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30 August 1721 – The Great Northern War between Sweden and Russia ends in the Treaty of Nystad.

Great Northern War

Swedish-Russian conflict (1700–1721)

This article is about the 1700–1721 war. For the related series of conflicts, see Northern Wars.

For other uses, see Northern War (disambiguation).

In the Great Northern War (1700–1721) a coalition led by Russia successfully contested the supremacy of Sweden in Northern, Central and Eastern Europe. The initial leaders of the anti-Swedish alliance were Peter I of Russia, Frederick IV of Denmark–Norway and Augustus II the Strong of Saxony-Poland-Lithuania. Frederick IV and Augustus II were defeated by Sweden, under Charles XII, and forced out of the alliance in 1700 and 1706, respectively, but rejoined it in 1709 after the defeat of Charles XII at the Battle of Poltava. George I of Great Britain and the Electorate of Hanover joined the coalition in 1714 for Hanover and in 1717 for Britain, and Frederick William I of Brandenburg-Prussia joined it in 1715.

Charles XII led the Swedish Army. Swedish allies included Holstein-Gottorp, several Polish magnates under Stanisław I Leszczyński (1704–1710) and Cossacks under the Ukrainian Hetman Ivan Mazepa (1708–1710). The Ottoman Empire temporarily hosted Charles XII of Sweden and intervened against Peter I.

The war began when Denmark–Norway, Saxony and Russia, sensing an opportunity as Sweden was ruled by the young Charles XII, formed a coalition against Sweden. Denmark invaded Sweden's ally Holstein-Gottorp, while Saxony and Russia declared war on the Swedish Empire and attacked Swedish Livonia and Swedish Ingria, respectively. Sweden parried the Danes at Travendal (August 1700) and the Russians at Narva (November 1700), and in a counter-offensive pushed Augustus II's forces through the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth to Saxony, dethroning Augustus on the way (September 1706) and forcing him to acknowledge defeat in the Treaty of Altranstädt (October 1706). The treaty also secured the extradition and execution of Johann Reinhold Patkul, architect of the alliance seven years earlier. Meanwhile, the forces of Peter I had recovered from defeat at Narva and gained ground in Sweden's Baltic provinces, where they cemented Russian access to the Baltic Sea by founding Saint Petersburg in 1703. Charles XII moved from Saxony into Russia to confront Peter, but the campaign ended in 1709 with the destruction of the main Swedish army at the decisive Battle of Poltava (in present-day Ukraine) and Charles' exile in the Ottoman town of Bender. The Ottoman Empire defeated the Russian–Moldavian army in the Pruth River Campaign, but that peace treaty was in the end without great consequence to Russia's position.

After Poltava, the anti-Swedish coalition revived and subsequently Hanover and Prussia joined it. The remaining Swedish forces in plague-stricken areas south and east of the Baltic Sea were evicted, with the last city, Tallinn, falling in the autumn of 1710. The coalition members partitioned most of the Swedish dominions among themselves, destroying the Swedish dominium maris baltici. Sweden proper was invaded from the west by Denmark–Norway and from the east by Russia, which had occupied Finland by 1714. Sweden defeated the Danish invaders at the Battle of Helsingborg. Charles XII opened up a Norwegian front but was killed in the Siege of Fredriksten in 1718.

The war ended with the defeat of Sweden, leaving Russia as the new dominant power in the Baltic region and as a new major force in European politics. The Western powers, Great Britain and France, became caught up in the separate War of the Spanish Succession (1701–1714), which broke out over the Bourbon Philip of Anjou's succession to the Spanish throne and a possible joining of France and Spain. The formal conclusion of the Great Northern War came with the Swedish-Hanoverian and Swedish-Prussian Treaties of Stockholm (1719), the Dano-Swedish Treaty of Frederiksborg (1720), and the Russo-Swedish Treaty of Nystad (1721). By these treaties Sweden ceded its exemption from the Sound Dues^[43] and lost the Baltic provinces and the southern part of Swedish Pomerania. The peace treaties also ended its alliance with Holstein-Gottorp. Hanover gained Bremen-Verden, Brandenburg-Prussia incorporated the Oder estuary (Stettin Lagoons), Russia secured the Baltic Provinces, and Denmark strengthened its position in Schleswig-Holstein. In Sweden, the absolute monarchy had come to an end with the death of Charles XII, and Sweden's Age of Liberty began.^[44]

1. ^ Markiewicz 2001, pp. 176–178.
2. ^ Frost 2000, pp. 263–271.
3. ^ ^{a b} Ullgren 2008, p. 324.
4. ^ Shamenkov 2015, p. 64.
5. ^ Magocsi 2010, pp. 259–260.
6. ^ Magocsi 2010, pp. 20, 260–262.
7. ^ Magocsi 2010, pp. 262–263.
8. ^ Yavornytskyi, Dmytro (1990). "History of the Zaporozhian Cossacks. Volume 3" (PDF). history.org.ua. pp. 306–310. Retrieved 19 September 2025.
9. ^ ^{a b} Querengässer 2015, p. 254.
10. ^ Silfverstolpe 1864, p. 151.
11. ^ Glete 2010, p. 206.
12. ^ ^{a b} Glete 2010, p. 429.
13. ^ Generalstaben 1900, p. 270.
14. ^ Dorrell 2009, p. 52.
15. ^ Dorrell 2009, pp. 133, 156, 177.
16. ^ Stone 2001, p. 256.
17. ^ Pintner 1978, p. 29.
18. ^ Black 1991, p. 28.
19. ^ Dudink & Hagemann 2020, p. 51.
20. ^ Glete 2010, p. 433.
21. ^ ^{a b} Гришинский, Никольский & Кладо 1911, p. 176.
22. ^ Dorrell 2009, p. 40.
23. ^ Generalstaben 1920, pp. 226–229.
24. ^ Generalstaben 1927, p. 61.
25. ^ Stone 1983, p. 62.
26. ^ Summerfield 2015, p. 254.
27. ^ Martinsson 2015, p. 134.
28. ^ Silfverstolpe 1864, pp. 153–154.
29. ^ Höglund & Sallnäs 2000, p. 20.
30. ^ Keskisarja 2019, p. 244.
31. ^ Ullgren 2008, p. 326.
32. ^ Lieven 2006, p. 537.
33. ^ Krinko 2019, p. 292.
34. ^ Kernosovsky, Anton (1992) [1933]. История русской армии [History of the Russian army] (in Russian). Vol. 1: from Narva to Paris. Moscow: Golos. ISBN 5-7055-0864-6. p. 63
35. ^ Урланис 1960, pp. 54–55.
36. ^ Fuller 1992, p. 49.
37. ^ Höglund, Sallnäs & Bespalov 2006, p. 51.
38. ^ Lindegren 1995, pp. 11–50.
39. ^ Gasper 2012, p. 52.
40. ^ Clodfelter 2017, p. 90.
41. ^ Markiewicz 2001, p. 181.
42. ^ Mackenbach 2020, p. 358.
43. ^ Gosse 1911, p. 206.
44. ^ Gosse 1911, p. 216.

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31 August 1888 – Mary Ann Nichols is murdered. She is the first of Jack the Ripper's confirmed victims.

Jack the Ripper

Unidentified serial killer in London in 1888

This article is about the serial killer. For other uses, see Jack the Ripper (disambiguation). For the murders in or near Whitechapel usually attributed to Jack the Ripper, see Whitechapel murders.

Jack the Ripper was an unidentified serial killer active in and around the impoverished Whitechapel district of London, England, in 1888. In both criminal case files and the contemporaneous journalistic accounts, the killer was also called the Whitechapel Murderer and Leather Apron.

Attacks ascribed to Jack the Ripper typically involved women working as prostitutes who lived in the slums of the East End of London. Their throats were cut prior to abdominal mutilations. The removal of internal organs from at least three of the victims led to speculation that the killer had some anatomical or surgical knowledge. Rumours that the murders were connected intensified in September and October 1888, and numerous letters were received by media outlets and Scotland Yard from people purporting to be the murderer.

The name "Jack the Ripper" originated in the "Dear Boss letter" written by someone claiming to be the murderer, which was disseminated in the press. The letter is widely believed to have been a hoax and may have been written by journalists to heighten interest in the story and increase their newspapers' circulation. Another, the "From Hell letter", was received by George Lusk of the Whitechapel Vigilance Committee and came with half a preserved human kidney, purportedly taken from one of the victims. The public came to believe in the existence of a single serial killer known as Jack the Ripper, mainly because of both the extraordinarily brutal nature of the murders and extensive media coverage of the crimes.

Extensive newspaper coverage bestowed enduring international notoriety on the Ripper, and the legend solidified. A police investigation into a series of eleven brutal murders committed in Whitechapel and Spitalfields between 1888 and 1891 was unable to connect all the killings conclusively to the 1888 murders. Five victims—Mary Ann Nichols, Annie Chapman, Elizabeth Stride, Catherine Eddowes and Mary Jane Kelly—are known as the "canonical five", and their murders between 31 August and 9 November 1888 are often considered the most likely to be linked. The murders were never solved, and the legends surrounding these crimes became a combination of historical research, folklore and pseudohistory, capturing public imagination to the present day.

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1 September 1894 – Over 400 people die in the Great Hinckley Fire, a forest fire in Hinckley, Minnesota.

Great Hinckley Fire

1894 forest fire in Minnesota, U.S.

The Great Hinckley Fire was a conflagration in the pine forests of the U.S. state of Minnesota that ignited on September 1, 1894, which burned an area of at least 200,000 acres (810 km²; 310 sq mi)^[1] (perhaps more than 250,000 acres [1,000 km²; 390 sq mi]), including the town of Hinckley. The official death count was 418; the actual number of fatalities was likely higher.^[2] Other sources put the death toll at 476.^[3]

1. ^ Haines, Donald A.; Sando, Rodney W. (1969). "Climatic Conditions Preceding Historical Great Fires in the North Central Region". North Central Experimentation Forest Service. US Department of Agriculture.
2. ^ "The Great Hinckley Fire of 1894". Archived from the original on August 7, 2014. Retrieved March 24, 2015.
3. ^ Headlines and Heros. A Treasury of Railroad Folklore. New York, Bonaza Books, 1953

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2 September 1985 – Sri Lankan Civil War: Sri Lankan Tamil politicians and former MPs M. Alalasundaram and V. Dharmalingam are shot dead.

Sri Lankan Civil War

Redirect to:

• Sri Lankan civil war

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3 September 1666 – The Royal Exchange burns down in the Great Fire of London.

Great Fire of London

1666 conflagration in England

This article is about the 1666 fire. For other "Great Fires", see List of historic fires. For other notable fires in London, see Early fires of London and Second Great Fire of London. For the Peter Ackroyd novel, see The Great Fire of London (novel).

The Great Fire of London was a major conflagration that occurred in central London from Sunday 2 September to Wednesday 5 September 1666,^[b] gutting the medieval City of London inside the old Roman city wall, while also extending past the wall to the west. The death toll is generally thought to have been relatively small,^[1][2] although some historians have challenged this belief.^[3]

The fire started in a bakery in Pudding Lane shortly after midnight on Sunday 2 September, and spread rapidly. The use of the major firefighting technique of the time, the creation of firebreaks by means of removing structures in the fire's path, was critically delayed by the hesitation of the Lord Mayor, Sir Thomas Bloodworth. By the time large-scale demolitions were ordered on Sunday night, the wind had already fanned the bakery fire into a firestorm which defeated such measures. The fire pushed north on Monday into the heart of the City. Order in the streets broke down as rumours arose of suspicious foreigners setting fires. The fears of the homeless focused on the French and Dutch, England's enemies in the ongoing Second Anglo-Dutch War; these substantial immigrant groups became victims of street violence. On Tuesday, the fire spread over nearly the whole city, destroying St Paul's Cathedral and leaping the River Fleet to threaten Charles II's court at Whitehall Palace. Coordinated firefighting efforts were simultaneously getting underway. The battle to put out the fire is considered to have been won by two key factors: the strong east wind dropped, and the Tower of London garrison used gunpowder to create effective firebreaks, halting further spread eastward.

The social and economic problems created by the disaster were overwhelming. Flight from London and settlement elsewhere were strongly encouraged by Charles II, who feared a London rebellion amongst the dispossessed refugees. Various schemes for rebuilding the city were proposed, some of them radical. After the fire, London was reconstructed on essentially the same medieval street plan, which still exists today.^[4]

Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

1. ^ Cite error: The named reference tindeath was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
2. ^ Cite error: The named reference porterdeath was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
3. ^ Cite error: The named reference Hanson 2001, 326–33 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
4. ^ Reddaway, 27

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4 September 1923 – Maiden flight of the first U.S. airship, the USS Shenandoah.

USS Shenandoah (ZR-1)

United States Navy rigid airship destroyed in 1925

For other ships with the same name, see USS Shenandoah.

"ZR-1" redirects here. For the automobile trim, see Chevrolet Corvette ZR-1.

USS Shenandoah was the first of four United States Navy rigid airships. It was constructed during 1922–1923 at Lakehurst Naval Air Station, and first flew in September 1923. It developed the U.S. Navy's experience with rigid airships and made the first crossing of North America by airship. On the 57th flight,^[2] Shenandoah was destroyed in a squall line over Ohio in September 1925.^[3]

1. ^ "NPS Focus". National Register of Historic Places. National Park Service. Archived from the original on 25 July 2008. Retrieved 3 August 2013.
2. ^ Hayward (1978) p. 67
3. ^ Hayward (1978) p. 66

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5 September 1836 – Sam Houston is elected as the first president of the Republic of Texas.

