    3. ^ Staff, The Athletic. "Daytona 500 posts record-worst TV rating, in part due to rain delay". The Athletic. Archived from the original on 2021-10-20. Retrieved 2021-10-20.
    4. ^ "Indy 500 viewership highest in five years". June 2, 2021. Archived from the original on October 20, 2021. Retrieved October 20, 2021.
    5. ^ "World's most watched TV sports events: 2006 Rank & Trends report". Initiative. 2007-01-19. Archived from the original on 2007-02-08. Retrieved 2007-01-30.
    6. ^ "A History of the Daytona 500". TicketCity. Archived from the original on May 9, 2012. Retrieved November 24, 2015.
    7. ^ Crossman, Matt (February 22, 2015). "Daytona 500 Magic Hour: Best 60 minutes in sports". NASCAR. Archived from the original on November 25, 2015. Retrieved November 24, 2015.
    8. ^ Briggs, Josh (10 February 2009). "How Daytona Qualifying Works". HowStuffWorks. Archived from the original on November 25, 2015. Retrieved November 24, 2015.
    9. ^ "Your Gateway to Knowledge". Knowledge Zone. Retrieved 2024-01-31.
     
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    23 February 1934Leopold III becomes King of Belgium.

    Leopold III of Belgium

    The face of Leopold III on a bas-relief by Pierre De Soete.

    Leopold III[1] (3 November 1901 – 25 September 1983) was King of the Belgians from 23 February 1934 until his abdication on 16 July 1951. At the outbreak of World War II, Leopold tried to maintain Belgian neutrality, but after the German invasion in May 1940, he surrendered his country, earning him much hostility, both at home and abroad.

    Leopold's act was declared unconstitutional by Prime Minister Hubert Pierlot and his cabinet, who moved to London to form a government-in-exile, while Leopold and his family were placed under house arrest. In 1944, they were moved to Germany and then Austria, before being liberated by the Americans, but banned for some years from returning to Belgium, where his brother Prince Charles, Count of Flanders, had been declared regent. Leopold's eventual return to his homeland in 1950 nearly caused a civil war, and under pressure from the government, he abdicated in favour of his son Baudouin in July 1951.

    Leopold's first wife, Astrid of Sweden, was killed in a road accident while on a driving holiday in Switzerland in August 1935, being much mourned by the public. His morganatic second marriage, to Lilian Baels in captivity in 1941, was contrary to Belgian law, which stipulates that the civil marriage has to occur before a religious marriage, and she was never permitted the title of queen.

    1. ^ Dutch: Leopold Filips Karel Albert Meinrad Hubertus Maria Miguel; French: Léopold Philippe Charles Albert Meinrad Hubert Marie Michel; German: Leopold Philipp Karl Albrecht Meinrad Hubert Maria Michael
     
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    24 February 1976 – The current constitution of Cuba is formally proclaimed.

    Constitution of Cuba

    Even before attaining its independence from Spain, Cuba had several constitutions either proposed or adopted by insurgents as governing documents for territory they controlled during their war against Spain. Cuba has had several constitutions since winning its independence. The first constitution since the Cuban Revolution was drafted in 1976 and has since been amended. In 2018, Cuba became engaged in a major revision of its constitution.[1] The current constitution was then enacted in 2019.[2][3][4][5]

    1. ^ "With significant constitutional changes, Cuba's leaders aim for their system's survival". NBC News. Retrieved 25 February 2019.
    2. ^ Vela, Andrea Torres, Hatzel (10 April 2019). "Cuba enacts new constitution". WPLG. Retrieved 20 July 2021.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
    3. ^ "Raul Castro: New Constitution Guarantees Continuity of Revolution". 10 April 2019.
    4. ^ Cite error: The named reference latinaproclaim was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    5. ^ "Defiant Cuba enacts new constitution amid US pressure". France 24. 10 April 2019. Retrieved 20 July 2021.
     
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    25 February 1991 – Cold War: The Warsaw Pact is abolished.

    Warsaw Pact

    The Warsaw Pact (WP),[d] formally the Treaty of Friendship, Cooperation and Mutual Assistance (TFCMA),[e] was a collective defense treaty signed in Warsaw, Poland, between the Soviet Union and seven other Eastern Bloc socialist republics of Central and Eastern Europe in May 1955, during the Cold War. The term "Warsaw Pact" commonly refers to both the treaty itself and its resultant defensive alliance, the Warsaw Treaty Organization[5] (WTO).[f] The Warsaw Pact was the military and economic complement to the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (Comecon), the regional economic organization for the Eastern Bloc states of Central and Eastern Europe.[6][7][8][9][10][11][12][13][14][15][16]

    Dominated by the Soviet Union, the Warsaw Pact was established as a balance of power or counterweight to the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) and the Western Bloc.[17][18] There was no direct military confrontation between the two organizations; instead, the conflict was fought on an ideological basis and through proxy wars. Both NATO and the Warsaw Pact led to the expansion of military forces and their integration into the respective blocs.[18] The Warsaw Pact's largest military engagement was the Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia, its own member state, in August 1968 (with the participation of all pact nations except Albania and Romania),[17] which, in part, resulted in Albania withdrawing from the pact less than one month later. The pact began to unravel with the spread of the Revolutions of 1989 through the Eastern Bloc, beginning with the Solidarity movement in Poland,[19] its electoral success in June 1989 and the Pan-European Picnic in August 1989.[20]

    East Germany withdrew from the pact following German reunification in 1990. On 25 February 1991, at a meeting in Hungary, the pact was declared at an end by the defense and foreign ministers of the six remaining member states. The USSR itself was dissolved in December 1991, although most of the former Soviet republics formed the Collective Security Treaty Organization shortly thereafter. In the following 20 years, the Warsaw Pact countries outside the USSR each joined NATO (East Germany through its reunification with West Germany; and the Czech Republic and Slovakia as separate countries), as did the Baltic states.


    Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

    1. ^ Tismaneanu, Vladimir; Stan, Marius (2018). Romania Confronts Its Communist Past: Democracy, Memory, and Moral Justice. Cambridge University Press. p. 132. ISBN 978-1107025929.
    2. ^ Cook, Bernard A.; Cook, Bernard Anthony (2001). Europe Since 1945: An Encyclopedia, Volume 2. Taylor & Francis. p. 1075. ISBN 978-0815340584.
    3. ^ "Протокольная запись заседания Президиума ЦК КПCC (к пункту I протокола № 49)".
    4. ^ "Slovenské pohl'ady". Matica slovenská. 1997 – via Google Books.
    5. ^ "Milestones: 1953–1960 – Office of the Historian". history.state.gov.
    6. ^ Cite error: The named reference NATO Transformed: The Alliance's New Roles in International Security was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    7. ^ Cite error: The named reference History Channel 1 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    8. ^ Cite error: The named reference History Channel 2 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    9. ^ "In reaction to West Germany's NATO accession, the Soviet Union and its Eastern European client states formed the Warsaw Pact in 1955." Citation from: NATO website. "A short history of NATO". nato.int. Archived from the original on 26 March 2017. Retrieved 24 December 2015.
    10. ^ Cite error: The named reference The Future of European Alliance Systems was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    11. ^ Cite error: The named reference christopher was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    12. ^ Cite error: The named reference enclopedia was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    13. ^ Laurien Crump (2015). The Warsaw Pact Reconsidered: International Relations in Eastern Europe, 1955–1969. Routledge, pp. 21–22.
    14. ^ Debra J. Allen. The Oder-Neisse Line: The United States, Poland, and Germany in the Cold War. p. 158. "Treaties approving Bonn's participation in NATO were ratified in May 1955...shortly thereafter Soviet Union...created the Warsaw Pact to counter the perceived threat of NATO"
    15. ^ "Introduction". www.php.isn.ethz.ch.
    16. ^ "Text of Warsaw Pact" (PDF). United Nations Treaty Collection. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2 October 2013. Retrieved 22 August 2013.
    17. ^ a b Amos Yoder (1993). Communism in Transition: The End of the Soviet Empires. Taylor & Francis. p. 58. ISBN 978-0-8448-1738-5. Retrieved 1 January 2016.
    18. ^ a b Bob Reinalda (2009). Routledge History of International Organizations: From 1815 to the Present Day. Routledge. p. 369. ISBN 978-1-134-02405-6. Archived from the original on 1 January 2016. Retrieved 1 January 2016.
    19. ^ [1] Archived 23 December 2015 at the Wayback Machine Cover Story: The Holy Alliance By Carl Bernstein Sunday, 24 June 2001
    20. ^ Roser, Thomas (16 August 2018). "DDR-Massenflucht: Ein Picknick hebt die Welt aus den Angeln" [Mass Exodus of the GDR: A Picnic Clears the World]. Die Presse (in German).
     
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    26 February 2013 – A hot air balloon crashes near Luxor, Egypt, killing 19 people.

