This day in .....

18 September 1809 – The Royal Opera House in London opens.

Royal Opera House

Performing arts venue in London, England

This article is about the opera house in London. For the post-1945 opera company, see The Royal Opera. For other uses, see Royal Opera (disambiguation).

The Royal Opera House (ROH) is a theatre in Covent Garden, central London. The building is often referred to as simply Covent Garden, after a previous use of the site. The ROH is the main home of The Royal Opera, The Royal Ballet, and the Orchestra of the Royal Opera House, which are known collectively as the Royal Ballet and Opera.

The first theatre on the site, the Theatre Royal (1732), served primarily as a playhouse for the first hundred years of its history. In 1734, the first ballet was presented. A year later, the first season of operas, by George Frideric Handel, began. Many of his operas and oratorios were specifically written for Covent Garden and had their premieres there.

The current building is the third theatre on the site, following disastrous fires in 1808 and 1856 to previous buildings.^[2] The façade, foyer, and auditorium date from 1858, but almost every other element of the present complex dates from an extensive reconstruction in the 1990s.

The main auditorium seats 2,256 people, making it the third largest in London, and consists of four tiers of boxes and balconies and the amphitheatre gallery. The proscenium is 14.80 metres (48 ft 7 in) wide, with the stage of the same depth and 12.20 metres (40 ft 0 in) high. The main auditorium is a Grade I listed building.^[3]

The Royal Opera House companies were rebranded as the Royal Ballet and Opera in 2024, but the building retains the title of The Royal Opera House.^[4][5]

1. ^ Historic England (9 January 1970). "The Royal Opera House (1066392)". National Heritage List for England. Retrieved 9 July 2015.
2. ^ "11 Secrets of London's Royal Opera House". Londonist. 16 February 2017.
3. ^ "Royal Opera House (London)" Archived 23 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine description on theatrestrust.org.uk Retrieved 10 May 2013
4. ^ "Royal Ballet and Opera announces ambitious new season – and name change". 30 April 2024. Retrieved 17 September 2024.
5. ^ "Royal Opera House Tours, 17 December 2024 – 31 March 2025", Royal Ballet and Opera. Retrieved 15 January 2025

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19 September 1970 – Michael Eavis hosts the first Glastonbury Festival.

Michael Eavis

English farmer, Glastonbury Festival co-creator (born 1935)

Sir Athelstan Joseph Michael Eavis CBE (born 17 October 1935) is an English dairy farmer and the co-creator of the Glastonbury Festival, which takes place at his farm in Pilton, Somerset.

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20 September 1911 – The White Star Line's RMS Olympic collides with the British warship HMS Hawke.

RMS Olympic

British Ocean liner (1911–1935)

RMS Olympic was a British ocean liner and the lead ship of the White Star Line's trio of Olympic-class liners. Olympic had a career spanning 24 years from 1911 to 1935, in contrast to her short-lived sister ships, RMS Titanic and the Royal Navy hospital ship HMHS Britannic. This included service as a troopship with the name HMT Olympic during the First World War, which gained her the nickname "Old Reliable", and during which she rammed and sank the U-boat U-103. She returned to civilian service after the war and served successfully as an ocean liner throughout the 1920s and into the first half of the 1930s, although increased competition, and the slump in trade during the Great Depression after 1930, made her operation increasingly unprofitable. Olympic was withdrawn from service on 12 April 1935, and later sold for scrap, which was completed by 1939.

Olympic was the largest ocean liner in the world for two periods during 1910–13, interrupted only by the brief service life (six-day maiden voyage in April 1912) of the slightly larger Titanic, which had the same dimensions but higher gross register tonnage, before the German SS Imperator went into service in June 1913. Olympic also held the title of the largest British-built liner until RMS Queen Mary was launched in 1934, interrupted only by the short career of Titanic; Britannic, intended as a liner, instead served as a Royal Navy hospital ship for her 11-month life (December 1915 to November 1916), sinking when she hit a mine.^[5][6]

1. ^ Chirnside 2015, p. 34.
2. ^ Chirnside 2004, pp. 43–44.
3. ^ Chirnside 2015, p. 39.
4. ^ Chirnside 2015, p. 246.
5. ^ Chirnside, Mark, RMS Olympic Specification File (November 2007)
6. ^ Cite error: The named reference thegreatoceanliners was invoked but never defined (see the help page).

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21 September 1937 – J.R.R. Tolkien's The Hobbit is published for the first time

The Hobbit

1937 book by J. R. R. Tolkien

This article is about the children's book. For other uses, see Hobbit (disambiguation).

"There and Back Again" redirects here. For other uses, see There and Back Again (disambiguation).

The Hobbit, or There and Back Again is a children's fantasy novel by the English author J. R. R. Tolkien. It was published in 1937 to wide critical acclaim, being nominated for the Carnegie Medal and awarded a prize from the New York Herald Tribune for best juvenile fiction. It is recognized as a classic in children's literature and is one of the best-selling books of all time, with over 100 million copies sold.

The Hobbit is set in Middle-earth and follows home-loving Bilbo Baggins, the titular hobbit who joins the wizard Gandalf and the thirteen dwarves of Thorin's Company on a quest to reclaim the dwarves' home and treasure from the dragon Smaug. Bilbo's journey takes him from his peaceful rural surroundings into more sinister territory.

The story is told in the form of a picaresque or episodic quest;^[1] several chapters introduce a new type of monster or threat as Bilbo progresses through the landscape. Bilbo gains a new level of maturity, competence, and wisdom by accepting the disreputable, romantic, fey and adventurous sides of his nature and applying his wits and common sense. The story reaches its climax in the Battle of Five Armies, where many of the characters and creatures from earlier chapters re-emerge to engage in conflict. Personal growth and forms of heroism are central themes of the story, along with motifs of warfare. These themes have led critics to view Tolkien's own experiences during the First World War as instrumental in shaping the story. His scholarly knowledge of Germanic philology and interest in mythology and fairy tales are often noted as influences, but more recent fiction including adventure stories and the works of William Morris also played a part.

The publisher was encouraged by the book's critical and financial success and, therefore, requested a sequel. As Tolkien's work progressed on its successor, The Lord of the Rings, he made retrospective accommodations for it in The Hobbit. These few but significant changes were integrated into the second edition. Further editions followed with minor emendations, including those reflecting Tolkien's changing concept of the world into which Bilbo stumbled. The work has never been out of print. Its ongoing legacy encompasses many adaptations for stage, screen, radio, board games and video games. Several of these adaptations have received critical recognition on their own merits.

1. ^ Cite error: The named reference Hodge 1986 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).

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22 September 1862 – A preliminary version of the Emancipation Proclamation is released by Abraham Lincoln.

Emancipation Proclamation

Executive order by U.S. President Abraham Lincoln freeing slaves in the South

This article is about United States history. For emancipation proclamations in other countries, see Abolition of slavery timeline.

The Emancipation Proclamation, officially Proclamation 95,^[2][3] was a presidential proclamation and executive order^[4] issued by United States president Abraham Lincoln on January 1, 1863, during the American Civil War. The Proclamation changed the legal status of more than 3.5 million enslaved African Americans in the secessionist Confederate states from enslaved to free. As soon as slaves escaped the control of their enslavers, either by fleeing to Union lines or through the advance of federal troops, they were permanently free. In addition, the Proclamation allowed for former slaves to "be received into the armed service of the United States".^[5] The Emancipation Proclamation played a significant part in the end of slavery in the United States.

On September 22, 1862, Lincoln issued the Preliminary Emancipation Proclamation.^[6] Its third paragraph begins:

That on the first day of January in the year of our Lord, one thousand eight hundred and sixty-three, all persons held as slaves within any State, or designated part of a State, the people whereof shall then be in rebellion against the United States shall be then, thenceforward, and forever free;...

On January 1, 1863, Lincoln issued the Final Emancipation Proclamation.^[5] It stated:

Now, therefore I, Abraham Lincoln, President of the United States, by virtue of the power in me vested as Commander-in-Chief, of the Army and Navy of the United States in time of actual armed rebellion against the authority and government of the United States, and as a fit and necessary war measure for suppressing said rebellion, do ... order and designate as the States and parts of States wherein the people thereof respectively, are this day in rebellion against the United States, the following, to wit:

Lincoln then listed the ten states — of the eleven that had seceded — still in rebellion, Tennessee then being under Union control,^[7] and continued:

And by virtue of the power, and for the purpose aforesaid, I do order and declare that all persons held as slaves within said designated States, and parts of States, are, and henceforward shall be free.... And I further declare and make known, that such persons of suitable condition, will be received into the armed service of the United States.... And upon this act, sincerely believed to be an act of justice, warranted by the Constitution, upon military necessity, I invoke the considerate judgment of mankind, and the gracious favor of Almighty God.