Republic of Texas

Country in North America (1836–1846)

This article is about Texas as a sovereign state. For the modern day U.S. state, see Texas.

"Texas (country)" redirects here. For the country music subgenre, see Texas country.

The Republic of Texas (Spanish: República de Tejas), or simply Texas, was a short-lived sovereign country in North America^[4] from March 2, 1836, to February 19, 1846. Texas was bordered by Mexico to the west and southwest, the Gulf of Mexico to the southeast, the two U.S. states of Louisiana and Arkansas to the east and northeast, and U.S. unorganized territory encompassing parts of the current U.S. states of Oklahoma, Kansas, Colorado, and Wyoming to the north. The Texas Revolution began when hostilities broke out on October 2, 1835, shortly before the regime of Mexican President and General Antonio López de Santa Anna adopted a new Mexican constitution known as the Siete Leyes that abolished the authority of the states under the federal republic and established a centralized government. The revolution lasted for over six months. On March 2, 1836, delegates in convention proclaimed the Texas Declaration of Independence. Major fighting ended on April 21, 1836, with the Treaties of Velasco that ended the fighting and secured Texas' independence.

The Mexican Congress refused to recognize the independence of the Republic of Texas, as the Treaties of Velasco were signed by Santa Anna under duress as prisoner. The majority of the Mexican Congress did not approve the agreement. Much of its territory was controlled and disputed by Mexico or the Comancheria; Mexico considered it a rebellious province during its entire existence. The Anglo-American residents of the area and of the republic were referred to as Texians, while Texans of Mexican descent were referred to as Tejanos.^[5]

Having gained independence following the revolution, Texas engaged in complex relations with various countries. European powers (France and Britain), along with the United States, hesitated to recognize the new republic, in deference to established relations with Mexico. Over time, they eventually recognized Texas and adopted trade relations. Intermittent conflicts between Mexico and Texas continued into the 1840s.^[6][7]

Texas was annexed by the United States on December 29, 1845,^[8] and was admitted to the Union as the 28th state on that day, with the transfer of power from the Republic to the new state of Texas formally taking place on February 19, 1846.^[9] However, the United States inherited the southern and western border disputes with Mexico, which had refused to recognize Texas' sovereignty or to accept U.S. offers to purchase the territory. Consequently, the annexation led to the Mexican–American War.

1. ^ "Flags and Other Symbols | TX Almanac". www.texasalmanac.com. 2023. Archived from the original on January 22, 2022. Retrieved September 26, 2023.
2. ^ Greenfield, David (March 1, 2001). "Texas Tidbits". Texas Monthly. Archived from the original on October 3, 2015. Retrieved September 26, 2023.
3. ^ Population Growth from Early Texas Settlers (7 Dec 2020)
4. ^ Lang, Andrew F. (July 2010). "Memory, the Texas Revolution, and Secession: The Birth of Confederate Nationalismin the Lone Star State". Southwestern Historical Quarterly. 114 (1): 21–36. doi:10.1353/swh.0.0016. ISSN 1558-9560.
5. ^ "Texian". Oxford English Dictionary (Online ed.). Oxford University Press. (Subscription or participating institution membership required.) – the term "Texian" dates from at least 1835.
6. ^ Henderson (2008), p. 121.
7. ^ Crapol, Edward P. (2012) [2006]. "Texas". John Tyler, the Accidental President. Legal classics library (revised ed.). University of North Carolina Press. p. 177. ISBN 978-0807872239. Retrieved May 18, 2022. After Van Buren was safely elected, Jackson granted formal diplomatic recognition to the Lone Star Republic. A few months later, in August 1837, the Texians officially requested annexation, but Van Buren, fearing an anti-slavery backlash and domestic turmoil, rebuffed them.
8. ^ O'Neill, R. (2011). Texas War of Independence. Rosen Publishing Group. p. 85. ISBN 978-1448813322.
9. ^ Himmel, Kelly F. (1999). The Conquest of the Karankawas and the Tonkawas: 1821–1859. Texas A&M University Press. p. 93. ISBN 978-0-89096-867-3.

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6 September 1972 – Munich massacre: Nine Israeli athletes die (along with a German policeman) at the hands of the Palestinian "Black September" terrorist group after being taken hostage at the Munich Olympic Games. Two other Israeli athletes were slain in the initial attack the previous day.

Munich massacre

1972 Summer Olympics terrorist attack

This article is about the 1972 massacre. For other attacks, see Munich attack.

The Munich massacre was a terrorist attack during the 1972 Summer Olympics in Munich, West Germany, carried out by eight members of the Palestinian militant organisation Black September. The militants infiltrated the Olympic Village, killed two members of the Israeli Olympic team, and took nine other Israeli team members hostage. Those hostages were later also killed by the militants during a failed rescue attempt.^[3][4][5][6]

Black September commander and negotiator Luttif Afif named the operation "Iqrit and Biram",^[7][8][9] after two Palestinian Christian villages whose inhabitants were expelled by Israel during the 1948 Palestine war.^[10][11][12] Intelligence files suggest that some West German neo-Nazis may have assisted Black September in the 1972 Munich massacre, though the extent of their involvement remains debated.^[13] Shortly after the hostages were taken, Afif demanded the release of a significant number of Palestinians and non-Arab prisoners held in Israel, as well as one of the West German–imprisoned founders of the Red Army Faction, Ulrike Meinhof. The list included 328 detainees.^[14]

West German police from the Bavarian Police ambushed the terrorists, killing five of the eight Black September members, but the rescue attempt failed, resulting in the deaths of all the hostages.^[15] A West German police officer was also killed in the crossfire. The West German government faced criticism for the rescue attempt and its handling of the incident. The three surviving perpetrators were arrested but were released the following month in a hostage exchange after the hijacking of Lufthansa Flight 615. By then, the Israeli government had launched an assassination campaign, which authorised Mossad to track down and kill anyone who had played a role in the attack.^[16][17]

Two days before the start of the 2016 Summer Olympics, Brazilian and Israeli officials led a ceremony where the International Olympic Committee (IOC) honoured the eleven Israelis and one German killed at Munich.^[18] During the 2020 Summer Olympics, a moment of silence was observed in the opening ceremony.^[19]

1. ^ Breznican, Anthony (22 December 2005). "Messages from 'Munich'". USAToday. Gannett Co. Retrieved 17 April 2009.
2. ^ Karon, Tony (12 September 2000). "Revisiting the Olympics' Darkest Day". Time. Archived from the original on 1 October 2007. Retrieved 13 May 2010.
3. ^ Juan Sanchez (2007). Terrorism & Its Effects. Global Media. p. 144. ISBN 978-81-89940-93-5. Retrieved 16 December 2012.^{[permanent dead link]}
4. ^ Aubrey, Stefan M. (2001). The New Dimension of International Terrorism. vdf Hochschulverlag AG. ISBN 978-3-7281-2949-9. Archived from the original on 1 August 2023. Retrieved 22 June 2010.
5. ^ Encyclopedia of terrorism. Sage Publications. 2003. p. 248. ISBN 978-0-7619-2408-1. Retrieved 22 June 2010 – via Internet Archive.
6. ^ Simon, Jeffrey David (1976). The Terrorist Trap: America's Experience with Terrorism. Indiana University Press. ISBN 978-0-253-21477-5. Retrieved 22 June 2010.
7. ^ Germany and Israel: Whitewashing and Statebuilding. Oxford University Press. 30 March 2020. p. 146. ISBN 978-0-19-754000-8.
8. ^ Sylas, Eluma Ikemefuna (2006). Terrorism: A Global Scourge. AuthorHouse. ISBN 978-1-4259-0530-9. Archived from the original on 1 August 2023. Retrieved 7 June 2010.
9. ^ Black, Ian; Morris, Benny (1991). Israel's secret wars: a history of Israel's intelligence services. New York: Grove Weidenfeld. ISBN 978-0-8021-1159-3.
10. ^ Benveniśtî, Mêrôn (2000). Sacred landscape: the buried history of the Holy Land since 1948. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-23422-2. pp. 325–326.
11. ^ "Justice for Ikrit and Biram" Archived 12 October 2017 at the Wayback Machine, Haaretz, 10 October 2001.
12. ^ Elias Chacour with David Hazard: Blood Brothers: A Palestinian Struggles for Reconciliation in the Middle East. ISBN 978-0-8007-9321-0. Foreword by Secretary James A. Baker III. 2nd Expanded ed. 2003. pp. 44–61.
13. ^ Latsch, Gunther; Wiegrefe, Klaus (18 June 2012), "Files Reveal Neo-Nazis Helped Palestinian Terrorists", Spiegel Online, archived from the original on 12 December 2013, retrieved 30 July 2012
14. ^ "The hostage-takers' demands; Original typewritten English-language communiqués (with German translations) of 'Black September' and the complete name list of the 328 detainees to be released". Fürstenfeldbruck: Fürstenfeldbruck District Office, Munich State Archives, Munich Public Prosecutor's Office. 2022. Retrieved 15 August 2024.
15. ^ Cite error: The named reference :0 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
16. ^ James Montague (5 September 2012). "The Munich massacre: A survivor's story". CNN. Archived from the original on 21 June 2018. Retrieved 25 February 2013.
17. ^ "The Mossad's secret wars". Al Jazeera. 20 February 2010. Archived from the original on 8 August 2017. Retrieved 26 July 2022.
18. ^ "First official Olympic ceremony held in memory of Munich victims" Archived 14 August 2016 at the Wayback Machine, The Jerusalem Post; accessed 5 September 2017.
19. ^ Spungin, Tal (23 July 2021). "Olympics: Moment of silence for Munich massacre victims for first time". The Jerusalem Post. Archived from the original on 7 May 2022. Retrieved 23 July 2021.

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7 September 1921 – In Atlantic City, New Jersey, the first Miss America Pageant, a two-day event, is held.

Miss America

Annual competition in the United States

Not to be confused with Miss USA or Miss United States.

For other uses, see Miss America (disambiguation).

Miss America is an annual competition that is open to women from the United States between the ages of 18 and 28.^[1] Originating in 1921 as a "bathing beauty revue",^[2] the contest is judged on competition segments with scoring percentages: Private Interview (30%) – a 10-minute press conference-style interview with a panel of judges, On Stage Question (10%) – answering a judge's question onstage, Talent or HER Story (20%) – a performance talent or 90 second speech, Health and Fitness (20%) – demonstrated physical fitness onstage dressed in athletic wear, and Evening Gown (20%) – modeling evening-wear onstage.^[3][4][5]

The previous year's titleholder crowns the winner. Miss America 2026 is Cassie Donegan of New York, who was crowned on September 7, 2025, at the Dr Phillips Center for the Performing Arts in Orlando, Florida.

1. ^ "Become a Participant". Retrieved June 12, 2023.
2. ^ Cite error: The named reference early was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
3. ^ "Areas of Competition". Miss District of Columbia Scholarship Organization. Retrieved June 13, 2023.
4. ^ "Miss Delegates". Miss Vermont Scholarship Organization. July 29, 2016. Retrieved June 13, 2023.
5. ^ "Learn How to Become a Miss Contestant In the Miss Wisconsin Pageant". Miss Wisconsin. Retrieved June 13, 2023.

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8 September 1966 – The landmark American science fiction television series Star Trek premieres with its first-aired episode, "The Man Trap".

Star Trek: The Original Series

American sci-fi TV series (1966–1969)

Star Trek is an American science fiction television series created by Gene Roddenberry that follows the adventures of the starship USS Enterprise (NCC-1701) and its crew. It acquired the retronym of Star Trek: The Original Series (TOS) to distinguish the show within the media franchise that it began.^[3]

The show is set in the Milky Way galaxy, c. 2266–2269. The ship and crew are led by Captain James T. Kirk (William Shatner), First Officer and Science Officer Spock (Leonard Nimoy) and Chief Medical Officer Leonard H. "Bones" McCoy (DeForest Kelley). Each episode starts with the "Where no man has gone before" speech.

Norway Productions and Desilu Productions produced the series from September 1966 to December 1967. Paramount Television produced the show from January 1968 to June 1969. Star Trek aired on NBC from September 8, 1966, to June 3, 1969.^[4] It was first broadcast on September 6, 1966, on Canada's CTV network.^[5] While on NBC, Star Trek's Nielsen ratings were low and the network canceled it after three seasons and 79 episodes. In the United Kingdom, the series was not broadcast until July 12, 1969, when it was shown on the BBC One television network, coinciding with the Apollo 11 mission to land the first humans on the Moon.^[6] Through broadcast syndication, it became an international success in the 1970s, achieving cult classic status and a developing influence on popular culture. Star Trek eventually spawned a media franchise consisting of 13 television series, 14 feature films, and numerous books, games, and toys, and is now widely considered one of the most popular and influential television series of all time.^[7]

1. ^ "Star Trek". imdb.com. September 8, 1966. Archived from the original on July 21, 2010. Retrieved July 19, 2010.
2. ^ 1634–1699: McCusker, J. J. (1997). How Much Is That in Real Money? A Historical Price Index for Use as a Deflator of Money Values in the Economy of the United States: Addenda et Corrigenda (PDF). American Antiquarian Society. 1700–1799: McCusker, J. J. (1992). How Much Is That in Real Money? A Historical Price Index for Use as a Deflator of Money Values in the Economy of the United States (PDF). American Antiquarian Society. 1800–present: Federal Reserve Bank of Minneapolis. "Consumer Price Index (estimate) 1800–". Retrieved February 29, 2024.
3. ^ Strauss, Larry (September 3, 1998). "Trekkers' paradise found on local TV". News-Press. Fort Myers, Florida. p. E1. Archived from the original on September 5, 2019. Retrieved September 5, 2019 – via newspapers.com. (Strauss:) ... thanks ... to the Sci-Fi Channel ... which brought the original series back to TV Tuesday night. Dubbed 'Star Trek: The Original Series', scenes that were cut from episodes that aired in syndication have been restored, and shows have been digitally remastered and color-corrected.
4. ^ "Star Trek (a titles & telecast dates guide)". epguides.com. Archived from the original on February 24, 2010. Retrieved April 4, 2010.
5. ^ "Today's TV Previews". Montreal Gazette. September 6, 1966. p. 36. Archived from the original on April 8, 2017. Retrieved September 8, 2016.
6. ^ Williams, Michael (July 10, 1969). "Switching from fact to fiction... Star Trek – introducing a space series packed with pointers to our galaxy-trotting future". Radio Times. No. 2383. London: British Broadcasting Corporation. p. 32. (See also listing at the BBC Genome Project Archived December 17, 2023, at the Wayback Machine).
7. ^ Asherman, Allan (1981). The Star Trek Compendium. New York: Simon & Schuster. ISBN 0-671-79145-1.