    2013 Luxor hot air balloon crash

    On 26 February 2013, a hot air balloon crashed near Luxor, Egypt, killing 19 out of the 21 people on board. A fire developed in the basket due to a leak in the balloon's gas fuel system, causing the balloon to deflate mid-air and crash to the ground.[1]

    It was the deadliest ballooning accident in history and the deadliest aerostat disaster since the Hindenburg disaster in 1937, which killed 36 people.[2][3]

    1. ^ Cite error: The named reference Guardian was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    2. ^ Cline, Seth. "7 of the Worst Hot Air Balloons Accidents in Recent Memory". US News. Retrieved 2 August 2016.
    3. ^ Bell, Matthew (3 March 2013). "'The tip of the iceberg': Egyptian hot air balloon crash was 'inevitable,' says British pilot". The Independent. Archived from the original on 1 May 2022. Retrieved 2 August 2016.
     
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    27 February 1881First Boer War: The Battle of Majuba Hill takes place.

    Battle of Majuba Hill

    The Battle of Majuba Hill on 27 February 1881 was the final and decisive battle of the First Boer War that was a resounding victory for the Boers. The British Major General Sir George Pomeroy Colley occupied the summit of the hill on the night of 26–27 February 1881. Colley's motive for occupying Majuba Hill, near Volksrust, now in South Africa, may have been anxiety that the Boers would soon occupy it themselves, since he had witnessed their trenches being dug in the direction of the hill.[1]

    The Boers believed that he might have been attempting to outflank their positions at Laing's Nek. The hill was not considered to be scalable by the Boers for military purposes and so it may have been Colley's attempt to emphasise British power and strike fear into the Boer camp.

    The battle is considered by some to have been one of the "most humiliating" defeats suffered by the British in their military history.[2][3]

    1. ^ "The rapid strides that had been made by the Boers in throwing up entrenchments on the right flank of their position, and the continuance of these works in the same direction upon the lower slopes on the Majuba hill during the days subsequent to his return, induced him to believe that if the hill was to be seized before it was occupied and probably fortified by the Boers that this must be done at once." – The National Archives, WO 32/7827, "From Lt. Col. H. Stewart, A.A.G., to the General Officer Commanding, Natal and Transvaal, Newcastle, Natal, 4th April 1881. Report of the action on Majuba Hill, 27th February."
    2. ^ "It can hardly be denied that the Dutch raid on the Medway vies with the Battle of Majuba in 1881 and the Fall of Singapore in 1942 for the unenviable distinctor of being the most humiliating defeat suffered by British arms." – Charles Ralph Boxer: The Anglo-Dutch Wars of the 17th Century, Her Majesty's Stationery Office, London (1974), p.39
    3. ^ Cite error: The named reference Little Wars was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
     
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    28 February 1991 – The first Gulf War ends.

    Gulf War

    The Gulf War was an armed conflict between Iraq and a 42-country coalition led by the United States. The coalition's efforts against Iraq were carried out in two key phases: Operation Desert Shield, which marked the military buildup from August 1990 to January 1991; and Operation Desert Storm, which began with the aerial bombing campaign against Iraq on 17 January 1991 and came to a close with the American-led liberation of Kuwait on 28 February 1991.

    On 2 August 1990, Iraq, governed by dictator Saddam Hussein, launched an invasion of neighboring Kuwait and fully occupied the country within two days. Initially, Iraq ran the occupied territory under a puppet government known as the "Republic of Kuwait" before proceeding with an outright annexation in which Kuwaiti sovereign territory was split, with the "Saddamiyat al-Mitla' District" being carved out of the country's northern portion and the "Kuwait Governorate" covering the rest. Varying speculations have been made regarding intents behind the Iraqi invasion, most notably including Iraq's inability to repay a US$14 billion debt the country had borrowed from Kuwait to finance its prior war with Iran. Kuwait's demands for repayment were coupled with its surge in petroleum production levels, which kept revenues down for Iraq and further weakened its economic prospects; throughout much of the 1980s, Kuwait's oil production was above its mandatory quota under OPEC, which kept international oil prices down. Iraq interpreted the Kuwaiti refusal to decrease oil production as an act of aggression towards the Iraqi economy, leading up to the hostilities.

    The invasion of Kuwait was immediately met with international condemnation, including Resolution 660 by the United Nations Security Council (UNSC), and economic sanctions were unanimously imposed on Iraq in its Resolution 661. British prime minister Margaret Thatcher and American president George H. W. Bush deployed troops and equipment into Saudi Arabia and openly urged other countries to send their own forces. An array of countries joined the American-led coalition, forming the largest military alliance since World War II. The bulk of the coalition's military power was from the United States, with Saudi Arabia, the United Kingdom, and Egypt as the largest lead-up contributors, in that order; Saudi Arabia and the Kuwaiti government-in-exile paid out around US$32 billion of the US$60 billion cost to mobilize the coalition against Iraq.

    UNSC Resolution 678 adopted on 29 November 1990 offered Iraq one final chance until 15 January 1991 to implement Resolution 660 and withdraw from Kuwait; it further empowered states after the deadline to use "all necessary means" to force Iraq out of Kuwait. Initial efforts to dislodge the Iraqis from Kuwait began with an aerial and naval bombardment on 17 January 1991, which continued for five weeks. As the Iraqi military struggled against the coalition attacks, Iraq began to fire missiles at Israel. The coalition did not include Israel, however the Iraqi leadership expected the missile barrage to provoke an independent Israeli military response, which would prompt the coalition's Muslim-majority countries to withdraw (see Arab–Israeli conflict). The provocation was unsuccessful; Israel did not retaliate and Iraq continued to remain at odds with most Muslim-majority countries. Iraqi missile barrages against coalition targets in Saudi Arabia were also largely unsuccessful, and on 24 February 1991, the coalition launched a major ground assault into Iraqi-occupied Kuwait. The offensive was a decisive victory for the coalition, who liberated Kuwait and promptly began to advance past the Iraq–Kuwait border into Iraqi territory. A hundred hours after the beginning of the ground campaign, the coalition ceased its advance into Iraq and declared a ceasefire. Aerial and ground combat was confined to Iraq, Kuwait, and areas straddling the Iraq–Saudi Arabia border.

    The conflict marked the introduction of live news broadcasts from the front lines of the battle, principally by the American network CNN. It has also earned the nickname Video Game War, after the daily broadcast of images from cameras onboard American bombers during Operation Desert Storm. The Gulf War has gained notoriety for including three of the largest tank battles in American military history.

    1. ^ "DESERT SHIELD AND DESERT STORM A CHRONOLOGY AND TROOP LIST FOR THE 1990–1991 PERSIAN GULF CRISIS" (PDF). apps.dtic.mil. Archived (PDF) from the original on 12 April 2019. Retrieved 18 December 2018.
    2. ^ Persian Gulf War, the Sandhurst-trained Prince
      Khaled bin Sultan al-Saud was co-commander with General Norman Schwarzkopf
      www.casi.org.uk/discuss Archived 3 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine
    3. ^ General Khaled was Co-Commander, with US General Norman Schwarzkopf, of the allied coalition that liberated Kuwait www.thefreelibrary.com Archived 30 April 2011 at the Wayback Machine
    4. ^ Knights, Michael (2005). Cradle of Conflict: Iraq and the Birth of Modern U.S. Military Power. United States Naval Institute. p. 20]. ISBN 978-1-59114-444-1.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
    5. ^ a b "Persian Gulf War". MSN Encarta. Archived from the original on 1 November 2009.
    6. ^ 18 M1 Abrams, 11 M60, 2 AMX-30
    7. ^ CheckPoint, Ludovic Monnerat. "Guerre du Golfe: le dernier combat de la division Tawakalna".
    8. ^ Scales, Brig. Gen. Robert H.: Certain Victory. Brassey's, 1994, p. 279.
    9. ^ Halberstadt 1991. p. 35
    10. ^ Atkinson, Rick. Crusade, The untold story of the Persian Gulf War. Houghton Mifflin Company, 1993. pp. 332–3
    11. ^ Captain Todd A. Buchs, B. Co. Commander, Knights in the Desert. Publisher/Editor Unknown. p. 111.
    12. ^ Malory, Marcia. "Tanks During the First Gulf War – Tank History". Archived from the original on 3 March 2016. Retrieved 5 July 2016.
    13. ^ M60 vs T-62 Cold War Combatants 1956–92 by Lon Nordeen & David Isby
    14. ^ "TAB H – Friendly-fire Incidents". Archived from the original on 1 June 2013. Retrieved 5 July 2016.
    15. ^ NSIAD-92-94, "Operation Desert Storm: Early Performance Assessment of Bradley and Abrams". Archived 21 February 2014 at the Wayback Machine US General Accounting Office, 10 January 1992. Quote: "According to information provided by the Army's Office of the Deputy Chief of Staff for Operations and Plans, 20 Bradleys were destroyed during the Gulf war. Another 12 Bradleys were damaged, but four of these were quickly repaired. Friendly fire accounted for 17 of the destroyed Bradleys and three of the damaged ones
    16. ^ Iraqi Invasion of Kuwait; 1990 (Air War) Archived 6 October 2014 at the Wayback Machine. Acig.org. Retrieved on 12 June 2011
    17. ^ a b c d e Bourque (2001), p. 455.
    18. ^ "Appendix – Iraqi Death Toll | The Gulf War | FRONTLINE | PBS". www.pbs.org. Retrieved 24 July 2021.
    19. ^ Tucker-Jones, Anthony (31 May 2014). The Gulf War: Operation Desert Storm 1990–1991. Pen and Sword. ISBN 978-1-4738-3730-0. Archived from the original on 5 December 2022. Retrieved 22 April 2022.
    20. ^ "Human Rights Watch". Archived from the original on 22 April 2022. Retrieved 22 April 2022.
    21. ^ "Appendix A: Chronology - February 1991". Naval History and Heritage Command. Retrieved 4 February 2024.
    22. ^ "Iraq air force wants Iran to give back its planes". Reuters. 10 August 2007.
    23. ^ "The Use of Terror during Iraq's invasion of Kuwait". The Jewish Agency for Israel. Archived from the original on 24 January 2005. Retrieved 22 June 2010.
    24. ^ "Kuwait: missing people: a step in the right direction". Red Cross. Archived from the original on 7 March 2016. Retrieved 5 March 2014.
    25. ^ "The Wages of War: Iraqi Combatant and Noncombatant Fatalities in the 2003 Conflict". Project on Defense Alternatives. Retrieved 9 May 2009.
     