The Proclamation applied to more than 3.5 million of the 4 million enslaved people in the country, though it excluded states not in rebellion, as well as parts of Virginia under Union control and Louisiana parishes thought to be pro-Union.^[8][9][10] Around 25,000 to 75,000 were immediately emancipated in those regions of the Confederacy where the US Army was already in place. It could not be enforced in the areas still in rebellion,^[10] but, as the Union army took control of Confederate regions, the Proclamation provided the legal framework for the liberation of more than three and a half million enslaved people in those regions by the end of the war. The Emancipation Proclamation outraged white Southerners and their sympathizers, who saw it as the beginning of a race war. It energized abolitionists, and undermined those Europeans who wanted to intervene to help the Confederacy.^[11] The Proclamation lifted the spirits of African Americans, both free and enslaved. It encouraged many to escape from slavery and flee toward Union lines, where many joined the Union Army.^[12] The Emancipation Proclamation became a historic document because it "would redefine the Civil War, turning it from a struggle to preserve the Union to one focused on ending slavery, and set a decisive course for how the nation would be reshaped after that historic conflict."^[13]

The Emancipation Proclamation was never challenged in court. To ensure the abolition of slavery in all of the U.S., Lincoln also mandated that Reconstruction plans for Southern states require them to enact laws abolishing slavery (which occurred during the war in Tennessee, Arkansas, and Louisiana); Lincoln encouraged border states to adopt abolition (which occurred during the war in Maryland, Missouri, and West Virginia) and pushed for passage of the 13th Amendment. The Senate passed the 13th Amendment by the necessary two-thirds vote on April 8, 1864; the House of Representatives did so on January 31, 1865; and the required three-fourths of the states ratified it on December 6, 1865. The amendment made slavery and involuntary servitude unconstitutional, "except as a punishment for crime...".^[14]

1. ^ "The Emancipation Proclamation". National Archives. January 28, 2022. Retrieved February 19, 2017.
2. ^ "Proclamation 95—Regarding the Status of Slaves in States Engaged in Rebellion Against the United States [Emancipation Proclamation] | The American Presidency Project". presidency.ucsb.edu. Archived from the original on December 18, 2021. Retrieved April 23, 2022.
3. ^ Harward, Brian (2020). The Presidency in Times of Crisis and Disaster: Primary Documents in Context. Santa Barbara, California: ABC-Clio. p. 228. ISBN 978-1-44-087088-0. Archived from the original on April 23, 2022. Retrieved April 23, 2022.
4. ^ Dirck, Brian R. (2007). The Executive Branch of Federal Government: People, Process, and Politics. ABC-CLIO. p. 102. ISBN 978-1851097913. The Emancipation Proclamation was an executive order, itself a rather unusual thing in those days. Executive orders are simply presidential directives issued to agents of the executive department by its boss.
5. ^ ^{a b} "Transcript of the Proclamation". National Archives and Records Administration. May 5, 2017. Retrieved February 28, 2022.
6. ^ "Preliminary Emancipation Proclamation". Antietam National Battlefield. National Park Service. June 18, 2020. Retrieved July 8, 2025.
7. ^ "Andrew Johnson and Emancipation in Tennessee". Andrew Johnson National Historic Site. National Park Service. February 5, 2020. Retrieved March 29, 2022. On January 1, 1863, Abraham Lincoln's Emancipation Proclamation freed slaves in states still in rebellion against the United States. Tennessee, although a seceded state, did not fall under the provisions of the proclamation. Tennessee was under Union control, and Andrew Johnson was serving as Military Governor.
8. ^ Cite error: The named reference McCurry was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
9. ^ Cite error: The named reference Ruef was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
10. ^ ^{a b} Davis, Kenneth C. (2003). Don't Know Much About History: Everything You Need to Know About American History but Never Learned. New York: HarperCollins. pp. 227–228. ISBN 978-0-06-008381-6.
11. ^ Allan Nevins, Ordeal of the Union, vol. 6: War Becomes Revolution, 1862–1863 (1960) pp. 231–241, 273
12. ^ Jones, Howard (1999). Abraham Lincoln and a New Birth of Freedom: The Union and Slavery in the Diplomacy of the Civil War. University of Nebraska Press. p. 151. ISBN 0-8032-2582-2.
13. ^ "Emancipation Proclamation". History. January 6, 2020. Archived from the original on January 21, 2021. Retrieved January 24, 2021.
14. ^ "13th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution: Abolition of Slavery (1865)". National Archives. September 2021. Retrieved July 8, 2025.

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23 September 1983 – Gulf Air Flight 771 is destroyed by a bomb, killing all 112 people on board.

Gulf Air Flight 771

1983 fatal airliner bombing

Gulf Air Flight 771 was an international scheduled passenger flight from Jinnah International Airport, Karachi, Pakistan, to Abu Dhabi International Airport, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates. On 23 September 1983, while the Boeing 737-2P6^[1] was on approach, a bomb, planted by the Palestinian nationalist militant group, Abu Nidal Organization, exploded in the baggage compartment, resulting in a fire. The aircraft crashed in the desert near Jebel Ali between Abu Dhabi and Dubai. All 105 passengers and 7 crew members died. To date, it is the deadliest air disaster in the history of the United Arab Emirates, along with Sterling Airways Flight 296 which also killed 112 people in 1972.^[2]

1. ^ "Accident Synopsis". airdisaster.com. Archived from the original on 3 January 2009. Retrieved 27 September 2019.
2. ^ Ranter, Harro. "Criminal Occurrence description". aviation-safety.net. Aviation Safety Network. Retrieved 16 January 2020.

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24 September 1890 – The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints officially renounces polygamy.

1890 Manifesto

Mormon anti-polygamy statement

Further information: Latter Day Saint polygamy in the late 19th century

The 1890 Manifesto (also known as the Woodruff Manifesto, the Anti-polygamy Manifesto, or simply "the Manifesto") is a statement which officially advised against any future plural marriage in the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church). Issued by Church President Wilford Woodruff in September 1890, the Manifesto was a response to mounting anti-polygamy pressure from the United States Congress, which by 1890 had disincorporated the church, escheated its assets to the U.S. federal government, and imprisoned many prominent polygamist Mormons. Upon its issuance, the LDS Church in conference accepted Woodruff's Manifesto as "authoritative and binding."

The Manifesto was a dramatic turning point in the history of the LDS Church. It advised church members against entering into any marriage prohibited by the law of the land,^[1] and made it easier for Utah to become a U.S. state. Nevertheless, even after the Manifesto, the church quietly continued to perform a small number of plural marriages in the United States, Mexico, and Canada,^[2][3] thus necessitating a Second Manifesto during U.S. congressional hearings in 1904. Though neither Manifesto dissolved existing plural marriages, plural marriage in the LDS Church gradually died by attrition during the early-to-mid 20th century. The Manifesto was canonized in the LDS Church standard works as Official Declaration 1^[4][5] and is considered by mainstream Mormons to have been prompted by divine revelation (although not a revelation itself), in which Woodruff was shown that the church would be thrown into turmoil if they did not comply with it.^[6] Some Mormon fundamentalists rejected the manifesto.^[7]

1. ^ Lyman, Edward Leo (1994), "Manifesto (Plural Marriage)", Utah History Encyclopedia, University of Utah Press, ISBN 9780874804256, archived from the original on May 30, 2023, retrieved August 15, 2024, The Manifesto ... affirmed the church president's intention to influence fellow members to obey the law of the land.
2. ^ "The Manifesto and the End of Plural Marriage". lds.org. LDS Church. Retrieved June 8, 2015. The ledger of 'marriages and sealings performed outside the temple,' which is not comprehensive, lists 315 marriages performed between October 17, 1890, and September 8, 1903. Of the 315 marriages recorded in the ledger, research indicates that 25 (7.9%) were plural marriages and 290 were monogamous marriages (92.1%). Almost all the monogamous marriages recorded were performed in Arizona or Mexico. Of the 25 plural marriages, 18 took place in Mexico, 3 in Arizona, 2 in Utah, and 1 each in Colorado and on a boat on the Pacific Ocean.
3. ^ Quinn, D. Michael (1985). "LDS Church Authority and New Plural Marriages, 1890–1904". Dialogue: A Journal of Mormon Thought. 18 (1): 9–108. doi:10.2307/45225323. JSTOR 45225323. S2CID 259871046. Archived from the original on September 25, 2015. Retrieved June 8, 2015.
4. ^ Hammarberg, Melvyn (2013), The Mormon Quest for Glory: The Religious World of the Latter-Day Saints, New York: Oxford University Press, US, p. 135, ISBN 978-0-19-973762-8.
5. ^ David E. Campbell, John C. Green, and J. Quin Monson (2014), Seeking the Promised Land: Mormons and American Politics, New York: Cambridge University Press, pp. 58–59, ISBN 978-1107662674.
6. ^ "Polygamy: Latter-day Saints and the Practice of Plural Marriage", mormonnewsroom.org.
7. ^ Krakauer, Jon (2004). Under the Banner of Heaven: A Story of Violent Faith. Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group. pp. 139, 254–255. ISBN 978-1-4000-7899-8.

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25 September 1956 – TAT-1, the first submarine transatlantic telephone cable system, is inaugurated.

TAT-1

First trans-Atlantic telephone cable

TAT-1 (Transatlantic No. 1) was the first submarine transatlantic telephone cable system. It was laid between Kerrera, Oban, Scotland, and Clarenville, Newfoundland.^[1] Two cables were laid between 1955 and 1956 with one cable for each direction.^[1] It was inaugurated on September 25, 1956.^[2] The cable was able to carry 35 simultaneous telephone calls.^[3] A 36th channel was used to carry up to 22 telegraph lines.^[3]

1. ^ ^{a b} "Specimen of the first transatlantic telephone cable, 1956". The Science Museum. Retrieved 4 June 2015.
2. ^ Bill Burns. "History of the Atlantic Cable & Undersea Communications". Atlantic-Cable.com. Retrieved 4 June 2015.
3. ^ ^{a b} Bill Ray (14 October 2013). "TAT-1: Call the cable guy, all I see is a beautiful beach". The Register. Retrieved 4 June 2015.

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26 September 1905 – Albert Einstein publishes the third of his Annus Mirabilis papers, introducing the special theory of relativity.

Annus mirabilis papers

Published papers of Albert Einstein in 1905

The annus mirabilis papers (from Latin: annus mirabilis, lit. 'miraculous year') are four papers^[a] that Albert Einstein published in the scientific journal Annalen der Physik (Annals of Physics) in 1905. As major contributions to the foundation of modern physics, these scientific publications were the ones for which he gained fame among physicists.^[2] They revolutionized science's understanding of the fundamental concepts of space, time, mass, and energy.

