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2 October 2006 – Five Amish girls are murdered in a shooting at a school in Pennsylvania, United States

West Nickel Mines School shooting

Mass shooting in Lancaster County, Pennsylvania

39°57′37″N 76°05′04″W / 39.96021°N 76.084393°W / 39.96021; -76.084393

On October 2, 2006, a shooting occurred at the West Nickel Mines School, an Amish one-room schoolhouse in the Old Order Amish community of Nickel Mines, a village in Bart Township, Pennsylvania.^[1][2][3] Gunman Charles Carl Roberts IV took hostages and shot ten girls (aged 6–13), killing five, before committing suicide in the schoolhouse.^[1][2][3][4] The emphasis on forgiveness and reconciliation in the Amish community's response was widely discussed by the national media. The West Nickel Mines School was later demolished, and a new one-room schoolhouse, the New Hope School, was built at another location.

1. ^ ^{a b} "Six killed in Pennsylvania school attack". The San Diego Union-TribuneSignOnSanDiego.com. October 2, 2006. Archived from the original on October 15, 2007. Retrieved October 3, 2006.
2. ^ ^{a b} "Gunman Opens Fire In Amish School 'Revenge'". CBS News. October 3, 2006. Archived from the original on October 2, 2006. Retrieved October 3, 2006.
3. ^ ^{a b} "Police: School killer told wife he molested family members". CNN. October 3, 2006. Retrieved October 3, 2006.
4. ^ "Fifth girl dies after Amish school shooting". CNN. October 3, 2006. Retrieved October 3, 2006.

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3 October 1789 – George Washington proclaims a Thanksgiving Day for that year.

Thanksgiving (United States)

American federal holiday in November

Thanksgiving is a federal holiday in the United States celebrated on the fourth Thursday of November.^[2] It is sometimes called American Thanksgiving (outside the United States) to distinguish it from the Canadian holiday of the same name and related celebrations in other regions. It originated as a day of thanksgiving and harvest festival, with the theme of the holiday revolving around giving thanks and the centerpiece of celebrations remaining a Thanksgiving dinner.^[3][4] The dinner traditionally consists of foods indigenous to the Americas: turkey, potatoes (usually mashed or sweet), squash, corn (maize), green beans, cranberries (typically as cranberry sauce), and pumpkin pie. Other Thanksgiving customs include charitable organizations offering thanksgiving dinner for the poor, attending religious services, and watching television events such as Macy's Thanksgiving Day Parade and America's Thanksgiving Parade as well as NFL football games.^[1] Thanksgiving is regarded as the beginning of the holiday season, with the day following it, Black Friday, said to be the busiest shopping day of the year in the United States.

New England and Virginia colonists originally celebrated days of fasting, as well as days of thanksgiving, thanking God for blessings such as harvests, ship landings, military victories, or the end of a drought.^[5] These were observed through church services, accompanied with feasts and other communal gatherings.^[3][b]

The modern day Thanksgiving Day in the U.S. is a federal holiday for Americans to give thanks as the Pilgrims did with their Native American neighbors after their first harvest in Plymouth (now in Massachusetts) in November 1621.^[6] This feast lasted three days and was attended by 90 Native American Wampanoag people^[7][c] and 53 survivors of the Mayflower (Pilgrims).^[8]

Less widely known is an earlier Thanksgiving celebration in Virginia in 1619 by English settlers who had just landed at Berkeley Hundred aboard the ship Margaret.^[9]

Thanksgiving has been celebrated nationally on and off since 1789, with a proclamation by President George Washington.^[10] President Thomas Jefferson chose not to observe the holiday, and its celebration was intermittent until President Abraham Lincoln, in 1863, proclaimed a national day of "Thanksgiving and Praise to our beneficent Father who dwelleth in the Heavens", calling on the American people to also, "with humble penitence for our national perverseness and disobedience ... fervently implore the interposition of the Almighty hand to heal the wounds of the nation". Lincoln declared it for the last Thursday in November.^[11][12] On June 28, 1870, President Ulysses S. Grant signed into law the Holidays Act that made Thanksgiving a yearly appointed federal holiday in Washington, D.C.^[13][14][15] On January 6, 1885, an act by Congress made Thanksgiving, and other federal holidays, a paid holiday for all federal workers throughout the United States.^[16] Under President Franklin D. Roosevelt, the date was moved to one week earlier, observed between 1939 and 1941 amid significant controversy. From 1942 onwards, Thanksgiving, by an act of Congress received a permanent observation date, the fourth Thursday in November, no longer at the discretion of the president.^[17][18]

1. ^ ^{a b c} Counihan, Carole (October 24, 2013). Food in the USA: A Reader. Routledge. p. 5. ISBN 978-1-135-32359-2.
2. ^ Brown, Tanya Ballard (November 21, 2012). "How Did Thanksgiving End Up On The Fourth Thursday?". NPR.
3. ^ ^{a b c} Forbes, Bruce David (October 27, 2015). America's Favorite Holidays: Candid Histories. University of California Press. p. 155. ISBN 978-0-520-28472-2.
4. ^ Garrison, Greg (November 27, 2019). "Saying grace is a Thanksgiving tradition, like turkey". Advance Publications. Retrieved November 23, 2023. Family gatherings on Thanksgiving in Alabama usually have one ingredient that's as common as turkey: saying grace. In houses that say a blessing over the food, it's common that no one's allowed to take a bite until the blessing has been said. In the South, a Thanksgiving blessing usually involves some extemporaneous praying by someone who knows how. For some, saying grace before meals is a year-round tradition.
5. ^ "Thanksgiving Day". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved January 21, 2016.
6. ^ Bradford 1952, pp. 85–92.
7. ^ ^{a b} Winslow, Edward (1622). Mourt's Relation (PDF). p. 133. Retrieved November 20, 2013.
8. ^ "Primary sources for the 'first Thanksgiving' at Plymouth" (PDF). Pilgrim Hall Museum. Retrieved November 26, 2009. ... The 53 Pilgrims at the first Thanksgiving ...
9. ^ "The first Thanksgiving". National Geographic. Archived from the original on March 7, 2021. Retrieved November 29, 2016.
10. ^ Frank, Priscilla (November 28, 2013). "Christie's is selling the proclamation that established Thanksgiving, signed by George Washington". HuffPost. Retrieved December 6, 2013.
11. ^ Cite error: The named reference NetINS Showcase-AB was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
12. ^ President Abraham Lincoln's Thanksgiving Day proclamation of October 3, 1863. Presidential Proclamations, 1778–2006. United States National Archives and Records Administration. Presidential Proclamation 106. Archived from the original on January 25, 2017. Retrieved January 10, 2017.
13. ^ Statutes at Large 1871.
14. ^ Stathis 1999, pp. 6–7.
15. ^ Belz 2017.
16. ^ Straus 2014, pp. 1–2.
17. ^ "The year we had two Thanksgivings". Franklin D. Roosevelt Presidential Library and Museum. Marist College. Retrieved November 26, 2010.
18. ^ Straus 2014, pp. 4–5.

Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

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4 October 1883 – First run of the Orient Express.

Orient Express

Luxury passenger train service in Europe

For other uses, see Orient Express (disambiguation).

The Orient Express was a long-distance passenger luxury train service created in 1883 by the Belgian company Compagnie Internationale des Wagons-Lits (CIWL) that operated until 2009. The train traveled the length of continental Europe, with terminal stations in Paris in the northwest and Istanbul in the southeast, and branches extending service to Athens, Brussels, and London.

The Orient Express embarked on its initial journey on June 5, 1883, from Paris to Vienna, eventually extending to Istanbul, thus connecting the western and eastern extremities of Europe. The route saw alterations and expansions, including the introduction of the Simplon Orient Express following the opening of the Simplon Tunnel in 1919, enhancing the service's allure and importance. Several routes concurrently used the Orient Express name, or variations. Although the original Orient Express was simply a normal international railway service, the name became synonymous with intrigue and luxury rail travel. The city names most prominently served and associated with the Orient Express are Paris and Istanbul,^[1][2] the original termini of the timetabled service.^[3] The rolling stock of the Orient Express changed many times.

However, post-World War II, the Orient Express struggled to maintain its preeminence amid changing geopolitical landscapes and the rise of air travel. The route stopped serving Istanbul in 1977, cut back to a through overnight service from Paris to Bucharest, which was cut back further in 1991 to Budapest, then in 2001 to Vienna, before departing for the last time from Paris on 8 June 2007.^[4][5] After this, the route, still called the Orient Express, was shortened to start from Strasbourg,^[6] leaving daily after the arrival of a TGV from Paris. On 14 December 2009, the Orient Express ceased to operate entirely and the route disappeared from European railway timetables, a "victim of high-speed trains and cut-rate airlines".^[7]

In contemporary times, the legacy of the Orient Express has been revived through private ventures like the Venice-Simplon Orient Express,^[8] initiated by James Sherwood in 1982, which offers nostalgic journeys through Europe in restored 1920s and 1930s CIWL carriages, including the original route from Paris to Istanbul.^[9] Since December 2021, an ÖBB Nightjet runs three times per week on the Paris-Vienna route, although not branded as Orient Express.^[10]

1. ^ "Orient-Express | train | Britannica". www.britannica.com.
2. ^ "Orient-Express : attention au départ !". Orient Express (in French). Archived from the original on 10 January 2014.
3. ^ Zax, David (1 March 2007). "A Brief History of the Orient Express". Smithsonian. Retrieved 13 March 2013.
4. ^ Calder, Simon (22 August 2009). "Murder of the Orient Express – End of the line for celebrated train service". The Independent. London. Retrieved 13 March 2013.
5. ^ "A History of the Orient Express". Agatha Christie Limited. 17 May 2011. Archived from the original on 24 April 2013. Retrieved 13 March 2013.
6. ^ "'hidden europe' magazine e-news Issue 2007/15". 7 June 2007. Retrieved 7 June 2007.
7. ^ "The Orient Express Takes Its Final Trip". NPR. 12 December 2009. Retrieved 26 February 2011.
8. ^ "The Curious Rebranding of Orient-Express Hotels Into the Belmond Brand". Skift. 26 February 2014. Retrieved 11 January 2021.
9. ^ "Venice Simplon-Orient-Express – Luxury Train from London to Venice". www.vsoe.com.
10. ^ "France". ÖBB. Retrieved 1 November 2021.

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5 October 1974 – Bombs planted by the PIRA in pubs in Guildford kill four British soldiers and one civilian.

Guildford pub bombings

1974 IRA bombings in Surrey, England

The Guildford pub bombings occurred on 5 October 1974 when the Provisional Irish Republican Army (IRA) detonated two 6-pound (2.7-kilogram) gelignite bombs at two pubs in Guildford, Surrey, England. The pubs were targeted because they were popular with British Army personnel stationed at Pirbright barracks. Four soldiers and one civilian were killed. Sixty-five people were wounded.

1. ^ Sutton, Malcolm. "CAIN: Sutton Index of Deaths".
2. ^ Steven P. Moysey - The Road To Balcombe Street: The IRA Reign of Terror in London p. 87

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6 October 1683 – Immigrant families found Germantown, Pennsylvania in the first major immigration of German people to America.

German Americans

Americans of German birth or descent

German Americans (German: Deutschamerikaner, pronounced [ˈdɔʏtʃʔameʁɪˌkaːnɐ]) are Americans who have full or partial German ancestry. The 2020 census results showed over 44,978,546 Americans self-identifying as German alone or in combination with another ancestry. This includes 15,447,670 who chose German alone.^[7]

According to the Academy for Cultural Diplomacy in 2012, "German-Americans make up the largest self-reported ancestry group within the United States, accounting for roughly 49 million people and approximately 17% of the population of the U.S."^[8] This represents an increase from 2010 when there were 45.7 million German Americans in the nation.^[9] German Americans account for about one third of the total population of people of German ancestry in the world.^[10][11]

The first significant groups of German immigrants arrived in the British colonies in the 1670s, and they settled primarily in the colonial states of Pennsylvania, New York, and Virginia.

The Mississippi Company of France later transported thousands of Germans from Europe to what was then the German Coast, Orleans Territory in present-day Louisiana between 1718 and 1750.^[12] Immigration to the U.S. ramped up sharply during the 19th century.

There is a German belt consisting of areas with predominantly German American populations that extends across the United States from eastern Pennsylvania, where many of the first German Americans settled, to the Oregon coast.

Pennsylvania, with 3.5 million people of German ancestry, has the largest population of German-Americans in the U.S. and is home to one of the group's original settlements, the Germantown section of present-day Philadelphia, founded in 1683. Germantown is also the birthplace of the American antislavery movement, which emerged there in 1688.

Germantown also was the location of the Battle of Germantown, an American Revolutionary War battle fought between the British Army, led by William Howe, and the Continental Army, led by George Washington, on October 4, 1777.

German Americans were drawn to colonial-era British America by its abundant land and religious freedom, and were pushed out of Germany by shortages of land and religious or political oppression.^[13] Many arrived seeking religious or political freedom, others for economic opportunities greater than those in Europe, and others for the chance to start fresh in the New World. The arrivals before 1850 were mostly farmers who sought out the most productive land, where their intensive farming techniques would pay off. After 1840, many came to cities, where German-speaking districts emerged.^[14][15][16]

German Americans established the first kindergartens in the United States,^[17] introduced the Christmas tree tradition,^[18][19] and introduced popular foods such as hot dogs and hamburgers to America.^[20]

The great majority of people with some German ancestry have become Americanized; fewer than five percent speak German. German-American societies abound, as do celebrations that are held throughout the country to celebrate German heritage of which the German-American Steuben Parade in New York City is one of the most well-known and is held every third Saturday in September. Oktoberfest celebrations and the German-American Day are popular festivities. There are major annual events in cities with German heritage including Chicago, Cincinnati, Milwaukee, Pittsburgh, San Antonio, and St. Louis.