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    29 February 2000 – Second Chechen War: Eighty-four Russian paratroopers are killed in a rebel attack on a guard post near Ulus Kert.

    Second Chechen War

    The Second Chechen War (Russian: Втора́я чече́нская война́,[e] Chechen: ШолгIа оьрсийн-нохчийн тӀом, lit.'Second Russian-Chechen War'[27]) took place in Chechnya and the border regions of the North Caucasus between the Russian Federation and the Chechen Republic of Ichkeria, from August 1999 to April 2009.

    In August 1999, Islamist fighters from Chechnya infiltrated Russia's Dagestan region, violating Russia's borders. Later in September apartment bombings occurred in Russian cities, killing over 300 people. Russian authorities were quick to blame Chechen separatists, although no Chechen, field commander or otherwise, took responsibility for the attacks. During the initial campaign, Russian military and pro-Russian Chechen paramilitary forces faced Chechen separatists in open combat and seized the Chechen capital Grozny after a winter siege that lasted from December 1999 until February 2000. Russia established direct rule over Chechnya in May 2000 although Chechen militant resistance throughout the North Caucasus region continued to inflict many Russian casualties and challenge Russian political control over Chechnya for several years. Both sides carried out attacks against civilians. These attacks drew international condemnation.

    In mid-2000, the Russian government transferred certain military responsibilities to pro-Russian Chechen forces. The military phase of operations was terminated in April 2002, and the coordination of the field operations was given first to the Federal Security Service and then to the Ministry of Internal Affairs in the summer of 2003.

    By 2009, Russia had disabled the Chechen separatist movement and mass fighting ceased. Russian army and Interior Ministry troops ceased patrolling. Grozny underwent reconstruction and much of the city and surrounding areas were rebuilt quickly. Sporadic violence continued in the North Caucasus; occasional bombings and ambushes against federal troops and forces of the regional governments in the area still occur.[28][29]

    In April 2009, the government operation in Chechnya officially ended.[9] As the bulk of the army was withdrawn, responsibility for dealing with the low-level insurgency was shouldered by the local police force. Three months later, the exiled leader of the separatist government, Akhmed Zakayev, called for a halt to armed resistance against the Chechen police force from August. This marked the end of the Second Chechen War. The death toll of the conflict is unknown, although the total loss of human life, including combatants and non-combatants, is estimated to be over 60,000.

    1. ^ "Turkish Volunteers in Chechnya". The Jamestown Foundation. Archived from the original on 3 March 2016. Retrieved 20 May 2015.
    2. ^ The Chechens: A Handbook, p. 237, at Google Books
    3. ^ Politics of Conflict: A Survey, p. 68, at Google Books
    4. ^ Energy and Security in the Caucasus, p. 66, at Google Books
    5. ^ Cooley, John K. (2002). Unholy Wars: Afghanistan, America and International Terrorism (3rd ed.). London: Pluto Press. p. 195. ISBN 978-0-7453-1917-9. A Turkish Fascist youth group, the "Grey Wolves," was recruited to fight with the Chechens.
    6. ^ Goltz, Thomas (2003). Chechnya Diary: A War Correspondent's Story of Surviving the War in Chechnya. New York: Thomas Dunne Books. p. 22. ISBN 978-0-312-26874-9. I called a well-informed diplomat pal and arranged to meet him at a bar favored by the pan-Turkic crowd known as the Gray Wolves, who were said to be actively supporting the Chechens with men and arms.
      ...the Azerbaijani Gray Wolf leader, Iskander, Hamidov...
    7. ^ Isingor, Ali (6 September 2000). "Istanbul: Gateway to a holy war". CNN. Archived from the original on 17 October 2014.
    8. ^ Documents Working Papers, p. 4, at Google Books
    9. ^ a b "Russia 'ends Chechnya operation'". BBC News. 16 April 2009. Archived from the original on 12 August 2017. Retrieved 14 April 2009.
    10. ^ Кривошеев, Г. Ф., ed. (2001). Россия и СССР в войнах XX века. Потери вооруженных сил (in Russian). Олма-Пресс. p. 593. ISBN 5-224-01515-4.
    11. ^ a b "Breaking the Conflict Trap: Civil War and Development Policy" (PDF). World Bank Policy. Archived (PDF) from the original on 23 April 2022. Retrieved 17 June 2022.
    12. ^ Федеральным силам в Чечне противостоят 22 тыс. боевиков Russian Ministry of Defense Archived 27 September 2007 at the Wayback Machine
    13. ^ Military: 3,688 killed in Chechnya (1999–2007),[1] Archived 4 January 2016 at the Wayback Machine 28 killed in Chechnya (2008),[2] 10 killed in Dagestan (2005),[3] Archived 12 March 2024 at the Wayback Machine total of 3,726 reported killed.
    14. ^ Interior ministry troops: 1,614–1,822 killed in Chechnya (1999–2002),[4][permanent dead link][5] 279 killed in Chechnya (2004–2005),[6] Archived 1 December 2021 at the Wayback Machine 200 killed in Dagestan (2002–2006), 45 killed in Chechnya and Dagestan (2007),[7] 226 killed in the North Caucasus (2008),[8] total of 2,364–2,572 reported killed.
    15. ^ "Defense and Security / PressPATROL / Media Monitoring Agency WPS". old.wps.ru. Archived from the original on 4 January 2016. Retrieved 2 January 2023.
    16. ^ "The History Guy: The Second Chechen War". www.historyguy.com. Archived from the original on 3 May 2019. Retrieved 23 January 2023.
    17. ^ "Russian Authorities Said To Be Underreporting Combat Deaths". Jamestown. Archived from the original on 21 March 2017. Retrieved 13 December 2022.
    18. ^ "CHECHNYA: Independence, Islam and Bloodshed". Deutsche welle. Archived from the original on 21 March 2017. Retrieved 13 December 2022.
    19. ^ "Russia acknowledges 500 soldiers killed in Chechnya since 2006". Spacewar.com. 30 March 2016. Archived from the original on 13 February 2021. Retrieved 17 October 2011.
    20. ^ Babitskiy, Andrey. "Shamil Basayev's interview with Andrei Babitsky aired by the American channel ABC on July 28, 2005". Archived from the original on 20 December 2022. Retrieved 20 December 2022.
    21. ^ "Security Watch: December 24, 2002". Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty. Archived from the original on 15 August 2018. Retrieved 24 December 2002.
    22. ^ "Более 2 тысяч боевиков уничтожено на Юге России с 2003 года". 7 October 2009. Archived from the original on 19 March 2023. Retrieved 19 March 2023.
    23. ^ Amnesty International Issues Reports on Disappearances Archived 10 October 2008 at the Wayback Machine Jamestown Foundation, 24 May 2007
    24. ^ Sarah Reinke: Schleichender Völkermord in Tschetschenien. Verschwindenlassen – ethnische Verfolgung in Russland – Scheitern der internationalen Politik. Gesellschaft für bedrohte Völker, 2005, page 8 (PDF Archived 12 August 2014 at the Wayback Machine)
    25. ^ Mark Kramer: "Guerrilla Warfare, Counterinsurgency and Terrorism in the North Caucasus: The Military Dimension of the Russian-Chechen Conflict", Europe-Asia Studies, Vol. 57, No. 2 (March 2005), p.210 (JSTOR 30043870)
    26. ^ Federal law of 12.01.1995 N 5-FЗ «On veterans», appendix, part III
    27. ^ ""Путине болчул а алсам цабезам бу сан Кадыровга"". Маршо Радио (in Chechen). 17 October 2019. Archived from the original on 21 October 2020. Retrieved 24 May 2021.
    28. ^ "CIA – The World Factbook – Russia". Cia.gov. Archived from the original on 9 January 2021. Retrieved 17 October 2011.
    29. ^ It's over, and Putin won Archived 21 January 2013 at the Wayback Machine The Guardian Retrieved on 23 February 2009


    Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

     
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    29 February 2000 – Second Chechen War: Eighty-four Russian paratroopers are killed in a rebel attack on a guard post near Ulus Kert.