1. The first paper explained the photoelectric effect, which established the energy of the light quanta ${\displaystyle E=hf}$, and was the only specific discovery mentioned in the citation awarding Einstein the 1921 Nobel Prize in Physics.^[3]
2. The second paper explained Brownian motion, which established the Einstein relation ${\displaystyle D=\mu \,k_{\text{B}}T}$ and compelled physicists to accept the existence of atoms.
3. The third paper introduced Einstein's special theory of relativity, which proclaims the constancy of the speed of light ${\displaystyle c}$ and derives the Lorentz transformations. Einstein also examined relativistic aberration and the transverse Doppler effect.^[4]
4. The fourth, a consequence of special relativity, developed the principle of mass–energy equivalence, expressed in the equation ${\displaystyle E=mc^{2}}$ and which led to the discovery and use of nuclear power decades later.

These four papers, together with quantum mechanics and Einstein's later general theory of relativity, are the foundation of modern physics.

1. ^ Penrose, Roger (2005). "Foreward". Einstein's Miraculous Year: Five Papers That Changed the Face of Physics. By Einstein, Albert. Stachel, John (ed.). Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-12228-1. Retrieved 5 January 2024.
2. ^ Holton, Gerald (1960). "On the Origins of the Special Theory of Relativity". American Journal of Physics. 28 (627). doi:10.1119/1.1935922.
3. ^ Nobel Foundation. "The Nobel Prize in Physics 1921". Retrieved 7 November 2020.
4. ^ Shankland, Robert Sherwood (1964). "Michelson-Morley Experiment". American Journal of Physics. 32: 16–35. doi:10.1119/1.1970063.

Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

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27 September 1908 – Production of the Model T automobile begins at the Ford Piquette Avenue Plant in Detroit.

Ford Model T

American car (1908–1927)

"T Model" and "Model T" redirect here. For the financial formula, see T-model.

Not to be confused with Ford T platform.

Motor vehicle

The Ford Model T is an automobile that was produced by the Ford Motor Company from October 1, 1908, to May 26, 1927.^[17] It is generally regarded as the first mass-affordable automobile, which made car travel available to middle-class Americans.^[18] The relatively low price was partly the result of Ford's efficient fabrication, including assembly line production instead of individual handcrafting.^[19] The savings from mass production allowed the price to decline from $780 in 1910 (equivalent to $26,322 in 2024) to $290 in 1924 ($5,321 in 2024 dollars^[20]).^[21] It was mainly designed by three engineers, Joseph A. Galamb (the main engineer),^[22][23] Eugene Farkas, and Childe Harold Wills. The Model T was colloquially known as the "Tin Lizzie".^[24]

The Ford Model T was named the most influential car of the 20th century in the 1999 Car of the Century competition, ahead of the BMC Mini, Citroën DS, and Volkswagen Beetle.^[25] Ford's Model T was successful not only because it provided inexpensive transportation on a massive scale, but also because the car signified innovation for the rising middle class and became a powerful symbol of the United States' age of modernization.^[26] With over 15 million sold,^[27] it was the most sold car in history before being surpassed by the Volkswagen Beetle in 1972.^[28]

1. ^ ^{a b c} Strohl, Daniel. "The houses that T built (and that built the T): Tracking down the assembly plants of Ford's first distributed production effort". American City Business Journals. Retrieved May 12, 2023.
2. ^ "Q. Do you have a timeline of Ford Motor Company Assembly Plants?". Archives & Library Staff @The Henry Ford. Retrieved May 12, 2023.
3. ^ "Ford Assembly Denver Colorado". Hemmings Motor News. American City Business Journals. Retrieved February 20, 2021.
4. ^ Boyer, Mike (May 10, 1998). "Ford motored into Cincinnati long ago". The Cincinnati Enquirer. Retrieved August 23, 2014.
5. ^ "Ford Model T Plant". Cleveland Historical. Retrieved August 23, 2014.
6. ^ Darbee, Jeff (July 2014). "City Quotient: I often smell something like vanilla cookies or cake when walking Downtown. Am I just hungry, or is that for real?". Columbus Monthly. Archived from the original on August 20, 2014. Retrieved August 23, 2014.
7. ^ Rutledge, Mile. "Did you know: A Henry Ford manufacturing plant helped grow Hamilton". Journal-News. Retrieved May 12, 2023.
8. ^ "Ford Model T Assembly Building". MotorTexas. Retrieved August 4, 2015.
9. ^ "Jacksonville, Florida's, Ford plant: A wistful monument of the Great Depression". American City Business Journals. Retrieved May 12, 2023.
10. ^ Strohl, Daniel. "Ford's New Orleans assembly plant added to National Register of Historic Places". American City Business Journals. Retrieved May 12, 2023.
11. ^ "The Ford Model T in Australia". FordModelT.net. Retrieved March 23, 2025.
12. ^ Cherney, Bruce (March 14, 2013). "Ford of Canada plant — railway cars brought the parts that were assembled into complete vehicles". Winnipeg Real Estate News. Archived from the original on December 15, 2019. Retrieved December 17, 2019.
13. ^ "Ford's System of Branch Assembly Plants". Retrieved September 15, 2015.
14. ^ García, Gerardo (June 24, 2020). "29 fotos históricas para recordar a la primera fábrica de autos en México: producía 25 Ford Model T al día en 1925" [29 historical photos to remember the first car factory in Mexico: it produced 25 Ford Model T per day in 1925]. Motorpasión (in Spanish). Mexico. Retrieved January 9, 2024.
15. ^ Brooke, Lindsay (September 25, 2008). "Top 10 Ford Model T Tech Innovations That Matter 100 Years Later". Popular Mechanics. US. Retrieved February 12, 2021.
16. ^ ^{a b} "Ford Model T 1908–1927". Carsized. Switzerland. Archived from the original on August 22, 2019. Retrieved August 23, 2019.
17. ^ Gordon, John Steele. "10 Moments That Made American Business". American Heritage. No. February/March 2007. Archived from the original on April 20, 2008. Retrieved March 18, 2017.
18. ^ "1926 Ford Model T Sports Touring Car". Washington Post. ISSN 0190-8286. Retrieved June 2, 2023.
19. ^ Price, R. G. (January 29, 2004). "Division of Labor, Assembly Line Thought – The Paradox of Democratic Capitalism". RationalRevolution.net. Retrieved March 28, 2015.
20. ^ 1634–1699: McCusker, J. J. (1997). How Much Is That in Real Money? A Historical Price Index for Use as a Deflator of Money Values in the Economy of the United States: Addenda et Corrigenda (PDF). American Antiquarian Society. 1700–1799: McCusker, J. J. (1992). How Much Is That in Real Money? A Historical Price Index for Use as a Deflator of Money Values in the Economy of the United States (PDF). American Antiquarian Society. 1800–present: Federal Reserve Bank of Minneapolis. "Consumer Price Index (estimate) 1800–". Retrieved February 29, 2024.
21. ^ Beaudreau, Bernard C. (1996). Mass Production, the Stock Market Crash and the Great Depression. New York, Lincoln, Shanghi: Authors Choice Press.
22. ^ Conwill, David (September 23, 2018). "József Galamb". US: Hemmings. Retrieved June 25, 2023.
23. ^ Negyesi, Pal (October 24, 2018). "The 110-year-old Ford Model T and the Hungarians who made it a success". CE Auto Classic. Austria. Retrieved June 25, 2023.
24. ^ Rosenberg, Jennifer (January 3, 2019). "Why the Model T Is Called the Tin Lizzie". Retrieved March 14, 2022.
25. ^ Cobb, James G. (December 24, 1999). "This Just In: Model T Gets Award". The New York Times. Retrieved March 28, 2015.
26. ^ Cite error: The named reference :0 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
27. ^ "The Model T". Ford Motor Company. Retrieved October 3, 2023.
28. ^ "Beetle overtakes Model T as world's best-selling car". HISTORY. Retrieved March 19, 2020.

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28 September 1919 – Race riots begin in Omaha, Nebraska, United States

Omaha race riot of 1919

Racial violence in Omaha, Nebraska, United States

"Willy Brown" redirects here. For other uses, see Willie Brown (disambiguation).

"Omaha riot" redirects here. For other uses, see List of riots and civil unrest in Omaha, Nebraska.

The Omaha Race Riot occurred in Omaha, Nebraska, September 28–29, 1919. The race riot resulted in the lynching of Will Brown, a black civilian; the death of two white rioters; the injuries of many Omaha Police Department officers and civilians, including the attempted hanging of Mayor Edward Parsons Smith; and a public rampage by thousands of white rioters who set fire to the Douglas County Courthouse in downtown Omaha. It followed more than 20 race riots that occurred in major industrial cities and certain rural areas of the United States during the Red Summer of 1919.

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29 September 1971 – Oman joins the Arab League

Arab League

Regional organization

This article is about the regional organization. For the geographical region, see Arab world.

The Arab League (Arabic: الجامعة العربية, al-Jāmiʿa al-ʻArabiyya [al.d͡ʒaː.mi.ʕa al.ʕa.ra.bij.ja] ^ⓘ), officially the League of Arab States (Arabic: جامعة الدول العربية, Jāmiʿat ad-Duwal al-ʿArabiyya), is a regional organization in the Arab world. The Arab League was formed in Cairo on 22 March 1945, initially with seven members: Egypt, Iraq, Transjordan, Lebanon, Saudi Arabia, Syria, and North Yemen.^[3] Currently, the League has 22 members.