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9 September 1845 – Possible start of the Great Famine of Ireland.

Great Famine (Ireland)

1845–1852 mass starvation in Ireland

"Irish famine" and "Great Hunger" redirect here. For other famines in Ireland, see Irish famine (disambiguation). For the book written by Cecil Woodham-Smith, see The Great Hunger: Ireland 1845–1849.

The Great Famine, also known as the Great Hunger (Irish: an Gorta Mór [ənˠ ˈɡɔɾˠt̪ˠə ˈmˠoːɾˠ]), the Famine and the Irish Potato Famine,^[1][2] was a period of mass starvation and disease in Ireland from 1845 to 1852. It constituted a historical social crisis and had a major impact on Irish society and history as a whole.^[3] The most severely affected areas were in the western and southern parts of Ireland—where the Irish language was dominant—hence, in Irish, the period was contemporaneously known as an Drochshaol,^[4] which translates to "the bad life" and loosely translates to "the hard times". Debate exists regarding nomenclature for the event, whether to use the term "Famine", "Potato Famine" or "Great Hunger".^[5]

The worst year of the famine was 1847, which became known as "Black '47".^[6][7] The population of Ireland on the eve of the famine was about 8.5 million; by 1901, it was just 4.4 million.^[8] During the Great Hunger, roughly one million people died and over one million more fled the country,^[9] causing the country's population to fall by 20–25% between 1841 and 1871, with some towns' populations falling by as much as 67%.^[10][11][12] Between 1845 and 1855, at least 2.1 million people left Ireland, one of the greatest exoduses from a single island in history.^[13][14]

The proximate cause of the famine was the infection of potato crops by blight throughout Europe. Impact on food supply by blight infection caused 100,000 deaths outside Ireland, and influenced much of the unrest that culminated in European Revolutions of 1848.^[15] Longer-term reasons for the massive impact of this particular famine included the system of absentee landlordism^[16][17] and single-crop dependence.^[18][19] Initial constructive but limited government actions to alleviate famine distress were ended by a new Whig administration in London, which pursued a laissez-faire economic doctrine, but also because some members of the British government assumed that the famine was divine judgement or that the Irish lacked moral character,^[20][21] with aid only resuming to some degree later. Large amounts of food were exported from Ireland during the famine and the refusal of London to bar such exports, as had been done on previous occasions, was an immediate and continuing source of controversy, contributing to the exacerbation of the Irish issue in British politics, the intensification of anti-British sentiment, the intensification of Irish nationalism and the campaign for independence. Additionally, the famine indirectly resulted in the eviction of tens of thousands of households, exacerbated by a provision forbidding access to workhouse aid while in possession of more than one-quarter acre of land.

The famine was a defining moment in the history of Ireland.^[3] The famine and its effects permanently changed the island's demographic, political, and cultural landscape, producing an estimated 2 million refugees and spurring a century-long population decline.^{[22][23][24][25]} For both the native Irish and those in the resulting diaspora, the famine entered folk memory.^[26] The strained relations between many Irish people and the then ruling British government worsened further because of the famine, heightening ethnic and sectarian tensions and boosting nationalism and republicanism both in Ireland and among Irish emigrants around the world.^[27][28] When the potato blight returned to Ireland in the 1879 famine, the League boycotted "notorious landlords" and its members physically blocked the evictions of farmers; the consequent reduction in homelessness and house demolition resulted in a drastic reduction in the number of deaths.^[29]

1. ^ Kinealy 1994, p. 5.
2. ^ O'Neill 2009, p. 1.
3. ^ ^{a b} Kinealy 1994, p. xv.
4. ^ [1]Archived 12 May 2020 at the Wayback Machine The great famine (An Drochshaol). Dúchas.ie
5. ^ Egan, Casey. The Irish Potato Famine, the Great Hunger, genocide – what should we call it? Potato blight played a role, but there was much more at play in Ireland's Great Hunger of 1845–1852. What should it be called? IrishCentral.com Archived 11 February 2021 at the Wayback Machine. 31 May 2015. Accessed 29 January 2021.
6. ^ Éamon Ó Cuív, [2]Archived 17 May 2020 at the Wayback Machine An Gorta Mór – the impact and legacy of the Great Irish Famine
7. ^ An Fháinleog Archived 18 August 2020 at the Wayback Machine Chapter 6. "drochshaol, while it can mean a hard life, or hard times, also, with a capital letter, has a specific, historic meaning: Bliain an Drochshaoil means The Famine Year, particularly 1847; Aimsir an Drochshaoil means the time of the Great Famine (1847–52)."
8. ^ "Black '47 Ireland's Great Famine and its after-effects - Department of Foreign Affairs". www.dfa.ie. Archived from the original on 1 July 2024. Retrieved 29 August 2024.
9. ^ Ross 2002, p. 226.
10. ^ Kinealy 1994, p. 357.
11. ^ "Census of Ireland 1871: Part I, Area, Population, and Number of Houses; Occupations, Religion and Education volume I, Province of Leinster". HMSO. 11 March 1872. Retrieved 11 March 2023 – via Internet Archive.
12. ^ Carolan, Michael. Éireann's Exiles: Reconciling generations of secrets and separations. Archived 30 January 2021 at the Wayback Machine 3 April 2020. Accessed 15 January 2021.
13. ^ Donnelly, James S. Jr., The Great Irish Potato Famine (Thrupp, Stroud: Sutton Publishing, 2001) p. 181.
14. ^ Hollett, David. Passage to the New World: packet ships and Irish famine emigrants, 1845–1851. United Kingdom, P.M. Heaton, 1995, p. 103.
15. ^ Ó Gráda, Cormac; Vanhaute, Eric; Paping, Richard (August 2006). The European subsistence crisis of 1845–1850: a comparative perspective (PDF). XIV International Economic History Congress of the International Economic History Association: Session 123. Helsinki. Archived from the original (PDF) on 17 April 2017.
16. ^ Laxton 1997, p. ^{[page needed]}.
17. ^ Litton 1994, p. ^{[page needed]}.
18. ^ Póirtéir 1995, pp. 19–20.
19. ^ Fraser, Evan D. G. (30 October 2003). "Social vulnerability and ecological fragility: building bridges between social and natural sciences using the Irish Potato Famine as a case study". Conservation Ecology. 2 (7). Archived from the original on 14 February 2020. Retrieved 28 May 2019.
20. ^ "British History in depth: The Irish Famine". BBC History. Retrieved 5 June 2023.
21. ^ "Racism and Anti-Irish Prejudice in Victorian England". victorianweb.org. Retrieved 5 June 2023.
22. ^ Kelly, M.; Fotheringham, A. Stewart (2011). "The online atlas of Irish population change 1841–2002: A new resource for analysing national trends and local variations in Irish population dynamics". Irish Geography. 44 (2–3): 215–244. doi:10.1080/00750778.2011.664806. population declining dramatically from 8.2 million to 6.5 million between 1841 and 1851 and then declining gradually and almost continuously to 4.5 million in 1961
23. ^ "The Vanishing Irish: Ireland's population from the Great Famine to the Great War". 28 January 2013. Archived from the original on 12 May 2020. Retrieved 3 September 2018.
24. ^ K. H. Connell, The Population of Ireland 1750–1845 (Oxford, 1951).^{[page needed]}
25. ^ Guinnane, Timothy W. (1997). The Vanishing Irish: Households, Migration, and the Rural Economy in Ireland, 1850–1914. Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-04307-8.^{[page needed]}
26. ^ Kinealy 1994, p. 342.
27. ^ Percival, John (1995). Great Famine: Ireland's Potato Famine 1845–51. Diane Publishing Company. ISBN 978-0-7881-6962-5. Archived from the original on 15 April 2021. Retrieved 29 July 2020 – via Google Books.
28. ^ Miller, Kerby A. Ireland and Irish America: Culture, Class, and Transatlantic Migration. Ireland, Field Day, 2008, p. 49.
29. ^ Curtis, L. Perry (Lewis Perry) (11 June 2007). "The Battering Ram and Irish Evictions, 1887–90". Irish-American Cultural Institute. 42 (3): 207–228. doi:10.1353/eir.2007.0039. S2CID 161069346. Archived from the original on 30 March 2019. Retrieved 2 September 2018 – via Project MUSE.

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10 September 1573 – German pirate Klein Henszlein and 33 of his crew are beheaded in Hamburg

Klein Henszlein

16th-century German pirate

Klein Henszlein [Klaus Hanslein] (died 1573) was a German pirate active from 1560 to 1573 who raided shipping in the North Sea until his defeat and capture by a fleet from Hamburg. Taken back to Hamburg, Henszlein and his men were paraded through the city streets before being beheaded on September 10, 1573; their heads were then impaled on stakes. In a later account, the executioner described how he "flicked off" the heads of the thirty-three pirates (not including Henszlein) in only 45 minutes, then proceeding to behead the bodies of those pirates killed during their capture. He later claimed to have been "standing in blood so deep that it well nigh in his shoes did creep".

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11 September 1297 – Battle of Stirling Bridge: Scots jointly led by William Wallace and Andrew Moray defeat the English.

Battle of Stirling Bridge

Battle of the First War of Scottish Independence

The Battle of Stirling Bridge (Scottish Gaelic: Blàr Drochaid Shruighlea) was fought during the First War of Scottish Independence. On 11 September 1297, the forces of Andrew Moray and William Wallace defeated the combined English forces of John de Warenne, 6th Earl of Surrey, and Hugh de Cressingham near Stirling, on the River Forth.^[4]

1. ^ Grant, James (1873). British Battles on Land and Sea. Cassell Petter & Galpin. p. 31.
2. ^ ^{a b c} BBC History Magazine July 2014, pp. 24–25
3. ^ Cite error: The named reference Cowan was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
4. ^ "Learn About the Fight for Scottish Independence". ThoughtCo. Archived from the original on 14 January 2026. Retrieved 5 March 2026.

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12 September 1940 – Cave paintings are discovered in Lascaux, France.

Lascaux

Caves in France containing Paleolithic paintings

For Lascaux in the Corrèze department, see Lascaux, Corrèze.

Lascaux (English: /læˈskoʊ/ la-SKOH,^[1] US also /lɑːˈskoʊ/ lah-SKOH;^[2] French: Grotte de Lascaux French pronunciation: [ɡʁɔt də lasko],^[3] "Lascaux Cave") is a network of caves near the village of Montignac, in the department of Dordogne in southwestern France. Over 600 parietal wall paintings cover the interior walls and ceilings of the cave. The paintings represent primarily large animals, typical local contemporary fauna that correspond with the fossil record of the Upper Paleolithic in the area. They are the combined effort of many generations. With continued debate, the age of the paintings is now usually estimated at 17,000 to 22,000 years (early Magdalenian).^[4][5][6] Because of the outstanding prehistoric art in the cave, Lascaux was inducted into the UNESCO World Heritage List in 1979, as an element of the Prehistoric Sites and Decorated Caves of the Vézère Valley.^[7]

The original caves have been closed to the public since 1963, as their condition was quickly deteriorating, but there are now a number of replicas.

1. ^ "American English Dictionary: Definition of Lascaux". Collins. Archived from the original on 27 September 2013. Retrieved 18 August 2013.
2. ^ "Lascaux". Lexico US English Dictionary. Oxford University Press. Archived from the original on 16 April 2021.
3. ^ "English Dictionary: Definition of Lascaux". Collins. Archived from the original on 27 September 2013. Retrieved 18 August 2013.
4. ^ Dirsmith, Suzanne Roe, Dirsmith, FAAR NA, Ron (2016). Who we are - How did we get here - Why does it matter now: Living and Working in Harmony with Nature The power of our surroundings to shape our lives ... the human spirit to thrive. p 14. internetarchivebooks; inlibrary; printdisabled. ISBN 9781530094103.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
5. ^ "Lascaux Cave Paintings: Layout, Meaning, Photographs – Dating – Chronological questions about the age of Lascaux's cave paintings, over what period they were created, and the identity of the oldest art in the complex, are still being debated..." Visual arts cork com. Archived from the original on 30 December 2016. Retrieved 28 December 2016.
6. ^ Lascaux, France. These paintings are estimated to be around 17,300 years old. Ancient-wisdom. 2000. Archived from the original on 28 December 2016. Retrieved 27 December 2016.
7. ^ "Prehistoric Sites and Decorated Caves of the Vézère Valley". UNESCO World Heritage Centre. Archived from the original on 7 October 2019. Retrieved 30 December 2012.

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13 September 2007 – The Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples is adopted by the United Nations General Assembly.

Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples

Declaration adopted in 2007 by the United Nations General Assembly

The Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples (UNDRIP or DOTROIP^[1]) is a legally non-binding United Nations resolution passed by the General Assembly on September 13, 2007, that delineates and defines the individual and collective rights of Indigenous peoples, including their ownership rights, cultural and ceremonial expression, identity, language, employment, health, education and other issues. Their ownership also extends to the protection of their Indigenous intellectual property.^[2] The declaration "emphasizes the rights of Indigenous peoples to maintain and strengthen their own institutions, cultures and traditions, and to pursue their development in keeping with their own needs and aspirations."^[3] It "prohibits discrimination against indigenous peoples and promotes their full and effective participation in all matters that concern them, and their right to remain distinct and to pursue their own visions of economic and social development".^[3][4]

The goal of the declaration is to encourage countries to work alongside Indigenous peoples to solve global issues, such as development, multiculturalism, democracy, and decentralization.^[3]

On Thursday, September 13, 2007, the United Nations voted by a vast majority of 143 in favor (4 against, 11 abstained, and 34 absent) of the declaration.^[5][6]

Since 2007, Australia, Canada, New Zealand, and the United States have reversed their positions and now support the declaration. As of February 2020, the United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs describes (A/RES/61/295) as "the most comprehensive international instrument on the rights of Indigenous peoples. It establishes a universal framework of minimum standards for the survival, dignity and well-being of the Indigenous peoples of the world and it elaborates on existing human rights standards and fundamental freedoms as they apply to the specific situation of Indigenous peoples."^[7]

As a United Nations General Assembly declaration, UNDRIP is not a legally binding instrument under international law.^[3][8] According to a UN press release it does "represent the dynamic development of international legal norms and it reflects the commitment of the UN's member states to move in certain directions"; the UN describes it as setting "an important standard for the treatment of indigenous peoples that will undoubtedly be a significant tool toward eliminating human rights violations against the planet's 370 million indigenous people, and assisting them in combating discrimination and marginalization."

UNDRIP codifies "Indigenous historical grievances, contemporary challenges and socio-economic, political and cultural aspirations" and is the "culmination of generations-long efforts by Indigenous organizations to get international attention, to secure recognition for their aspirations, and to generate support for their political agendas."^[9] Ken Coates, a Canada Research Chair and faculty member at the University of Saskatchewan, argues that UNDRIP resonates powerfully with indigenous peoples, while national governments have not yet fully understood its impact.^[10][9]

1. ^ "DOTROIP-24-2-PDF" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on September 3, 2018. Retrieved September 3, 2018.
2. ^ "United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples". United Nations Permanent Forum on Indigenous Issues. Archived from the original on November 1, 2015. Retrieved December 11, 2015.
3. ^ ^{a b c d} United Nations Permanent Forum on Indigenous Issues. "Frequently Asked Questions – Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on January 15, 2012. Retrieved March 5, 2012.
4. ^ "United Nations adopts Declaration on Rights of Indigenous Peoples". United Nations News Centre. September 13, 2007. Archived from the original on March 13, 2017.
5. ^ "General Assembly adopts Declaration on Rights of Indigenous Peoples; 'Major Step Forward' towards human rights for all, says President". UN General Assembly GA/10612. September 13, 2007. Archived from the original on November 17, 2007. Retrieved July 21, 2021.
6. ^ Reyhner, J.; Singh, N. (2010). "Cultural genocide in Australia, Canada, New Zealand, and the United States". Indigenous Policy Journal. S2CID 141340015.
7. ^ "United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples | United Nations For Indigenous Peoples". www.un.org. Retrieved February 16, 2020.
8. ^ Barnabas, Sylvanus Gbendazhi (December 7, 2017). "The Legal Status of the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples (2007) in Contemporary International Human Rights Law". International Human Rights Law Review. 6 (2): 253. doi:10.1163/22131035-00602006. ISSN 2213-1027.
9. ^ ^{a b} Coates, Ken (September 18, 2013), Ken Coates; Terry Mitchell (eds.), From aspiration to inspiration: UNDRIP finding deep traction in Indigenous communities, The Rise of the Fourth World, The Centre for International Governance Innovation (CIGI), archived from the original on September 23, 2013, retrieved September 20, 2013
10. ^ Ferguson, Mark (October 12, 2011). "News". News.usask.ca. Archived from the original on September 25, 2013. Retrieved December 24, 2013.

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14 September 1402 – Battle of Homildon Hill results in an English victory over Scotland.

Battle of Homildon Hill

Conflict between English and Scottish armies in England, in 1402

Not to be confused with Battle of Halidon Hill.

The Battle of Holmedon Hill or Battle of Homildon Hill was a conflict between English and Scottish armies on 14 September 1402 in Northumberland, England. The battle was recounted in William Shakespeare's Henry IV, Part 1. Although Humbleton Hill is the modern name of the site, over the centuries it has been variously named Homildon, Hameldun, Holmedon, and Homilheugh.

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15 September 1971 – The first Greenpeace ship departs from Vancouver to protest against the upcoming Cannikin nuclear weapon test in Alaska.

Cannikin

1971 underground nuclear weapons test on Amchitka island, Alaska, United States

Cannikin was an underground nuclear weapons test performed on November 6, 1971, on Amchitka island, Alaska, by the United States Atomic Energy Commission.^[1] The experiment, part of the Operation Grommet nuclear test series, tested the unique W71 warhead design for the LIM-49 Spartan anti-ballistic missile.^[2][3] With an explosive yield of almost 5 megatons of TNT (21 PJ), the test was the largest underground explosion ever detonated by the United States.^[4]

Prior to the main five-megaton test in 1971, a 1 Mt (4.2 PJ) test took place on the island on October 2, 1969, for calibration purposes, and to ensure the subsequent Cannikin test could be contained.^[4] This test, Milrow, was included in the Operation Mandrel nuclear test series.

The Cannikin test faced considerable opposition on environmental grounds. The campaigning environmental organization Greenpeace grew out of efforts to oppose the test.

1. ^ Mark Nuttall (2004). Encyclopedia of the Arctic. Routledge. ISBN 1579584365. the AEC instituted an extensive bioenvironmental program on Amchitka, and within a few years had completed Project Milrow, Project Long Shot, and Project Cannikin
2. ^ "Accomplishments in the 1970s: Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory". Archived from the original on February 17, 2005. Retrieved October 9, 2006.
3. ^ Robert Rogalski (March 14, 2007). Classification Bulletin – TNP-29 – The fact that the Cannikin event was a proof test of the W71 warhead for the Spartan missile system (Report). Archived from the original on April 26, 2023. Pursuant to section 142d of the Atomic Energy Act of 1954, you determine that the following information can be published without undue risk to the common defense and security and can therefore be declassified and removed from the Formerly Restricted Data category: The fact that the Cannikin event was a proof test of the W71 warhead for the Spartan missile system.
4. ^ ^{a b} The containment of underground nuclear explosions. 1989. This test, by far the highest-yield underground test ever conducted by the United States, was too large to be safely conducted in Nevada

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16 September 1979 – Eight people escape from East Germany to the west in a homemade hot air balloon.

East Germany balloon escape

1979 crossing into West Germany

On 16 September 1979, eight people from two families escaped from East Germany by crossing the border into West Germany at night in a homemade hot air balloon. The unique feat was the result of over a year and a half of preparations involving three different balloons, various modifications, and a first, unsuccessful attempt. The failed attempt alerted the East German authorities to the plot, but the police were unable to identify the escapees before their second, successful flight two months later.

1. ^ ^{a b} Wetzel, Günter. "Die Nacht der Flucht". Ballonflucht.de. Archived from the original on 19 September 2020. Retrieved 16 September 2019.

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17 September 1861 – Argentine Civil Wars: The State of Buenos Aires defeats the Argentine Confederation at the Battle of Pavón.

Argentine Civil Wars

Conflicts within Argentina from 1814 to 1880

Not to be confused with Dirty War.

The Argentine Civil Wars (Spanish: Guerras civiles argentinas) were a series of civil conflicts of varying intensity that took place in the territories of Argentina from 1814 to 1853. Beginning concurrently with the Argentine War of Independence (1810–1818), the conflict prevented the formation of a stable governing body until the signing of the Argentine Constitution of 1853, followed by low-frequency skirmishes that ended with the Federalization of Buenos Aires in 1880.

The period saw heavy intervention from the Brazilian Empire, which fought against the state and provinces in multiple wars. Breakaway nations, former territories of the Viceroyalty, such as the Banda Oriental, Paraguay and Upper Peru, were involved to varying degrees. Foreign powers such as the British and French empires put heavy pressure on the fledgling nations during international war.

Initially, conflict arose from tensions over the organization and powers of the United Provinces of South America. The May 1810 revolution sparked the breakdown of the Viceroyalty's intendencies (regional administrations) into local cabildos. These rejected the notion that the central government should be able to instate and remove governors of the new provinces; a general opposition to centralism. Escalation resulted in the dissolution of the directorship and the Congress leaving the Argentine provinces under the leadership of personalist strongmen called caudillos, leading to sporadic skirmishes until the reestablishment of relative peace after the war between the League of the Interior and the Federal Pact. However, conflicting interests did not permit the creation of a governing body until the pact's defeat during the Platine War.

Later conflicts centered around commercial control of the riverways in the Paraná and Uruguay rivers and the country's only port, which saw the secession of Buenos Aires from the Argentine Confederation, its unification, and subsequent de-escalation of hostilities as the battleground moved from mutinies to debates within the political system of the Argentine Republic.

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18 September 1809 – The Royal Opera House in London opens.

Royal Ballet and Opera

Redirect to:

• Royal Opera House

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19 September 1970 – Michael Eavis hosts the first Glastonbury Festival.

Glastonbury Festival

Performing arts festival in England

For the early 20th-century classical music and theatre festivals, see Glastonbury Festival (1914–1925).

The Glastonbury Festival of Contemporary Performing Arts (commonly referred to as simply Glastonbury Festival, known colloquially as Glasto) is a five-day festival of contemporary performing arts held near Pilton, Somerset, England, in most summers.

In addition to contemporary music, the festival hosts dance, comedy, theatre, circus, cabaret and other arts. Leading pop and rock artists have headlined, alongside thousands of others appearing on smaller stages and performance areas. Films and albums have been recorded at the festival, and it receives extensive television and newspaper coverage.

Glastonbury takes place on 1,500 acres (610 ha) of farmland^[3] and is attended by around 200,000 people,^[4] requiring extensive security, transport, water, and electricity-supply infrastructure. While the number of attendees is sometimes swollen by gatecrashers, a record of 300,000 people was set at the 1994 festival, headlined by the Levellers, who performed on the Pyramid Stage.^[5] Most festival staff are unpaid volunteers, helping the festival to raise millions of pounds for charity organisations.^[6]

Regarded as a major event in contemporary British culture, the festival is inspired by the ethos of the hippie, the counterculture of the 1960s, and the free festival movement. Vestiges of these traditions are retained in the Green Fields area, which includes sections known as the Green Futures, the Stone Circle and Healing Field.^[7] Michael Eavis hosted the first festival, then called the Pilton Festival, after seeing an open-air Led Zeppelin concert in 1970 at the Bath Festival of Blues and Progressive Music.

1. ^ Farrant, Theo (26 June 2023). "Glastonbury 2023: Here are the biggest moments you might have missed". Euronews. Archived from the original on 21 April 2024.
2. ^ Malloy, Tomas (16 April 2023). "Glastonbury Festival 2023 capacity: How many people attend the world-famous Somerset event?". www.somersetlive.co.uk.
3. ^ Digital, Pretty Good. "Glastonbury Festival – Site Layout & Distances". Glastonbury Festival – 21st–25th June, 2023.
4. ^ "The Worlds's Biggest Music Festivals". CNBC. 24 March 2011. Archived from the original on 23 April 2014. Retrieved 20 May 2014.
5. ^ Hann, Michael (31 January 2018). "The Levellers: 'I'll rag our Brexiteer fans till they cry – or never come back'". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 31 March 2018. Retrieved 31 March 2018.
6. ^ "Thousands of people descend on Worthy Farm for Glastonbury Festival". Bathchronicle.co.uk. 24 June 2015. Archived from the original on 12 July 2015. Retrieved 30 June 2015.
7. ^ Stevens, Jenny (27 June 2015). "Glastonbury's Healing Fields: festivalgoer wellbeing is not just for hippies". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 29 December 2019. Retrieved 3 September 2020.

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20 September 1586 – A number of conspirators in the Babington Plot are hanged, drawn and quartered

Babington Plot

1586 plot to assassinate Elizabeth I

The Babington Plot was a plan in 1586 to assassinate Queen Elizabeth I, a Protestant, and put Mary, Queen of Scots, her Catholic cousin, on the English throne. It led to Mary's execution, a result of a letter sent by Mary (who had been imprisoned for 19 years since 1568 in England at the behest of Elizabeth) in which she consented to the assassination of Elizabeth.^[1]

The long-term goal of the plot was the invasion of England by the Spanish forces of King Philip II and the Catholic League in France, leading to the restoration of the old religion. The plot was discovered by Elizabeth's spymaster Sir Francis Walsingham and used to entrap Mary for the purpose of removing her as a claimant to the English throne.