Around 180,000 permanent residents from Germany were living in the United States in 2020.^[21]

1. ^ "Census Bureau Releases 2020 Census Population for More Than 200 New Detailed Race and Ethnicity Groups". September 21, 2023. Archived from the original on October 12, 2023. Retrieved October 21, 2023.
2. ^ "6 Maps That Show How Ethnic Groups Are Divided Across America". Business Insider. September 8, 2013. Archived from the original on March 11, 2016. Retrieved March 10, 2016.
3. ^ "The Germans in America". Library of Congress. April 24, 2014. Archived from the original on May 28, 2023. Retrieved June 12, 2015.
4. ^ "New York Population Ethnicity Map". turkey-visit. August 1, 2007. Retrieved March 20, 2024.
5. ^ "Ancestry of the Population by State: 1980 - Table 3" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on February 24, 2012. Retrieved November 11, 2012.
6. ^ One Nation Under God: Religion in Contemporary American Society, p. 120.
7. ^ "Census Bureau Releases 2020 Census Population for More Than 200 New Detailed Race and Ethnicity Groups". September 21, 2023. Archived from the original on October 12, 2023. Retrieved October 21, 2023.
8. ^ "Famous German-Americans". www.culturaldiplomacy.org. Archived from the original on May 12, 2023. Retrieved April 21, 2023.
9. ^ Thomas, G. Scott (July 30, 2012). "German-Americans are nation's dominant ethnic group". The Business Journals. Archived from the original on July 16, 2022. Retrieved April 21, 2023.
10. ^ "Germans and foreigners with an immigrant background". The Federal Ministry of the Interior of the Federal Republic of Germany. 2006. Archived from the original on May 4, 2009: 156 is the estimate which counts all people claiming ethnic German ancestry in the U.S., Brazil, Argentina, and elsewhere.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: postscript (link)
11. ^ "Ethnic Groups of Europe: An Encyclopedia" by Jeffrey Cole (2011), page 171.
12. ^ Cuevas, John (January 10, 2014). Cat Island: The History of a Mississippi Gulf Coast Barrier Island. ISBN 9780786485789. Archived from the original on November 30, 2023. Retrieved June 25, 2021.
13. ^ Robert C. Nesbit (2004). Wisconsin: A History. University of Wisconsin Press. pp. 155–57. ISBN 9780299108045. Archived from the original on November 30, 2023. Retrieved October 16, 2015.
14. ^ Zane L. Miller, "Cincinnati Germans and the Invention of an Ethnic Group", Queen City Heritage: The Journal of the Cincinnati Historical Society 42 (Fall 1984): 13-22
15. ^ Bayrd Still, Milwaukee, the History of a City (1948) pp. 260–63, 299
16. ^ On Illinois see, Raymond Lohne, "Team of Friends: A New Lincoln Theory and Legacy", Journal of the Illinois State Historical Society Fall/Winter2008, Vol. 101 Issue 3/4, pp 285–314
17. ^ "Schurz, Margarethe [Meyer] (Mrs. Carl Schurz) 1833 - 1876". June 11, 2011. Archived from the original on June 11, 2011.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link)
18. ^ "The History of Christmas", Gareth Marples, archived from the original on June 28, 2006, retrieved December 2, 2006
19. ^ Harvard Office of News and Public Affairs. "Professor Brought Christmas Tree to New England". News.harvard.edu. Archived from the original on August 23, 1999. Retrieved March 17, 2015.
20. ^ "The Home of the Hamburger: History". Archived from the original on August 5, 2009. Retrieved March 18, 2010.
21. ^ "Auswandern in die USA - das Land der unbegrenzten Möglichkeiten". Wohin-Auswandern.de (in German). January 13, 2015. Archived from the original on December 28, 2021. Retrieved January 5, 2022.

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7 October 1996 – Fox News Channel begins broadcasting.

Fox News

American conservative cable news channel

For other uses, see Fox News (disambiguation).

Television channel

The Fox News Channel (FNC), commonly known as Fox News, is an American multinational conservative news and political commentary television channel and website based in New York City.^[3][4] It is owned by Fox News Media, which itself is owned by the Fox Corporation.^[5] It is the most-watched cable news network in the U.S.,^[6][7][8] and as of 2023 generates approximately 70% of its parent company's pre-tax profit.^[9] The channel broadcasts primarily from studios at 1211 Avenue of the Americas in Midtown Manhattan. Fox News provides a service to 86 countries and territories,^[10] with international broadcasts featuring Fox Extra segments during advertising breaks.^[11]

The channel was created by Australian-born American media mogul Rupert Murdoch in 1996 to appeal to a conservative audience, hiring former Republican media consultant and CNBC executive Roger Ailes as its founding CEO.^[12][13] It launched on October 7, 1996, to 17 million cable subscribers.^[14] Fox News grew during the late 1990s and 2000s to become the dominant United States cable news subscription network.^[15] By September 2018, 87 million U.S. households (91 percent of television subscribers) could receive Fox News.^[16] In 2019, it was the top-rated cable network, averaging 2.5 million viewers in prime time.^[17][18][19] Murdoch, the executive chairman since 2016,^[20][21] said in 2023 that he would step down and hand responsibilities to his son, Lachlan.^[22] Suzanne Scott has been the CEO since 2018.^[23]

Fox News controversies have included biased reporting in favor of the Republican Party, its politicians, and conservative causes,^[24][25][26] while portraying the Democratic Party in a negative light.^[27][28] Critics have argued that the channel is damaging to the integrity of news overall.^[29][30] In 2009, Fox News denied bias in its news reporting. The channel's official position was that its reporting operates independently of its opinion journalism.^{[31][needs update]}

After Dominion Voting Systems initiated a defamation lawsuit against Fox regarding their reporting on the 2020 U.S. election, Fox's internal communications were released, showing that its presenters and senior executives privately doubted claims of a stolen election, while Fox continued to broadcast such claims.^[32] Other communications showed Fox CEO Suzanne Scott stating that fact-checking such claims would alienate Fox viewers.^[33] Fox settled the lawsuit in 2023 by agreeing to pay Dominion $787.5 million and acknowledging the court ruling that Fox had broadcast false statements about Dominion.^[34][35]

According to Pew Research Center, in 2019, 65 percent of Republicans and people who lean Republican trusted Fox News.^[36]

1. ^ "HD Channels | HD Report". Archived from the original on January 20, 2022. Retrieved April 9, 2022.
2. ^ "Corporate Information". Press.FoxNews.com. Fox News Network, LLC. Archived from the original on December 29, 2020. Retrieved July 11, 2020.
3. ^ Nie, Norman H.; Miller, Darwin W. III; Golde, Saar; Butler, Daniel M.; Winneg, Kenneth (2010). "The World Wide Web and the U.S. Political News Market". American Journal of Political Science. 54 (2): 428–439. doi:10.1111/j.1540-5907.2010.00439.x. ISSN 1540-5907.
4. ^ Meyers, Christopher (July 2, 2020). "Partisan News, the Myth of Objectivity, and the Standards of Responsible Journalism". Journal of Media Ethics. 35 (3): 180–194. doi:10.1080/23736992.2020.1780131. ISSN 2373-6992. S2CID 221538960.
5. ^ "Media Relations". Fox News. Archived from the original on December 29, 2020. Retrieved October 1, 2020.
6. ^ Joyella, Mark. "Fox News Hits 23rd Consecutive Month As Most-Watched In Cable News As CNN Sees Gains In January". Forbes. Archived from the original on March 11, 2023. Retrieved March 11, 2023.
7. ^ "U.S. most-watched news network 2022". Statista. Archived from the original on March 9, 2023. Retrieved March 11, 2023.
8. ^ "Fox News Channel had largest cable TV audience for 7th-straight year in 2022 | Fox News". www.foxnews.com. Archived from the original on March 11, 2023. Retrieved March 11, 2023.
9. ^ Ellison, Sarah; Barr, Jeremy (May 3, 2023). "For the Murdochs, Tucker Carlson became more trouble than he was worth". Washington Post. ISSN 0190-8286. Archived from the original on May 2, 2023. Retrieved December 31, 2023.
10. ^ "Where in the World is FOX?". Fox News. March 1, 2011. Archived from the original on February 6, 2019. Retrieved February 6, 2019.
11. ^ "Fox plans to run sponsored stories during ad breaks this fall". FierceVideo. June 18, 2018. Archived from the original on October 21, 2020. Retrieved September 28, 2020.
12. ^ Mifflin, Lawrie (October 7, 1996). "At the new Fox News Channel, the buzzword is fairness, separating news from bias". The New York Times. Archived from the original on December 11, 2019. Retrieved May 4, 2010.
13. ^ Richwine, Lisa; Gibson, Ginger (July 21, 2016). "Divisive Ailes gave conservatives a TV home at Fox News". Reuters. Archived from the original on November 7, 2020. Retrieved October 17, 2019.
14. ^ Cite error: The named reference King was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
15. ^ Gillette, Felix (October 1, 2008). "Viewers Continuing to Flock to Cable News Networks". The New York Observer. Archived from the original on October 28, 2020. Retrieved October 17, 2019.
16. ^ Bucholtz, Andrew (September 10, 2018). "Nielsen coverage estimates for September see gains at ESPN networks, NBCSN, and NBA TV, drops at MLBN and NFLN". Awful Announcing. Archived from the original on August 19, 2019. Retrieved January 17, 2020.
17. ^ Joyella, Mark (December 11, 2019). "Fox News Ends 2019 With Biggest Prime Time Ratings Ever". Forbes. Archived from the original on December 7, 2020. Retrieved January 16, 2020.
18. ^ Andreeva, Nellie; Johnson, Ted (December 27, 2019). "Cable Ratings 2019: Fox News Tops Total Viewers, ESPN Wins 18–49 Demo As Entertainment Networks Slide". Deadline Hollywood. Archived from the original on January 14, 2020. Retrieved January 16, 2020.
19. ^ Schneider, Michael (December 26, 2019). "Most-Watched Television Networks: Ranking 2019's Winners and Losers". Variety. Archived from the original on January 6, 2020. Retrieved January 16, 2020.
20. ^ Reilly, Katie (July 21, 2016). "Roger Ailes Resigns From Fox News Amid Sexual Harassment Accusations". Time. Archived from the original on November 22, 2020. Retrieved October 17, 2019.
21. ^ Redden, Molly (July 21, 2016). "Roger Ailes leaves Fox News in wake of sexual harassment claims". The Guardian. Archived from the original on April 28, 2023. Retrieved October 17, 2019.
22. ^ Darcy, Oliver (September 21, 2023). "Rupert Murdoch steps down as Fox and News Corp. chairman". CNN Business. Archived from the original on September 21, 2023. Retrieved September 21, 2023.
23. ^ Steinberg, Brian (May 17, 2018). "Suzanne Scott Named CEO of Fox News". Variety. Archived from the original on November 9, 2020. Retrieved May 17, 2018.
24. ^ Jamieson, Kathleen Hall; Cappella, Joseph N. (February 4, 2010). Echo Chamber: Rush Limbaugh and the Conservative Media Establishment. Oxford, New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19539-860-1. Archived from the original on June 12, 2020. Retrieved May 11, 2018. We do this to illustrate the ways Fox News, Limbaugh, and the print and web editorial pages of the Wall Street Journal play both offense and defense in service of conservative objectives. As these case studies will suggest, the big three reinforce each other's conservative messages in ways that distinguish them from the other major broadcast media, CBS News, NBC News, ABC News, CNN, MSNBC, CNBC and major print outlets such as the Washington Post and New York Times.
25. ^ Skocpol, Theda; Williamson, Vanessa (September 1, 2016). The Tea Party and the Remaking of Republican Conservatism. Oxford, New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 5, 8, 86, 123, 125, 130–140. ISBN 978-0-19063-366-0. Archived from the original on May 14, 2020. Retrieved May 11, 2018. ... the challenge of spreading and germinating the Tea Party idea was surmounted with impressive ease because a major sector of the U.S. media today is openly partisan—including Fox News Channel, the right-wing 'blogosphere,' and a nationwide network of right-wing talk radio programs. This aptly named conservative media 'echo chamber' reaches into the homes of many Americans ... Towering above all others is the Fox News empire, the loudest voice in conservative media. Despite its claim to be "fair and balanced", multiple studies have documented FNC's conservative stance ... Fox News's conservative slant encourages a particular worldview.
26. ^ Cite error: The named reference Kludt-2018 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
27. ^ Grossman, Matt; Hopkins, David A. (October 13, 2016). Asymmetric Politics: Ideological Republicans and Group Interest Democrats. Oxford, New York: Oxford University Press. p. 175. ISBN 978-0-19062-660-0. Archived from the original on May 18, 2020. Retrieved May 11, 2018.
28. ^ Bard, Mitchell T. (June 2017). "Propaganda, Persuasion, or Journalism?: Fox News' Prime-Time Coverage of Health-Care Reform in 2009 and 2014". Electronic News. 11 (2): 100–118. doi:10.1177/1931243117710278. S2CID 148586375. Archived from the original on April 7, 2022. Retrieved May 10, 2021.
29. ^ Collings, Anthony (2010). Capturing the News: Three Decades of Reporting Crisis and Conflict. University of Missouri Press. p. 166. ISBN 978-0-8262-7211-9.
30. ^ McCollum, Jonathan; Hebert, David G. (2014). Theory and Method in Historical Ethnomusicology. Lexington Books. p. 95. ISBN 978-1-4985-0705-9. Archived from the original on July 20, 2023. Retrieved January 27, 2016.
31. ^ "White House Escalates War of Words With Fox News". Fox News. October 12, 2009. Archived from the original on October 17, 2009. Retrieved March 17, 2021.
32. ^ Cite error: The named reference Crazy was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
33. ^ Cite error: The named reference Levine was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
34. ^ Cite error: The named reference 787m was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
35. ^ Cite error: The named reference crystal was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
36. ^ Jurkowitz, Mark; Mitchell, Amy; Shearer, Elisa; Walker, Mason (January 24, 2020). "U.S. Media Polarization and the 2020 Election: A Nation Divided". Pew Research Center's Journalism Project. Archived from the original on September 30, 2022. Retrieved September 30, 2022.

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8 October 2016 – In the wake of Hurricane Matthew, the death toll rises to nearly 900.

Hurricane Matthew

Category 5 Atlantic hurricane in 2016

For other storms of the same name, see List of storms named Matthew.

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Hurricane Matthew was an extremely powerful Atlantic hurricane which caused catastrophic damage and a humanitarian crisis in Haiti, as well as widespread devastation in the southeastern United States. The deadliest Atlantic hurricane since Hurricane Stan in 2005, and the first Category 5 Atlantic hurricane since Felix in 2007, Matthew was the thirteenth named storm, fifth hurricane and second major hurricane of the 2016 Atlantic hurricane season. It caused extensive damage to landmasses in the Greater Antilles, and severe damage in several islands of the Bahamas which were still recovering from Joaquin, which had pounded the archipelago nearly a year earlier. Matthew also approached the southeastern United States, but stayed just offshore, paralleling the Florida coastline.

Originating from a tropical wave that emerged off Africa on September 22, Matthew developed into a tropical storm just east of the Lesser Antilles on September 28. It became a hurricane north of Venezuela and Colombia on September 29, before undergoing explosive intensification, ultimately reaching Category 5 intensity on October 1 with peak 1-minute sustained winds of 165 mph. This strength was attained at just 13.4°N latitude – the lowest latitude ever recorded for a storm of this intensity in the Atlantic basin, breaking the record set by Hurricane Ivan in 2004.^[1] Matthew weakened slightly and fluctuated in intensity while making a northward turn toward the Greater Antilles, remaining a strong Category 4 hurricane as it made its first landfall over Haiti's Tiburon Peninsula early on October 4, and then a second one in Cuba later that day. Matthew weakened somewhat but re-intensified as it tracked northwest, making landfall in the northern Bahamas. The storm then paralleled the coast of the southeastern United States over the next 36 hours, gradually weakening while remaining just offshore before making its fourth and final landfall over the Cape Romain National Wildlife Refuge near McClellanville, South Carolina as a Category 1 hurricane on the morning of October 8. Matthew re-emerged into the Atlantic shortly afterward, eventually completing its transition into an extratropical cyclone as it turned away from Cape Hatteras, North Carolina on October 9. The remnants of Matthew continued to accelerate towards Canada where it was absorbed by a cold front.^[2]

Widespread effects were felt from Matthew across its destructive path, however, the most significant impacts were felt in Haiti, with US$2.8 billion in damage and 546 deaths, making Matthew the worst disaster to affect the nation since the 2010 earthquake. The combination of flooding and high winds disrupted telecommunications and destroyed extensive swaths of land; around 80% of Jérémie sustained significant damage. Four people were killed in Cuba due to a bridge collapse, and total losses in the country amounted to US$2.58 billion, most of which occurred in the Guantánamo Province. Passing through the Bahamas as a major hurricane, Matthew spread damage across several islands. Grand Bahama was hit directly, where most homes sustained damage in the townships of Eight Mile Rock and Holmes Rock. Preparations began in earnest across the southeastern United States as Matthew approached, with several states declaring states of emergencies for either entire states or coastal counties; widespread evacuations were ordered for extensive areas of the coast because of predicted high wind speeds and flooding, especially in the Jacksonville Metropolitan Area. In Florida, over 1 million lost power as the storm passed to the east, with 478,000 losing power in Georgia and South Carolina. While damage was primarily confined to the coast in Florida and Georgia, torrential rains spread inland in the Carolinas and Virginia, causing widespread flooding.