The League's main goal is to "draw closer the relations between member states and co-ordinate collaboration between them, to safeguard their independence and sovereignty, and to consider in a general way the affairs and interests of the Arab countries".^[4] The organization has received a relatively low level of cooperation throughout its history.^[5]

Through institutions, notably the Arab League Educational, Cultural and Scientific Organization (ALECSO) and the Economic and Social Council of its Council of Arab Economic Unity (CAEU), the League facilitates political, economic, cultural, scientific, and social programmes designed to promote the interests of the Arab world.^[6] It has served as a forum for the member states to coordinate policy, arrange studies of and committees as to matters of common concern, settle inter-state disputes and limit conflicts such as the 1958 Lebanon crisis. The League has served as a platform for the drafting and conclusion of many landmark documents promoting economic integration. One example is the Joint Arab Economic Action Charter, which outlines the principles for economic activities in the region.

Each member state has one vote in the Council of the Arab League, and decisions are binding only for those states that have voted for them. The aims of the league in 1945 were to strengthen and coordinate the political, cultural, economic and social programs of its members and to mediate disputes among them or between them and third parties. Furthermore, the signing of an agreement on Joint Defence and Economic Cooperation on 13 April 1950 committed the signatories to coordination of military defence measures. In March 2015, the Arab League General Secretary announced the establishment of a Joint Arab Force with the aim of counteracting extremism and other threats to the Arab States. The decision was reached while Operation Decisive Storm was intensifying in Yemen. Participation in the project is voluntary, and the army intervenes only at the request of one of the member states. Existing military cooperation between Arab league states and regional civil wars and terrorist threats were the impetuses for JAF's establishment.^[7]

In the early 1970s, the Economic Council put forward a proposal to create the Joint Arab Chambers of Commerce across international states. That led to the setting up of mandates to promote, encourage and facilitate bilateral trade between the Arab world and significant trading partners.

Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

1. ^ https://english.aawsat.com/arab-world/5170971-arab-parliament-speaker-welcomes-uk-plan-recognize-palestinian-state
2. ^ ^{a b c d e} "Report for Selected Countries and Subjects". IMF. Retrieved 11 July 2025.
3. ^ "Arab League". The Columbia Encyclopedia. 2013.
4. ^ "Pact of the League of Arab States, 22 March 1945". The Avalon Project. Yale Law School. 1998. Archived from the original on 25 July 2008. Retrieved 15 July 2012.
5. ^ Barnett, Michael; Solingen, Etel (2007), Johnston, Alastair Iain; Acharya, Amitav (eds.), "Designed to fail or failure of design? The origins and legacy of the Arab League", Crafting Cooperation: Regional International Institutions in Comparative Perspective, Cambridge University Press, pp. 180–220, doi:10.1017/cbo9780511491436.006, ISBN 978-0-521-69942-6, archived from the original on 11 June 2018, retrieved 22 December 2021
6. ^ Ashish K. Vaidya, Globalization (ABC-CLIO: 2006), p. 525.
7. ^ Fanack. "The Joint Arab Force – Will It Ever Work?". Fanack.com. Archived from the original on 13 July 2015. Retrieved 13 July 2015.

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30 September 1888 – Jack the Ripper kills his third and fourth victims, Elizabeth Stride and Catherine Eddowes.

Jack the Ripper

Unidentified serial killer in London in 1888

This article is about the serial killer. For other uses, see Jack the Ripper (disambiguation). For the murders in or near Whitechapel usually attributed to Jack the Ripper, see Whitechapel murders.

Jack the Ripper was an unidentified serial killer who was active in and around the impoverished Whitechapel district of London, England, in 1888. In both criminal case files and the contemporaneous journalistic accounts, the killer was also called the Whitechapel Murderer and Leather Apron.

Attacks ascribed to Jack the Ripper typically involved women working as prostitutes who lived in the slums of the East End of London. Their throats were cut prior to abdominal mutilations. The removal of internal organs from at least three of the victims led to speculation that their killer had some anatomical or surgical knowledge. Rumours that the murders were connected intensified in September and October 1888, and numerous letters were received by media outlets and Scotland Yard from people purporting to be the murderer.

The name "Jack the Ripper" originated in the "Dear Boss letter" written by someone claiming to be the murderer, which was disseminated in the press. The letter is widely believed to have been a hoax and may have been written by journalists to heighten interest in the story and increase their newspapers' circulation. Another, the "From Hell letter", was received by George Lusk of the Whitechapel Vigilance Committee and came with half a preserved human kidney, purportedly taken from one of the victims. The public came to believe in the existence of a single serial killer known as Jack the Ripper, mainly because of both the extraordinarily brutal nature of the murders and media coverage of the crimes.

Extensive newspaper coverage bestowed widespread and enduring international notoriety on the Ripper, and the legend solidified. A police investigation into a series of eleven brutal murders committed in Whitechapel and Spitalfields between 1888 and 1891 was unable to connect all the killings conclusively to the murders of 1888. Five victims—Mary Ann Nichols, Annie Chapman, Elizabeth Stride, Catherine Eddowes and Mary Jane Kelly—are known as the "canonical five" and their murders between 31 August and 9 November 1888 are often considered the most likely to be linked. The murders were never solved, and the legends surrounding these crimes became a combination of historical research, folklore and pseudohistory, capturing public imagination to the present day.

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1 October 1890 – Yosemite National Park is established by the U.S. Congress.

Yosemite National Park

National park in California, United States

"Yosemite" redirects here. For other uses, see Yosemite (disambiguation).

Yosemite National Park (/joʊˈsɛmɪti/ yoh-SEM-ih-tee^[5]) is a national park of the United States in California.^[6][7] It is bordered on the southeast by the Sierra National Forest and on the northwest by Stanislaus National Forest. The park is managed by the National Park Service and covers 1,187 sq mi (3,070 km²)^[3] in four counties – centered in Tuolumne and Mariposa, extending north and east to Mono and south to Madera. Designated a World Heritage Site in 1984, Yosemite is internationally recognized for its granite cliffs, waterfalls, clear streams, groves of giant sequoia, lakes, mountains, meadows, glaciers, and biological diversity.^[8] Almost 95 percent of the park is designated wilderness.^[9] Yosemite is one of the largest and least fragmented habitat blocks in the Sierra Nevada mountain range.

Its geology is characterized by granite and remnants of older rock. About 10 million years ago, the Sierra Nevada was uplifted and tilted to form its unique slopes, which increased the steepness of stream and river beds, forming deep, narrow canyons. About one million years ago, glaciers formed at higher elevations. They moved downslope, cutting and sculpting the U-shaped Yosemite Valley.^[8]

Humans may have first entered the area 10,000 to 8,000 years ago, with Native Americans having inhabited the region for nearly 4,000 years.^[10][11] European Americans entered the area by 1833, and settlers first entered the valley in 1851, with James D. Savage credited as discovering the area that became Yosemite National Park.^[12]

Yosemite was critical to the development of the concept of national parks. Galen Clark and others lobbied to protect Yosemite Valley from development, ultimately leading to President Abraham Lincoln's signing of the Yosemite Grant of 1864 that declared Yosemite as federally preserved land.^[13] In 1890, environmentalist John Muir led a successful movement to motivate Congress to establish Yosemite Valley and its surrounding areas as a National Park. This helped pave the way for the National Park System.^[13] Yosemite draws about four million visitors annually.^[14] Most visitors spend the majority of their time in the valley's seven square miles (18 km²).^[8] The park set a visitation record in 2016, surpassing five million visitors for the first time.^[15] In 2024, the park received over four million visitors.^[16]

1. ^ "Yosemite National Park". protectedplanet.net. Protected Planet. Archived from the original on May 30, 2022. Retrieved May 29, 2020.
2. ^ "Yosemite National Park". Geographic Names Information System. United States Geological Survey, United States Department of the Interior.
3. ^ ^{a b} "Park Statistics". Yosemite National Park (U.S. National Park Service). Archived from the original on March 8, 2015. Retrieved July 22, 2018.
4. ^ "Annual Park Ranking Report for Recreation Visits in: 2023". nps.gov. National Park Service. Retrieved March 23, 2024.
5. ^ "Yosemite Falls". Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary. Merriam-Webster.
6. ^ Harris 1998, p. 324
7. ^ "Discover the High Sierra". California Office of Tourism. Archived from the original on June 3, 2020. Retrieved June 9, 2015.
8. ^ ^{a b c} "Nature & History". United States National Park Service: Yosemite National Park. October 13, 2006. Archived from the original on January 25, 2007. Retrieved January 27, 2007.
9. ^ "Yosemite Wilderness". United States National Park Service: Yosemite National Park. Archived from the original on December 19, 2015. Retrieved March 15, 2008.
10. ^ Yosemite: Official National Park Service Handbook. no. 138. Washington, DC: National Park Service. 1989. p. 102.
11. ^ Cite error: The named reference :1 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
12. ^ "Yosemite NP: Early History of Yosemite Valley". www.nps.gov. Archived from the original on February 18, 2022. Retrieved April 21, 2022.
13. ^ ^{a b} Cite error: The named reference historyculture was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
14. ^ "Annual Park Recreation Visitation (1904 – Last Calendar Year)". U.S. National Park Service. Archived from the original on June 11, 2019. Retrieved March 11, 2019.
15. ^ "New visitation record in 2016 as over 5 million people visited Yosemite National Park". GoldRushCam.com. Sierra Sun Times. January 13, 2017. Archived from the original on May 25, 2017. Retrieved February 8, 2017.
16. ^ "National Park Service Quiet About Record 2024 Visitation". National Parks Traveler. March 6, 2025. Retrieved August 1, 2025.