    Second Chechen War

    The Second Chechen War (Russian: Втора́я чече́нская война́,[e] Chechen: ШолгIа оьрсийн-нохчийн тӀом, lit.'Second Russian-Chechen War'[27]) took place in Chechnya and the border regions of the North Caucasus between the Russian Federation and the Chechen Republic of Ichkeria, from August 1999 to April 2009.

    In August 1999, Islamist fighters from Chechnya infiltrated Russia's Dagestan region, violating Russia's borders. Later in September apartment bombings occurred in Russian cities, killing over 300 people. Russian authorities were quick to blame Chechen separatists, although no Chechen, field commander or otherwise, took responsibility for the attacks. During the initial campaign, Russian military and pro-Russian Chechen paramilitary forces faced Chechen separatists in open combat and seized the Chechen capital Grozny after a winter siege that lasted from December 1999 until February 2000. Russia established direct rule over Chechnya in May 2000 although Chechen militant resistance throughout the North Caucasus region continued to inflict many Russian casualties and challenge Russian political control over Chechnya for several years. Both sides carried out attacks against civilians. These attacks drew international condemnation.

    In mid-2000, the Russian government transferred certain military responsibilities to pro-Russian Chechen forces. The military phase of operations was terminated in April 2002, and the coordination of the field operations was given first to the Federal Security Service and then to the Ministry of Internal Affairs in the summer of 2003.

    By 2009, Russia had disabled the Chechen separatist movement and mass fighting ceased. Russian army and Interior Ministry troops ceased patrolling. Grozny underwent reconstruction and much of the city and surrounding areas were rebuilt quickly. Sporadic violence continued in the North Caucasus; occasional bombings and ambushes against federal troops and forces of the regional governments in the area still occur.[28][29]

    In April 2009, the government operation in Chechnya officially ended.[9] As the bulk of the army was withdrawn, responsibility for dealing with the low-level insurgency was shouldered by the local police force. Three months later, the exiled leader of the separatist government, Akhmed Zakayev, called for a halt to armed resistance against the Chechen police force from August. This marked the end of the Second Chechen War. The death toll of the conflict is unknown, although the total loss of human life, including combatants and non-combatants, is estimated to be over 60,000.

    1. ^ "Turkish Volunteers in Chechnya". The Jamestown Foundation. Archived from the original on 3 March 2016. Retrieved 20 May 2015.
    2. ^ The Chechens: A Handbook, p. 237, at Google Books
    3. ^ Politics of Conflict: A Survey, p. 68, at Google Books
    4. ^ Energy and Security in the Caucasus, p. 66, at Google Books
    5. ^ Cooley, John K. (2002). Unholy Wars: Afghanistan, America and International Terrorism (3rd ed.). London: Pluto Press. p. 195. ISBN 978-0-7453-1917-9. A Turkish Fascist youth group, the "Grey Wolves," was recruited to fight with the Chechens.
    6. ^ Goltz, Thomas (2003). Chechnya Diary: A War Correspondent's Story of Surviving the War in Chechnya. New York: Thomas Dunne Books. p. 22. ISBN 978-0-312-26874-9. I called a well-informed diplomat pal and arranged to meet him at a bar favored by the pan-Turkic crowd known as the Gray Wolves, who were said to be actively supporting the Chechens with men and arms.
      ...the Azerbaijani Gray Wolf leader, Iskander, Hamidov...
    7. ^ Isingor, Ali (6 September 2000). "Istanbul: Gateway to a holy war". CNN. Archived from the original on 17 October 2014.
    8. ^ Documents Working Papers, p. 4, at Google Books
    9. ^ a b "Russia 'ends Chechnya operation'". BBC News. 16 April 2009. Archived from the original on 12 August 2017. Retrieved 14 April 2009.
    10. ^ Кривошеев, Г. Ф., ed. (2001). Россия и СССР в войнах XX века. Потери вооруженных сил (in Russian). Олма-Пресс. p. 593. ISBN 5-224-01515-4.
    11. ^ a b "Breaking the Conflict Trap: Civil War and Development Policy" (PDF). World Bank Policy. Archived (PDF) from the original on 23 April 2022. Retrieved 17 June 2022.
    12. ^ Федеральным силам в Чечне противостоят 22 тыс. боевиков Russian Ministry of Defense Archived 27 September 2007 at the Wayback Machine
    13. ^ Military: 3,688 killed in Chechnya (1999–2007),[1] Archived 4 January 2016 at the Wayback Machine 28 killed in Chechnya (2008),[2] 10 killed in Dagestan (2005),[3] Archived 12 March 2024 at the Wayback Machine total of 3,726 reported killed.
    14. ^ Interior ministry troops: 1,614–1,822 killed in Chechnya (1999–2002),[4][permanent dead link][5] 279 killed in Chechnya (2004–2005),[6] Archived 1 December 2021 at the Wayback Machine 200 killed in Dagestan (2002–2006), 45 killed in Chechnya and Dagestan (2007),[7] 226 killed in the North Caucasus (2008),[8] total of 2,364–2,572 reported killed.
    15. ^ "Defense and Security / PressPATROL / Media Monitoring Agency WPS". old.wps.ru. Archived from the original on 4 January 2016. Retrieved 2 January 2023.
    16. ^ "The History Guy: The Second Chechen War". www.historyguy.com. Archived from the original on 3 May 2019. Retrieved 23 January 2023.
    17. ^ "Russian Authorities Said To Be Underreporting Combat Deaths". Jamestown. Archived from the original on 21 March 2017. Retrieved 13 December 2022.
    18. ^ "CHECHNYA: Independence, Islam and Bloodshed". Deutsche welle. Archived from the original on 21 March 2017. Retrieved 13 December 2022.
    19. ^ "Russia acknowledges 500 soldiers killed in Chechnya since 2006". Spacewar.com. 30 March 2016. Archived from the original on 13 February 2021. Retrieved 17 October 2011.
    20. ^ Babitskiy, Andrey. "Shamil Basayev's interview with Andrei Babitsky aired by the American channel ABC on July 28, 2005". Archived from the original on 20 December 2022. Retrieved 20 December 2022.
    21. ^ "Security Watch: December 24, 2002". Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty. Archived from the original on 15 August 2018. Retrieved 24 December 2002.
    22. ^ "Более 2 тысяч боевиков уничтожено на Юге России с 2003 года". 7 October 2009. Archived from the original on 19 March 2023. Retrieved 19 March 2023.
    23. ^ Amnesty International Issues Reports on Disappearances Archived 10 October 2008 at the Wayback Machine Jamestown Foundation, 24 May 2007
    24. ^ Sarah Reinke: Schleichender Völkermord in Tschetschenien. Verschwindenlassen – ethnische Verfolgung in Russland – Scheitern der internationalen Politik. Gesellschaft für bedrohte Völker, 2005, page 8 (PDF Archived 12 August 2014 at the Wayback Machine)
    25. ^ Mark Kramer: "Guerrilla Warfare, Counterinsurgency and Terrorism in the North Caucasus: The Military Dimension of the Russian-Chechen Conflict", Europe-Asia Studies, Vol. 57, No. 2 (March 2005), p.210 (JSTOR 30043870)
    26. ^ Federal law of 12.01.1995 N 5-FЗ «On veterans», appendix, part III
    27. ^ ""Путине болчул а алсам цабезам бу сан Кадыровга"". Маршо Радио (in Chechen). 17 October 2019. Archived from the original on 21 October 2020. Retrieved 24 May 2021.
    28. ^ "CIA – The World Factbook – Russia". Cia.gov. Archived from the original on 9 January 2021. Retrieved 17 October 2011.
    29. ^ It's over, and Putin won Archived 21 January 2013 at the Wayback Machine The Guardian Retrieved on 23 February 2009


    Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

     
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    2 March 1946Ho Chi Minh is elected the President of North Vietnam.

    Ho Chi Minh

    Hồ Chí Minh[a][b] ( Nguyễn Sinh Cung;[c][d][e][3][4] 19 May 1890 – 2 September 1969),[f] colloquially known as Uncle Ho (Bác Hồ) or just Uncle (Bác),[g][7] and by other aliases[h] and sobriquets,[i] was a Vietnamese communist revolutionary, nationalist, and politician. He served as prime minister of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam from 1945 to 1955 and as president from 1945 until his death, in 1969. Ideologically a Marxist–Leninist, he was the Chairman and First Secretary of the Workers' Party of Vietnam, the predecessor of the current Communist Party of Vietnam.