1. ^ Cite error: The named reference TCR was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
2. ^ "Matthew Storm History". The Weather Channel. October 3, 2016. Archived from the original on October 18, 2016. Retrieved October 16, 2016.

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9 October 2006 – North Korea conducts its first nuclear test.

2006 North Korean nuclear test

2006 test detonation of a nuclear weapon in North Korea

2km
1.2miles

South

West

East

North portal

6

5

4

3

2

1

  

Location of North Korea's nuclear tests^[5][6]
1: 2006; 2: 2009; 3: 2013; 4: 2016-01; 5: 2016-09; 6: 2017;

V

The 2006 North Korean nuclear test was the detonation of a nuclear device conducted by North Korea on October 9, 2006.

On October 3, 2006, North Korea announced its intention to conduct a nuclear test.^[7] The blast is generally estimated to have had an explosive force of less than one kiloton, and some radioactive output was detected.^[8][9] United States officials suggested the device may have been a nuclear explosive that misfired.^[8]

An anonymous official at the North Korean Embassy in Beijing told a South Korean newspaper that the explosive output was smaller than expected.^[10] Because of the secretive nature of North Korea and small yield of the test, there remains some question as to whether it was a successful test of an unusually small device (which would have required sophisticated technology), or a partially failed "fizzle" or dud. A scientific paper later estimated the yield as 0.48 kilotons.^[1]

Reportedly the government of the People's Republic of China was given a 20-minute advance notification that the test was about to occur.^[11] China sent an emergency alert to Washington, D.C., through the U.S. Embassy in Beijing at which time President George W. Bush was told by National Security Advisor Stephen Hadley "shortly after" 10 p.m. (UTC-5) that a test was imminent.^[12]

1. ^ ^{a b} Lian-Feng Zhao, Xiao-Bi Xie, Wei-Min Wang, and Zhen-Xing Yao, "Regional Seismic Characteristics of the 9 October 2006 North Korean Nuclear Test Archived September 23, 2015, at the Wayback Machine, Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America, December 2008 98:2571–2589; doi:10.1785/0120080128
2. ^ Cite error: The named reference JaneWeekly was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
3. ^ Cite error: The named reference Russia was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
4. ^ Cite error: The named reference BGR2006 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
5. ^ "Search Results". USGS.
6. ^ "North Korea's Punggye-ri Nuclear Test Site: Analysis Reveals Its Potential for Additional Testing with Significantly Higher Yields". 38North. March 10, 2017.
7. ^ Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty: Background and Current Developments, September 1, 2016, Wikidata Q59596578. See also Medalia, Jonathan. "Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty: Background and Current Developments." Congressional Research Service. November 23, 2009. p. 9. ISBN 978-1-4379-2746-7.
8. ^ ^{a b} "U.S.: Test Points to N. Korea Nuke Blast". The Washington Post. October 13, 2006.
9. ^ "North Korea Nuclear Test Confirmed by U.S. Intelligence Agency". Bloomberg. October 16, 2006. Archived from the original on September 30, 2007. Retrieved October 16, 2006.
10. ^ "Dud or deception? Experts examine N. Korea claims". CNN. October 10, 2006. Archived from the original on October 28, 2006.
11. ^ "North Korea says conducted nuclear test". Reuters. Retrieved October 9, 2006.^{[dead link]}
12. ^ "Test follows warning from U.N." International Herald Tribune. Archived from the original on October 9, 2006. Retrieved October 9, 2006.

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10 October 1967 – The Outer Space Treaty comes into force.

Outer Space Treaty

Basis of international space law

The Outer Space Treaty, formally the Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies, is a multilateral treaty that forms the basis of international space law. Negotiated and drafted under the auspices of the United Nations, it was opened for signature in the United States, the United Kingdom, and the Soviet Union on 27 January 1967, entering into force on 10 October 1967. As of August 2023^[update], 114 countries are parties to the treaty—including all major spacefaring nations—and another 22 are signatories.^[1][5][6]

The Outer Space Treaty was spurred by the development of intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs) in the 1950s, which could reach targets through outer space.^[7] The Soviet Union's launch of Sputnik, the first artificial satellite, in October 1957, followed by a subsequent arms race with the United States, hastened proposals to prohibit the use of outer space for military purposes. On 17 October 1963, the U.N. General Assembly unanimously adopted a resolution prohibiting the introduction of weapons of mass destruction in outer space. Various proposals for an arms control treaty governing outer space were debated during a General Assembly session in December 1966, culminating in the drafting and adoption of the Outer Space Treaty the following January.^[7]

Key provisions of the Outer Space Treaty include prohibiting nuclear weapons in space; limiting the use of the Moon and all other celestial bodies to peaceful purposes; establishing that space shall be freely explored and used by all nations; and precluding any country from claiming sovereignty over outer space or any celestial body. Although it forbids establishing military bases, testing weapons and conducting military maneuvers on celestial bodies, the treaty does not expressly ban all military activities in space, nor the establishment of military space forces or the placement of conventional weapons in space.^[8][9] From 1968 to 1984, the OST gave birth to four additional agreements: rules for activities on the Moon; liability for damages caused by spacecraft; the safe return of fallen astronauts; and the registration of space vehicles.^[10]

OST provided many practical uses and was the most important link in the chain of international legal arrangements for space from the late 1950s to the mid-1980s. OST was at the heart of a 'network' of inter-state treaties and strategic power negotiations to achieve the best available conditions for nuclear weapons world security. The OST also declares that space is an area for free use and exploration by all and "shall be the province of all mankind". Drawing heavily from the Antarctic Treaty of 1961, the Outer Space Treaty likewise focuses on regulating certain activities and preventing unrestricted competition that could lead to conflict.^[7] Consequently, it is largely silent or ambiguous on newly developed space activities such as lunar and asteroid mining.^[11][12][13] Nevertheless, the Outer Space Treaty is the first and most foundational legal instrument of space law,^[14] and its broader principles of promoting the civil and peaceful use of space continue to underpin multilateral initiatives in space, such as the International Space Station and the Artemis Program.^[15][16]

1. ^ ^{a b} "Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies". United Nations Office for Disarmament Affairs. Retrieved 16 September 2017.
2. ^ Cite error: The named reference UK was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
3. ^ Cite error: The named reference US was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
4. ^ Cite error: The named reference RU was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
5. ^ Cite error: The named reference unodacn was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
6. ^ In addition, the Republic of China in Taiwan, which is currently recognized by 11 UN member states, ratified the treaty prior to the United Nations General Assembly's vote to transfer China's seat to the People's Republic of China (PRC) in 1971.
7. ^ ^{a b c} "Outer Space Treaty". U.S. Department of State. Retrieved 24 September 2021.
8. ^ Shakouri Hassanabadi, Babak (30 July 2018). "Space Force and international space law". The Space Review. Retrieved 22 May 2019.
9. ^ Irish, Adam (13 September 2018). "The Legality of a U.S. Space Force". OpinioJuris. Retrieved 22 May 2019.
10. ^ Buono, Stephen (2 April 2020). "Merely a 'Scrap of Paper'? The Outer Space Treaty in Historical Perspective". Diplomacy and Statecraft. 31 (2): 350-372. doi:10.1080/09592296.2020.1760038. S2CID 221060714.
11. ^ If space is ‘the province of mankind’, who owns its resources? Senjuti Mallick and Rajeswari Pillai Rajagopalan. The Observer Research Foundation. 24 January 2019. Quote 1: "The Outer Space Treaty (OST) of 1967, considered the global foundation of the outer space legal regime, […] has been insufficient and ambiguous in providing clear regulations to newer space activities such as asteroid mining." *Quote2: "Although the OST does not explicitly mention "mining" activities, under Article II, outer space including the Moon and other celestial bodies are "not subject to national appropriation by claim of sovereignty" through use, occupation or any other means."
12. ^ Szoka, Berin; Dunstan, James (1 May 2012). "Law: Is Asteroid Mining Illegal?". Wired. Archived from the original on 12 May 2014.
13. ^ Who Owns Space? US Asteroid-Mining Act Is Dangerous And Potentially Illegal. IFL. Accessed on 9 November 2019. Quote 1: "The act represents a full-frontal attack on settled principles of space law which are based on two basic principles: the right of states to scientific exploration of outer space and its celestial bodies and the prevention of unilateral and unbriddled commercial exploitation of outer-space resources. These principles are found in agreements including the Outer Space Treaty of 1967 and the Moon Agreement of 1979." *Quote 2: "Understanding the legality of asteroid mining starts with the 1967 Outer Space Treaty. Some might argue the treaty bans all space property rights, citing Article II."
14. ^ "Space Law". www.unoosa.org. Retrieved 24 September 2021.
15. ^ "International Space Station legal framework". www.esa.int. Retrieved 24 September 2021.
16. ^ "NASA: Artemis Accords". NASA. Retrieved 24 September 2021.

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11 October 1987 – The AIDS Memorial Quilt is first displayed during the Second National March on Washington for Lesbian and Gay Rights.

NAMES Project AIDS Memorial Quilt

Memorial quilt project honoring lives lost to AIDS-related causes

The NAMES Project AIDS Memorial Quilt, often abbreviated to AIDS Memorial Quilt or AIDS Quilt, is a memorial to celebrate the lives of people who have died of AIDS-related causes. Weighing an estimated 54 tons,^[1] it is the largest piece of community folk art in the world as of 2020.^[2] It was conceived in 1985, during the early years of the AIDS pandemic, when social stigma prevented many AIDS victims from receiving funerals. It has been displayed on the Mall in Washington, D.C., several times. In 2020, it returned to the AIDS Memorial in San Francisco, and can also be seen virtually.^[3]

1. ^ "Creativity and Crisis: Unfolding The AIDS Memorial Quilt". Smithsonian Center. June 1, 2012. Archived from the original on June 23, 2012. Retrieved January 25, 2024.
2. ^ "About The Names Project". National AIDS Memorial. March 7, 2020. Retrieved January 25, 2024.
3. ^ "The History of the Quilt". National AIDS Memorial. November 19, 2022. Retrieved January 25, 2024.

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12 October 1928 – An iron lung respirator is used for the first time at Boston Children's Hospital.

Iron lung

Negative-pressure mechanically functioning respirator

For other uses, see Iron Lung.

An iron lung is a type of negative pressure ventilator (NPV), a mechanical respirator which encloses most of a person's body and varies the air pressure in the enclosed space to stimulate breathing.^[1][2][3][4] It assists breathing when muscle control is lost, or the work of breathing exceeds the person's ability.^[1] Need for this treatment may result from diseases including polio and botulism and certain poisons (for example, barbiturates, tubocurarine).

The use of iron lungs is largely obsolete in modern medicine as more modern breathing therapies have been developed^[5] and due to the eradication of polio in most of the world.^[6] However, in 2020, the COVID-19 pandemic revived some interest in the device as a cheap, readily-producible substitute for positive-pressure ventilators, which were feared to be outnumbered by patients potentially needing temporary artificially assisted respiration.^{[7][8][9][10]}

The iron lung is a large horizontal cylinder designed to stimulate breathing in patients who have lost control of their respiratory muscles. The patient's head is exposed outside the cylinder, while the body is sealed inside. Air pressure inside the cylinder is cycled to facilitate inhalation and exhalation. Devices like the Drinker, Emerson, and Both respirators are examples of iron lungs, which can be manually or mechanically powered. Smaller versions, like the cuirass ventilator and jacket ventilator, enclose only the patient's torso. Breathing in humans occurs through negative pressure, where the rib cage expands and the diaphragm contracts, causing air to flow in and out of the lungs.

The concept of external negative pressure ventilation was introduced by John Mayow in 1670. The first widely used device was the iron lung, developed by Philip Drinker and Louis Shaw in 1928. Initially used for coal gas poisoning treatment, the iron lung gained fame for treating respiratory failure caused by polio in the mid-20th century. John Haven Emerson introduced an improved and more affordable version in 1931. The Both respirator, a cheaper and lighter alternative to the Drinker model, was invented in Australia in 1937. British philanthropist William Morris financed the production of the Both–Nuffield respirators, donating them to hospitals throughout Britain and the British Empire. During the polio outbreaks of the 1940s and 1950s, iron lungs filled hospital wards, assisting patients with paralyzed diaphragms in their recovery.

Polio vaccination programs and the development of modern ventilators have nearly eradicated the use of iron lungs in the developed world. Positive pressure ventilation systems, which blow air into the patient's lungs via intubation, have become more common than negative pressure systems like iron lungs. However, negative pressure ventilation is more similar to normal physiological breathing and may be preferable in rare conditions. As of 2024^[update], after the death of Paul Alexander, only one patient in the U.S., Martha Lillard is still using iron lungs. In response to the COVID-19 pandemic and the shortage of modern ventilators, some enterprises developed prototypes of new, easily producible versions of the iron lung.