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2 October 1263 – The Battle of Largs is fought between Norwegians and Scots.

Battle of Largs

1263 battle of the Scottish-Norwegian War

The Battle of Largs (2 October 1263) was a battle between the kingdoms of Norway and Scotland, on the Firth of Clyde near Largs, Scotland. The conflict formed part of the Norwegian expedition against Scotland in 1263, in which Haakon Haakonsson, King of Norway attempted to reassert Norwegian sovereignty over the western seaboard of Scotland.^[1] Victory was achieved by the Scots with a crafty three-tiered strategy on the part of the young Scottish king, Alexander III: plodding diplomacy forced the campaign to bad weather months and a ferocious storm ravaged the Norwegian fleet, stripping it of many vessels and supplies and making the forces on the Scottish coast vulnerable to an attack that forced the Norwegians into a hasty retreat that was to end their 500-year history of invasion, and leaving Scotland to consolidate its resources into building the nation.

Since the beginning of the 12th century, Largs in the north Ayrshire area of Scotland had lain at the periphery of the Norwegian realm, ruled by magnates who recognised the overlordship of the kings of Norway. In the mid-13th century, two Scottish kings, Alexander II and his son Alexander III, attempted to incorporate the region into their own realm. Following Alexander III's early, failed attempts to purchase the islands from the Norwegian king, the Scots launched military operations to end the issue altogether by asserting royal sovereignty over all of western Scotland. Haakon responded to the Scottish aggression by leading a massive Norwegian fleet, thought to number in the thousands of vessels, that reached the Hebrides in the summer of 1263. Realizing that the Scots were tremendously outnumbered by an experienced and mobile enemy, Alexander III sought a protracted diplomatic intervention that would buy time to acquire more troops and possibly force the Norwegians into the stormy autumn and winter months where an invasion could be stalled due to weather. By late September, Haakon's fleet occupied the Firth of Clyde and the temperate days — such as they are on the western coast of Scotland — were almost at an end. When negotiations between the kingdoms broke down, Haakon brought the bulk of his fleet to anchor off the Cumbraes, poised to invade Scotland at a site of his choosing.

On the night of 1 October, during a bout of stormy weather, several Norwegian vessels were driven aground on the Ayrshire coast, near present-day Largs. On 2 October, while the Norwegians were salvaging their vessels, the main Scottish army arrived on the scene. Composed of infantry and cavalry, the Scottish force was commanded by Alexander of Dundonald, Steward of Scotland. The Norwegians were gathered in two groups: the larger main force on the beach and a small contingent atop a nearby mound. The advance of the Scots threatened to divide the Norwegian forces, so the contingent on the mound ran to rejoin their comrades on the beach below. Seeing them running from the mound, the Norwegians on the beach believed they were retreating and fled back towards the ships. There was fierce fighting on the beach, and the Scots took up a position on the mound formerly held by the Norwegians. Late in the day, the Norwegians recaptured the mound after several hours of skirmishing. The Scots withdrew from the scene and the Norwegians reboarded their ships. They returned the next morning to collect their dead. With the weather deteriorating, Haakon's fleet sailed to Orkney to overwinter.

The battle is commemorated in Largs by an early 20th-century monument, and festivities held there annually since the 1980s.

1. ^ 2012: Edinburgh University Press, Acts of Alexander III King of Scots 1249 –1286 (Regesta Regnum Scottorum IV), Grant and Cynthia Neville

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3 October 1995 – O. J. Simpson murder case: O. J. Simpson is acquitted of the murders of Nicole Brown Simpson and Ronald Goldman.

Murder trial of O. J. Simpson

1995 US criminal trial

"O. J. Simpson case" redirects here. For the 2007–2008 robbery case involving Simpson, see O. J. Simpson robbery case. For other civil and criminal cases involving Simpson, see O. J. Simpson § Legal history.

The People of the State of California v. Orenthal James Simpson was a criminal trial in Los Angeles County Superior Court, in which former NFL player and actor O. J. Simpson was tried and acquitted for the murders of his ex-wife Nicole Brown Simpson and her friend Ron Goldman, who were stabbed to death outside Brown's condominium in Los Angeles on June 12, 1994. The trial spanned eight months, from January 24 to October 3, 1995.

Though prosecutors argued that Simpson was implicated by a significant amount of forensic evidence, he was acquitted of both murders on October 3.^[1][2][3][4] Commentators agree that to convince the jury to acquit Simpson, the defense capitalized on anger among the city's African-American community toward the Los Angeles Police Department (LAPD), which had a history of racial bias and had inflamed racial tensions in the beating of Rodney King and subsequent riots two years prior.^[5][6][7] The trial was often characterized by the media as "the trial of the century" because of its international publicity and has been described as the "most publicized" criminal trial in history.^[8] Simpson was formally charged with the murders on June 17; when he did not turn himself in at the agreed time, he became the subject of a police pursuit.^[9] TV stations interrupted coverage of game 5 of the 1994 NBA Finals to broadcast live coverage of the pursuit, which was watched by around 95 million people.^[10] The pursuit and Simpson's arrest were among the most widely publicized events in history.

Simpson was represented by a high-profile defense team, referred to as the "Dream Team", initially led by Robert Shapiro^[11][12] and subsequently directed by Johnnie Cochran. The team included F. Lee Bailey, Alan Dershowitz, Robert Kardashian, Shawn Holley, Carl E. Douglas, and Gerald Uelmen. Simpson was also instrumental in his own defense. While Deputy District Attorneys Marcia Clark, William Hodgman, and Christopher Darden believed they had a strong case, the defense team persuaded the jury there was reasonable doubt concerning the DNA evidence.^[1] They contended the blood sample had been mishandled by lab scientists^[13] and that the case had been tainted by LAPD misconduct related to racism and incompetence. The use of DNA evidence in trials was relatively new, and many laypersons did not understand how to evaluate it.

The trial was considered significant for the wide division in reaction to the verdict.^[14] Observers' opinions of the verdict were largely related to their ethnicity; the media dubbed this the "racial gap".^[15] A poll of Los Angeles County residents showed most African Americans thought the "not guilty" verdict was justified while most White respondents thought it was a racially motivated jury nullification^[16][17] by the mostly African-American jury.^[18] Polling in later years showed the gap had narrowed since the trial; more than half of polled Black respondents expressed the belief that Simpson was guilty.^[19] In 2017, three jurors who acquitted Simpson said they would still vote to acquit, while one said he would convict.^[20]

After the trial, Goldman's father filed a civil suit against Simpson. In 1997, the jury unanimously found Simpson responsible for the deaths of Goldman and Brown.^[21] The Goldman family was awarded damages totaling $34 million ($66 million adjusted for inflation), but as of 2024 have received a small portion of that.^{[citation needed]}

1. ^ ^{a b} Meier, Barry (September 7, 1994). "Simpson Team Taking Aim at DNA Laboratory". The New York Times. Archived from the original on November 12, 2012. Retrieved December 5, 2008.
2. ^ Jones, Thomas L. "O.J. Simpson". truTV. Archived from the original on December 9, 2008. Retrieved December 6, 2008.
3. ^ "1995: OJ Simpson verdict: 'Not guilty'". On This Day: 3 October. BBC. October 3, 1995. Archived from the original on January 17, 2018. Retrieved January 18, 2020.
4. ^ "The O.J. Simpson Murder Trial : Excerpts of Opening Statements by Simpson Prosecutors". Los Angeles Times. January 25, 1995. Archived from the original on April 12, 2024. Retrieved January 30, 2012.
5. ^ "How O.J. Simpson's Dream Team Played the "Race Card" and Won". Vanity Fair. May 5, 2014. Archived from the original on October 6, 2022. Retrieved August 23, 2022.
6. ^ "Race and Justice: Rodney King and O.J. Simpson in a House Divided | Office of Justice Programs". www.ojp.gov. Archived from the original on August 23, 2022. Retrieved August 23, 2022.
7. ^ "OJ Simpson Juror: Not-Guilty Verdict Was 'Payback' for Rodney King". June 15, 2016. Archived from the original on June 7, 2020. Retrieved August 23, 2022.
8. ^ "Confusion for Simpson kids 'far from over'". USA Today. February 12, 1997. Archived from the original on December 7, 2008. Retrieved December 5, 2008.
9. ^ Mydans, Seth (June 18, 1994). "The Simpson Case: The Fugitive; Simpson Is Charged, Chased, Arrested". The New York Times. Archived from the original on January 7, 2014. Retrieved November 21, 2009.
10. ^ Gilbert, Geis; Bienen, Leigh B. (1988). Crimes of the century: from Leopold and Loeb to O.J. Simpson. Northeastern University Press. p. 174. ISBN 978-1555533601.
11. ^ Mydans, Seth (June 16, 1994). "Lawyer for O.J. Simpson Quits Case". The New York Times. Archived from the original on September 21, 2017. Retrieved November 21, 2009.
12. ^ Newton, Jim (September 9, 1994). "Power Struggle in the Simpson Camp, Sources Say – Shapiro, Cochran Increasingly Compete For Limelight In Case". Los Angeles Times. Archived from the original on August 21, 2011. Retrieved November 21, 2009.
13. ^ "List of the evidence in the O.J. Simpson double-murder trial". USA Today. October 18, 1996. Archived from the original on December 2, 2008. Retrieved December 5, 2008.
14. ^ "the o.j. verdict: Toobin". www.pbs.org. October 4, 2005. Archived from the original on August 6, 2020. Retrieved March 29, 2020.
15. ^ "the O.J. verdict: Dershowitz". www.pbs.org. October 4, 2005. Archived from the original on March 27, 2020. Retrieved March 29, 2020.
16. ^ Chakravarti, Sonali (August 5, 2014). "The OJ Simpson Verdict, Jury Nullification and Black Lives Matter: The Power to Acquit". Public Seminar. Archived from the original on March 29, 2020. Retrieved March 29, 2020.
17. ^ Monroe, Sylvester (June 16, 2014). "Black America was cheering for Cochran, not O.J." Andscape. Archived from the original on April 1, 2020. Retrieved March 30, 2020.
18. ^ Decker, Cathleen (October 8, 1995). "The Times Poll : Most in County Disagree With Simpson Verdicts". Los Angeles Times. Archived from the original on January 16, 2015. Retrieved January 16, 2014.
19. ^ "Most Black People Now Think O.J. Was Guilty". FiveThirtyEight. June 9, 2014. Archived from the original on March 29, 2020. Retrieved March 29, 2020.
20. ^ "O.J. Simpson jurors reflect on the history-making trial in Oxygen's The Jury Speaks". Entertainment Weekly. Archived from the original on October 9, 2021. Retrieved March 14, 2020.
21. ^ "Jury unanimous: Simpson is liable". CNN. February 4, 1997. Archived from the original on January 31, 2019. Retrieved June 16, 2008.