    Hồ Chí Minh was born in Nghệ An province in the French protectorate of Annam. From 1911, he left French Indochina to continue his revolutionary activities. He was also one of the founding members of the French Communist Party. In 1930, he founded the Communist Party of Vietnam and in 1941, he returned to Vietnam and founded the Việt Minh independence movement, an umbrella group. Then, Hồ led the August Revolution against the Japanese in August 1945, which resulted in the independence of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam. After the French returned to power the following month, Hồ's government retreated to the Việt Bắc region and began guerrilla warfare. The Việt Minh defeated the French Union in 1954 at the Battle of Điện Biên Phủ, ending the First Indochina War, and resulting in the division of Vietnam, with the Việt Minh in control of North Vietnam, and anti-communists in control of South Vietnam. He was a key figure in the People's Army of Vietnam during the Vietnam War, which lasted from 1955 to 1975. Hồ officially stepped down from power in 1965 due to health problems and died in 1969. North Vietnam was ultimately victorious against South Vietnam and its allies. Vietnam was officially unified in 1976. Saigon, the former capital of South Vietnam, was renamed Ho Chi Minh City in his honor.

    The details of Hồ Chí Minh's life before he came to power in Vietnam are uncertain. He is known to have used between 50[10]: 582  and 200 pseudonyms.[11] Information on his birth and early life is ambiguous and subject to academic debate. At least four existing official biographies vary on names, dates, places, and other hard facts while unofficial biographies vary even more widely.[12]

    Aside from being a politician, Hồ was a writer, poet, and journalist. He wrote several books, articles, and poems in Chinese, Vietnamese, and French.

    1. ^ "Ho Chi Minh". Random House Webster's Unabridged Dictionary.
    2. ^ Vũ Ngự Chiêu (23 October 2011). "Vài vấn nạn lịch sử thế kỷ XX: Hồ Chí Minh – Nhà ngoại giao, 1945–1946". Hợp Lưu Magazine (in Vietnamese). Archived from the original on 7 January 2019. Retrieved 10 December 2013. Note: See the document in French, from Centre des archives d'Outre-mer [CAOM] (Aix)/Gouvernement General de l'Indochine [GGI]/Fonds Residence Superieure d'Annam [RSA]/carton R1, and the note in English at the end of the cited article
    3. ^ Trần Quốc Vượng. "Lời truyền miệng dân gian về Hồ Chí Minh". BBC Vietnamese. Retrieved 10 December 2013.
    4. ^ Nguyễn Vĩnh Châu. "Phỏng vấn sử gia Vũ Ngự Chiêu về những nghiên cứu lịch sử liên quan đến Hồ Chí Minh". Hợp Lưu Magazine. Archived from the original on 3 December 2013. Retrieved 10 December 2013.
    5. ^ Nguyễn Xuân Tùng (18 September 2014). "Giới thiệu những tư liệu về Di chúc của Chủ tịch Hồ Chí Minh" [Introduction to documents related to President Ho Chi Minh's will] (in Vietnamese). Ministry of Justice (Vietnam). Retrieved 1 October 2021.
    6. ^ Ngo, Tam T. T. (2018). "The Uncle Hồ religion in Vietnam". In Dean, Kenneth; van der Veer, Peter (eds.). The Secular in South, East, and Southeast Asia. Springer. p. 219. ISBN 978-3-319-89369-3.
    7. ^ "Uncle Ho's legacy lives on in Vietnam". BBC News. 6 June 2012. Retrieved 25 April 2022.
    8. ^ Watanabe, Musa (25 July 2014). "Father of modern Vietnam, Ho Chi Minh". The OpenLab at New York City College of Technology. Retrieved 17 April 2023.
    9. ^ Woolf, Chris (18 September 2017). "The little-known story of Vietnamese communist leader Ho Chi Minh's admiration for the US". The World.
    10. ^ Duiker, William J. Ho Chi Minh: A Life. New York: Hyperion, 2000.
    11. ^ Duncanson 1957, p. 85.
    12. ^ Pike 1976.


    Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

     
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    3 March 1991 – An amateur video captures the beating of Rodney King by Los Angeles police officers.

    Rodney King

    Rodney Glen King (April 2, 1965 – June 17, 2012) was an African American man who was a victim of police brutality. On March 3, 1991, he was severely beaten by officers of the Los Angeles Police Department (LAPD) during his arrest after a high speed pursuit for driving while intoxicated on the I-210. An uninvolved resident, George Holliday, saw and filmed the incident from his nearby balcony and sent the footage, which showed the unarmed King on the ground being beaten after initially evading arrest, to local news station KTLA.[2] The incident was covered by news media around the world and caused a public uproar.

    At a press conference, Los Angeles police chief Daryl Gates announced that the four officers involved would be disciplined for use of excessive force and that three would face criminal charges. The LAPD initially charged King with "felony evading", but later dropped the charge.[3] On his release, King spoke to reporters from his wheelchair, with his injuries evident: a broken right leg in a cast, his face badly cut and swollen, bruises on his body, and a burn area to his chest where he had been jolted with a stun gun. He described how he had knelt, spread his hands out, then slowly tried to move so as not to make any "stupid moves", being hit across the face by a billy club, and shocked. He said he was scared for his life as they drew guns on him.[4]

    Four officers were eventually tried on charges of use of excessive force. Of these, three were acquitted; the jury failed to reach a verdict on one charge for the fourth. Within hours of the acquittals, the 1992 Los Angeles riots started, sparked by outrage among racial minorities over the trial's verdict and related, longstanding social issues, overlaid with tensions between the African American and Korean American communities.[5] The rioting lasted six days and killed 63 people, with 2,383 more injured; it ended only after the California Army National Guard, the Army, and the Marine Corps provided reinforcements to re-establish control. King advocated for a peaceful end to the conflict.

    The federal government prosecuted a separate civil rights case, obtaining grand jury indictments of the four officers for violations of King's civil rights. Their trial in a federal district court ended in April 1993, with two of the officers being found guilty and sentenced to serve prison terms. The other two were acquitted of the charges. In a separate civil lawsuit in 1994, a jury found the City of Los Angeles liable and awarded King $3.8 million in damages.

    1. ^ "Rodney King to marry juror from LA police beating case". BBC News. September 9, 2010.
    2. ^ Lester, Paul Martin (2018). Visual Ethics: A Guide for Photographers, Journalists, and Filmmakers. Routledge. p. 85. ASIN B07955S7GR.
    3. ^ Stevenson, Brenda E. (2015). The Contested Murder of Latasha Harlins: Justice, Gender, and the Origins of the LA Riots. Oxford University Press. p. 284.
    4. ^ March 3, 1991: Rodney King beating caught on video CBS News
    5. ^ Parvini, Sarah; Kim, Victoria (April 29, 2017). "25 years after racial tensions erupted, black and Korean communities reflect on L.A. riots". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved June 28, 2020.
     
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    4 March 1970 – French submarine Eurydice explodes underwater, resulting in the loss of the entire 57-man crew.

    French submarine Eurydice (S644)

    Eurydice was a French submarine, one of eleven of the Daphné class.

    On 4 March 1970, while Eurydice was submerged under calm seas off Cape Camarat in the Mediterranean Sea 35 nautical miles (65 km; 40 mi) east of Toulon, France, a geophysical laboratory picked up the shock waves of an underwater explosion. French and Italian search teams found an oil slick and a few bits of debris, including a part that bore the name Eurydice. The United States Navy oceanographic research ship USNS Mizar (T-AGOR-11) also took part in the search and on 22 April 1970 discovered several large pieces of wreckage off Cape Camarat near Saint-Tropez at depths ranging from 600 to 1,100 metres (2,000 to 3,600 ft).

    The cause of the explosion was never determined. All 57 crew were lost.

     
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    5 March 1836Samuel Colt patents the first production-model revolver, the .34-caliber.

    Samuel Colt

    Samuel Colt (/klt/; July 19, 1814 – January 10, 1862) was an American inventor, industrialist, and businessman who established Colt's Patent Fire-Arms Manufacturing Company (now Colt's Manufacturing Company) and made the mass production of revolvers commercially viable.

    Colt's first two business ventures were producing firearms in Paterson, New Jersey, and making underwater mines; both ended in disappointment. His business affairs improved rapidly after 1847, when the Texas Rangers ordered 1,000 revolvers during the American war with Mexico. Later, his firearms were used widely during the settling of the western frontier. Colt died in 1862 as one of the wealthiest men in America.

    Colt's manufacturing methods were sophisticated. His use of interchangeable parts helped him become one of the first to use the assembly line efficiently. Moreover, his innovative use of art, celebrity endorsements, and corporate gifts to promote his wares made him a pioneer of advertising, product placement, and mass marketing.

     
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    6 March 1899Bayer registers "Aspirin" as a trademark.