1. ^ ^{a b} Shneerson, Dr. John M., Newmarket General Hospital, (Newmarket, Suffolk, U.K.), "Non-invasive and domiciliary ventilation: negative pressure techniques," Archived March 16, 2023, at the Wayback Machine #5 of series "Assisted ventilation" in Thorax, 1991;46:131–35, retrieved April 12, 2020
2. ^ Rockoff, Mark, M.D., "The Iron Lung and Polio," Archived April 9, 2023, at the Wayback Machine, video (8 minutes), January 11, 2016, OPENPediatrics and Boston Children's Hospital on YouTube, retrieved April 11, 2020 (historical background and images, explanatory diagrams, and live demonstrations)
3. ^ Jackson, Christopher D., MD, Dept. of Internal Medicine, and Muthiah P Muthiah, MD, FCCP, D-ABSM, Assoc. Prof. of Medicine, Div. of Pulmonary / Critical Care / Sleep Medicine, Univ. of Tennessee College of Medicine-Memphis, et.al., "What is the background of the iron lung form of mechanical ventilation?," Archived July 2, 2022, at the Wayback Machine April 11, 2019, Medscape, retrieved April 12, 2020 (short summary of iron history and technology, with photo)
4. ^ Grum, Cyril M., MD, and Melvin L. Morganroth, MD, "Initiating Mechanical Ventilation," Archived June 22, 2022, at the Wayback Machine in Intensive Care Medicine 1988;3:6–20, retrieved April 12, 2020
5. ^ Corrado, A.; Ginanni, R.; Villella, G.; Gorini, M.; Augustynen, A.; Tozzi, D.; Peris, A.; Grifoni, S.; Messori, A.; Nozzoli, C.; Berni, G. (March 2004). "Iron lung versus conventional mechanical ventilation in acute exacerbation of COPD". The European Respiratory Journal. 23 (3): 419–24. doi:10.1183/09031936.04.00029304. ISSN 0903-1936. PMID 15065832.
6. ^ Buncombe, Andrew (November 22, 2017). "America's last iron lung users on their lives spent inside obsolete ventilators". The Independent. Archived from the original on May 25, 2022. Retrieved April 16, 2019.
7. ^ "Modern iron lung designed to address ventilator shortage," Archived March 22, 2023, at the Wayback Machine, April 6, 2020, New Atlas, retrieved April 11, 2020
8. ^ Laderas, Crystal, reporter: "Alberta team building modern 'iron lung' for COVID-19 in dire environments," Archived October 13, 2022, at the Wayback Machine, (video & text), March 25, 2020, as updated March 26, 2020, City News / Citytv, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada – also broadcast as "Bioengineers build modern 'iron lung' for COVID-19 in dire environments: Scientists build a prototype 'iron lung' for COVID-19 patients in crisis environments. The machine is a last resort for patients when hospital ventilators are not available," Archived June 20, 2021, at the Wayback Machine (video only), March 25, 2020, 660 News / CityNews / Citytv, Calgary, Alberta, Canada, retrieved April 23, 2020
9. ^ "One Kansas company is switching gears to make iron lung ventilators," Archived October 15, 2022, at the Wayback Machine (video & text), April 10, 2020, KSNW-TV, retrieved April 11, 2020
10. ^ Allen, Margaret, "Hess offers iron lung for COVID-19," Archived February 25, 2021, at the Wayback Machine April 9, 2020, Hays Daily News, retrieved April 11, 2020

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13 October 1977 – Hijacking of Lufthansa Flight 181 by the Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine.

Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine

Palestinian Marxist–Leninist organization

"PFLP" redirects here. For other meanings, see PFLP (disambiguation).

The Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine (PFLP) (Arabic: الجبهة الشعبية لتحرير فلسطين, romanized: "al-Jabha al-Shabiyah li-Tahrir Filastin" or "al-Jabhah al-Shaʿbīyyah li-Taḥrīr Filasṭīn"^[3])^[a] is a secular Palestinian Marxist–Leninist and revolutionary socialist organization founded in 1967 by George Habash. It has consistently been the second-largest of the groups forming the Palestine Liberation Organization, the largest being Fatah.

Ahmad Sa'adat, who was sentenced in 2006 to 30 years in an Israeli prison, has served as General Secretary of the PFLP since 2001. The PFLP currently considers both the Fatah-led government in the West Bank and the Hamas government in the Gaza Strip illegal because elections to the Palestinian National Authority have not been held since 2006.^[4] As of 2015^[update], the PFLP boycotts participation in the PLO Executive Committee^[5][6][7] and the Palestinian National Council.^[8]

The PFLP has generally taken a hard-line on Palestinian national aspirations, opposing the more moderate stance of Fatah. It does not recognize Israel, and promotes a one-state solution to the Israeli–Palestinian conflict, in a "democratic Palestine", where "Arabs and Jews would live without discrimination". The military wing of the PFLP is called the Abu Ali Mustafa Brigades.

The PFLP is well known for pioneering armed aircraft-hijackings in the late 1960s and early 1970s.^[9] According to PFLP Politburo member^[10] and former aircraft-hijacker Leila Khaled, the PFLP does not see suicide bombing as a form of resistance to occupation or as a strategic action or policy and no longer carries out such attacks. The PFLP has been designated a terrorist organization by the United States,^[11] Japan,^[12] Canada,^[13] and the European Union.^[14]

1. ^ Profile: Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine BBC News, 18 November 2014
2. ^ Cite error: The named reference One-state solution was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
3. ^ "Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine | Palestinian political organization | Resistance, Activism, Liberation | Britannica". www.britannica.com. 17 January 2024. Retrieved 22 January 2024.
4. ^ "Fatah slams Hamas' intention to reshuffle its deposed government". People's Daily Online. 26 December 2010. Retrieved 4 February 2012.^{[dead link] [dead link]}
5. ^ Ibrahim, Arwa (13 February 2015). "PROFILE: The Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine". Middle East Eye.
6. ^ "Bringing the PFLP back into PLO fold?". Ma'an News Agency. 2 October 2010.
7. ^ "Profile: Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine (PFLP)". BBC News. 18 November 2014.
8. ^ Sawafta, Ali (30 April 2018). "Palestinian forum convenes after 22 years, beset by division". reuters.com.
9. ^ "Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine". BBC News. 26 January 2008. Retrieved 4 February 2012.
10. ^ "Ms. Khaled is a member of the Politburo of the PFLP [...]". Archived from the original on 11 July 2017. Retrieved 13 June 2018.
11. ^ "Foreign Terrorist Organizations". U.S. Department of State.
12. ^ "MOFA: Implementation of the Measures including the Freezing of Assets against Terrorists and the Like". Archived from the original on 6 April 2013. Retrieved 21 November 2013.
13. ^ "About the listing process". Retrieved 17 July 2015.
14. ^ "EUR-Lex – Official Journal of the European Union".

Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

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14 October 1962 – The Cuban Missile Crisis begins when an American reconnaissance aircraft takes photographs of Soviet ballistic missiles being installed in Cuba.

Cuban Missile Crisis

1962 confrontation between the US and USSR

"Missile Crisis" redirects here. For the missile crisis in Cyprus, see Cypriot S-300 crisis.

"Cuban Missile" redirects here. For the baseball player, see Aroldis Chapman.

The Cuban Missile Crisis, also known as the October Crisis (Spanish: Crisis de Octubre) in Cuba, or the Caribbean Crisis (Russian: Карибский кризис, romanized: Karibskiy krizis), was a 13-day confrontation between the governments of the United States and the Soviet Union, when American deployments of nuclear missiles in Italy and Turkey were matched by Soviet deployments of nuclear missiles in Cuba. The crisis lasted from 16 to 28 October 1962. The confrontation is widely considered the closest the Cold War came to escalating into full-scale nuclear war.^[5]

In 1961, the US government put Jupiter nuclear missiles in Italy and Turkey. It had also trained a paramilitary force of Cuban exiles, which the CIA led in an attempt to invade Cuba and overthrow its government. Starting in November of that year, the US government engaged in a violent campaign of terrorism and sabotage in Cuba, referred to as the Cuban Project, which continued throughout the first half of the 1960s. The Soviet administration was concerned about a Cuban drift towards China, with which the Soviets had an increasingly fractious relationship. In response to these factors, Soviet First Secretary, Nikita Khrushchev, agreed with the Cuban Prime Minister, Fidel Castro, to place nuclear missiles on the island of Cuba to deter a future invasion. An agreement was reached during a secret meeting between Khrushchev and Castro in July 1962, and construction of a number of missile launch facilities started later that summer.

A U-2 spy plane captured photographic evidence of medium-range R-12 and intermediate-range R-14 ballistic missile facilities in October. President John F. Kennedy convened a meeting of the National Security Council and other key advisers, in a group known as the Executive Committee of the National Security Council (EXCOMM). Kennedy was advised to carry out an air strike on Cuban soil in order to compromise Soviet missile supplies, followed by an invasion of the Cuban mainland. He chose a less aggressive course of action in order to avoid a declaration of war. On 22 October Kennedy ordered a naval blockade, terming it a "quarantine", to prevent further missiles from reaching Cuba.^[6] By using the term "quarantine", rather than "blockade" (an act of war by legal definition), the United States was able to avoid the implications of a state of war.^[7] The US announced it would not permit offensive weapons to be delivered to Cuba and demanded that the weapons already in Cuba be dismantled and returned to the Soviet Union.

After several days of tense negotiations, an agreement was reached between Kennedy and Khrushchev. Publicly, the Soviets would dismantle their offensive weapons in Cuba and return them to the Soviet Union, subject to United Nations verification, in exchange for a US public declaration and agreement to not invade Cuba again. Secretly, the United States agreed with the Soviets that it would dismantle all of the Jupiter MRBMs which had been deployed to Turkey. There has been debate on whether Italy was also included in the agreement. While the Soviets dismantled their missiles, some Soviet bombers remained in Cuba, and the United States kept the naval quarantine in place until 20 November 1962.^[7] When all offensive missiles and the Ilyushin Il-28 light bombers had been withdrawn from Cuba, the blockade was formally ended on 20 November. The negotiations between the United States and the Soviet Union pointed out the necessity of a quick, clear, and direct communication line between the two superpowers. As a result, the Moscow–Washington hotline was established. A series of agreements later reduced US–Soviet tensions for several years, until both parties eventually resumed expanding their nuclear arsenals.

The compromise embarrassed Khrushchev and the Soviet Union because the withdrawal of US missiles from Italy and Turkey was a secret deal between Kennedy and Khrushchev, and the Soviets were seen as retreating from a situation that they had started. Khrushchev's fall from power two years later was in part because of the Soviet Politburo's embarrassment at both Khrushchev's eventual concessions to the US and his ineptitude in precipitating the crisis in the first place. According to Dobrynin, the top Soviet leadership took the Cuban outcome as "a blow to its prestige bordering on humiliation".^[8][9]

1. ^ https://www.usmcu.edu/Portals/218/When%20The%20Russians%20Blinked-%20The%20U_S_%20Maritime%20Response%20To%20The%20Cuban%20Missile%20Crisis.pdf ^{[bare URL PDF]}
2. ^ Keller, Renata (3 February 2024). "The Latin American Missile Crisis". Diplomatic History. 39 (2): 195–222. doi:10.1093/dh/dht134. JSTOR 26376653.
3. ^ "Milestones: 1961–1968 – The Cuban Missile Crisis, October 1962". history.state.gov. Archived from the original on 3 April 2019.
4. ^ Dobbs, Michael (2008). One Minute to Midnight: Kennedy, Khrushchev, and Castro on the Brink of Nuclear War. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. p. 66. ISBN 978-1-4000-4358-3.
5. ^ Scott, Len; Hughes, R. Gerald (2015). The Cuban Missile Crisis: A Critical Reappraisal. Taylor & Francis. p. 17. ISBN 978-1-317-55541-4. Archived from the original on 29 July 2016. Retrieved 31 December 2015.
6. ^ Society, National Geographic (21 April 2021). "Kennedy 'Quarantines' Cuba". National Geographic Society. Retrieved 11 May 2022.
7. ^ ^{a b} Jonathan, Colman (1 April 2019). "The US Legal Case for the Blockade of Cuba during the Missile Crisis, October–November 1962". Journal of Cold War Studies.
8. ^ William Taubman, Khrushchev: The Man and His Era (2004) p. 579.
9. ^ Jeffery D. Shields (7 March 2016). "The Malin Notes: Glimpses Inside the Kremlin during the Cuban Missile Crisis" (PDF). Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars.

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15 October 1793 – Queen Marie Antoinette of France is tried and convicted of treason

Marie Antoinette

Queen of France from 1774 to 1792

For other uses, see Marie Antoinette (disambiguation).

Marie Antoinette (/ˌæntwəˈnɛt, ˌɒ̃t-/;^[1] French: [maʁi ɑ̃twanɛt] ^ⓘ; Marie Antoinette Josèphe Jeanne; 2 November 1755 – 16 October 1793) was the last queen of France prior to the French Revolution. She was born an archduchess of Austria, and was the penultimate child and youngest daughter of Empress Maria Theresa and Emperor Francis I. She became dauphine of France in May 1770 at age 14 upon her marriage to Louis-Auguste, heir apparent to the French throne. On 10 May 1774, her husband ascended the throne as Louis XVI and she became queen.

As queen, Marie Antoinette became increasingly unpopular among the people; the French libelles accused her of being profligate,^[2] promiscuous, having illegitimate children, and harboring sympathies for France's perceived enemies, including her native Austria. She was falsely accused in the Affair of the Diamond Necklace, but the accusations damaged her reputation further. During the French Revolution, she became known as Madame Déficit because the country's financial crisis was blamed on her lavish spending and her opposition to social and financial reforms proposed by Anne Robert Jacques Turgot and Jacques Necker.

Several events were linked to Marie Antoinette during the Revolution after the government placed the royal family under house arrest in the Tuileries Palace in October 1789. The June 1791 attempted flight to Varennes and her role in the War of the First Coalition were immensely damaging to her image among French citizens. On 10 August 1792, the attack on the Tuileries forced the royal family to take refuge at the Assembly, and they were imprisoned in the Temple Prison on 13 August. On 21 September 1792, the monarchy was abolished. Louis XVI was executed by guillotine on 21 January 1793. Marie Antoinette's trial began on 14 October 1793; she was convicted two days later by the Revolutionary Tribunal of high treason and executed, also by guillotine, at the Place de la Révolution.

1. ^ Jones, Daniel (2003) [1917], Peter Roach; James Hartmann; Jane Setter (eds.), English Pronouncing Dictionary, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-3-12-539683-8.
2. ^ Royal household spending in 1788 was 13% of total state expenses (excluding interest on debts).(Finances of Louis XVI (1788) | Nicholas E. Bomba https://blogs.nvcc.edu Archived 20 April 2011 at the Wayback Machine › nbomba › files › 2016/10, https://books.google.com/books?id=ixJWG9q0Eo4C

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16 October 1847 – The novel Jane Eyre is published in London

Jane Eyre

1847 novel by Charlotte Brontë

This article is about the novel. For its title character, see Jane Eyre (character). For other uses, see Jane Eyre (disambiguation).