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4 October 1883 – First run of the Orient Express.

Orient Express

Luxury passenger train service in Europe

For other uses, see Orient Express (disambiguation).

The Orient Express was a long-distance passenger luxury train service created in 1883 by the Belgian company Compagnie Internationale des Wagons-Lits (CIWL) that operated until 2009. The train traveled the length of continental Europe, with terminal stations in Paris in the northwest and Istanbul in the southeast, and branches extending service to Athens, Brussels, and London.

The Orient Express embarked on its initial journey on 5 June 1883, from Paris to Vienna, eventually extending to Istanbul, thus connecting the western and eastern extremities of Europe. The route saw alterations and expansions, including the introduction of the Simplon Orient Express following the opening of the Simplon Tunnel in 1919, enhancing the service's allure and importance. Several routes concurrently used the Orient Express name, or variations. Although the original Orient Express was simply a normal international railway service, the name became synonymous with intrigue and luxury rail travel. The city names most prominently served and associated with the Orient Express are Paris and Istanbul,^[2][3] the original termini of the timetabled service.^[4] The rolling stock of the Orient Express changed many times.

However, following World War II, the Orient Express struggled to maintain its preeminence amid changing geopolitical landscapes and the rise of air travel. The route stopped serving Istanbul in 1977, cut back to a through overnight service from Paris to Bucharest, which was cut back further in 1991 to Budapest, then in 2001 to Vienna, before departing for the last time from Paris on 8 June 2007.^[5][6] After this, the route, still called the Orient Express, was shortened to start from Strasbourg,^[7] leaving daily after the arrival of a TGV from Paris. On 14 December 2009, the Orient Express ceased to operate entirely and the route disappeared from European railway timetables, a "victim of high-speed trains and cut-rate airlines".^[8][opinion]

In contemporary times, the legacy of the Orient Express has been revived through private ventures such as the Venice Simplon-Orient-Express,^[9] initiated by James Sherwood in 1982, which offers nostalgic journeys through Europe in restored 1920s and 1930s CIWL carriages, including the original route from Paris to Istanbul.^[10] Since December 2021, an ÖBB Nightjet runs three times per week on the Paris-Vienna route, although not branded as Orient Express.^[11] In late 2022, Accor announced plans to launch its own Orient Express in late 2026 with journeys from Paris to Istanbul.^[12][13]

1. ^ "A Journey to History: The Orient Express Story". Pera Palace Hotel. 28 February 2022. Retrieved 25 April 2024.
2. ^ "Orient-Express | train | Britannica". www.britannica.com.
3. ^ "Orient-Express : attention au départ !". Orient Express (in French). Archived from the original on 10 January 2014.
4. ^ Zax, David (1 March 2007). "A Brief History of the Orient Express". Smithsonian. Retrieved 13 March 2013.
5. ^ Calder, Simon (22 August 2009). "Murder of the Orient Express – End of the line for celebrated train service". The Independent. London. Archived from the original on 29 April 2023. Retrieved 13 March 2013.
6. ^ "A History of the Orient Express". Agatha Christie Limited. 17 May 2011. Archived from the original on 24 April 2013. Retrieved 13 March 2013.
7. ^ "'hidden europe' magazine e-news Issue 2007/15". 7 June 2007. Archived from the original on 6 October 2013. Retrieved 7 June 2007.
8. ^ "The Orient Express Takes Its Final Trip". NPR. 12 December 2009. Retrieved 26 February 2011.
9. ^ "The Curious Rebranding of Orient-Express Hotels Into the Belmond Brand". Skift. 26 February 2014. Retrieved 11 January 2021.
10. ^ "Venice Simplon-Orient-Express – Luxury Train from London to Venice". www.vsoe.com.
11. ^ "France". ÖBB. Retrieved 1 November 2021.
12. ^ "Orient Express La Dolce Vita". The Luxury Train Club. 12 January 2022. Retrieved 19 April 2024.
13. ^ "Orient Express brand pitch 2024" (PDF). Accor. 3 July 2024. Archived from the original (PDF) on 28 July 2024. Retrieved 28 July 2024.

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5 October 1962 – The first Beatles single "Love Me Do" is released in Britain.

Love Me Do

1962 single by the Beatles

"Love Me Do" is the debut single by the English rock band the Beatles, backed by "P.S. I Love You". When the single was originally released in the United Kingdom on 5 October 1962, it peaked at number 17. It was released in the United States in 1964 and topped the nation's song chart. Re-released in 1982 as part of EMI's Beatles 20th anniversary, it re-entered the UK charts and peaked at number 4.^[5] "Love Me Do" also topped the charts in Australia and New Zealand.

The song was written several years before being recorded, and prior to the existence of the Beatles. It features John Lennon's prominent harmonica playing and duet vocals by him and Paul McCartney. Three recorded versions of the song by the Beatles have been released, each with a different drummer. The first attempted recording from June 1962 featured Pete Best on drums, but was not officially released until the Anthology 1 compilation in 1995. A second version was recorded three months later with Best's replacement Ringo Starr, and this was used for the original Parlophone single first pressing. A third version, featuring session drummer Andy White in place of Starr, was used for the second pressing and also included on the band's Please Please Me album and on the 1964 Tollie single in the US. It was also included on the American LPs Introducing... The Beatles and The Early Beatles.

1. ^ "Merseybeat – Overview". AllMusic. Retrieved 22 September 2020.
2. ^ Pollack 2000.
3. ^ Gregory 2008.
4. ^ Deville, Chris (27 November 2013). "Beatles Albums From Worst to Best". Stereogum. Retrieved 22 September 2020.
5. ^ Gambaccini 1989, p. 27.

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6 October 1981 – Egyptian President Anwar Sadat is murdered by Islamic extremists.

Assassination of Anwar Sadat

1981 murder in Cairo, Egypt

On 6 October 1981, Anwar Sadat, the President of Egypt, was assassinated during the annual victory parade held in Cairo to celebrate the victory over Israel in the 1973 war,^[1] during which the Egyptian Army had crossed the Suez Canal at the beginning of the Yom Kippur War.^[2] The assassination was undertaken by members of the Egyptian Islamic Jihad. Although the motive has been debated, Sadat's assassination likely stemmed from Islamists who opposed Sadat's peace initiative with Israel and the United States relating to the Camp David Accords.^[3]

1. ^ "Anwar Sadat | Biography, History, & Assassination | Britannica". www.britannica.com. Retrieved 21 June 2025.
2. ^ "Anwar Sadat Killed". 1981 Year in Review. UPI News. United Press International. October 1981. Archived from the original on 19 January 2011. Retrieved 13 February 2011.
3. ^ "Sadat as a president of Egypt". News Egypt. 8 October 2009. Archived from the original on 23 October 2012. Retrieved 23 December 2012.

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7 October 1950 – Mother Teresa establishes the Missionaries of Charity.

Mother Teresa

Albanian-Indian Catholic saint (1910–1997)

This article is about the Catholic nun and saint. For other uses, see Mother Teresa (disambiguation).

Mary Teresa Bojaxhiu (born Anjezë Gonxhe Bojaxhiu, Albanian: [aˈɲɛzə ˈɡɔndʒɛ bɔjaˈdʒi.u]; 26 August 1910 – 5 September 1997), better known as Mother Teresa or Saint Mother Teresa,^[a] was an Albanian-Indian Catholic nun, founder of the Missionaries of Charity and is a Catholic saint.^[6][7][8] Born in Skopje, then part of the Ottoman Empire,^[b] she was raised in a devoutly Catholic family. At the age of 18, she moved to Ireland to join the Sisters of Loreto and later to India, where she lived most of her life and carried out her missionary work. On 4 September 2016, she was canonised by the Catholic Church as Saint Teresa of Calcutta. The anniversary of her death, 5 September, is now observed as her feast day.

In 1950, Mother Teresa established the Missionaries of Charity, a religious congregation that was initially dedicated to serving "the poorest of the poor" in the slums of Calcutta. Over the decades, the congregation grew to operate in over 133 countries, as of 2012^[update],^[9] with more than 4,500 nuns managing homes for those dying from HIV/AIDS, leprosy, and tuberculosis, as well as running soup kitchens, dispensaries, mobile clinics, orphanages, and schools. Members of the order take vows of chastity, poverty, and obedience and also profess a fourth vow: to give "wholehearted free service to the poorest of the poor."^[10]

Mother Teresa received several honours, including the 1962 Ramon Magsaysay Peace Prize and the 1979 Nobel Peace Prize. Her life and work have inspired books, documentaries, and films. Her authorized biography, written by Navin Chawla, was published in 1992, and on 6 September 2017, she was named a co-patron of the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Calcutta alongside St Francis Xavier. However, she also drew criticism for the poor conditions and lack of medical care or pain relief in her houses for the dying.