    Aspirin

    Aspirin, also known as acetylsalicylic acid (ASA), is a nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) used to reduce pain, fever, and/or inflammation, and as an antithrombotic.[9] Specific inflammatory conditions which aspirin is used to treat include Kawasaki disease, pericarditis, and rheumatic fever.[9]

    Aspirin is also used long-term to help prevent further heart attacks, ischaemic strokes, and blood clots in people at high risk.[9] For pain or fever, effects typically begin within 30 minutes.[9] Aspirin works similarly to other NSAIDs but also suppresses the normal functioning of platelets.[9]

    One common adverse effect is an upset stomach.[9] More significant side effects include stomach ulcers, stomach bleeding, and worsening asthma.[9] Bleeding risk is greater among those who are older, drink alcohol, take other NSAIDs, or are on other blood thinners.[9] Aspirin is not recommended in the last part of pregnancy.[9] It is not generally recommended in children with infections because of the risk of Reye syndrome.[9] High doses may result in ringing in the ears.[9]

    A precursor to aspirin found in the bark of the willow tree (genus Salix) has been used for its health effects for at least 2,400 years.[10][11] In 1853, chemist Charles Frédéric Gerhardt treated the medicine sodium salicylate with acetyl chloride to produce acetylsalicylic acid for the first time.[12] Over the next 50 years, other chemists, mostly of the German company Bayer, established the chemical structure and devised more efficient production methods.[12]: 69–75 

    Aspirin is available without medical prescription as a proprietary or generic medication[9] in most jurisdictions. It is one of the most widely used medications globally, with an estimated 40,000 tonnes (44,000 tons) (50 to 120 billion pills)[clarification needed] consumed each year,[10][13] and is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines.[14] In 2021, it was the 34th most commonly prescribed medication in the United States, with more than 17 million prescriptions.[15][16]

    1. ^ "Aspirin Use During Pregnancy". Drugs.com. 2 April 2018. Retrieved 29 December 2019.
    2. ^ "OTC medicine monograph: Aspirin tablets for oral use". Therapeutic Goods Administration (TGA). 21 June 2022. Retrieved 4 April 2023.
    3. ^ "Poisons Standard October 2022". Australian Government Federal Register of Legislation. 26 September 2022. Retrieved 9 January 2023.
    4. ^ "Aspirin Product information". Health Canada. 22 October 2009. Retrieved 20 August 2023.
    5. ^ a b "Zorprin, Bayer Buffered Aspirin (aspirin) dosing, indications, interactions, adverse effects, and more". Medscape Reference. WebMD. Archived from the original on 7 April 2014. Retrieved 3 April 2014.
    6. ^ a b c Brayfield A, ed. (14 January 2014). "Aspirin". Martindale: The Complete Drug Reference. Pharmaceutical Press. Retrieved 3 April 2014.
    7. ^ CID 2244 from PubChem
    8. ^ Cite error: The named reference b92 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    9. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l "Aspirin". American Society of Health-System Pharmacists. 29 November 2021. Archived from the original on 25 April 2017 – via Drugs.com.
    10. ^ a b Jones A (2015). Chemistry: An Introduction for Medical and Health Sciences. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 5–6. ISBN 978-0-470-09290-3.
    11. ^ Ravina E (2011). The Evolution of Drug Discovery: From Traditional Medicines to Modern Drugs. John Wiley & Sons. p. 24. ISBN 978-3-527-32669-3.
    12. ^ a b Jeffreys D (2008). Aspirin the remarkable story of a wonder drug. Bloomsbury Publishing USA. ISBN 978-1-59691-816-0. Archived from the original on 8 September 2017.: 46–48 
    13. ^ Warner TD, Mitchell JA (October 2002). "Cyclooxygenase-3 (COX-3): filling in the gaps toward a COX continuum?". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 99 (21): 13371–3. Bibcode:2002PNAS...9913371W. doi:10.1073/pnas.222543099. PMC 129677. PMID 12374850.
    14. ^ World Health Organization (2023). The selection and use of essential medicines 2023: web annex A: World Health Organization model list of essential medicines: 23rd list (2023). Geneva: World Health Organization. hdl:10665/371090. WHO/MHP/HPS/EML/2023.02.
    15. ^ "The Top 300 of 2021". ClinCalc. Archived from the original on 15 January 2024. Retrieved 14 January 2024.
    16. ^ "Aspirin - Drug Usage Statistics, US 2013-2021". ClinCalc. Retrieved 14 January 2024.
     
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    7 March 1950Cold War: The Soviet Union issues a statement denying that Klaus Fuchs served as a Soviet spy.

    Klaus Fuchs

    Klaus Emil Julius Fuchs (29 December 1911 – 28 January 1988) was a German theoretical physicist and atomic spy who supplied information from the American, British and Canadian Manhattan Project to the Soviet Union during and shortly after World War II. While at the Los Alamos Laboratory, Fuchs was responsible for many significant theoretical calculations relating to the first nuclear weapons and, later, early models of the hydrogen bomb. After his conviction in 1950, he served nine years in prison in the United Kingdom, then migrated to East Germany where he resumed his career as a physicist and scientific leader.

    The son of a Lutheran pastor, Fuchs attended the University of Leipzig, where his father was a professor of theology, and became involved in student politics, joining the student branch of the Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD), and the Reichsbanner Schwarz-Rot-Gold, the SPD's paramilitary organisation. He was expelled from the SPD in 1932, and joined the Communist Party of Germany (KPD). He went into hiding after the 1933 Reichstag fire and the subsequent persecution of communists in Nazi Germany, and fled to the United Kingdom, where he received his PhD from the University of Bristol under the supervision of Nevill Francis Mott, and his DSc from the University of Edinburgh, where he worked as an assistant to Max Born.

    After the Second World War broke out in Europe, he was interned in the Isle of Man, and later in Canada. After he returned to Britain in 1941, he became an assistant to Rudolf Peierls, working on "Tube Alloys"—the British atomic bomb project. He began passing information on the project to the Soviet Union through Ursula Kuczynski, codenamed "Sonya", a German communist and a major in Soviet military intelligence who had worked with Richard Sorge's spy ring in the Far East. In 1943, Fuchs and Peierls went to Columbia University, in New York City, to work on the Manhattan Project. In August 1944, Fuchs joined the Theoretical Physics Division at the Los Alamos Laboratory, working under Hans Bethe. His chief area of expertise was the problem of implosion, necessary for the development of the plutonium bomb. After the war, he returned to the UK and worked at the Atomic Energy Research Establishment at Harwell as head of the Theoretical Physics Division.

    In January 1950, Fuchs confessed that he had passed information to the Soviets over a seven-year period beginning in 1942. A British court sentenced him to fourteen years' imprisonment and he was subsequently stripped of his British citizenship. He was released in 1959, after serving nine years, and migrated to the German Democratic Republic (East Germany), where he was elected to the Academy of Sciences and became a member of the Socialist Unity Party of Germany (SED) central committee. He was later appointed deputy director of the Central Institute for Nuclear Physics in Dresden, where he served until he retired in 1979.

     
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    8 March 1974Charles de Gaulle Airport opens in Paris, France.

    Charles de Gaulle Airport

    Paris Charles de Gaulle Airport[a] (IATA: CDG, ICAO: LFPG), also known as Roissy Airport or simply Paris CDG, is the main international airport serving Paris, France. Opened in 1974, it is in Roissy-en-France, 23 km (14 mi) northeast of Paris and is named after World War II statesman Charles de Gaulle (1890–1970), whose initials (CDG) are used as its IATA airport code.

    Charles de Gaulle Airport serves as the principal hub for Air France and a destination for other legacy carriers (from Star Alliance, Oneworld and SkyTeam), as well as a focus city for easyJet. It is operated by Groupe ADP (Aéroports de Paris) under the brand Paris Aéroport.

    In 2022, the airport handled 57,474,033 passengers and 34,657 aircraft movements,[4] thus making it the world's ninth busiest airport and Europe's third busiest airport (after Istanbul and Heathrow) in terms of passenger numbers. Charles de Gaulle is also the busiest airport within the European Union. In terms of cargo traffic, the airport is the eleventh busiest in the world and the busiest in Europe, handling 2,102,268 tonnes (2,069,066 long tons; 2,317,354 short tons) of cargo in 2019.[5] It is also the airport that is served by the greatest number of airlines, with more than 105 airlines operating at the airport.[6]

    As of 2017, the airport offers direct flights to the most countries and hosts the most airlines in the world.[7] Marc Houalla has been the director of the airport since 12 February 2018.

    1. ^ LFPG – PARIS CHARLES DE GAULLE. AIP from French Service d'information aéronautique, effective 22 February 2024.
    2. ^ "DECEMBER 2023 AND FULL-YEAR TRAFFIC FIGURES". 16 January 2024. Retrieved 18 January 2024.
    3. ^ "Preliminary world airport traffic rankings released". aci.aero. 13 March 2019. Archived from the original on 10 April 2021. Retrieved 31 August 2019.
    4. ^ "Traffic Paris Aéroport and Groupe ADP airports". www.parisaeroport.fr. Retrieved 7 April 2023.
    5. ^ "Statistiques annuelles". Union des aéroports Français. Archived from the original on 29 February 2012. Retrieved 24 February 2012.
    6. ^ "which airport serves the most airlines?". travelupdate.com. 4 June 2020. Archived from the original on 13 November 2022. Retrieved 31 May 2022.
    7. ^ "Frankfurt and Paris CDG lead global analysis of airports in S17". anna.aero. 15 February 2017. Archived from the original on 29 January 2023.


    Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

     
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    9 March 1977 – The Hanafi Siege: In a thirty-nine-hour standoff, armed Hanafi Muslims seize three Washington, D.C., buildings

    1977 Washington, D.C. attack and hostage taking

     
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    10 March 2006 – The Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter arrives at Mars.

    Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter

    The Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter (MRO) is a spacecraft designed to search for the existence of water on Mars and provide support for missions to Mars, as part of NASA's Mars Exploration Program. It was launched from Cape Canaveral on August 12, 2005, at 11:43 UTC and reached Mars on March 10, 2006, at 21:24 UTC. In November 2006, after six months of aerobraking, it entered its final science orbit and began its primary science phase.

    Mission objectives include observing the climate of Mars, investigating geologic forces, providing reconnaissance of future landing sites, and relaying data from surface missions back to Earth. To support these objectives, the MRO carries different scientific instruments, including three cameras, two spectrometers and a subsurface radar. As of July 29, 2023, the MRO has returned over 450 terabits of data, helped choose safe landing sites for NASA's Mars landers, discovered pure water ice in new craters and further evidence that water once flowed on the surface on Mars.[3]

    The spacecraft continues to operate at Mars, far beyond its intended design life. Due to its critical role as a high-speed data-relay for ground missions, NASA intends to continue the mission as long as possible, at least through the late 2020s. As of March 15, 2024, the MRO has been active at Mars for 6404 sols, or 18 years and 5 days, and is the third longest-lived spacecraft to orbit Mars, after 2001 Mars Odyssey and Mars Express.

    1. ^ "Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter". NASA's Solar System Exploration website. Archived from the original on September 8, 2018. Retrieved December 1, 2022.
    2. ^ a b Cite error: The named reference Lyons was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    3. ^ "Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter". NASA. Archived from the original on July 29, 2023. Retrieved July 29, 2023.
     
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    11 March 1983Bob Hawke is appointed Prime Minister of Australia.

    Bob Hawke

    Robert James Lee Hawke AC GCL (9 December 1929 – 16 May 2019) was an Australian politician and trade unionist who served as the 23rd prime minister of Australia from 1983 to 1991. He held office as the leader of the Australian Labor Party (ALP), having previously served as the president of the Australian Council of Trade Unions from 1969 to 1980 and president of the Labor Party national executive from 1973 to 1978.

    Hawke was born in Border Town, South Australia.[a] He attended the University of Western Australia and went on to study at University College, Oxford as a Rhodes Scholar. In 1956, Hawke joined the Australian Council of Trade Unions (ACTU) as a research officer. Having risen to become responsible for national wage case arbitration, he was elected as president of the ACTU in 1969, where he achieved a high public profile. In 1973, he was appointed as president of the Labor Party.

    In 1980, Hawke stood down from his roles as ACTU and Labor Party president to announce his intention to enter parliamentary politics, and was subsequently elected to the Australian House of Representatives as a member of parliament (MP) for the division of Wills at the 1980 federal election. Three years later, he was elected unopposed to replace Bill Hayden as leader of the Australian Labor Party, and within five weeks led Labor to a landslide victory at the 1983 election, and was sworn in as prime minister.[2] He led Labor to victory a further three times, with successful outcomes in 1984, 1987 and 1990 elections, making him the most electorally successful prime minister in the history of the Labor Party.

    The Hawke government implemented a significant number of reforms, including major economic reforms, the establishment of Landcare, the introduction of the universal healthcare scheme Medicare, brokering the Prices and Incomes Accord, creating APEC, floating the Australian dollar, deregulating the financial sector, introducing the Family Assistance Scheme, enacting the Sex Discrimination Act to prevent discrimination in the workplace, declaring "Advance Australia Fair" as the country's national anthem, initiating superannuation pension schemes for all workers, negotiating a ban on mining in Antarctica and overseeing passage of the Australia Act that removed all remaining jurisdiction by the United Kingdom from Australia.[3]

    In June 1991, Hawke faced a leadership challenge by the Treasurer, Paul Keating, but Hawke managed to retain power; however, Keating mounted a second challenge six months later, and won narrowly, replacing Hawke as prime minister. Hawke subsequently retired from parliament, pursuing both a business career and a number of charitable causes, until his death in 2019, aged 89. Hawke remains his party's longest-serving Prime Minister, and Australia's third-longest-serving prime minister behind Robert Menzies and John Howard. He is also the only prime minister to be born in South Australia and the only one raised and educated in Western Australia. Hawke holds the highest-ever approval rating for an Australian prime minister, reaching 75% approval in 1984.[4][5] Hawke is frequently ranked within the upper tier of Australian prime ministers by historians.[6][7][8][9]

    1. ^ Casey, T.M. (5 April 1979). "GEOGRAPHICAL NAMES ACT, 1969 (" (PDF). The South Australian Government Gazette. Government of South Australia. p. 940. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 7 March 2019. the Geographical Names Board has recommended that the names "Blanche Town", "Border Town", "Farina Town", "Gambier Town", "George-Town" and "Rose Town" be changed to "Blanchetown", "Bordertown", "Farina", "Gambiertown", "Georgetown" and "Rosetown
    2. ^ "Robert Hawke: timeline". National Archives of Australia. Archived from the original on 30 June 2022. Retrieved 5 June 2022.
    3. ^ "The Australia Act 1986" (PDF). legislation.gov.uk. Archived (PDF) from the original on 24 October 2020. Retrieved 20 February 2024.
    4. ^ Coorey, Phillip (20 May 2008). "The biggest hammering in history". The Sydney Morning Herald. Archived from the original on 16 August 2023. Retrieved 20 May 2008.
    5. ^ "Hawke PM thrived on love of his people". The Australian. 18 May 2019. Retrieved 19 May 2019.
    6. ^ "Prime ministers' rank and file". The Age. 18 December 2004. Archived from the original on 14 November 2012. Retrieved 30 December 2017.
    7. ^ Strangio, Paul (2 August 2021). "Who were Australia's best prime ministers? We asked the experts". The Conversation. Archived from the original on 16 August 2023. Retrieved 4 August 2021.
    8. ^ Strangio, Paul (2013). "Evaluating Prime-Ministerial Performance: The Australian Experience". In Strangio, Paul; 't Hart, Paul; Walter, James (eds.). Understanding Prime-Ministerial Performance: Comparative Perspectives. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-966642-3.
    9. ^ "Ranking Australia's prime ministers". The Sydney Morning Herald. 25 June 2010. Archived from the original on 25 October 2018. Retrieved 17 August 2011.


    Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

     
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    12 March 2003 – The World Health Organization officially release a global warning of outbreaks of Severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS)

    Severe acute respiratory syndrome

    Redirect to:

     
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    12 March 2003 – The World Health Organization officially release a global warning of outbreaks of Severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS)

    Severe acute respiratory syndrome

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    13 March 1567 – The Battle of Oosterweel, traditionally regarded as the start of the Eighty Years' War

    Battle of Oosterweel

    Battle of Oosterweel is located in Belgium
    Oosterweel
    Oosterweel
    Oosterweel in present-day Belgium

    The Battle of Oosterweel took place on 13 March 1567 near the village of Oosterweel [nl], near Antwerp, in present-day Belgium, and is traditionally seen as the beginning of the Eighty Years' War.[a] A Spanish mercenary army surprised a band of rebels and killed or captured almost all of them.

    1. ^ Spohnholz (2017), p. 26.


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    14 March 1943World War II: The Kraków Ghetto is "liquidated".

    Kraków Ghetto

    The Kraków Ghetto was one of five major metropolitan Nazi ghettos created by Germany in the new General Government territory during the German occupation of Poland in World War II. It was established for the purpose of exploitation, terror, and persecution of local Polish Jews. The ghetto was later used as a staging area for separating the "able workers" from those to be deported to extermination camps in Operation Reinhard.[1] The ghetto was liquidated between June 1942 and March 1943, with most of its inhabitants deported to the Belzec extermination camp as well as to Płaszów slave-labor camp, and Auschwitz concentration camp, 60 kilometres (37 mi) rail distance.

    1. ^ Dr S D Stein (29 January 2007). ""Life Unworthy of Life" and other Medical Killing Programmes". The 'Euthanasia' and `Aktion Reinhard' Trial Cases. UWE Faculty of Humanities, Languages, and Social Science. Archived from the original on March 10, 2013 – via Internet Archive.
     
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    15 March 1939Germany occupies Czechoslovakia

    German occupation of Czechoslovakia

     
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    16 March 1978 – Former Italian Prime Minister Aldo Moro is kidnapped. (He is later murdered by his captors.)