Jane Eyre (/ɛər/ AIR; originally published as Jane Eyre: An Autobiography) is a novel by the English writer Charlotte Brontë. It was published under her pen name "Currer Bell" on 19 October 1847 by Smith, Elder & Co. of London. The first American edition was published the following year by Harper & Brothers of New York.^[2] Jane Eyre is a bildungsroman that follows the experiences of its eponymous heroine, including her growth to adulthood and her love for Mr Rochester, the brooding master of Thornfield Hall.^[3]

The novel revolutionised prose fiction, being the first to focus on the moral and spiritual development of its protagonist through an intimate first-person narrative, where actions and events are coloured by a psychological intensity. Charlotte Brontë has been called the "first historian of the private consciousness" and the literary ancestor of writers such as Marcel Proust and James Joyce.^[4]

The book contains elements of social criticism with a strong sense of Christian morality at its core, and it is considered by many to be ahead of its time because of Jane's individualistic character and how the novel approaches the topics of class, sexuality, religion and feminism.^[5][6] Jane Eyre, along with Jane Austen's Pride and Prejudice, is one of the most famous romance novels.^[7]

1. ^ "On Tuesday next will be published, and may be had at all the libraries, Jane Eyre. An Autobiography. Edited by Currer Bell. 3 vols, post 8vo. London: Smith, Elder, and Co., 65, Cornhill". Daily News. 13 October 1847. p. 1.
2. ^ "The HarperCollins Timeline". HarperCollins Publishers. Retrieved 18 October 2018.
3. ^ Lollar, Cortney. "Jane Eyre: A Bildungsroman". The Victorian Web. Retrieved 22 January 2019.
4. ^ Burt, Daniel S. (2008). The Literature 100: A Ranking of the Most Influential Novelists, Playwrights, and Poets of All Time. Infobase Publishing. ISBN 9781438127064.
5. ^ Gilbert, Sandra; Gubar, Susan (1979). The Madwoman in the Attic. Yale University Press.
6. ^ Martin, Robert B. (1966). Charlotte Brontë's Novels: The Accents of Persuasion. New York: Norton.
7. ^ Roberts, Timothy (2011). Jane Eyre. p. 8.

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17 October 1979 – Mother Teresa is awarded the Nobel Peace Prize.

Mother Teresa

Albanian-Indian Catholic saint (1910–1997)

This article is about the Catholic nun and saint. For other uses, see Mother Teresa (disambiguation).

Mary Teresa Bojaxhiu MC (born Anjezë Gonxhe Bojaxhiu, Albanian: [aˈɲɛzə ˈɡɔndʒɛ bɔjaˈdʒi.u]; 26 August 1910 – 5 September 1997), better known as Mother Teresa,^[a] was an Albanian-Indian Catholic nun and the founder of the Missionaries of Charity. Born in Skopje, then part of the Ottoman Empire,^[b] at the age of 18 she moved to Ireland and later to India, where she lived most of her life. On 4 September 2016, she was canonised by the Catholic Church as Saint Teresa of Calcutta. The anniversary of her death, 5 September, is her feast day.

Mother Teresa founded Missionaries of Charity, a religious congregation, which grew to have over 4,500 nuns across 133 countries as of 2012^[update].^[6] The congregation manages homes for people who are dying of HIV/AIDS, leprosy, and tuberculosis. The congregation also runs soup kitchens, dispensaries, mobile clinics, children's and family counselling programmes, as well as orphanages and schools. Members take vows of chastity, poverty, and obedience and also profess a fourth vow: to give "wholehearted free service to the poorest of the poor."^[7]

Mother Teresa received several honours, including the 1962 Ramon Magsaysay Peace Prize and the 1979 Nobel Peace Prize. A controversial figure during her life and after her death, Mother Teresa was admired by many for her charitable work, but was criticised for her views on abortion and contraception, as well as the poor conditions in her houses for the dying. Her authorised biography, written by Navin Chawla, was published in 1992, and she has been the subject of many other works. On 6 September 2017, Mother Teresa and Saint Francis Xavier were named co-patrons of the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Calcutta.

1. ^ "St. Teresa of Kolkata". Catholic News Agency. Archived from the original on 8 October 2018. Retrieved 6 September 2023.
2. ^ Banerjee, Manik (6 September 2017). "Vatican declares Mother Teresa a patron saint of Calcutta". Associated Press. Archived from the original on 6 September 2017. Retrieved 6 September 2017.
3. ^ "Mother Teresa to be named co-patron of Calcutta Archdiocese on first canonization anniversary". First Post. 4 September 2017. Archived from the original on 26 April 2020. Retrieved 5 September 2017. {{cite magazine}}: Unknown parameter |agency= ignored (help)
4. ^ Cite error: The named reference Cannon2013 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
5. ^ "Kur Nënë Tereza vinte në Tiranë/2" [When Mother Teresa came to Tirana/2]. Shqiptari i Italisë (in Albanian). 2 December 2010. Archived from the original on 18 September 2016. Retrieved 4 September 2016.
6. ^ Poplin, Mary (2011). Finding Calcutta: What Mother Teresa Taught Me About Meaningful Work and Service. InterVarsity Press. p. 112. ISBN 978-0-8308-6848-3. Archived from the original on 1 February 2022. Retrieved 3 October 2020.
7. ^ Muggeridge (1971), chapter 3, "Mother Teresa Speaks", pp. 105, 113

Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

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18 October 1954 – Texas Instruments announces the first transistor radio.

Transistor radio

Portable radio receiver

This article is about an electronic device. For the album by M. Ward, see Transistor Radio. For the song by Benny Hill, see Transistor Radio (song).

A transistor radio is a small portable radio receiver that uses transistor-based circuitry. Following the invention of the transistor in 1947—which revolutionized the field of consumer electronics by introducing small but powerful, convenient hand-held devices—the Regency TR-1 was released in 1954 becoming the first commercial transistor radio. The mass-market success of the smaller and cheaper Sony TR-63, released in 1957, led to the transistor radio becoming the most popular electronic communication device of the 1960s and 1970s. Transistor radios are still commonly used as car radios. Billions of transistor radios are estimated to have been sold worldwide between the 1950s and 2012.^{[citation needed]}

The pocket size of transistor radios sparked a change in popular music listening habits, allowing people to listen to music anywhere they went. Beginning around 1980, however, cheap AM transistor radios were superseded initially by the boombox and the Sony Walkman, and later on by digitally-based devices with higher audio quality such as portable CD players, personal audio players, MP3 players and (eventually) by smartphones, many of which contain FM radios.^[1][2] A transistor is a semiconductor device that amplifies and acts as an electronic switch.

1. ^ Petraglia, Dave (5 March 2014). "Why You Owe Your Smartphone To The Transistor Radio". Thought Catalog.
2. ^ Bray, Hiawatha (6 November 2014). "Is Your Smartphone Ready for Radio?". The Boston Globe.

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19 October 1216 – King John of England dies at Newark-on-Trent and is succeeded by his nine-year-old son Henry.

John, King of England

King of England from 1199 to 1216

John (24 December 1166 – 19 October 1216) was the King of England from 1199 until his death in 1216. He lost the Duchy of Normandy and most of his other French lands to King Philip II of France, resulting in the collapse of the Angevin Empire and contributing to the subsequent growth in power of the French Capetian dynasty during the 13th century. The baronial revolt at the end of John's reign led to the sealing of Magna Carta, a document considered an early step in the evolution of the constitution of the United Kingdom.

John was the youngest son of King Henry II of England and Duchess Eleanor of Aquitaine. He was nicknamed John Lackland (Norman French: Jean sans Terre lit. 'John without land')^[1] because he was not expected to inherit significant lands.^[2] He became Henry's favourite child following the failed revolt of 1173–1174 by his brothers Henry the Young King, Richard, and Geoffrey against the King. John was appointed Lord of Ireland in 1177 and given lands in England and on the continent. He unsuccessfully attempted a rebellion against the royal administrators of his brother, King Richard, while Richard was participating in the Third Crusade, but he was proclaimed king after Richard died in 1199. He came to an agreement with Philip II of France to recognise John's possession of the continental Angevin lands at the peace treaty of Le Goulet in 1200.

When war with France broke out again in 1202, John achieved early victories, but shortages of military resources and his treatment of Norman, Breton, and Anjou nobles resulted in the collapse of his empire in northern France in 1204. He spent much of the next decade attempting to regain these lands, raising huge revenues, reforming his armed forces and rebuilding continental alliances. His judicial reforms had a lasting effect on the English common law system, as well as providing an additional source of revenue. An argument with Pope Innocent III led to John's excommunication in 1209, a dispute he finally settled in 1213. John's attempt to defeat Philip in 1214 failed because of the French victory over John's allies at the Battle of Bouvines. When he returned to England, John faced a rebellion by many of his barons, who were unhappy with his fiscal policies and his treatment of many of England's most powerful nobles. Magna Carta was drafted as a peace treaty between John and the barons, and agreed in 1215. However, neither side complied with its conditions and civil war broke out shortly afterwards, with the barons aided by Louis VIII of France. It soon descended into a stalemate. John died of dysentery contracted while on campaign in eastern England during late 1216; supporters of his son Henry III went on to achieve victory over Louis and the rebel barons the following year.

Contemporary chroniclers were mostly critical of John's performance as king, and his reign has since been the subject of significant debate and periodic revision by historians from the 16th century onwards. Historian Jim Bradbury has summarised the current historical opinion of John's positive qualities, observing that John is today usually considered a "hard-working administrator, an able man, an able general".^[3] Nonetheless, modern historians agree that he also had many faults as king, including what historian Ralph Turner describes as "distasteful, even dangerous personality traits", such as pettiness, spitefulness, and cruelty.^[4] These negative qualities provided extensive material for fiction writers in the Victorian era, and John remains a recurring character within Western popular culture, primarily as a villain in Robin Hood folklore.

Cite error: There are <ref group=nb> tags on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=nb}} template (see the help page).

1. ^ "- Jean sans Terre". www.rct.uk. Retrieved 1 January 2023.
2. ^ Norgate (1902), pp. 1–2.
3. ^ Bradbury (2007), p. 353.
4. ^ Turner, p. 23.

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20 October 1973 – Watergate scandal: "Saturday Night Massacre": United States President Richard Nixon fires U.S. Attorney General Elliot Richardson and Deputy Attorney General William Ruckelshaus after they refuse to fire special prosecutor Archibald Cox, who is finally fired by Solicitor General Robert Bork.

Saturday Night Massacre

1973 mass firings/resignations of US government officials during the Watergate scandal

The Saturday Night Massacre was a series of events that took place in the United States on the evening of Saturday, October 20, 1973, during the Watergate scandal.^[1] US President Richard Nixon ordered Attorney General Elliot Richardson to fire Special Prosecutor Archibald Cox; Richardson refused and resigned effective immediately. Nixon then ordered Deputy Attorney General William Ruckelshaus to fire Cox; Ruckelshaus refused, and also resigned. Nixon then ordered the third-most-senior official at the Justice Department, Solicitor General Robert Bork, to fire Cox. Bork carried out the dismissal as Nixon asked.^[2] Bork stated that he intended to resign afterward, but was persuaded by Richardson and Ruckelshaus to stay on for the good of the Justice Department.^[3][4]

The political and public reactions to Nixon's actions were negative and highly damaging to the president. The impeachment process against Nixon began ten days later, on October 30, 1973. Leon Jaworski was appointed as the new special prosecutor on November 1, 1973,^[5] and on November 14, 1973, United States District Judge Gerhard Gesell ruled that the dismissal had been illegal.^[6][7] The Saturday Night Massacre marked the turning point of the Watergate scandal as the public, while increasingly uncertain about Nixon's actions in Watergate, were incensed by Nixon's seemingly blatant attempt to end the Watergate probe, while Congress, having largely taken a wait-and-see policy regarding Nixon's role in the scandal, quickly turned on Nixon and initiated impeachment proceedings that would end in Nixon's resignation.

1. ^ Andrews, Evan. "What Was the Saturday Night Massacre?". HISTORY. Retrieved May 13, 2020.
2. ^ "A Brief History Of Nixon's 'Saturday Night Massacre'". NPR.org. Retrieved May 13, 2020.
3. ^ "Bork: Nixon Offered Next High Court Vacancy in '73". Yahoo News. ABC News. February 25, 2013. Archived from the original on March 1, 2013.
4. ^ Noble, Kenneth B.; Times, Special To the New York (July 2, 1987). "Bork Irked by Emphasis on His Role in Watergate". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved May 13, 2020.
5. ^ "Attorney General, Prosecutor Picked". The Argus-Press. Associated Press. November 1, 1973.
6. ^ Cite error: The named reference noble was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
7. ^ Nader v. Bork, 366 F. Supp. 104 (D.D.C. 1973)

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21 October 1983 – The metre is defined as the distance light travels in a vacuum in 1/299,792,458 of a second.

Metre

SI unit of length

This article is about the unit of length. For other uses of "metre" or "meter", see Meter (disambiguation).

The metre (or meter in US spelling; symbol: m) is the base unit of length in the International System of Units (SI). Since 2019 the metre has been defined as the length of the path travelled by light in vacuum during a time interval of 1/299792458 of a second, where the second is defined by a hyperfine transition frequency of caesium.^[2]

The metre was originally defined in 1791 by the French National Assembly as one ten-millionth of the distance from the equator to the North Pole along a great circle, so the Earth's polar circumference is approximately 40000 km.

In 1799, the metre was redefined in terms of a prototype metre bar, the bar used was changed in 1889, and in 1960 the metre was redefined in terms of a certain number of wavelengths of a certain emission line of krypton-86. The current definition was adopted in 1983 and modified slightly in 2002 to clarify that the metre is a measure of proper length. From 1983 until 2019, the metre was formally defined as the length of the path travelled by light in vacuum in 1/299792458 of a second. After the 2019 redefinition of the SI base units, this definition was rephrased to include the definition of a second in terms of the caesium frequency Δν_Cs. This series of amendments did not alter the size of the metre significantly – today Earth's polar circumference measures 40007.863 km, a change of 0.022% from the original value of exactly 40000 km, which also includes improvements in the accuracy of measuring the circumference.

1. ^ "Base unit definitions: Meter". National Institute of Standards and Technology. Retrieved 28 September 2010.
2. ^ International Bureau of Weights and Measures (20 May 2019), The International System of Units (SI) (PDF) (9th ed.), ISBN 978-92-822-2272-0, archived from the original on 18 October 2021

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22 October 1859 – Spain declares war on Morocco.

Hispano-Moroccan War (1859–1860)

Conflict between Spain and Morocco

The Hispano-Moroccan War, also known as the Spanish–Moroccan War, the First Moroccan War, the Tetuán War, or, in Spain, as the War of Africa, was fought from Spain's declaration of war on Morocco on 22 October 1859 until the Treaty of Wad-Ras on 26 April 1860. It began with a conflict over the borders of the Spanish city of Ceuta and was fought in northern Morocco. Morocco sued for peace after the Spanish victory at the Battle of Tetuán.

1. ^ Clodfelter, Micheal (2017). Warfare and Armed Conflicts: A Statistical Encyclopedia of Casualty and Other Figures, 1492–2015 (4th ed.). McFarland. p. 199. ISBN 978-0-7864-7470-7.
2. ^ Cerda Catalán, Alfonso. La Guerra entre España y las repúblicas del Pacífico, 1864–1866: el bombardeo de Valparaíso y el combate naval del Callao. p. 37.

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23 October 4004 BC – James Ussher's proposed creation date of the world according to the Bible.

James Ussher

17th-century Anglican Archbishop of Armagh

"Ussher" and "James Usher" redirect here. For the surname, see Ussher (surname). For the Lincolnshire philanthropist, see James Ward Usher.

James Ussher (or Usher; 4 January 1581 – 21 March 1656) was the Church of Ireland Archbishop of Armagh and Primate of All Ireland between 1625 and 1656. He was a prolific scholar and church leader, who today is most famous for his identification of the genuine letters of the church father, Ignatius of Antioch, and for his chronology that sought to establish the time and date of the creation as "the entrance of the night preceding the 23rd day of October... the year before Christ 4004"; that is, around 6 pm on 22 October 4004 BC, per the proleptic Julian calendar.