1. ^ "St. Teresa of Kolkata". Catholic News Agency. Archived from the original on 8 October 2018. Retrieved 6 September 2023.
2. ^ Banerjee, Manik (6 September 2017). "Vatican declares Mother Teresa a patron saint of Calcutta". Associated Press. Archived from the original on 6 September 2017. Retrieved 6 September 2017.
3. ^ "Mother Teresa to be named co-patron of Calcutta Archdiocese on first canonization anniversary". First Post. Indo-Asian News Service. 4 September 2017. Archived from the original on 26 April 2020. Retrieved 5 September 2017.
4. ^ Cite error: The named reference Cannon2013 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
5. ^ "Kur Nënë Tereza vinte në Tiranë/2" [When Mother Teresa came to Tirana/2]. Shqiptari i Italisë (in Albanian). 2 December 2010. Archived from the original on 18 September 2016. Retrieved 4 September 2016.
6. ^ "Mother Teresa: The Miracles That Made Her a Saint". Biography. 14 October 2020. Retrieved 4 November 2024.
7. ^ "Mother Teresa becomes a saint | September 4, 2016". HISTORY. 15 March 2024. Retrieved 4 November 2024.
8. ^ Scott, David. The Love that Made Saint Teresa: Secret Visions, Dark Nights and the Path to Sainthood. United Kingdom: SPCK, 2016, p. 1.
9. ^ Poplin, Mary (2011). Finding Calcutta: What Mother Teresa Taught Me About Meaningful Work and Service. InterVarsity Press. p. 112. ISBN 978-0-8308-6848-3. Archived from the original on 1 February 2022. Retrieved 3 October 2020.
10. ^ Muggeridge (1971), chapter 3, "Mother Teresa Speaks", pp. 105, 113

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8 October 1829 – Stephenson's Rocket wins the Rainhill Trials.

Stephenson's Rocket

Steam locomotive by Robert Stephenson in 1829

Stephenson's Rocket is an early steam locomotive of 0-2-2 wheel arrangement. It was built for and won the Rainhill Trials of the Liverpool and Manchester Railway (L&MR), held in October 1829 to show that improved locomotives would be more efficient than stationary steam engines.^[7]

Rocket was designed and built by Robert Stephenson in 1829, and built at the Forth Street Works of his company in Newcastle upon Tyne.

Though Rocket was not the first steam locomotive, it was the first to bring together several innovations that produced the most advanced locomotive of its day. It is the most famous example of an evolving design of locomotives by Stephenson, and became the template for most steam engines in the following 150 years.

The locomotive was displayed in the Science Museum in London until 2018, after which it was briefly exhibited at sites around the UK, ultimately at National Railway Museum in York. Since 2023, it has been based at the Locomotion Museum in Shildon.^[8]

1. ^ "Rocket" (PDF). Rainhilltrials.com. Archived from the original (PDF) on 5 October 2013. Retrieved 22 August 2012.
2. ^ ^{a b c d} "Engineering Timelines – Rocket, Stephenson's locomotive".
3. ^ ^{a b} Dawson, Anthony. Locomotives of the Victorian Railway: The Early Days of Steam. United Kingdom, Amberley Publishing, 2019.
4. ^ Smiles, Samuel. The Story of the Life of George Stephenson: Including a Memoir of His Son Robert Stephenson. United Kingdom, John Murray, 1873.
5. ^ Richard, Gibbon. Stephenson's Rocket Manual: 1829 Onwards. United Kingdom, Haynes Publishing UK, 2016.
6. ^ "Stephenson's Rocket". The Science Museum Group. Retrieved 11 November 2018.
7. ^ Carlson (1969), pp. 214–215, 219, 223.
8. ^ "Stephenson's iconic Rocket to be displayed at Locomotion in Shildon | National Railway Museum". 2 March 2023.

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9 October 1708 – Peter the Great defeats the Swedes at the Battle of Lesnaya.

Peter the Great

Tsar of Russia from 1682 to 1725

This article is about the Russian monarch. For other uses, see Peter the Great (disambiguation).

Peter I (Russian: Пётр I Алексеевич, romanized: Pyotr I Alekseyevich, IPA: [ˈpʲɵtr ɐlʲɪkˈsʲejɪvʲɪtɕ]; 9 June [O.S. 30 May] 1672 – 8 February [O.S. 28 January] 1725), better known as Peter the Great,^{[note 1]} was the Tsar of all Russia from 1682 and the first Emperor of all Russia from 1721 until his death in 1725. He reigned jointly with his half-brother Ivan V until 1696. From this year, Peter was an absolute monarch, an autocrat who remained the ultimate authority and organized a well-ordered police state.^[2][3]

Much of Peter's reign was consumed by lengthy wars against the Ottoman and Swedish empires. His Azov campaigns were followed by the foundation of the Russian Navy; after his victory in the Great Northern War, Russia annexed a significant portion of the eastern Baltic coastline and was officially renamed from a tsardom to an empire. Peter led a cultural revolution that replaced some of the traditionalist and medieval social and political systems with ones that were modern, scientific, Westernized, and based on the radical Enlightenment.^[4][5]

In December 1699, he introduced the Julian calendar,^[6] and in 1703, he introduced the first Russian newspaper, Sankt-Peterburgskie Vedomosti, and ordered the civil script, a reform of Russian orthography largely designed by himself. On the shores of the Neva River, he founded Saint Petersburg, a city famously dubbed by Francesco Algarotti as the "window to the West".^[7][8] In 1712, Peter relocated the capital from Moscow to St. Petersburg, a status it retained until 1918. Peter had a great interest in plants, animals and minerals, in malformed creatures or exceptions to the law of nature for his cabinet of curiosities. He encouraged research of deformities, all along trying to debunk the superstitious fear of monsters.^[9] He promoted industrialization in the Russian Empire and higher education. The Russian Academy of Sciences and the Saint Petersburg State University were founded in 1724, and invited Christian Wolff and Willem 's Gravesande.

Peter is primarily credited with the modernization of the country, quickly transforming it into a major European power. His administrative reforms, creating a Governing Senate in 1711, the Collegium in 1717 and the Table of Ranks in 1722 had a lasting impact on Russia, and many institutions of the Russian government trace their origins to his reign.

1. ^ Cite error: The named reference A was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
2. ^ Kollmann, Nancy Shields (2012). "Peter the Great and spectacles of suffering". Crime and Punishment in Early Modern Russia, 1500–1725. New Studies in European History. Cambridge University Press. pp. 403–415. ISBN 978-1-1070-2513-4. OCLC 780398248. OL 25252905M.
3. ^ Костецкая, Е. В.; Суслова, Л. Н.; Аксенова, В. А. (7 October 2023). "Следствие по делу князя М. П. Гагарина в контексте развития системы государственного контроля в первой четверти XVIII века". Научный диалог (in Russian). 12 (7): 346–373. doi:10.24224/2227-1295-2023-12-7-346-373. ISSN 2227-1295.
4. ^ Cracraft 2003.
5. ^ Driessen-Van het Reve 2006, p. 264.
6. ^ "Peter the Great ordered to establish January 1st as the New Year's Day countrywide". Presidential Library. Retrieved 7 May 2024.
7. ^ Cracraft, James (1988). The Petrine Revolution in Russian Architecture By James Cracraft. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-2261-1664-8.
8. ^ Ryan, Judith; Thomas, Alfred (2013). Cultures of Forgery: Making Nations, Making Selves. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-1354-5827-0.
9. ^ Driessen-Van het Reve, Jozien J. (2006). De Kunstkamera van Peter de Grote. De Hollandse inbreng, gereconstrueerd uit brieven van Albert Seba en Johann Daniel Schumacher uit de jaren 1711–1752 (in Dutch). Hilversum: Verloren. p. 336. ISBN 978-9-0655-0927-7.

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10 October 1964 – The Tokyo Summer Olympics opening ceremony is the first to be relayed live by satellites.

1964 Summer Olympics

Multi-sport event in Tokyo, Japan

"Tokyo 1964" redirects here. For the Summer Paralympics, see 1964 Summer Paralympics.

The 1964 Summer Olympics^[a], officially the Games of the XVIII Olympiad^[b] and commonly known as Tokyo 1964,^[c] were an international multi-sport event held from 10 to 24 October 1964 in Tokyo, Japan. Tokyo had been awarded the organization of the 1940 Summer Olympics, but this honor was subsequently passed to Helsinki due to Japan's invasion of China, before ultimately being cancelled due to World War II. Tokyo was chosen as the host city during the 55th IOC Session in West Germany on 26 May 1959.

The 1964 Summer Games were the first Olympics held in Asia, and marked the first time South Africa was excluded for using its apartheid system in sports.^[2][3] Until 1960, South Africa had fielded segregated teams, conforming to the country's racial classifications; for the 1964 Games the International Olympic Committee demanded a multi-racial delegation to be sent, and after South Africa refused, they were excluded from participating. The country was, however, allowed to compete at the 1964 Summer Paralympics, also held in Tokyo, its Paralympic Games debut.^[4]

The 1964 Games were also the first to be telecast internationally without the need for tapes to be flown overseas, as they had been for the 1960 Olympics four years earlier. The games were telecast to the United States using Syncom 3, the first geostationary communication satellite, and from there to Europe using Relay 1.^[5] These were also the first Olympic Games to have color telecasts, albeit partially. Certain events such as the sumo wrestling and judo matches, sports popular in Japan, were tried out using Toshiba's new colour transmission system, but only for the domestic market. The entire 1964 Olympic Games was chronicled in the ground-breaking 1965 sports documentary film Tokyo Olympiad, directed by Kon Ichikawa.