The chief conspirators were Anthony Babington and John Ballard. Babington, a young recusant, was recruited by Ballard, a Jesuit priest who hoped to rescue the Scottish queen. Working for Walsingham were double agents Robert Poley and Gilbert Gifford, as well as Thomas Phelippes, a spy agent and cryptanalyst, and the Puritan spy Maliverey Catilyn. The turbulent Catholic deacon Gifford had been in Walsingham's service since the end of 1585 or the beginning of 1586. Gifford obtained a letter of introduction to Queen Mary from a confidant and spy for her, Thomas Morgan. Walsingham then placed double agent Gifford and spy decipherer Phelippes inside Chartley Castle, where Queen Mary was imprisoned. Gifford organised the Walsingham plan to place Babington's and Queen Mary's encrypted communications into a beer barrel cork which were then intercepted by Phelippes, decoded and sent to Walsingham.^[2]

On 7 July 1586, the only Babington letter that was sent to Mary was decoded by Phelippes. Mary responded in code on 17 July 1586 ordering the would-be rescuers to assassinate Queen Elizabeth. The response letter also included deciphered phrases indicating her desire to be rescued: "The affairs being thus prepared" and "I may suddenly be transported out of this place". At the Fotheringay trial in October 1586, Elizabeth's Lord High Treasurer William Cecil – Lord Burghley – and Walsingham used the letter against Mary, who refused to admit that she was guilty. However, Mary was betrayed by her secretaries Claude Nau and Gilbert Curle, who confessed under pressure that the letter was mainly truthful.^[3]

1. ^ Somerest, Anne (1991). Elizabeth One. pp. 545–548.
2. ^ Anthony Babington, Dictionary of National Biography (1895). http://www.tudorplace.com.ar/Bios/AnthonyBabington.htm Archived 21 January 2017 at the Wayback Machine
3. ^ Fraser, Antonia (1985). Mary Queen of Scots. pp. 575–577.

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21 September 1942 – The Boeing B-29 Superfortress makes its maiden flight.

Boeing B-29 Superfortress

"Superfortress" and "B-29" redirect here. For the derived post-war-bomber, see Boeing B-50 Superfortress. For other uses, see B29 (disambiguation).

US heavy bomber aircraft, 1942

The Boeing B-29 Superfortress is a retired American four-engined propeller-driven heavy bomber, designed by Boeing and flown primarily by the United States during World War II and the Korean War. Named in allusion to its predecessor, the Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress, the Superfortress was designed for high-altitude strategic bombing, but also excelled in low-altitude night incendiary bombing and in dropping naval mines to blockade Japan. Silverplate B-29s dropped the atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki, and remain the only system to deliver nuclear weapons in combat.

One of the largest aircraft of World War II, the B-29 was designed with state-of-the-art technology, which included a pressurized cabin, dual-wheeled tricycle landing gear, and an analog computer-controlled fire-control system that allowed one gunner and a fire-control officer to direct four remote machine gun turrets. The $3 billion cost of design and production (equivalent to $54 billion in 2025),^[1] far exceeding the $1.9 billion cost of the Manhattan Project, made the B-29 program the most expensive of the war. The B-29 remained in service in various roles throughout the 1950s, being retired in the early 1960s after 3,970 had been built. A few were also used as flying television transmitters by the Stratovision company. The Royal Air Force flew the B-29 with the service name Washington from 1950 to 1954, when the jet-powered Canberra entered service.

The B-29 was the progenitor of a series of Boeing-built bombers, transports, tankers, reconnaissance aircraft, and trainers. For example, the re-engined B-50 Superfortress Lucky Lady II became the first aircraft to fly around the world non-stop, during a 94-hour flight in 1949. The Boeing C-97 Stratofreighter airlifter, which was first flown in 1944, was followed in 1947 by its commercial airliner variant, the Boeing Model 377 Stratocruiser. In 1948, Boeing introduced the KB-29 tanker, followed in 1950 by the Model 377 derivative KC-97. A line of outsized-cargo variants of the Stratocruiser is the Guppy / Mini Guppy / Super Guppy, which remain in service with NASA and other operators. The Soviet Union produced 847 Tupolev Tu-4s, an unlicensed reverse-engineered copy of the B-29. Twenty-two B-29s have survived to preservation. The majority are on static display at museums, while two airframes – FIFI and Doc – still fly.

1. ^ 1634–1699: McCusker, J. J. (1997). How Much Is That in Real Money? A Historical Price Index for Use as a Deflator of Money Values in the Economy of the United States: Addenda et Corrigenda (PDF). American Antiquarian Society. 1700–1799: McCusker, J. J. (1992). How Much Is That in Real Money? A Historical Price Index for Use as a Deflator of Money Values in the Economy of the United States (PDF). American Antiquarian Society. 1800–present: Federal Reserve Bank of Minneapolis. "Consumer Price Index (estimate) 1800–". Retrieved 29 February 2024.

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22 September 1965 – The Indo-Pakistani War of 1965 between India and Pakistan over Kashmir ends after the United Nations calls for a ceasefire.

Indo-Pakistani war of 1965

Redirect to:

• India–Pakistan war of 1965

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23 September 1905 – Norway and Sweden sign the Karlstad Treaty, peacefully dissolving the Union between the two countries

Dissolution of the union between Norway and Sweden

The dissolution of the union (Bokmål: unionsoppløsningen; Nynorsk: unionsoppløysinga; Landsmål: unionsuppløysingi; Swedish: unionsupplösningen) between the kingdoms of Norway and Sweden under the House of Bernadotte, was set in motion by a resolution of the Storting on 7 June 1905. Following some months of tension and fear of an outbreak of war between the neighbouring kingdoms (then in personal union) – and a Norwegian plebiscite held on 13 August which overwhelmingly backed dissolution – negotiations between the two governments led to Sweden's recognition of Norway as an independent constitutional monarchy on 26 October 1905. On that date, King Oscar II renounced his claim to the Norwegian throne, effectively dissolving the United Kingdoms of Sweden and Norway, and this event was swiftly followed, on 18 November, by the accession to the Norwegian throne of Prince Carl of Denmark, taking the name of Haakon VII.

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24 September 1946 – The top-secret Clifford-Elsey Report on the Soviet Union is delivered to President Truman.

X Article

1947 anti-communist article by American diplomat George F. Kennan

English Wikisource has original text related to this article:

The Long Telegram

English Wikisource has original text related to this article:

The Sources of Soviet Conduct

"The Sources of Soviet Conduct", commonly "X Article", is an article written by George F. Kennan and published under the pseudonym "X" in the July 1947 issue of Foreign Affairs magazine. It introduced the term "containment" to widespread use and advocated the strategic use of that concept against the Soviet Union. It expanded on ideas expressed by Kennan in a confidential February 1946 telegram, formally identified by Kennan's State Department number, "511", but informally dubbed the "long telegram" for its size.

Kennan composed the long telegram in response to inquiries about the implications of a February 1946 speech by Joseph Stalin.^{[note 1]} Though the speech was in line with previous statements by Stalin, it provoked fear in the American press and public; Time magazine called it "the most warlike pronouncement uttered by any top-rank statesman since V-J Day".^[5] The long telegram explained Soviet motivations by recounting the history of Russian rulers as well as the ideology of Marxism–Leninism. It argued that the Soviet leaders used the ideology to characterize the external world as hostile, allowing them to justify their continued hold on power despite a lack of popular support. Washington bureaucrats quickly read the confidential message and accepted it as the best explanation of Soviet behavior. The reception elevated Kennan's reputation within the State Department as one of the government's foremost Soviet experts.

After hearing Kennan speak about Soviet foreign relations at the Council on Foreign Relations in January 1947, international banker R. Gordon Wasson suggested that he share his views in an article for Foreign Affairs. Kennan revised a piece he had submitted to Secretary of the Navy James Forrestal in late January 1947, but his role in government precluded him from publishing under his name. His superiors granted him approval to publish the piece provided it was released anonymously; Foreign Affairs attributed the article only to "X". Expressing similar sentiments to that of the long telegram, the piece was strong in its anti-communism, introducing and outlining a basic theory of containment. The article was widely read; though it does not mention the Truman Doctrine, having mostly been written before Truman's speech, it quickly became seen as an expression of the doctrine's policy. Retrospective commentators dispute the impact of the article, although Henry Kissinger referred to it as "the diplomatic doctrine of the era".^[6]

1. ^ Kennan 1983, quoted in Gaddis 2011, p. 216.
2. ^ ^{a b} Gaddis 2011, p. 718n40.
3. ^ Gaddis 1997, p. 193.
4. ^ Gaddis 2011, p. 216.
5. ^ Gaddis 2011, p. 227.
6. ^ Kissinger 1979, p. 135, quoted in Gaddis 2011, p. 249.

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25 September 1237 – England and Scotland sign the Treaty of York, establishing the location of their common border.

Treaty of York

1237 treaty between England and Scotland

The Treaty of York was an agreement between the kings Henry III of England and Alexander II of Scotland, signed at York on 25 September 1237, which affirmed that Northumberland (which at the time also encompassed County Durham),^[1] Cumberland, and Westmorland were subject to English sovereignty. This established the Anglo-Scottish border in a form that remains almost unchanged to modern times (the only modifications have been regarding the Debatable Lands and Berwick-upon-Tweed).^[2] The treaty detailed the future status of several feudal properties and addressed other issues between the two kings, and historically marked the end of the Kingdom of Scotland's attempts to extend its frontier southward.

The treaty was one of a number of agreements made in the ongoing relationship between the two kings. The papal legate Otho of Tonengo was already in the Kingdom of England at Henry's request, to attend a synod in London in November 1237. Otho was informed in advance by Henry of the September meeting at York, which he attended. This meeting was recorded by the contemporary chronicler Matthew Paris, who disparaged both Alexander and Otho.

1. ^ Green, Adrian (2007). Regional Identities in North-East England, 1300–2000. The Boydell Press. p. 224. ISBN 978-1843833352.
2. ^ "Treaty of York – 1237". BBC History. Retrieved 24 September 2017.

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26 September 1933 – As gangster Machine Gun Kelly surrenders to the FBI, he shouts out, "Don't shoot, G-Men!", which becomes a nickname for FBI agents.

Machine Gun Kelly (gangster)

American gangster (1895–1954)

George Kelly Barnes (July 18, 1895^[1][2] – July 18, 1954),^[3] better known by his nickname Machine Gun Kelly, was an American gangster from Memphis, Tennessee, active during the Prohibition era. His nickname came from his favorite weapon, a Thompson submachine gun. He is best known for the kidnapping of oil tycoon and businessman Charles F. Urschel in July 1933, from which he and his gang collected a $200,000 ransom (equivalent to $4.89 million in 2025). Urschel had collected and left considerable evidence that assisted the subsequent investigation by the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI), which eventually led to Kelly's arrest in Memphis on September 26, 1933.^[3] His crimes also included bootlegging and armed robbery.

1. ^ Barnes, Bruce. Machine Gun Kelly: To Right A Wrong, Tipper Publications, 1991. p. 49
2. ^ Draft Registration Card of George Kelley (sic) Barnes, dated September 12, 1918
3. ^ ^{a b} "George 'Machine Gun' Kelly". Alcatraz History.com. 2015. Retrieved August 16, 2015.

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27 September 1540 – The Society of Jesus (Jesuits) receives its charter from Pope Paul III.

Jesuits

Male religious congregation of the Catholic Church

This article is about the Society of Jesus, also known as Jesuit Order. For philosophy concerning the teachings of Jesus, see Jesuism. For the band, see Jesuit (band). For the pastry, see Jésuite. For the sandwich, see Jesuita (sandwich).

The Society of Jesus (Latin: Societas Iesu; abbreviation: S.J. or SJ), also known as the Jesuit Order or the Jesuits (/ˈdʒɛʒuɪts, ˈdʒɛzju-/ JEZH-oo-its, JEZ-ew-;^[2] Latin: Iesuitae),^[3] is a religious order of clerics regular of pontifical right for men in the Catholic Church. Headquartered in Rome, it was founded in 1540 by Ignatius of Loyola and six companions, with the approval of Pope Paul III. The Society of Jesus is the largest Catholic religious male order and has played a significant role in education, charity, humanitarian acts and global policies. Jesuits are engaged in evangelization and apostolic ministry in 112 countries, including education, research, and cultural pursuits. They also conduct retreats, minister in hospitals and parishes, sponsor direct social and humanitarian works, and promote ecumenical dialogue.

The Society of Jesus is consecrated under the patronage of Madonna della Strada, a title of the Blessed Virgin Mary, and it is led by a superior general.^[4][5] The headquarters of the society, its general curia, is in Rome.^[6] The historic curia of Ignatius is now part of the Collegio del Gesù attached to the Church of the Gesù, the Jesuit mother church, also in Rome.

Jesuits make profession of "perpetual poverty, chastity, and obedience" and "promise a special obedience to the sovereign pontiff in regard to the missions." A Jesuit is expected to be totally available and obedient to his superiors, accepting orders to go anywhere in the world, even if required to live in extreme conditions. Ignatius, its leading founder, was a nobleman who had a military background. The opening lines of the founding document of the Society of Jesus accordingly declare that it was founded for "whoever desires to serve as a soldier of God,^[a] to strive especially for the defense and propagation of the faith, and for the progress of souls in Christian life and doctrine".^[7] Jesuits are thus sometimes referred to colloquially as "God's soldiers",^[8] "God's marines",^[9] or "the Company".^[10] The Society of Jesus participated in the Counter-Reformation and, later, in the implementation of the Second Vatican Council.

Jesuit missionaries established missions around the world from the 16th to the 18th century and had both successes and failures in Christianizing the native peoples. The Jesuits have always been controversial within the Catholic Church and have frequently clashed with secular governments and institutions. Beginning in 1759, the Catholic Church expelled Jesuits from most countries in Europe and from European colonies. Pope Clement XIV officially suppressed the order in 1773. In 1814, the Church lifted the suppression.