    Aldo Moro

    Aldo Romeo Luigi Moro (Italian pronunciation: [ˈaldo ˈmɔːro]; 23 September 1916 – 9 May 1978) was an Italian statesman and prominent member of Christian Democracy (DC) and its centre-left wing.[1] He served as prime minister of Italy in five terms from December 1963 to June 1968 and from November 1974 to July 1976.[2][3]

    Moro served as Italian Minister of Foreign Affairs from May 1969 to July 1972 and again from July 1973 to November 1974. During his ministry, he implemented a pro-Arab policy. Moreover, he was appointed Italy's Minister of Justice and of Public Education during the 1950s. From March 1959 until January 1964, he served as secretary of the DC.[4] On 16 March 1978, the kidnapping of Moro by the far-left armed group Red Brigades took place; he was killed after 55 days of captivity.[5]

    Moro was one of Italy's longest-serving post-war prime ministers, leading the country for more than six years. Moro implemented a series of social and economic reforms that modernized the country.[6] Due to his accommodation with the Italian Communist Party leader Enrico Berlinguer, known as the Historic Compromise,[7] Moro is widely considered to be one of the most prominent fathers of the modern Italian centre-left. He governed Italy through the Organic centre-left.[8][9]

    1. ^ Pirro, Deirdre (6 September 2007). "Aldo Moro". The Florentine. Archived from the original on 6 September 2023. Retrieved 6 September 2023.
    2. ^ "Aldo Moro | Italian Prime Minister & Political Leader | Britannica". Britannica.com. 20 July 1998. Retrieved 11 August 2023.
    3. ^ "Mòro, Aldo nell'Enciclopedia Treccani". Treccani (in Italian). 2011. Retrieved 6 August 2023.
    4. ^ "Biografia: Aldo Moro – Almanacco". Mondi.it (in Italian). 2012. Retrieved 6 August 2023.
    5. ^ "Il rapimento Moro". Rai Scuola (in Italian). 31 January 2012. Archived from the original on 10 June 2020. Retrieved 6 August 2023.
    6. ^ "[Pillole di storia italiana] Le riforme del primo centrosinistra: Moro tessitore d'Italia". Tooby (in Italian). 29 November 2008. Retrieved 6 August 2023.
    7. ^ Broder, David (9 May 2018). "Historically Compromised". Jacobin. Retrieved 6 August 2023.
    8. ^ Panzarino, Pietro (2014). Il centro-sinistra di Aldo Moro (1958–1968) (in Italian). Marsilio. ISBN 978-88-317-1789-2. Retrieved 6 August 2023 – via Google Books.
    9. ^ Rolandi, Luca (15 March 2018). "La lezione di Aldo Moro, quarant'anni dopo". La Voce e il Tempo (in Italian). Retrieved 6 August 2023.
     
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    17 March 1969Golda Meir becomes the first female Prime Minister of Israel.

    Golda Meir

    Golda Meir[nb 1] (née Mabovitch; 3 May 1898 – 8 December 1978) was an Israeli politician who served as the fourth prime minister of Israel from 1969 to 1974. She was Israel's first and only female head of government and the first in the Middle East.[5]

    Born in Kiev in the Russian Empire to Ukrainian Jewish parents, Meir immigrated as a child with her family to the United States in 1906. She graduated from the Milwaukee State Normal School and found work as a teacher. While in Milwaukee, she embraced the Labor Zionist movement. In 1921, Meir and her husband emigrated to Mandatory Palestine, settling in Merhavia, later becoming the kibbutz's representative to the Histadrut. In 1934, she was elevated to the executive committee of the trade union. Meir held several key roles in the Jewish Agency during and after World War II. She was a signatory of the Israeli Declaration of Independence in 1948. Meir was elected to the Knesset in 1949 and served as Labor Minister until 1956, when she was appointed Foreign Minister by Prime Minister David Ben-Gurion. She retired from the ministry in 1966 due to ill health.

    In 1969, Meir assumed the role of prime minister following the death of Levi Eshkol. Early in her tenure, she made multiple diplomatic visits to western leaders to promote her vision of peace in the region. The outbreak of the Yom Kippur War in 1973 caught Israel off guard and inflicted severe early losses on the army. The resulting public anger damaged Meir's reputation and led to an inquiry into the failings. Her Alignment coalition was denied a majority in the subsequent legislative election; she resigned the following year and was succeeded as prime minister by Yitzhak Rabin. Meir died in 1978 of lymphoma and was buried on Mount Herzl.

    A controversial figure in Israel, Meir has been lionized as a founder of the state and described as the "Iron Lady" of Israeli politics, but also widely blamed for the country being caught by surprise during the war of 1973. In addition, her dismissive statements towards the Palestinians were widely scorned.[6] Most historians believe Meir was more successful as Secretary of Labor and Housing than as Premier.[7]

    1. ^ "Meir". Collins English Dictionary. HarperCollins. Retrieved June 26, 2019.
    2. ^ "Meir, Golda". Lexico UK English Dictionary. Oxford University Press. Archived from the original on February 25, 2021.
    3. ^ "Meir". Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary. Retrieved June 26, 2019.
    4. ^ "Golda Meir: An Outline of a Unique Life: A Chronological Survey of Gola Meir's Life and Legacy". The Golda Meir Center for Political Leadership (Metropolitan State University of Denver). Retrieved February 20, 2014. Reference on name pronunciation (see "1956").
    5. ^ Kort, Michael (2002). The Handbook of the Middle East. Lerner Publishing Group. p. 76. ISBN 9781315170688.
    6. ^ Cite error: The named reference TOIGM was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    7. ^ Cite error: The named reference GMFYP was invoked but never defined (see the help page).


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    17 March 1969Golda Meir becomes the first female Prime Minister of Israel.

    Golda Meir

    Golda Meir[nb 1] (née Mabovitch; 3 May 1898 – 8 December 1978) was an Israeli politician who served as the fourth prime minister of Israel from 1969 to 1974. She was Israel's first and only female head of government and the first in the Middle East.[5]

    Born in Kiev in the Russian Empire to Ukrainian Jewish parents, Meir immigrated as a child with her family to the United States in 1906. She graduated from the Milwaukee State Normal School and found work as a teacher. While in Milwaukee, she embraced the Labor Zionist movement. In 1921, Meir and her husband emigrated to Mandatory Palestine, settling in Merhavia, later becoming the kibbutz's representative to the Histadrut. In 1934, she was elevated to the executive committee of the trade union. Meir held several key roles in the Jewish Agency during and after World War II. She was a signatory of the Israeli Declaration of Independence in 1948. Meir was elected to the Knesset in 1949 and served as Labor Minister until 1956, when she was appointed Foreign Minister by Prime Minister David Ben-Gurion. She retired from the ministry in 1966 due to ill health.

    In 1969, Meir assumed the role of prime minister following the death of Levi Eshkol. Early in her tenure, she made multiple diplomatic visits to western leaders to promote her vision of peace in the region. The outbreak of the Yom Kippur War in 1973 caught Israel off guard and inflicted severe early losses on the army. The resulting public anger damaged Meir's reputation and led to an inquiry into the failings. Her Alignment coalition was denied a majority in the subsequent legislative election; she resigned the following year and was succeeded as prime minister by Yitzhak Rabin. Meir died in 1978 of lymphoma and was buried on Mount Herzl.

    A controversial figure in Israel, Meir has been lionized as a founder of the state and described as the "Iron Lady" of Israeli politics, but also widely blamed for the country being caught by surprise during the war of 1973. In addition, her dismissive statements towards the Palestinians were widely scorned.[6] Most historians believe Meir was more successful as Secretary of Labor and Housing than as Premier.[7]

    1. ^ "Meir". Collins English Dictionary. HarperCollins. Retrieved June 26, 2019.
    2. ^ "Meir, Golda". Lexico UK English Dictionary. Oxford University Press. Archived from the original on February 25, 2021.
    3. ^ "Meir". Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary. Retrieved June 26, 2019.
    4. ^ "Golda Meir: An Outline of a Unique Life: A Chronological Survey of Gola Meir's Life and Legacy". The Golda Meir Center for Political Leadership (Metropolitan State University of Denver). Retrieved February 20, 2014. Reference on name pronunciation (see "1956").
    5. ^ Kort, Michael (2002). The Handbook of the Middle East. Lerner Publishing Group. p. 76. ISBN 9781315170688.
    6. ^ Cite error: The named reference TOIGM was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    7. ^ Cite error: The named reference GMFYP was invoked but never defined (see the help page).


    Cite error: There are <ref group=nb> tags on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=nb}} template (see the help page).

     
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    18 March 1996 – A nightclub fire in Quezon City, Philippines kills 162 people.

    Ozone Disco fire

    The Ozone Disco fire in Quezon City, Philippines, broke out at 11:35 pm Philippine Standard Time on March 18, 1996, leaving at least 162 people dead. It is officially acknowledged as the worst fire in Philippine history,[1][2] and among the 10 worst nightclub fires in the world.[3][4]

    1. ^ "Disco in Manila, for 35 People, Held 400". New York Times Online. Associated Press. March 20, 1996. Archived from the original on March 11, 2008. Retrieved January 29, 2008.
    2. ^ Esteban, P/Supt. Romulo; Col. Danilo Fabian (June 3–4, 2004). "The Philippine Disaster Management System". Philippine Center on Transnational Crime. Archived from the original on June 28, 2007. Retrieved January 29, 2008.
    3. ^ Press, Associated. "A look at deadly nightclub fires Archived April 19, 2014, at the Wayback Machine." Washington Times. January 27, 2013
    4. ^ "What went before : Ozone disco is No.6 in deadliest nightclub fires Archived August 24, 2013, at the Wayback Machine." Philippine Daily Inquirer. January 29, 2013
     

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