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24 October 1926 – Harry Houdini's last performance takes place at the Garrick Theatre in Detroit.

Harry Houdini

Hungarian-American escapologist and stuntperson

"Houdini" redirects here. For other uses, see Houdini (disambiguation).

"Erich Weiss" redirects here. For the baseball player, see Erich Weiss (baseball).

The native form of this personal name is Weisz Erik. This article uses Western name order when mentioning individuals.

Erik Weisz (March 24, 1874 – October 31, 1926), known as Harry Houdini (/huːˈdiːni/ hoo-DEE-nee), was a Hungarian-American escape artist, illusionist, and stunt performer, noted for his escape acts.^[3]

Houdini first attracted notice in vaudeville in the United States and then as Harry 'Handcuff' Houdini on a tour of Europe, where he challenged police forces to keep him locked up. Soon he extended his repertoire to include chains, ropes slung from skyscrapers, straitjackets under water, and having to escape from and hold his breath inside a sealed milk can with water in it.

In 1904, thousands watched as Houdini tried to escape from special handcuffs commissioned by London's Daily Mirror, keeping them in suspense for an hour. Another stunt saw him buried alive and only just able to claw himself to the surface, emerging in a state of near-breakdown. While many suspected that these escapes were faked, Houdini presented himself as the scourge of fake spiritualists, pursuing a personal crusade to expose their fraudulent methods. As president of the Society of American Magicians, he was keen to uphold professional standards and expose fraudulent artists. He was also quick to sue anyone who imitated his escape stunts.

Houdini made several movies but quit acting when it failed to bring in money. He was also a keen aviator and aimed to become the first man to fly a powered aircraft in Australia.^[4]

1. ^ Schiller, Gerald. (2010). It Happened in Hollywood: Remarkable Events That Shaped History. Globe Pequot Press. p. 34. ISBN 978-0762754496
2. ^ "Harry Houdini". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved March 24, 2014.
3. ^ Houdini!, retrieved March 11, 2021
4. ^ Maksel, Rebecca. "The Hunt for Houdini's Airplane". Air & Space Magazine. Retrieved August 4, 2021.

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25 October 1971 – The People's Republic of China replaces the Republic of China at the United Nations.

China and the United Nations

History of China's participation in the UN

China is one of the members of the United Nations and is one of five permanent members of its Security Council. One of the victorious Allies of World War II (the Chinese theatre of which was the Second Sino-Japanese War), the Republic of China (ROC) joined the UN upon its founding in 1945. The subsequent resumption of the Chinese Civil War between the government of Republic of China and the rebel forces of the Chinese Communist Party, led to the latter's victory on the mainland and the establishment of the People's Republic of China (PRC) in 1949. Nearly all of Mainland China was soon under its control^{[note 1]} and the ROC government (then referred to in the West as "Nationalist China") retreated to the island of Taiwan.

The One-China policy advocated by both governments^[1] dismantled the solution of dual representation but, amid the Cold War and Korean War, the United States and its allies opposed the replacement of the ROC at the United Nations until 1971, although they were persuaded to pressure the government of the ROC to accept international recognition of Mongolia's independence in 1961. The PRC sought to be recognized by the United Nations since the 1950s,^[2] but at least until 1961, the United States managed to keep the PRC out of the UN.^[3] The General Assembly Resolution 1668 which demanded a majority of two thirds for the recognition of new members was adopted^[4] in 1961. Canada and other allies of the United States individually shifted their recognitions of China to the PRC, which the US opposed.^[5] Some attempted to recognize both Chinas separately which both Chinas opposed declaring each one was the only legitimate representative of China.^[5] Annual motions to replace the ROC with the PRC were introduced first by the Soviet Union, then India and also Albania, but these were defeated.^[5]

Amid the Sino-Soviet split and Vietnam War, United States President Richard Nixon entered into negotiations with Chinese Communist Party Chairman Mao Zedong, initially through a secret 1971 trip undertaken by Henry Kissinger to visit Zhou Enlai. On 25 October 1971, Albania's motion to recognize the People's Republic of China as the sole legal China was passed as General Assembly Resolution 2758. It was supported by most of the communist states (including the Soviet Union) and non-aligned countries (such as India), but also by some NATO countries, such as the United Kingdom and France. After the PRC was seated on 15 November 1971, Nixon then personally visited mainland China the next year, beginning the normalization of PRC-USA relations. The Republic of China maintained the view it was the sole legitimate representative of China until 1988, but eventually turned to a foreign policy which sought international recognition through a so-called checkbook diplomacy.^[1] These moves have been opposed and mostly blocked by the People's Republic of China, forcing the Republic of China to join international organizations under other names, including "Chinese Taipei" at the International Olympic Committee.

The Republic of China's most recent request for admission was turned down in 2007,^[6] but a number of European governments—led by the United States—protested to the UN's Office of Legal Affairs to force the global body and its secretary-general to stop using the reference "Taiwan is a part of China".^[7]

Cite error: There are <ref group=note> tags on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=note}} template (see the help page).

1. ^ ^{a b} Bulsara, Sanket (1995). "Out in the Cold: The Politics of Taiwan's Exclusion from the UN". Harvard International Review. 17 (3): 52–84. ISSN 0739-1854. JSTOR 42761198.
2. ^ Carter, James (21 October 2020). "When the PRC won the 'China' seat at the UN". The China Project. Retrieved 21 June 2023.
3. ^ Appleton, Sheldon (1962). "The United Nations "China Tangle"". Pacific Affairs. 35 (2): 164. ISSN 0030-851X. JSTOR 2753249.
4. ^ Torelli, Angela (2012).p.158
5. ^ ^{a b c} Torelli, Angela (2012). "The Costs of Realism: The Nixon Administration, the People's Republic of China, and the United Nations". The Journal of American-East Asian Relations. 19 (2): 159–160. doi:10.1163/18765610-01902001. ISSN 1058-3947. JSTOR 23613339.
6. ^ "UN rejects Taiwan application for entry". The New York Times. 24 July 2007. Archived from the original on 26 December 2017. Retrieved 22 October 2016.
7. ^ "UN told to drop 'Taiwan is part of China': cable". Taipei Times. 16 October 2016. Archived from the original on 22 March 2015. Retrieved 22 October 2016.

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26 October 1985 – The Australian government returns ownership of Uluru to the local Pitjantjatjara Aboriginals.

Uluru

Sandstone monolith in the Northern Territory, Australia

"Ayers Rock" redirects here. For other uses, see Ayers Rock (disambiguation).

Uluru (/ˌuːləˈruː/; Pitjantjatjara: Uluṟu [ˈʊlʊɻʊ]), also known as Ayers Rock (/ˈɛərz/ AIRS) and officially gazetted as Uluru / Ayers Rock,^[1] is a large sandstone monolith. It outcrops near the centre of Australia in the southern part of the Northern Territory, 335 km (208 mi) south-west of Alice Springs.

Uluru is sacred to the Pitjantjatjara, the Aboriginal people of the area, known as the Aṉangu. The area around the formation is home to an abundance of springs, waterholes, rock caves and ancient paintings. Uluru is listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Uluru and Kata Tjuta, also known as the Olgas, are the two major features of the Uluṟu-Kata Tjuṯa National Park.

Uluru is one of Australia's most recognisable natural landmarks^[2] and has been a popular destination for tourists since the late 1930s. It is also one of the most important indigenous sites in Australia.

1. ^ "Place Names Register Extract: Uluru / Ayers Rock". Northern Territory Place Names Register. Northern Territory Government. 6 November 2002. Retrieved 12 July 2013.
2. ^ National Museum of Australia. "Defining Symbols of Australia - Uluru". www.nma.gov.au. Retrieved 11 February 2024.

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27 October 1991 – Turkmenistan achieves independence from the Soviet Union.

Turkmenistan

Country in Central Asia

"Turkomania" redirects here. For other uses, see Turkomania (disambiguation).

Not to be confused with Turkestan, Turkey, or Turkmeneli.

Turkmenistan^[a] is a country in Central Asia bordered by Kazakhstan to the northwest, Uzbekistan to the north, east and northeast, Afghanistan to the southeast, Iran to the south and southwest and the Caspian Sea to the west.^[15] Ashgabat is the capital and largest city. It is one of the six independent Turkic states. With a population of 6.5 million, Turkmenistan is the 35th most-populous country in Asia^[16] and has the lowest population of the Central Asian republics while being one of the most sparsely populated nations on the Asian continent.^[6][17][7]

Turkmenistan has long served as a thoroughfare for several empires and cultures.^[6] Merv is one of the oldest oasis-cities in Central Asia,^[18] and was once among the biggest cities in the world.^[19] It was also one of the great cities of the Islamic world and an important stop on the Silk Road. Annexed by the Russian Empire in 1881, Turkmenistan figured prominently in the anti-Bolshevik movement in Central Asia. In 1925, Turkmenistan became a constituent republic of the Soviet Union, the Turkmen Soviet Socialist Republic (Turkmen SSR); it became independent after the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991.^[6]

The country is widely criticized for its poor human rights,^[20][21] its treatment of minorities, and its lack of press and religious freedoms. Since the independence declared from the Soviet Union in 1991, Turkmenistan has been ruled by repressive totalitarian regimes: that of President for Life Saparmurat Niyazov (also known as Türkmenbaşy/Türkmenbaşı or "Head of the Turkmens") until his death in 2006; Gurbanguly Berdimuhamedow, who became president in 2007 after winning a non-democratic election (he had been vice-president and then acting president previously); and his son Serdar, who won a subsequent 2022 presidential election described by international observers as neither free nor fair, and now shares power with his father.^[22][23][9]

Turkmenistan possesses the world's fifth largest reserves of natural gas.^[24] Most of the country is covered by the Karakum Desert. From 1993 to 2019, citizens received government-provided electricity, water and natural gas free of charge.^[25] Turkmenistan is an observer state in the Organisation of Turkic States, the Türksoy community and a member of the United Nations.^[26]

1. ^ ""Turkmenistan is the motherland of Neutrality" is the motto of 2020 | Chronicles of Turkmenistan". En.hronikatm.com. 28 December 2019. Archived from the original on 8 June 2020. Retrieved 26 May 2020.
2. ^ "Turkmen parliament places Year 2020 under national motto "Turkmenistan – Homeland of Neutrality" – tpetroleum". Turkmenpetroleum.com. 29 December 2019. Archived from the original on 8 June 2020. Retrieved 26 May 2020.
3. ^ "Turkmenistan's Constitution of 2008" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 15 May 2019. Retrieved 17 December 2020.
4. ^ "The results of census in Turkmenistan | Chronicles of Turkmenistan". Archived from the original on 6 October 2016.
5. ^ "Turkmenistan". 3 August 2022. Archived from the original on 10 January 2021. Retrieved 10 August 2022.
6. ^ ^{a b c d} "Turkmenistan", The World Factbook, Central Intelligence Agency, 19 October 2021, archived from the original on 10 January 2021, retrieved 25 October 2021
7. ^ ^{a b} "Dual Citizenship". Ashgabat: U.S. Embassy in Turkmenistan. Archived from the original on 23 May 2020. Retrieved 23 May 2020.
8. ^ *Gore, Hayden (2007). "Totalitarianism: The Case of Turkmenistan" (PDF). Human Rights & Human Welfare (Human Rights in Russia and the Former Soviet Republics). Denver: Josef Korbel School of International Studies: 107–116. Archived from the original (PDF) on 29 February 2020. Retrieved 29 June 2021.
   • Williamson, Hugh (24 March 2022). "The internet is crucial". Human Rights Watch. Archived from the original on 4 May 2022. Retrieved 4 May 2022. Turkmenistan stands out as a totalitarian state. It gives absolutely no scope to dissident opinions and independent media. The regime censors the internet heavily.
   • Horák, Slavomír; Šír, Jan (March 2009). Dismantling totalitarianism?: Turkmenistan under Berdimuhamedow (PDF). Washington, D.C.: Paul H. Nitze School of Advanced International Studies. ISBN 9789185937172. Archived (PDF) from the original on 16 August 2022. Retrieved 4 May 2022.
   • "Turkmenistan: New president, old ideas". Eurasianet. 15 March 2022. Archived from the original on 15 March 2022. Retrieved 4 May 2022.
   • "Nations in Transit: Turkemistan". Freedom House. 2016. Archived from the original on 23 May 2022. Retrieved 4 May 2022.
   • Stronski, Paul (30 January 2017). "Turkmenistan at Twenty-Five: The High Price of Authoritarianism" (PDF). Washington, D.C.: Carnegie Endowment for International Peace. Archived (PDF) from the original on 1 January 2022. Retrieved 4 May 2022.
9. ^ ^{a b} "Turkmenistan's president expands his father's power". Associated Press. Ashgabat. 22 January 2023. Archived from the original on 29 January 2023. Retrieved 29 January 2023.
10. ^ Государственный комитет Туркменистана по статистике : Информация о Туркменистане: О Туркменистане Archived 7 January 2012 at the Wayback Machine : Туркменистан — одна из пяти стран Центральной Азии, вторая среди них по площади (491,21 тысяч км2), расположен в юго-западной части региона в зоне пустынь, севернее хребта Копетдаг Туркмено-Хорасанской горной системы, между Каспийским морем на западе и рекой Амударья на востоке.
11. ^ ""Ilat ýazuwy — 2022": Türkmenistanyň ilaty 7 million 57 müň 841 adama deň boldy | Jemgyýet". August 2023.
12. ^ ^{a b c d} "World Economic Outlook Database, October 2023 Edition. (Turkmenistan)". IMF.org. International Monetary Fund. 10 October 2023. Retrieved 14 October 2023.
13. ^ "Human Development Report 2023/24". United Nations Development Programme. 13 March 2024. Archived from the original on 19 March 2024. Retrieved 22 March 2023.
14. ^ Clark, Larry (1998). Turkmen Reference Grammar. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag. p. 50.
15. ^ Afanasiev (58b00667a5209), Vladimir (21 January 2021). "Deep-water friendship: Turkmenistan and Azerbaijan bury Caspian Sea hatchet". Upstream Online | Latest oil and gas news. Retrieved 7 April 2023.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
16. ^ "Asian Countries by Population (2023)".
17. ^ "Turkmenian". Ethnologue. Archived from the original on 14 January 2021. Retrieved 13 December 2020.
18. ^ "State Historical and Cultural Park "Ancient Merv"". UNESCO-WHC. Archived from the original on 19 November 2020. Retrieved 26 July 2020.
19. ^ Tharoor, Kanishk (2016). "Lost cities #5: how the magnificent city of Merv was razed – and never recovered". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 29 April 2021. Retrieved 26 July 2020. Once the world's biggest city, the Silk Road metropolis of Merv in modern Turkmenistan destroyed by Genghis Khan's son and the Mongols in AD1221 with an estimated 700,000 deaths.
20. ^ Cite error: The named reference flee was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
21. ^ Cite error: The named reference Kerry was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
22. ^ "As Expected, Son Of Turkmen Leader Easily Wins Election In Familial Transfer Of Power". RadioFreeEurope/RadioLiberty. Archived from the original on 22 March 2022. Retrieved 28 March 2022.
23. ^ "Turkmenistan: Autocrat president's son claims landslide win". Deutsche Welle. 15 March 2022. Archived from the original on 15 March 2022. Retrieved 28 March 2022.
24. ^ "BP Statistical Review of World Energy 2019" (PDF). p. 30. Archived (PDF) from the original on 26 December 2019. Retrieved 13 December 2019.
25. ^ "Turkmen ruler ends free power, gas, water – World News". Hürriyet Daily News. 10 October 2017. Archived from the original on 15 July 2018. Retrieved 15 July 2018.
26. ^ AA, DAILY SABAH WITH (17 November 2021). "'Turkmenistan's new status in Turkic States significant development'". Daily Sabah. Archived from the original on 23 February 2022. Retrieved 23 February 2022.

Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

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28 October 2009 – The 28 October 2009 Peshawar bombing kills 117 and wounds 213.

28 October 2009 Peshawar bombing

2009 terror attack in Peshawar, Pakistan

The 28 October 2009 Peshawar bombing occurred in Peshawar, Pakistan, when a car bomb was detonated in a Mina Bazar (Market for women and children) of the city. The bomb killed 137 people and injured more than 200 others, making it the deadliest attack in Peshawar's history. Pakistani government officials believe the Taliban to be responsible, but both Taliban and Al-Qaeda sources have denied involvement in the attack.

1. ^ ^{a b} Cite error: The named reference IT was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
2. ^ Hazrat Bacha, Ali (30 October 2009). "Death toll from Peshawar blast rises to 117". Dawn. Pakistan. Archived from the original on 1 November 2009. Retrieved 6 March 2022.

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29 October 2005 – Bombings in Delhi, India kill more than 60.

2005 Delhi bombings

2005 Islamist terror attack in Delhi, India

The 2005 Delhi bombings occurred on 29 October 2005 in Delhi, India, killing 62 people and injuring at least 210 others^[1] in three explosions. The bombings came only two days before the important festival of Diwali, which is celebrated by Hindus, Sikhs, and Jains. The bombs were triggered in two markets in central and south Delhi and in a bus south of the city. The Pakistani Islamist terrorist group Lashkar-e-Taiba claimed responsibility for the attacks under the pseudonym of Islamic Inquilab Mahaz.^[2] The Indian Mujahideen is also suspected of involvement.^[3]

President A P J Abdul Kalam condemned the blasts in Delhi and sent condolences to the bereaved and other victims. Kalam appealed to the people "to maintain calm and help the agencies in relief and rescue work." Parts of India were moved to higher alert following the blasts.

1. ^ "Delhi blasts death toll at 62". Archived from the original on 5 November 2005.
2. ^ "Incident Summary for GTDID: 200510290001". Global Terrorism Database. Retrieved 20 August 2022.
3. ^ Das, Shaswati (19 April 2018). "NIA arrests Indian Mujahideen operative Ariz Khan wanted in 2005 Delhi blasts case". mint. Retrieved 20 August 2022.

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30 October 1983 – The first democratic elections in Argentina, after seven years of military rule, are held.

1983 Argentine general election

A general election was held in Argentina on 30 October 1983 and marked the return of constitutional rule following the self-styled National Reorganization Process dictatorship installed in 1976. Voters fully chose the president, governors, mayors, and their respective national, province and town legislators; with a turnout of 85.6%.

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31 October 1941 – After 14 years of work, Mount Rushmore is completed.

Mount Rushmore

Mountain in the US featuring a sculpture of four presidents

For the band, see Mount Rushmore (band).

The Mount Rushmore National Memorial is a national memorial centered on a colossal sculpture carved into the granite face of Mount Rushmore (Lakota: Tȟuŋkášila Šákpe, or Six Grandfathers) in the Black Hills near Keystone, South Dakota, United States. Sculptor Gutzon Borglum designed the sculpture, called Shrine of Democracy,^[2] and oversaw the project's execution from 1927 to 1941 with the help of his son, Lincoln Borglum.^[3][4] The sculpture features the 60-foot-tall (18 m) heads of four United States presidents: George Washington, Thomas Jefferson, Theodore Roosevelt, and Abraham Lincoln,^[5] chosen to represent the nation's birth, growth, development, and preservation, respectively.^[6] Mount Rushmore attracts more than two million visitors annually^[1] to the memorial park which covers 1,278 acres (2.00 sq mi; 5.17 km²).^[7] The mountain's elevation is 5,725 feet (1,745 m) above sea level.^[8]

The sculptor chose Mount Rushmore in part because it faces southeast for maximum sun exposure. The carving was the idea of Doane Robinson, a historian for the state of South Dakota. Robinson originally wanted the sculpture to feature American West heroes, such as Lewis and Clark, their expedition guide Sacagawea, Oglala Lakota chief Red Cloud,^[9] Buffalo Bill Cody,^[10] and Oglala Lakota chief Crazy Horse.^[11] Borglum chose the four presidents instead.

Peter Norbeck, U.S. senator from South Dakota, sponsored the project and secured federal funding.^[12] Construction began in 1927 and the presidents' faces were completed between 1934 and 1939. After Gutzon Borglum died in March 1941, his son Lincoln took over as leader of the construction project. Each president was originally to be depicted from head to waist, but lack of funding forced construction to end on October 31, 1941,^[13] and only Washington's sculpture includes any detail below chin level.

The sculpture at Mount Rushmore is built on land that was illegally^[14] taken from the Sioux Nation in the 1870s. The Sioux continue to demand return of the land, and in 1980 the US Supreme Court ruled in United States v. Sioux Nation of Indians that the taking of the Black Hills required just compensation, and awarded the tribe $102 million. The Sioux have refused the money, which has grown with interest to over a billion dollars, and demand the return of the land. This conflict continues, leading some critics of the monument to refer to it as a "Shrine of Hypocrisy".^[15]

1. ^ ^{a b} "Annual Park Ranking Report for Recreation Visits in: 2022". National Park Service. Retrieved July 23, 2023.
2. ^ Rosenberg, Jennifer (January 16, 2021). "10 Things You Didn't Know About Mount Rushmore". ThoughtCo. Retrieved March 28, 2023.
3. ^ Roberts, Sam (June 28, 2016). "An Immigrant's Contribution to Mount Rushmore Is Recognized, 75 Years Later". The New York Times. Retrieved September 19, 2017.
4. ^ Andrews, John (May 2014). "Slight of Hand". South Dakota Magazine. Retrieved September 22, 2017.
5. ^ Mount Rushmore National Memorial Archived August 23, 2017, at the Wayback Machine. December 6, 2005.60 SD Web Traveler, Inc. Retrieved April 7, 2006.
6. ^ "Why These Four Presidents?". nps.gov. National Park Service. Retrieved February 13, 2019.
7. ^ McGeveran, William A. Jr. et al. (2004). The World Almanac and Book of Facts 2004. New York: World Almanac Education Group, Inc. ISBN 0-88687-910-8.
8. ^ "Mount Rushmore, South Dakota". Peakbagger.com. Retrieved March 13, 2006.
9. ^ !, episode 5x08 "Mount Rushmore", May 10, 2007.
10. ^ "Making Mount Rushmore | Mount Rushmore". Oh, Ranger!. Archived from the original on November 20, 2012. Retrieved October 31, 2012.
11. ^ Pekka Hamalainen, "Lakota America, a New History of Indigenous Power", (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2019), p. 382.
12. ^ "Senator Peter Norbeck". American Experience: Mount Rushmore. PBS. Retrieved July 20, 2013.
13. ^ "Complete Program Transcript . Mount Rushmore". American Experience. PBS. Archived from the original on March 1, 2017. Retrieved April 18, 2015.
14. ^ Barbash, Fred; Elkind, Peter (July 1, 1980). "Sioux Win $105 Million". The Washington Post. ISSN 0190-8286. Retrieved April 9, 2024.
15. ^ Cite error: The named reference :0 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).

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1 November 1805 – Napoleon Bonaparte invades Austria during the War of the Third Coalition.

[URL='https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1805']1805[/URL] – [URL='https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Napoleon_I']Napoleon Bonaparte[/URL] invades [URL='https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Austrian_Empire']Austria[/URL] during the [URL='https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/War_of_the_Third_Coalition']War of the Third Coalition[/URL].

 

2 November 1988 – The Morris worm, the first Internet-distributed computer worm to gain significant mainstream media attention, is launched from MIT.

Morris worm

1988 Internet worm

The Morris worm or Internet worm of November 2, 1988, is one of the oldest computer worms distributed via the Internet, and the first to gain significant mainstream media attention. It resulted in the first felony conviction in the US under the 1986 Computer Fraud and Abuse Act.^[1] It was written by a graduate student at Cornell University, Robert Tappan Morris, and launched on 8:30 pm November 2, 1988, from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology network.

1. ^ Dressler, J. (2007). "United States v. Morris". Cases and Materials on Criminal Law. St. Paul, MN: Thomson/West. ISBN 978-0-314-17719-3.

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3 November 1936 – Franklin D. Roosevelt is elected President of the United States.

Franklin D. Roosevelt

President of the United States from 1933 to 1945

"FDR" redirects here. For other uses, see FDR (disambiguation) and Franklin D. Roosevelt (disambiguation).

Franklin Delano Roosevelt^[a] (January 30, 1882 – April 12, 1945), commonly known by his initials FDR, was an American statesman and politician who served as the 32nd president of the United States from 1933 until his death in 1945. He was a member of the Democratic Party and is the only U.S. president to have served more than two terms. His initial two terms were centered on combating the Great Depression, while his third and fourth saw him shift his focus to America's involvement in World War II.

A member of the Delano family and Roosevelt family, after attending university, Roosevelt began to practice law in New York City. He was elected a member of the New York State Senate from 1911 to 1913 and was then the assistant secretary of the Navy under President Woodrow Wilson during World War I. Roosevelt was James M. Cox's running mate on the Democratic Party's ticket in the 1920 U.S. presidential election, but Cox lost to Republican nominee Warren G. Harding. In 1921, Roosevelt contracted a paralytic illness that permanently paralyzed his legs. Partly through the encouragement of his wife, Eleanor Roosevelt, he returned to public office as governor of New York from 1929 to 1933, during which he promoted programs to combat the Great Depression. In the 1932 presidential election, Roosevelt defeated Republican president Herbert Hoover in a landslide.

During his first 100 days as president, Roosevelt spearheaded unprecedented federal legislation and directed the federal government during most of the Great Depression, implementing the New Deal in response to the most significant economic crisis in American history. He also built the New Deal coalition, realigning American politics into the Fifth Party System and defining American liberalism throughout the mid-20th century. He created numerous programs to provide relief to the unemployed and farmers while seeking economic recovery with the National Recovery Administration and other programs. He also instituted major regulatory reforms related to finance, communications, and labor, and presided over the end of Prohibition. In 1936, Roosevelt won a landslide reelection with the economy having improved from 1933, but the economy relapsed into a deep recession in 1937 and 1938. He was unable to expand the Supreme Court in 1937, the same year the conservative coalition was formed to block the implementation of further New Deal programs and reforms. Major surviving programs and legislation implemented under Roosevelt include the Securities and Exchange Commission, the National Labor Relations Act, the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation, and Social Security. In 1940, he ran successfully for reelection, one entire term before the official implementation of term limits.

With World War II looming after 1938 in addition to the Japanese invasion of China and the aggression of Nazi Germany, Roosevelt gave strong diplomatic and financial support to China, the United Kingdom, and the Soviet Union, while the U.S. remained officially neutral. Following the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941, he obtained a declaration of war on Japan.

After Germany and Italy declared war on the U.S. on December 11, 1941, the U.S. Congress approved a declaration of war in return. He worked closely with other national leaders in leading the Allies against the Axis powers. Roosevelt supervised the mobilization of the American economy to support the war effort and implemented a Europe first strategy. He also initiated the development of the first atomic bomb and worked with the other Allied leaders to lay the groundwork for the United Nations and other post-war institutions, even coining the term "United Nations".^[2] Roosevelt won reelection in 1944 but died in 1945 after his physical health seriously and steadily declined during the war years. Since then, several of his actions have come under criticism, including his ordering of the internment of Japanese Americans, German and Italian Americans, and refusal to accept Jewish refugees from Germany or Italy. Nonetheless, historical rankings consistently place him as one of the greatest American presidents.

1. ^ "Roosevelt". The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language (5th ed.). HarperCollins.
2. ^ "When was the term United Nations first used?". United Nations. Retrieved December 14, 2023.

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4 November 1973 – The Netherlands experiences the first car-free Sunday caused by the 1973 oil crisis. Highways are used only by cyclists and roller skaters.

1973 oil crisis

OAPEC petroleum embargo

Price of oil adjusted for inflation

Price of oil (nominal)

West Texas Intermediate oil price history 1946–2022^[1]

In October 1973, the Organization of Arab Petroleum Exporting Countries (OAPEC) announced that it was implementing a total oil embargo against the countries who had supported Israel at any point during the Fourth Arab–Israeli War, which began after Egypt and Syria launched a large-scale surprise attack in an ultimately unsuccessful attempt to recover the territories that they had lost to Israel during the Third Arab–Israeli War. In an effort that was led by Faisal of Saudi Arabia,^[2] the initial countries that OAPEC targeted were Canada, Japan, the Netherlands, the United Kingdom, and the United States. This list was later expanded to include Portugal, Rhodesia, and South Africa. In March 1974, OAPEC lifted the embargo,^[3] but the price of oil had risen by nearly 300%: from US$3 per barrel ($19/m³) to nearly US$12 per barrel ($75/m³) globally. Prices in the United States were significantly higher than the global average. After it was implemented, the embargo caused an oil crisis, or "shock", with many short- and long-term effects on the global economy as well as on global politics.^[4] The 1973 embargo later came to be referred to as the "first oil shock" vis-à-vis the "second oil shock" that was the 1979 oil crisis, brought upon by the Iranian Revolution.

1. ^ "Crude Oil Prices – 70 Year Historical Chart".
2. ^ Smith, Charles D. (2006), Palestine and the Arab–Israeli Conflict, New York: Bedford, p. 329.
3. ^ "OPEC Oil Embargo 1973–1974". U.S. Department of State, Office of the Historian. Archived from the original on March 6, 2014. Retrieved August 30, 2012.
4. ^ Cite error: The named reference cbc was invoked but never defined (see the help page).

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5 November 1968 – Richard Nixon is elected as 37th President of the United States.

Richard Nixon

President of the United States from 1969 to 1974

"Nixon" redirects here. For other uses, see Nixon (disambiguation) and Richard Nixon (disambiguation).

Richard Milhous Nixon (January 9, 1913 – April 22, 1994) was the 37th president of the United States, serving from 1969 to 1974. A member of the Republican Party, he previously served as a representative and senator from California and as the 36th vice president from 1953 to 1961 under President Dwight D. Eisenhower. His presidency saw the reduction of U.S. involvement in the Vietnam War, détente with the Soviet Union and China, the Apollo 11 Moon landing, and the establishment of the Environmental Protection Agency and Occupational Safety and Health Administration. Nixon's second term ended early when he became the only U.S. president to resign from office, as a result of the Watergate scandal.