1. ^ ^{a b c} "Society of Jesus (Institute of Consecrated Life – Men) [Catholic-Hierarchy]". www.catholic-hierarchy.org. Archived from the original on 23 January 2003. Retrieved 15 October 2018.
2. ^ "Jesuit". Dictionary.com Unabridged (Online). n.d.
3. ^ "Jesuit". Cambridge Dictionary of English. Cambridge University Press. Archived from the original on 3 May 2022. Retrieved 22 May 2021.
4. ^ "News on the elections of the new Superior General". Sjweb.info. Archived from the original on 25 April 2023. Retrieved 4 December 2011.
5. ^ Brown, Stephen (9 February 2009). "Spaniard becomes Jesuits' new 'black pope'". Reuters. Archived from the original on 3 January 2009. Retrieved 4 December 2011.
6. ^ "The General Curia". Archived from the original on 6 October 2022. Retrieved 7 October 2022.
7. ^ O'Malley 2006, p. xxxv.
8. ^ "Poverty and Chastity for Every Occasion". Weekend Edition Saturday. National Public Radio. 5 March 2010. Archived from the original on 20 June 2013. Retrieved 15 May 2013.
9. ^ "The Jesuits: 'God's marines'". The Week. New York. 23 March 2013. Archived from the original on 11 June 2017. Retrieved 19 June 2017.
10. ^ "About Our Jesuits". Atlanta, Georgia: Ignatius House Retreat Center. Archived from the original on 11 April 2013. Retrieved 15 May 2013.

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28 September 1889 – The General Conference on Weights and Measures (CGPM) defines the length of a metre

General Conference on Weights and Measures

International metrological authority

The General Conference on Weights and Measures (abbreviated CGPM from the French: Conférence générale des poids et mesures)^[1]: 117 is the supreme authority of the International Bureau of Weights and Measures (BIPM), the intergovernmental organization established in 1875 under the terms of the Metre Convention through which member states act together on matters related to measurement science and measurement standards. The CGPM is made up of delegates of the governments of the member states and observers from the Associates of the CGPM. It elects the International Committee for Weights and Measures (abbreviated CIPM from the Comité international des poids et mesures)^[1]: 117 as the supervisory board of the BIPM to direct and supervise it.

Initially the work of the BIPM concerned the kilogram and the metre, but in 1921 the scope of the Metre Convention was extended to accommodate all physical measurements and hence all aspects of the metric system. In 1960 the 11th CGPM approved the title International System of Units, usually known as "SI".

The General Conference receives the report of the CIPM on work accomplished; it discusses and examines the arrangements required to ensure the propagation and improvement of the International System of Units (SI); it endorses the results of new fundamental metrological determinations and various scientific resolutions of international scope; and it decides all major issues concerning the organization and development of the BIPM, including its financial endowment.^[2]

The CGPM meets in Paris, usually once every four years. The 25th meeting of the CGPM took place from 18 to 20 November 2014,^[3] the 26th meeting of the CGPM took place in Versailles from 13 to 16 November 2018,^[4] and the 27th meeting of the CGPM took place from 15 to 18 November 2022.^[5]

1. ^ ^{a b} Cite error: The named reference SIBrochure9th was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
2. ^ "BIPM – official reports". bipm.org. Archived from the original on 30 December 2020. Retrieved 26 April 2018.
3. ^ "BIPM – 25th meeting of the CGPM: 18–20 November 2014". bipm.org. Retrieved 21 November 2022.
4. ^ "BIPM – 26th meeting of the CGPM (2018)". bipm.org. Retrieved 21 November 2022.
5. ^ "27th meeting of the CGPM (2022)". BIPM. Retrieved 21 November 2022.

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29 September 1829 – The Metropolitan Police of London, later also known as the Met, is founded

Metropolitan Police

Territorial police force of Greater London

Not to be confused with City of London Police.

Shares the nickname "the Met" but not to be confused with, Met Office

For other metropolitan police departments, see Metropolitan Police (disambiguation).

Law enforcement agency

The Metropolitan Police Service (MPS), commonly known as the Metropolitan Police, Met Police, or the "Met", is the territorial police force responsible for law enforcement and crime prevention within Greater London. In addition, it is responsible for specialised tasks throughout the United Kingdom, such as dealing with counter-terrorism throughout the UK, and the protection of certain individuals, including the monarch, royal family, governmental officials,^[10] and other designated figures. It is also referred to as an eponym as "Scotland Yard" or "the Yard", after the location of its original headquarters in Great Scotland Yard, Whitehall, in the 19th century.^[11] The Met is presently headquartered at New Scotland Yard, in a building situated on the Victoria Embankment.^[12]

The main geographical area covered by the Met, the Metropolitan Police District, consists of the 32 London boroughs,^[13] and excludes the square mile of the City of London – a largely non-residential and financial district, overseen by the City of London Police. As the force responsible for the majority of the UK's capital, the Met has significant responsibilities and unique challenges, such as protecting 164 foreign embassies and High Commissions,^[14] policing London City and Heathrow airports, protecting the Palace of Westminster, and managing a higher volume of protests and events than any other British police force, with 3,500 such events in 2016.^[14]

The force, by officer numbers, ranks as the largest police force within the United Kingdom.^[15] Excluding its national roles, the Met oversees the eighth-smallest primary geographic area (police area) compared to other territorial police forces in the UK.

The force operates under the leadership of the Commissioner of Police of the Metropolis, directly accountable to the mayor of London, through the Mayor's Office for Policing and Crime and the Home Office. The post of commissioner was first held jointly by Sir Charles Rowan and Sir Richard Mayne, with Sir Mark Rowley currently holding the position since July 2022.^[16]

1. ^ "Metropolitan Police Service – Homepage". Metropolitan Police. 2 April 2009. Archived from the original on 8 July 2017. Retrieved 6 May 2009.
2. ^ "Contacts: MPS". MPA. Archived from the original on 14 January 2012. Retrieved 2 June 2010.
3. ^ "Metropolitan Police Service – History of the Metropolitan Police Service". Metropolitan Police. Archived from the original on 26 April 2009. Retrieved 6 May 2009.
4. ^ "The Bow street runners – Victorian Policeman by Simon Dell OBE QCB – Devon & Cornwall Constabulary". Devon-cornwall.police.uk. Archived from the original on 13 October 2003. Retrieved 6 May 2009.
5. ^ "Policing the Port of London – Crime and punishment". Port Cities. Archived from the original on 5 October 2012. Retrieved 6 May 2009.
6. ^ ^{a b c d} "The structure | the Met". www.met.police.uk. Archived from the original on 25 June 2017. Retrieved 23 June 2020.
7. ^ "London Police Budget 2023". Archived from the original on 18 September 2023. Retrieved 14 September 2023.
8. ^ "Metropolitan Police Service". His Majesty's Inspectorate of Constabulary and Fire & Rescue Services. Archived from the original on 9 May 2021. Retrieved 26 May 2021.
9. ^ "Matt Jukes takes on role as Deputy Commissioner". Metropolitan Police. 22 May 2025. Retrieved 24 May 2025.
10. ^ "MPA – Metropolitan Police dedicated to protecting the United Kingdom from terrorism". whitehallpages.net. Archived from the original on 24 July 2011. Retrieved 22 July 2011.
11. ^ Douglas Browne (1956) The Rise of Scotland Yard: A History of the Metropolitan Police
12. ^ "New Met HQ officially 'Topped Out' by Commissioner and Deputy Mayor". December 2015. Archived from the original on 9 July 2021. Retrieved 17 March 2021.
13. ^ "The Met's area of jurisdiction | The Met". www.met.police.uk. Archived from the original on 23 October 2020. Retrieved 6 March 2019.
14. ^ ^{a b} "MPS Business Plan 2017–18" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 23 March 2019. Retrieved 6 October 2018.
15. ^ "Metropolitan Police Authority". MPA. Archived from the original on 19 July 2006. Retrieved 20 July 2006.
16. ^ "Mark Rowley appointed new commissioner of Met police". TheGuardian.com. 8 July 2022. Archived from the original on 25 March 2023. Retrieved 20 December 2023.

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30 September 1863 – Georges Bizet's opera Les pêcheurs de perles, premiered in Paris.

Les pêcheurs de perles

1863 opera by Georges Bizet

"The Pearl Fishers" redirects here. For the film, see The Pearl Fishers (film). For the band, see Pearlfishers (band).

Les pêcheurs de perles (French pronunciation: [le pɛʃœʁ də pɛʁl], The Pearl Fishers) is an opera in three acts by the French composer Georges Bizet, to a libretto by Eugène Cormon and Michel Carré. It was premiered on 30 September 1863 at the Théâtre Lyrique in Paris, and was given 18 performances in its initial run. Set in ancient times on the island of Ceylon (Sri Lanka), the opera tells the story of how two men's vow of eternal friendship is threatened by their love for the same woman, whose own dilemma is the conflict between secular love and her sacred oath as a priestess. The friendship duet "Au fond du temple saint", generally known as "The Pearl Fishers Duet", is one of the best-known in Western opera.

At the time of the premiere, Bizet (born on 25 October 1838) was not yet 25 years old: he had yet to establish himself in the Parisian musical world. The commission to write Les pêcheurs arose from his standing as a former winner of the prestigious Prix de Rome. Despite a good reception by the public, press reactions to the work were generally hostile and dismissive, although other composers, notably Hector Berlioz, found considerable merit in the music. The opera was not revived in Bizet's lifetime, but from 1886 onwards it was performed with some regularity in Europe and North America, and from the mid-20th century has entered the repertory of opera houses worldwide. Because the autograph score was lost, post-1886 productions were based on amended versions of the score that contained significant departures from the original. Since the 1970s, efforts have been made to reconstruct the score in accordance with Bizet's intentions.

Modern critical opinion has been kinder than that of Bizet's day. Commentators describe the quality of the music as uneven and at times unoriginal, but acknowledge the opera as a work of promise in which Bizet's gifts for melody and evocative instrumentation are clearly evident. They have identified clear foreshadowings of the composer's genius which would culminate, 10 years later, in Carmen. Since 1950 the work has been recorded on numerous occasions, in both the revised and original versions.

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1 October 1861 – Mrs Beeton's Book of Household Management is published, going on to sell 60,000 copies in its first year and remaining in print until the present day.

Mrs. Beeton's Book of Household Management

1861 book by Isabella Beeton

Mrs. Beeton's Book of Household Management, also published as Mrs. Beeton's Cookery Book, is an extensive guide to running a household in Victorian Britain, edited by Isabella Beeton and first published as a book in 1861. Previously published in parts, it initially and briefly bore the title Beeton's Book of Household Management, as one of the series of guidebooks published by her husband, Samuel Beeton. The recipes were highly structured, in contrast to those in earlier cookbooks. It was illustrated with many monochrome and colour plates.

Although Mrs. Beeton died in 1865, the book continued to be a best-seller. The first editions after her death contained an obituary notice, but later editions did not, allowing readers to imagine that every word was written by an experienced Mrs. Beeton personally. Many of the recipes were copied from the most successful cookery books of the day, including Eliza Acton's Modern Cookery for Private Families (first published in 1845), Elizabeth Raffald's The Experienced English Housekeeper (originally published in 1769), Marie-Antoine Carême's Le Pâtissier royal Parisien (1815), Hannah Glasse's The Art of Cookery Made Plain and Easy (1747), Maria Eliza Rundell's A New System of Domestic Cookery (1806), and the works of Charles Elmé Francatelli (1805–1876). This practice of Mrs. Beeton's has in modern times repeatedly been described as plagiarism.

The book expanded steadily in length until by 1907 it reached 74 chapters and over 2,000 pages. Nearly two million copies were sold by 1868, and as of 2016^[update] it remains in print. Between 1875 and 1914 it was probably the most often-consulted cookery book. Mrs. Beeton has been compared on the strength of the book with modern "domestic goddesses"^[1] like Nigella Lawson and Delia Smith.^[1]

1. ^ ^{a b} Cite error: The named reference ftimes was invoked but never defined (see the help page).

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2 October 1928 – The "Prelature of the Holy Cross and the Work of God", commonly known as Opus Dei, is founded

Opus Dei

Institution of the Catholic Church

For other uses, see Opus Dei (disambiguation).

Opus Dei (Latin for 'Work of God') is a personal prelature of the Catholic Church founded in Spain on 2 October 1928 by Saint Josemaría Escrivá. The prelature states that it helps lay and clerical members pursue holiness through everyday occupations and social responsibilities. The Holy See granted final approval in 1950 under Pope Pius XII.^[2] In 1982 Pope John Paul II affirmed its status as a personal prelature through the apostolic constitution Ut sit.^[2]: 1–9 Catholic Church leaders have voiced institutional support while the organization remains controversial, having faced multiple allegations of abuse and exploitation by former members.^[3][4]

Laypeople constitute most members of Opus Dei, and the rest are secular priests governed by a prelate elected by specific members and appointed by the Pope.^[5] Because Opus Dei is Latin for "Work of God", members and supporters often refer to the prelature as "the Work".^[6][7] Beyond personal charity and social services, the prelature organizes training in Catholic spirituality applied to daily life. Opus Dei members are located in more than 90 countries.^[8] About 70% of members live in their own homes and maintain secular careers while taking part in prelature activities,^[9][10] while the remaining are celibate, of whom the majority live in Opus Dei centers.