Nixon was born into a poor family of Quakers in a small town in Southern California. He graduated from Duke Law School in 1937, practiced law in California, and then moved with his wife Pat to Washington, D.C., in 1942 to work for the federal government. After serving active duty in the Naval Reserve during World War II, he was elected to the House of Representatives in 1946. His work on the Alger Hiss case established his reputation as a leading anti-communist, which elevated him to national prominence. In 1950, he was elected to the Senate. Nixon was the running mate of Eisenhower, the Republican Party's presidential nominee in the 1952 election, and served for eight years as vice president. He narrowly lost the 1960 presidential election to the Democratic Party nominee John F. Kennedy; after his loss in the 1962 race for governor of California, he announced his retirement from political life. However, in 1968, he made another run for the presidency and defeated the Democratic incumbent vice president Hubert Humphrey.

Nixon ended American involvement in Vietnam combat in 1973 and the military draft in the same year. His visit to China in 1972 eventually led to diplomatic relations between the two nations, and he also then concluded the Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty with the Soviet Union. Domestically, Nixon pushed for the Controlled Substances Act and began the war on drugs. Nixon's first term took place at the height of the American environmental movement and enacted many progressive environmental policy shifts; his administration created the Environmental Protection Agency and passed legislation such as the Endangered Species Act and the Clean Air Acts. He implemented the ratified Twenty-sixth Amendment, which lowered the voting age from 21 to 18, and enforced the desegregation of Southern schools. Under Nixon, relations with Native Americans improved, seeing an increase in self-determination for Native Americans and his administration rescinded the termination policy. Nixon imposed wage and price controls for 90 days, began the war on cancer, and presided over the Apollo 11 Moon landing, which signaled the end of the Space Race. He was re-elected in 1972, when he defeated Democratic candidate George McGovern in one of the largest landslide victories in American history.

In his second term, Nixon ordered an airlift to resupply Israeli losses in the Yom Kippur War, a conflict which led to the oil crisis at home. From 1973, ongoing revelations from the Nixon administration's involvement in Watergate eroded his support in Congress and the country. The scandal began with a break-in at the Democratic National Committee office, ordered by administration officials, and escalated despite cover-up efforts by the Nixon administration, of which he was aware. On August 9, 1974, facing almost certain impeachment and removal from office, Nixon resigned. Afterward, he was issued a controversial pardon by his successor, Gerald Ford. During nearly 20 years of retirement, Nixon wrote ten books and undertook many foreign trips, rehabilitating his image into that of an elder statesman and leading expert on foreign affairs. On April 18, 1994, he suffered a debilitating stroke, and died four days later. Evaluations of his presidency have proven complex, with some contemporaries often regarding Nixon as one of America's worst presidents; others have proven less severe, contrasting his presidency's successes against the circumstances of his departure.

1. ^ "Richard Nixon Presidential Library and Museum" (PDF). September 21, 2015. Archived from the original (PDF) on September 21, 2015.

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6 November 1947 – Meet the Press, the longest running television program in history, makes its debut on NBC Television.

Meet the Press

American news/interview television program

This article is about the American public affairs program. For the Australian program, see Meet the Press (Australian TV program).

Meet the Press is a weekly American television Sunday morning talk show broadcast on NBC.^[6][7] It is the longest-running program on American television, though its format has changed since the debut episode on November 6, 1947.^[8][9] Meet the Press specializes in interviews with leaders in Washington, D.C., across the country, and around the world on issues of politics, economics, foreign policy, and other public affairs, along with panel discussions that provide opinions and analysis. In January 2021, production moved to NBC's bureau on Capitol Hill in Washington, D.C.^[5][10]

The longevity of Meet the Press is attributable in part to the fact that the program debuted during what was only the second official "network television season" for American television. It was the first live television network news program on which a sitting president of the United States appeared, this occurred on its broadcast on November 9, 1975, which featured Gerald Ford. The program has been hosted by 12 moderators, beginning with creator Martha Rountree. The show's current moderator is Kristen Welker, who became moderator in September 2023 following longtime moderator Chuck Todd’s departure.

Meet the Press airs Sundays from 9–10 a.m. ET on the NBC-TV network; 10:30–11:30 a.m. ET in New York and Washington. The program also re-airs at 2 p.m. ET Sundays and 2 a.m. and 4 a.m. ET Mondays on MSNBC on cable.^[11] Meet the Press is also occasionally pre-empted by network coverage of sports events held outside the U.S. The program is also rebroadcast on Mondays at 2:30 a.m. Eastern Time on MSNBC, whose audio feed is also simulcast on Sirius/XM Satellite Radio. The program is syndicated by Westwood One to various radio stations around the United States, and is on C-SPAN Radio as part of its replays of the Sunday morning talk shows.

1. ^ ^{a b} Cite error: The named reference 60th was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
2. ^ Cite error: The named reference shemadeit was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
3. ^ "Meet the Press – Credits". NBCUniversal. Retrieved July 31, 2017.
4. ^ "The Sounds of War". Slate. April 2003.
5. ^ ^{a b} Johnson, Ted (25 January 2021). "NBCU Debuts New Washington Bureau And Studios". Deadline. Retrieved 26 January 2021.
6. ^ "Meet the Press: Cast & Details". TV Guide. Retrieved December 30, 2008.
7. ^ "About Meet The Press". MSNBC. Archived from the original on February 3, 2004. Retrieved December 30, 2008.
8. ^ "Meet the Press: U.S. Public Affairs/Interview". Museum of Broadcast Communications. Archived from the original on September 25, 2012.
9. ^ "About 'Meet the Press' – Meet the Press – About us | NBC News". 2012-12-31. Archived from the original on 2012-12-31. Retrieved 2023-10-27.
10. ^ Ball, Rick (1998). Meet the Press: Fifty Years of History in the Making. McGraw Hill. pp. 12 (Farley), 14–15 (Chambers), 15–17 (Bentley), 51–53 (Castro), 67–68 (JFK) 92 (MLK), 167 (satellite). Retrieved 18 March 2020.
11. ^ "Watch NBC's 'Meet the Press with Kristen Welker' in your area". NBC News. 2023-09-18. Retrieved 2024-01-07.

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7 November 1918 – The 1918 influenza epidemic spreads to Western Samoa, killing 7,542 (about 20% of the population) by the end of the year.

Spanish flu

1918–1920 global influenza pandemic caused by the H1N1 influenza A virus

"Great Influenza" redirects here. For the book, see The Great Influenza.

This article is about the influenza pandemic that began in 1918. For the virus that caused the pandemic, see Influenza A virus subtype H1N1.

The 1918–1920 flu pandemic, also known as the Great Influenza epidemic or by the common misnomer Spanish flu, was an exceptionally deadly global influenza pandemic caused by the H1N1 influenza A virus. The earliest documented case was March 1918 in the state of Kansas in the United States, with further cases recorded in France, Germany and the United Kingdom in April. Two years later, nearly a third of the global population, or an estimated 500 million people, had been infected in four successive waves. Estimates of deaths range from 17 million to 50 million,^[6] and possibly as high as 100 million, making it one of the deadliest pandemics in history.

The pandemic broke out near the end of World War I, when wartime censors in the belligerent countries suppressed bad news to maintain morale, but newspapers freely reported the outbreak in neutral Spain, creating a false impression of Spain as the epicenter and leading to the "Spanish flu" misnomer.^[7] Limited historical epidemiological data make the pandemic's geographic origin indeterminate, with competing hypotheses on the initial spread.^[2]

Most influenza outbreaks disproportionately kill the young and old, with a higher survival rate in-between, but this pandemic had unusually high mortality for young adults.^[8] Scientists offer several explanations for the high mortality, including a six-year climate anomaly affecting migration of disease vectors with increased likelihood of spread through bodies of water.^[9] The virus was particularly deadly because it triggered a cytokine storm, ravaging the stronger immune system of young adults,^[10] although the viral infection was apparently no more aggressive than previous influenza strains.^[11][12] However, the claim that young adults had a high mortality during the pandemic has been contested.^[13] Malnourishment, overcrowded medical camps and hospitals, and poor hygiene, exacerbated by the war, promoted bacterial superinfection, killing most of the victims after a typically prolonged death bed.^[14][15]

The 1918 Spanish flu was the first of three flu pandemics caused by H1N1 influenza A virus; the most recent one was the 2009 swine flu pandemic.^[16][17] The 1977 Russian flu was also caused by H1N1 virus.^[16][18]

1. ^ Cite error: The named reference NIH-NYC was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
2. ^ ^{a b} Taubenberger & Morens 2006.
3. ^ "Pandemic Influenza Risk Management WHO Interim Guidance" (PDF). World Health Organization. 2013. p. 25. Archived (PDF) from the original on 21 January 2021. Retrieved 21 August 2021.
4. ^ Cite error: The named reference pmid30202996 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
5. ^ Rosenwald MS (7 April 2020). "History's deadliest pandemics, from ancient Rome to modern America". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on 7 April 2020. Retrieved 11 April 2020.
6. ^ CDC (17 December 2019). "The Discovery and Reconstruction of the 1918 Pandemic Virus". Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Retrieved 19 September 2022.
7. ^ Cite error: The named reference Friday was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
8. ^ Gagnon, Miller & et al 2013, p. e69586.
9. ^ More AF, Loveluck CP, Clifford H, Handley MJ, Korotkikh EV, Kurbatov AV, et al. (September 2020). "The Impact of a Six-Year Climate Anomaly on the "Spanish Flu" Pandemic and WWI". GeoHealth. 4 (9): e2020GH000277. Bibcode:2020GHeal...4..277M. doi:10.1029/2020GH000277. PMC 7513628. PMID 33005839.
10. ^ Barry 2004b.
11. ^ MacCallum WG (1919). "Pathology of the pneumonia following influenza". Journal of the American Medical Association. 72 (10): 720–23. doi:10.1001/jama.1919.02610100028012. Archived from the original on 25 January 2020. Retrieved 16 August 2019.
12. ^ Hirsch EF, McKinney M (1919). "An epidemic of pneumococcus broncho-pneumonia". The Journal of Infectious Diseases. 24 (6): 594–617. doi:10.1093/infdis/24.6.594. JSTOR 30080493. Archived from the original on 24 July 2020. Retrieved 24 May 2020.
13. ^ Marshall, Lisa (9 October 2023). "1918 flu pandemic myth debunked by skeletal remains". CU Boulder Today. Retrieved 26 March 2024.
14. ^ Brundage JF, Shanks GD (December 2007). "What really happened during the 1918 influenza pandemic? The importance of bacterial secondary infections". The Journal of Infectious Diseases. 196 (11): 1717–18, author reply 1718–19. doi:10.1086/522355. PMID 18008258.
15. ^ Morens DM, Fauci AS (April 2007). "The 1918 influenza pandemic: insights for the 21st century". The Journal of Infectious Diseases. 195 (7): 1018–28. doi:10.1086/511989. PMID 17330793.
16. ^ ^{a b} "Influenza Pandemic Plan. The Role of WHO and Guidelines for National and Regional Planning" (PDF). World Health Organization. April 1999. pp. 38, 41. Archived (PDF) from the original on 3 December 2020.
17. ^ Michaelis M, Doerr HW, Cinatl J (August 2009). "Novel swine-origin influenza A virus in humans: another pandemic knocking at the door". Medical Microbiology and Immunology. 198 (3): 175–83. doi:10.1007/s00430-009-0118-5. PMID 19543913. S2CID 20496301.
18. ^ Mermel LA (June 2009). "Swine-origin influenza virus in young age groups". Lancet. 373 (9681): 2108–09. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(09)61145-4. PMID 19541030. S2CID 27656702. Archived from the original on 27 July 2021. Retrieved 5 April 2021.

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8 November 1901 – Gospel riots: Bloody clashes take place in Athens following the translation of the Gospels into demotic Greek.

Gospel riots

Christian riots in Greece in 1901

The Gospel riots (Greek: Ευαγγελικά, Evangelika), which took place on the streets of Athens in November 1901, were primarily a protest against the publication in the newspaper Akropolis of a translation into modern spoken Greek of the Gospel of Matthew, although other motives also played a part. The disorder reached a climax on 8 November, "Black Thursday", when eight demonstrators were killed.^[a][1]

In the aftermath of the violence the Greek Orthodox Church reacted by banning any translation of the Bible into any form of modern demotic Greek, and by forbidding the employment of demoticist teachers, not just in Greece but anywhere in the Ottoman Empire.

The riots marked a turning-point in the history of the Greek language question, and the beginning of a long period of bitter antagonism between the Orthodox Church and the demoticist movement.^{[2]: 244–52}

Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

1. ^ Carabott, Philip (1993). "Politics, orthodoxy, and the language question in Greece: the Gospel Riots of 1901" (PDF). Journal of Mediterranean Studies. 3 (1): 117–138. ISSN 1016-3476. Archived from the original (PDF) on 7 February 2012.
2. ^ Mackridge, Peter (2009). Language and National Identity in Greece, 1766–1976. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-921442-6.

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9 November 1887 – The United States receives rights to Pearl Harbor, Hawaii.

Pearl Harbor

Harbor on the island of Oahu, Hawaii

For its current operations as a military base, see Joint Base Pearl Harbor–Hickam. For the attack operation in 1941, see Attack on Pearl Harbor. For other uses, see Pearl Harbor (disambiguation).

Pearl Harbor is an American lagoon harbor on the island of Oahu, Hawaii, west of Honolulu. It was often visited by the Naval fleet of the United States, before it was acquired from the Hawaiian Kingdom by the U.S. with the signing of the Reciprocity Treaty of 1875. Much of the harbor and surrounding lands are now a United States Navy deep-water naval base. It is also the headquarters of the United States Pacific Fleet. The U.S. government first obtained exclusive use of the inlet and the right to maintain a repair and coaling station for ships here in 1887.^[1] The surprise attack by the Imperial Japanese Navy on December 7, 1941, led the United States to declare war on the Empire of Japan, making the attack on Pearl Harbor the immediate cause of the United States' entry into World War II.^[2][3][4]

1. ^ "Pearl Harbor: Its Origin and Administrative History Through World War II". Naval History and Heritage Command. April 23, 2015. Archived from the original on August 21, 2016. Retrieved September 9, 2016.
2. ^ FDR Pearl Harbor Speech. December 8, 1941. Archived from the original on July 24, 2010. Retrieved February 5, 2011. December 7th, 1941, a day that will live in infamy.
3. ^ Apple, Russell A.; Benjamin Levy (February 8, 1974). "Pearl Harbor" (pdf). National Register of Historic Places – Nomination and Inventory. National Park Service. Archived from the original on June 16, 2023. Retrieved May 25, 2012.
4. ^ "Pearl Harbor" (pdf). Photographs. National Park Service. Archived from the original on June 16, 2023. Retrieved May 25, 2012.

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10 November 1983 – Bill Gates introduces Windows 1.0.

Windows 1.0x

Redirect to:

• Windows 1.0

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