1. ^ "Who belongs to Opus Dei?". Opus Dei. Retrieved 3 May 2025.
2. ^ ^{a b} Berglar, Peter (1994). Opus Dei: Life and Work of Its Founder, Josemaria Escriva. Translated by Browne, Bernard; Chessman, Stuart; Junge, John; Gottschalk, Mary. Princeton, NJ: Scepter Publishers, Inc. p. 189. ISBN 0-933932-64-2. Archived from the original on 20 August 2018. Retrieved 29 March 2008.
3. ^ Junquera, Natalia (6 October 2024). "Manipulation, greed and power: The untold story of Opus Dei". El País. Retrieved 3 May 2025.
4. ^ Barber, Harriet (14 April 2025). "'I became like a slave': why 43 women are suing the secretive Opus Dei Catholic group in Argentina". The Guardian. Retrieved 11 April 2026.
5. ^ "Upon whom does the prelate of Opus Dei depend? Who appoints him?". Opus Dei. 27 November 2007.
6. ^ "Decoding secret world of Opus Dei". BBC News. 16 September 2005. Retrieved 27 November 2006.
7. ^ Tammeus, Bill (19 October 2005). "Bishop confirms connection to group". Kansas City Star.
8. ^ "Opus Dei to produce Italian cartoon and mini-series on St. Josemaria Escriva". Catholic News Agency. 2 October 2008. Retrieved 11 December 2016.
9. ^ "Opus Dei". BBC Religion and Ethics. Retrieved 27 November 2006.
10. ^ Mattingly, Terry. "'Da Vinci Code' mania opened up Opus Dei". Albuquerque Tribune. Archived from the original on 29 September 2007. Retrieved 2 April 2007.

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3 October 52 BC – Gallic Wars: Vercingetorix, leader of the Gauls, surrenders to the Romans under Julius Caesar, ending the siege and battle of Alesia.

Gallic Wars

58–50 BC conflict between Rome and Gallic tribes

This article is about Caesar's military campaigns of 58 to 50 BC. For Julius Caesar's writings, see Commentarii de Bello Gallico. For the earlier Romano-Gallic conflicts, see Roman–Gallic wars.

The Gallic Wars^[a] were waged between 58 and 50 BC by the Roman general Julius Caesar against the peoples of Gaul (present-day France, Belgium, and Switzerland). Gallic, Germanic, and Brittonic tribes fought to defend their homelands against an aggressive Roman campaign. The wars culminated in the decisive Battle of Alesia in 52 BC, in which a complete Roman victory resulted in the expansion of the Roman Republic over the whole of Gaul. Though the collective Gallic armies were as strong as the Roman forces, internal divisions among the Gallic tribes eased victory for Caesar. Gallic chieftain Vercingetorix's attempt to unite the Gauls under a single banner came too late. Caesar portrayed the invasion as being a preemptive and defensive action, but historians agree that he fought the wars primarily to boost his political career and to pay off his debts. Still, Gaul was of significant military importance to the Romans. Native tribes in the region, both Gallic and Germanic, had repeatedly attacked Roman territory. Conquering Gaul allowed Rome to secure the natural border of the Rhine river.

The wars began with conflict over the migration of the Helvetii in 58 BC, which drew in neighboring tribes and the Germanic Suebi. By 57 BC, Caesar had resolved to conquer all of Gaul. He led campaigns in the east, where the Nervii almost defeated him. In 56 BC, Caesar defeated the Veneti in a naval battle and took most of northwest Gaul. In 55 BC, Caesar sought to boost his public image. He undertook first-of-their-kind expeditions across the Rhine and the English Channel. Rome hailed Caesar as a hero upon his return from Britain, though he had achieved little beyond landing because his army had been too small. The next year, he returned with a larger army and reached much further inland; he extracted tribute from the locals and returned to Gaul. Revolts broke out on the continent, and the Romans suffered a humiliating defeat. 53 BC saw a brutal pacification campaign. That failed, and Vercingetorix led a major revolt in 52 BC. Gallic forces won a notable victory at the Battle of Gergovia, but the Romans' indomitable siege works at the Battle of Alesia crushed the Gallic coalition.

In 51 and 50 BC, there was limited resistance, and Caesar's troops mainly engaged in mop-up operations. Gaul was conquered, although it would not become a Roman province until 27 BC, and resistance would continue until as late as 70 AD. There is no precise end date to the war, but the imminent Roman Civil War led to the withdrawal of Caesar's troops in 50 BC. Caesar's wild successes in the war had made him wealthy and provided a legendary reputation. The Gallic Wars were a key factor in Caesar's ability to win the Civil War and make himself dictator, culminating in the end of the Roman Republic and the establishment of the Roman Empire.

Julius Caesar described the Gallic Wars in his book Commentarii de Bello Gallico. It is the primary source for the conflict, but modern historians consider it propaganda and prone to exaggeration. Caesar makes implausible claims about the number of Gauls killed (over a million), while claiming almost zero Roman casualties. Modern historians believe that Gallic forces were far smaller than the Romans claimed, and that the Romans suffered significant casualties. Regardless of the accuracy of the Commentarii, the campaign was still exceptionally brutal. Untold numbers of Gauls were killed, enslaved, or mutilated, including large numbers of civilians.

1. ^ Delbrück 1990, p. 46.
2. ^ Dodge 1997, pp. 276–295.
3. ^ Keppie 1998, p. 97.
4. ^ Appian 2016.
5. ^ ^{a b} Fields 2010.
6. ^ McCarty 2008.
7. ^ Caesar 1982, p. 15.
8. ^ Henige 1998.
9. ^ Webster, Jane (1996). "Ethnographic barbarity: colonial discourse and 'Celtic warrior societies'.". In Cooper, Nick (ed.). Roman Imperialism: Post-Colonial Perspectives (PDF). School of Archaeological Studies, University of Leicester. pp. 117–118. Retrieved 5 April 2023.

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4 October 2006 – WikiLeaks is launched.

WikiLeaks

News leak publishing organisation

WikiLeaks (/ˈwɪkiˌliːks/) is a non-profit media organisation and publisher of leaked documents. It is funded by donations^[13] and media partnerships. It has published classified documents and other media provided by anonymous sources.^[14] It was founded in 2006 by Julian Assange.^[15] Kristinn Hrafnsson is its editor-in-chief.^[16][17] Its website states that it has released more than ten million documents and associated analyses.^[18] WikiLeaks' most recent publication of original documents was in 2019 and its most recent publication was in 2021.^[19] From November 2022, numerous documents on the organisation's website became inaccessible.^[19][20] In 2023, Assange said that WikiLeaks is no longer able to publish due to his imprisonment and the effect that US government surveillance and WikiLeaks' funding restrictions were having on potential whistleblowers.^[21]

WikiLeaks has released document caches and media that exposed serious violations of human rights and civil liberties by various governments. It released footage of the 12 July 2007 Baghdad airstrike, titling it Collateral Murder, in which Iraqi Reuters journalists and several other civilians were killed by a US helicopter crew.^[22] It published thousands of US military field logs from the war in Afghanistan and Iraq war, diplomatic cables from the United States and Saudi Arabia,^[23][24] and emails from the governments of Syria^[25][26] and Turkey.^[27][28][29] WikiLeaks has also published documents exposing corruption in Kenya^[30][31] and at Samherji,^[32] cyber warfare and surveillance tools created by the CIA,^[33][34] and surveillance of the French president by the National Security Agency.^[35][36] During the 2016 US presidential election campaign, WikiLeaks released emails from the Democratic National Committee (DNC) and from Hillary Clinton's campaign manager, showing that the party's national committee had effectively acted as an arm of the Clinton campaign during the primaries, seeking to undercut the campaign of Bernie Sanders. These releases resulted in the resignation of the chairwoman of the DNC and caused significant harm to the Clinton campaign.^[37]

WikiLeaks has won numerous awards and been commended by media organisations, civil society organisations, and world leaders for exposing state and corporate secrets, increasing transparency, assisting freedom of the press, and enhancing democratic discourse while challenging powerful institutions. The organisation has been the target of campaigns to discredit it, including aborted ones by Palantir and HBGary. WikiLeaks has also had its donation systems interrupted by payment processors. As a result, the Wau Holland Foundation helps process WikiLeaks' donations.

The organisation has been criticised for inadequately curating content and violating personal privacy. WikiLeaks has, for instance, revealed Social Security numbers, medical information, credit card numbers and details of suicide attempts.^[38][39][40] News organisations, activists, journalists and former members have also criticised WikiLeaks over allegations of anti-Clinton and pro-Trump bias and a lack of internal transparency. Some journalists have alleged it had associations with the Russian government. Journalists have also criticised the organisation for promotion of conspiracy theories, and what they describe as exaggerated and misleading descriptions of the contents of leaks. The CIA and United States Congress characterised the organisation as a "non-state hostile intelligence service" after the release of CIA tools for hacking consumer electronics in Vault 7.^[41]

Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

1. ^ "Log in - our.wikileaks.org". our.wikileaks.org. Archived from the original on 12 July 2023. Retrieved 12 July 2023.
2. ^ "Getting Started - our.wikileaks.org". our.wikileaks.org. Archived from the original on 29 May 2024. Retrieved 12 July 2023.
3. ^ Cardoso, Gustavo; Jacobetty, Pedro (2012). "Surfing the Crisis: Cultures of Belonging and Networked Social Change". In Castells, Manuel; Caraça, João; Cardoso, Gustavo (eds.). Aftermath: The Cultures of the Economic Crisis. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 177–209. ISBN 9780199658411. Archived from the original on 29 May 2024. Retrieved 9 May 2023. WikiLeaks is also based on an openness culture, as it is a crowd-sourced, crowd-funded non-profit organization operating internationally.
4. ^ Pogrebna, Ganna; Skilton, Mark (2019). Navigating New Cyber Risks: How Businesses Can Plan, Build and Manage Safe Spaces in the Digital Age. Cham, Switzerland: Palgrave MacMillan. p. 2. doi:10.1007/978-3-030-13527-0. ISBN 9783030135270. S2CID 197966404. Archived from the original on 8 May 2023. Retrieved 7 May 2023. WikiLeaks is an international non profit organization that receives and subsequently shares on its website confidential documents from large organizations or governments.
5. ^ Braccini, Alessio Maria; Federici, Tommaso (2013). "New Internet-Based Relationships Between Citizens". In Baskerville, Richard; De Marco, Marco; Spagnoletti, Paolo (eds.). Designing Organizational Systems: An Interdisciplinary Discourse. Berlin: Springer Nature. pp. 157–179. doi:10.1007/978-3-642-33371-2. ISBN 978-3-642-33370-5. Archived from the original on 9 May 2023. Retrieved 7 May 2023. Julian Assange had introduced a new term into the lexicon of several generations. This term was 'WikiLeaks' and described an international non-profit organisation, committed to publishing secret information, news leaks, and classified media provided by anonymous sources.
6. ^ Hindman, Elizabeth Blanks; Thomas, Ryan J (June 2014). "When Old and New Media Collide: The Case of WikiLeaks". New Media & Society. 16 (4). SAGE Publishing: 541–558. doi:10.1177/1461444813489504. ISSN 1461-4448. S2CID 30711318. WikiLeaks was founded in 2006 as an international non-profit organization specializing in the publication of 'classified, censored or otherwise restricted material of political, diplomatic or ethical significance' obtained via anonymous sources
7. ^ Dodds, Klaus J. (2012). "The WikiLeaks Arctic Cables". Polar Record. 48 (2). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press: 199–201. Bibcode:2012PoRec..48..199D. doi:10.1017/S003224741100043X. S2CID 129682201. With a keen sense of timing, given the Greenlandic and Danish governments' hosting of the 7th Arctic Council ministerial meeting, seven 'sensitive' US diplomatic cables were leaked by WikiLeaks, an international non-profit organisation that publishes materials from anonymous sources, news leaks, and whistleblowers
8. ^ Benkler, Yochai (2011). "A Free Irresponsible Press: Wikileaks and the Battle over the Soul of the Networked Fourth Estate". Harvard Civil Rights–Civil Liberties Law Review. 46 (2). Cambridge: Harvard Law School: 311–397. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 9 May 2023 – via Harvard Library. Wikileaks is a nonprofit that depends on donations from around the world to fund its operation. A second system that came under attack on a model parallel to the attack on technical infrastructure was the payment system... Like the Sunlight Foundation and similar transparency-focused organizations, Wikileaks is a nonprofit focused on bringing to light direct, documentary evidence about government behavior so that many others, professional and otherwise, can analyze the evidence and search for instances that justify public criticism.
9. ^ Fuchs, Christian (2014). "WikiLeaks: Can We Make Power Transparent?". Social Media: A Critical Introduction. London/Thousand Oaks: SAGE Publishing. pp. 210–233. ISBN 978-1-4462-5730-2. Archived from the original on 9 January 2023. Retrieved 9 May 2023. WikiLeaks (www.wikileaks.org) is a non-commercial and non-profit Internet whistleblowing platform that has been online since 2006. Julian Assange founded it. It is funded by online donations.
10. ^ Beckett, Charlie (2012). Wikileaks: News in the Networked Era. Cambridge: Wiley. p. 26. ISBN 978-0-745-65975-6. WikiLeaks is independent of commercial, corporate, government or lobbygroup control or ownership. It is a non-membership, non-profit organisation funded by donations
11. ^ Flesher Fominaya, Cristina (2020). Social Movements in a Globalized World (Second ed.). London: Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 177. ISBN 9781352009347. Archived from the original on 13 July 2023. Retrieved 9 May 2023. As a non-profit organization, Wikileaks is funded by crowdfunding donations, which were subsequently blocked by PayPal, Mastercard, a Swiss Bank and Bank of America in protest over their political activity, a troubling example of 'the ability of private infrastructure companies to restrict speech without being bound by the constraints of legality, and the possibility that government actors will take advantage of this affordance in an extra-legal public-private partnership for censorship'.
12. ^ Daly, Angela (2014). "The Privatization of the Internet, WikiLeaks and Free Expression". International Journal of Communication. 8. Los Angeles: USC Annenberg Press: 2693–2703. SSRN 2496707. Archived from the original on 12 May 2023. Retrieved 9 May 2023 – via European University Institute. In late 2010, the online nonprofit media organization WikiLeaks published classified documents detailing correspondence between the U.S. State Department and its diplomatic missions around the world, numbering around 250,000 cables.
13. ^ ^{[3][4][5][6][7][8][9][10][11][12]}
14. ^ "WikiLeaks". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 30 January 2016. Retrieved 17 April 2022.
15. ^ McGreal, Chris (5 April 2010). "Wikileaks reveals video showing US air crew shooting down Iraqi civilians". The Guardian. London. Archived from the original on 26 June 2011. Retrieved 15 December 2010.
16. ^ "WikiLeaks names one-time spokesman as editor-in-chief". Associated Press. Archived from the original on 13 September 2019. Retrieved 26 September 2018.
17. ^ Bridge, Mark (27 September 2018). "Loss of internet forces Assange to step down from Wikileaks editor role". The Times. Archived from the original on 15 February 2022. Retrieved 11 April 2019.
18. ^ "What is Wikileaks". WikiLeaks. Archived from the original on 23 October 2016. Retrieved 14 April 2020.^{[self-published source]}
19. ^ ^{a b} "WikiLeaks' Website Is Falling Apart". Gizmodo. 22 November 2022. Archived from the original on 15 April 2024. Retrieved 24 December 2022.
20. ^ Burgess, Matt. "Apple Tracks You More Than You Think". Wired. ISSN 1059-1028. Archived from the original on 4 November 2023. Retrieved 24 December 2022.
21. ^ Cite error: The named reference Glass-2024 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
22. ^ "Reporters Sans Frontières – Open letter to Wikileaks founder Julian Assange: A bad precedent for the Internet's future". Archived from the original on 15 August 2010. Retrieved 1 May 2022.
23. ^ Hubbard, Ben (20 June 2015). "Cables Released by WikiLeaks Reveal Saudis' Checkbook Diplomacy". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 13 May 2019. Retrieved 20 April 2019.
24. ^ Zorthian, Julia (19 June 2015). "WikiLeaks Begins Releasing Leaked Saudi Arabia Cables". Time. Archived from the original on 21 April 2019. Retrieved 20 April 2019.
25. ^ "Syria files: Wikileaks releases 2m 'embarrassing' emails". BBC News. 5 July 2012. Archived from the original on 22 July 2022. Retrieved 20 April 2019.
26. ^ Greenberg, Andy (5 July 2012). "WikiLeaks Announces Massive Release With The 'Syria Files': 2.4 Million Emails From Syrian Officials And Companies". Forbes. Archived from the original on 10 July 2012. Retrieved 20 April 2019.
27. ^ Yeung, Peter (20 July 2016). "President Erdogan emails: What is in the Wikileaks release about Turkey's government?". The Independent. Archived from the original on 22 April 2019. Retrieved 20 April 2019.
28. ^ Doctorow, Cory (29 July 2016). "Wikileaks' dump of "Erdogan emails" turn out to be public mailing list archives". BoingBoing. Archived from the original on 21 April 2019. Retrieved 20 April 2019.
29. ^ Gramer, Robbie (7 December 2016). "Latest Wikileaks Dump Sheds New Light on Erdogan's Power In Turkey". Foreign Policy. Archived from the original on 3 May 2019. Retrieved 20 April 2019.
30. ^ Dahir, Abdi Latif (13 April 2019). "It all started in Nairobi: How Kenya gave Julian Assange's WikiLeaks its first major global scoop". Quartz Africa. Archived from the original on 3 July 2019. Retrieved 20 April 2019.
31. ^ Rice, Xan (31 August 2007). "The looting of Kenya". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 31 January 2008. Retrieved 20 April 2019.
32. ^ PPLAAF (7 March 2022). "The Fishrot scandal". pplaaf.org. Archived from the original on 29 May 2024. Retrieved 13 March 2022.
33. ^ Menn, Joseph (29 March 2017). "A scramble at Cisco exposes uncomfortable truths about U.S. cyber defense". Reuters. Archived from the original on 8 May 2019. Retrieved 20 April 2019.
34. ^ Shane, Scott; Rosenberg, Matthew; Lehren, Andrew W. (7 March 2017). "WikiLeaks Releases Trove of Alleged C.I.A. Hacking Documents". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 7 March 2017. Retrieved 20 April 2019.
35. ^ Regan, James; John, Mark (23 June 2015). "NSA spied on French presidents: WikiLeaks". Reuters. Archived from the original on 21 April 2019. Retrieved 20 April 2019.
36. ^ Rubin, Alyssa J.; Shane, Scott (24 June 2015). "Hollande Condemns Spying by U.S., but Not Too Harshly". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 21 April 2019. Retrieved 20 April 2019.
37. ^ "Why it's entirely predictable that Hillary Clinton's emails are back in the news". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on 20 June 2018. Retrieved 12 November 2016.
38. ^ Brustein, Joshua (29 July 2016). "Why Wikileaks Is Losing Its Friends". Bloomberg. Archived from the original on 21 July 2019. Retrieved 6 January 2017.
39. ^ Satter, Raphael; Michael, Maggie (23 August 2016). "Private lives are exposed as WikiLeaks spills its secrets". Associated Press. Archived from the original on 7 January 2017. Retrieved 6 January 2017.
40. ^ Peterson, Andrea. "Snowden and WikiLeaks clash over leaked Democratic Party emails". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on 22 August 2016. Retrieved 28 July 2016.
41. ^ "U.S. prosecution of alleged WikiLeaks 'Vault 7' source hits multiple roadblocks". news.yahoo.com. 6 October 2021. Archived from the original on 7 October 2021. Retrieved 16 October 2022.

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5 October 1962 – The first of the James Bond film series, based on the novels by Ian Fleming, Dr. No, is released in Britain.

Dr. No (film)

1962 James Bond film directed by Terence Young

Dr. No is a 1962 spy film and the first film in the James Bond series, starring Sean Connery as the fictional MI6 agent James Bond. Co-starring Ursula Andress, Joseph Wiseman and Jack Lord, it was directed by Terence Young and adapted by Richard Maibaum, Johanna Harwood, and Berkely Mather from the 1958 novel by Ian Fleming. The film was produced by Harry Saltzman and Albert R. Broccoli of Eon Productions, a partnership that continued until 1975. In the film, James Bond is sent to Jamaica to investigate the disappearance of a fellow British agent. The trail leads him to the underground base of Dr. No, who is plotting to disrupt an early American space launch from Cape Canaveral with a radio beam weapon.

Although it was the first of the Bond books to be made into a film, Dr. No was the sixth of Fleming's series, beginning with Casino Royale. The film makes a few references to threads from earlier books, and later books in the series as well, such as the criminal organisation SPECTRE, which was not introduced until the 1961 novel Thunderball. Produced on a low budget, Dr. No was released by United Artists on 5 October 1962 and was a financial success. While the film received a mixed critical reaction upon release, it has gained a reputation over time as one of the series' best instalments. Dr. No also launched a genre of secret agent films that flourished in the 1960s. The film spawned a comic book adaptation and soundtrack album as part of its promotion and marketing.

Many aspects of a typical James Bond film were established in Dr. No. The film begins with an introduction to the character through the view of a gun barrel and a highly stylised main title sequence, both of which were created by Maurice Binder.^[6] It also introduced the iconic theme music written by the film's score composer Monty Norman. Production designer Ken Adam established an elaborate visual style that is one of the hallmarks of the film series. Dr. No was followed by From Russia with Love in 1963.

1. ^ "Dr. No". Lumiere. European Audiovisual Observatory. Archived from the original on 29 September 2020. Retrieved 9 October 2020.
2. ^ "Dr. No (1962)". British Film Institute. Retrieved 14 January 2025.
3. ^ Dr. No, AFI Catalog of Feature Films American Film Institute. Retrieved November 19, 2025.
4. ^ Chapman, Llewella (2021). "'They wanted a bigger, more ambitious film': Film Finances and the American 'Runaways' That Ran Away". Journal of British Cinema and Television, 18(2), 176–197, p. 180. doi:10.3366/jbctv.2021.0565
5. ^ Chapman, J. (2022). The Money Behind the Screen: A History of British Film Finance, 1945–1985. Edinburgh University Press, p. 360
6. ^ "Spies". Mark Kermode's Secrets of Cinema. Series 2. Episode 3. 2 April 2020. Event occurs at 13:26. BBC. BBC Four. Archived from the original on 9 May 2020. Retrieved 3 April 2020.

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6 October 1849 – The execution of the 13 Martyrs of Arad after the Hungarian war of independence.

The 13 Martyrs of Arad

Hungarian generals executed in 1849

The Thirteen Martyrs of Arad (Hungarian: tizenhárom aradi vértanú) were the thirteen Hungarian rebel generals who were executed by the Austrian Empire on 6 October 1849 in the city of Arad, then part of the Kingdom of Hungary (now in Romania), after the Hungarian Revolution (1848–1849). The execution was ordered by the Austrian general Julius Jacob von Haynau.

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7 October 1950 – Mother Teresa establishes the Missionaries of Charity.

Mother Teresa

Albanian-Indian Catholic saint (1910–1997)

This article is about the Catholic nun and saint. For other uses, see Mother Teresa (disambiguation).

Mary Teresa Bojaxhiu (born Anjezë Gonxhe Bojaxhiu, Albanian: [aˈɲɛzə ˈɡɔndʒɛ bɔjaˈdʒi.u]; 26 August 1910 – 5 September 1997), better known as Mother Teresa or Saint Mother Teresa,^[a] was an Albanian-Indian Catholic nun, founder of the Missionaries of Charity and a Catholic saint.^[6][7][8]

Born in Skopje, then part of the Ottoman Empire,^[b] she was raised in a devoutly Catholic family. At the age of 18, she moved to Ireland to join the Sisters of Loreto and later to India, where she lived most of her life and carried out her missionary work. On 4 September 2016, she was canonised by the Catholic Church as Saint Teresa of Calcutta. The anniversary of her death, 5 September, is now observed as her feast day.

In 1950, Mother Teresa established the Missionaries of Charity, a religious congregation that was initially dedicated to serving "the poorest of the poor" in the slums of Calcutta. Over the decades, the congregation grew to operate in over 133 countries, as of 2012^[update],^[9] with more than 4,500 nuns managing homes for those dying from HIV/AIDS, leprosy, and tuberculosis, as well as running soup kitchens, dispensaries, mobile clinics, orphanages, and schools. Members of the order take vows of chastity, poverty, and obedience and also profess a fourth vow: to give "wholehearted free service to the poorest of the poor."^[10]

Mother Teresa received several honours, including the 1962 Ramon Magsaysay Peace Prize and the 1979 Nobel Peace Prize. However, she also drew criticism for the poor conditions and lack of medical care or pain relief in her houses for the dying. Her life and work have inspired books, documentaries, and films. Her authorized biography, written by Navin Chawla, was published in 1992, and on 6 September 2017, she was named a co-patron of the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Calcutta alongside St Francis Xavier.

1. ^ "St. Teresa of Kolkata". Catholic News Agency. Archived from the original on 8 October 2018. Retrieved 6 September 2023.
2. ^ Banerjee, Manik (6 September 2017). "Vatican declares Mother Teresa a patron saint of Calcutta". Associated Press. Archived from the original on 6 September 2017. Retrieved 6 September 2017.
3. ^ "Mother Teresa to be named co-patron of Calcutta Archdiocese on first canonization anniversary". First Post. Indo-Asian News Service. 4 September 2017. Archived from the original on 26 April 2020. Retrieved 5 September 2017.
4. ^ Cite error: The named reference Cannon2013 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
5. ^ "Kur Nënë Tereza vinte në Tiranë/2" [When Mother Teresa came to Tirana/2]. Shqiptari i Italisë (in Albanian). 2 December 2010. Archived from the original on 18 September 2016. Retrieved 4 September 2016.
6. ^ "Mother Teresa: The Miracles That Made Her a Saint". Biography. 14 October 2020. Archived from the original on 3 December 2024. Retrieved 4 November 2024.
7. ^ "Mother Teresa becomes a saint | September 4, 2016". HISTORY. 15 March 2024. Archived from the original on 14 October 2024. Retrieved 4 November 2024.
8. ^ Scott, David. The Love that Made Saint Teresa: Secret Visions, Dark Nights and the Path to Sainthood. United Kingdom: SPCK, 2016, p. 1.
9. ^ Poplin, Mary (2011). Finding Calcutta: What Mother Teresa Taught Me About Meaningful Work and Service. InterVarsity Press. p. 112. ISBN 978-0-8308-6848-3. Archived from the original on 1 February 2022. Retrieved 3 October 2020.
10. ^ Muggeridge (1971), chapter 3, "Mother Teresa Speaks", pp. 105, 113

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8 October 1829 – Stephenson's Rocket wins the Rainhill Trials.

Rainhill trials

Locomotive motive power competition (1829)

The Rainhill trials were a competition run from 6 to 14 October 1829 to test George Stephenson's argument that locomotives would have the best motive power for the nearly-completed Liverpool and Manchester Railway (L&MR).^[1] Ten locomotives were entered, of which five were able to compete, running along a 1 mile (1.6 km) length of level track at Rainhill in Lancashire (now Merseyside).

Stephenson's Rocket was the only locomotive to complete the trials and was declared the winner. The directors of the L&MR accepted that locomotives should operate services on their new line, and George and Robert Stephenson were given the contract to produce locomotives for the railway.

1. ^ Cleveland-Stevens 1915, pp. 6–7.

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