The games were scheduled for mid-October to avoid the city's midsummer heat and humidity and the September typhoon season.^[6] The previous Olympics in Rome in 1960 started in late August and experienced hot weather. The following games in 1968 in Mexico City also began in October. The 1964 Olympics were also the last to use a traditional cinder track for the track events. Since 1968, a smooth, synthetic, all-weather track has been used. The United States topped the gold medal table at these Games, while the Soviet Union won the most medals overall.

In 2021, due to delay over the COVID-19 pandemic, Tokyo hosted the 2020 Summer Olympics, making it the first city in Asia to host the Summer Olympic Games twice. Japan also hosted the Winter Olympics twice with the Sapporo 1972 and Nagano 1998 games.

1. ^ ^{a b} "Factsheet – Opening Ceremony of the Games of the Olympiad" (PDF) (Press release). International Olympic Committee. 9 October 2014. Archived (PDF) from the original on 14 August 2016. Retrieved 22 December 2018.
2. ^ BBC News On This Day, 18 August, "1964: South Africa banned from Olympics" .
3. ^ "Past Olympic Host City Election Results". GamesWeb.com. Archived from the original on 15 September 2008. Retrieved 23 September 2008.
4. ^ "Paralympic Results & Historical Records for RSA". International Paralympic Committee. Archived from the original on 18 December 2011. Retrieved 27 February 2010.
5. ^ "The Miami News – Google News Archive Search". The Miami News. Archived from the original on 17 November 2015. Retrieved 10 October 2014.
6. ^ Griggs, Lee (28 October 1963). "A very dry run in Tokyo". Sports Illustrated. p. 64. Archived from the original on 22 February 2014. Retrieved 17 February 2014.

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11 October 1941 – Beginning of the National Liberation War of Macedonia.

World War II in Yugoslav Macedonia

Part of World War II in Yugoslavia

For other uses of terms redirecting here, see Macedonian struggle.

World War II in Yugoslav Macedonia started with the Axis invasion of Yugoslavia in April 1941. Under the pressure of the Yugoslav Partisan movement, part of the Macedonian communists began in October 1941 a political and military campaign to resist the occupation of Vardar Macedonia. Officially, the area was called then Vardar Banovina, because the use of very name Macedonia was avoided in the Kingdom of Yugoslavia.^[9][10] Most of its territory was occupied by Bulgaria, while its westernmost part was ceded to Albania, both aided by German and Italian troops. Initially, there was no organised resistance in the region because the majority of the Macedonian Slavs nurtured strong pro-Bulgarian sentiments, although this was an effect from the previous repressive Kingdom of Yugoslavia rule which had negative impact on the majority of the population.^[11][12][13] Even the local Communists, separated from the Yugoslav and joined the Bulgarian Communist Party.^[14] However, even those Macedonians who felt that they were Bulgarians soon discovered that the Bulgarians from Bulgaria were suspicious of them and considered them "backward Bulgarians" or second-class Bulgarians. In fact, Bulgarian authorities began a process of oppressive Bulgarianization as they realised that only part of the Macedonian population felt Bulgarian or was pro-Bulgarian. The occupation troops acted just as viciously and arrogantly toward the local population as did the officials. Thus, they soon became an object of disgust from the population, especially the great majority that felt themselves Macedonians developed strong resentment towards the Bulgarian regime as it acted the same way as the Serbian one before.^[15][16]

The wartime national chauvinism and suffering backlash generated sizable support for the Communist Partisans, whose power started to grow only in 1943 with the capitulation of Italy and the Soviet victories over Nazi Germany, which turned the tide in the war and the partisans actions became more successful.^[17][16][18] The role of the Bulgarian communists, who avoided organizing mass armed resistance, was also a key factor, their influence over the Macedonian Committee remained dominant until 1943.^[19] Another key factor was the main goal of the Yugoslav Partisans which could not inspire and attract Macedonians who saw it as a reestablishment of Yugoslavia and the Serbian rule. This changed, when in the beginning of 1943, Tito's special emissary Svetozar Vukmanović arrived in Macedonia.^[20] Vukmanović had to activate the struggle and give a Macedonian "facade" to the form and content, as well as to the aims and aspirations of it in order to secure mass participation of Macedonians.^[21] He was supposed to set up a Macedonian Communist Party within the framework of the Yugoslav one, which would include only activists loyal to the Yugoslav agenda. They formed in 1943 the People's Liberation Army of Macedonia and the Macedonian Communist Party in the western part of the area, where the Albanian Partisans also participated in the resistance movement. The Macedonian Communist Party would lead the effort, not for the restoration of the old Yugoslavia, but above all for the liberation and unification of Macedonia and a new federal union of Yugoslav peoples with an extension of its prewar territory. This appeal attracted more and more young people to the armed resistance.^[21] All of the previous led to the rise of an younger anti-Bulgarian oriented generation of partisan leaders, who were loyal to Yugoslavia.^[22]

After Bulgaria switched sides in the war in September 1944, the Bulgarian 5th. Army stationed in Macedonia, moved back to the old borders of Bulgaria. In the early October the newly formed Bulgarian People's Army together with the Red Army reentered occupied Yugoslavia to blocking the German forces withdrawing from Greece. Yugoslav Macedonia was liberated in the end of November.

The communist resistance is called by the Macedonian historiography the National Liberation Struggle (Macedonian: Народноослободителна борба (НОБ), Narodnoosloboditelna borba (NOB)).^[22] Some of the combatants also developed aspirations for independence of the region of Macedonia, but were suppressed at the end of the war by the communist authorities. It marked the defeat of Bulgarian nationalism and the victory of the pro-Yugoslav Macedonian nationalism in the area. As result the new Communist authorities persecuted the former collaborationists with the charges of "Great Bulgarian chauvinism" and cracked down on pro-Bulgarian organisations that supported ideas of Greater Bulgaria and those which opposed the Yugoslav idea and insisted on Macedonian independence.

1. ^ The eastern parts of Yugoslavia were the site of savage fighting between October and December 1944, as the German Army Group E tried to force its way out of an almost desperate situation it had found itself in following the evacuation of Greece. Against all odds, this huge German formation managed to best three Allied armies, rugged terrain, and autumn rains and reach the relative safety of the Independent State of Croatia, where it joined the remainder of the Axis front in the Balkans. Although this dramatic episode had been extensively written about in the former Yugoslavia and Germany, it received next to no attention in the English-speaking academic community. The article at hand will provide an overview and an analysis of military operations based on a wide plethora of primary and secondary sources of all sides. It will also argue that the ultimate success of the breakthrough was as much due to the unwillingness of the Soviet high command to devote more resources to the Balkan Front, and the structural weaknesses of the Bulgarian and Yugoslav Partisans' armies, as it was to the battlefield prowess of the Wehrmacht. For more see: Gaj Trifković (2017) 'The German Anabasis': The Breakthrough of Army Group E from Eastern Yugoslavia 1944, The Journal of Slavic Military Studies, 30:4, 602–629, doi:10.1080/13518046.2017.1377014.
2. ^ Bulgaria During the Second World War, Marshall Lee Miller, Stanford University Press, 1975, p. 202.
3. ^ Who Are the Macedonians? Hugh Poulton, C. Hurst & Co. Publishers, 2000. p. 104.
4. ^ The Slavonic and East European review, School of Slavonic and East European Studies, University of London, 1991, p. 304.
5. ^ Зимските операции на Македонска војска 1943/44 – Раде Гогов, носител на "Партизанска споменица 1941".
6. ^ Александър Гребенаров, Надя Николова. Българското управление във Вардарска Македония (1941–1944). Кн. No. 63 от поредицата „Архивите говорят" на Държавна агенция „Архиви", 2011, .стр. 512.
7. ^ Klaus Schönherr: Der Rückzug aus Griechenland. In: Karl-Heinz Frieser, Klaus Schmider, Klaus Schönherr, Gerhard Schreiber, Krisztián Ungváry, Bernd Wegner: Das Deutsche Reich und der Zweite Weltkrieg, Band 8, Die Ostfront 1943/44 – Der Krieg im Osten und an den Nebenfronten. Im Auftrag des MGFA hrsg. von Karl-Heinz Frieser. Deutsche Verlags-Anstalt, München 2007, ISBN 978-3-421-06235-2, pp. 1089–1099; (in German).
8. ^ Zerjavic, Vladimir. Yugoslavia Manipulations With the Number of Second World War Victims. Croatian Information Centre, ISBN 0-919817-32-7 [1] Archived 5 July 2016 at the Wayback Machine
9. ^ Donald Bloxham, The Final Solution: A Genocide, OUP Oxford, 2009, ISBN 0199550336, p. 65.
10. ^ Chris Kostov, Contested Ethnic Identity: The Case of Macedonian Immigrants in Toronto, Peter Lang, 2010, ISBN 3034301960, p. 76.
11. ^ "The warm reception accorded the Bulgarian soldiers was in large part the result of Macedonian resentment at three decades of Serbian dominance. Administrative brutality, Serbian chauvinism, political corruption, and economic exploitation were more flagrant in Macedonia than in any other part of Yugoslavia. It was therefore not surprising that many Macedonians cheered the entering Bulgarians. One resident of Skopie later explained, "Of course we cheered; we had no way of knowing then that the Bulgarians would just repeat all the mistakes the Serbs had made." For more see: Marshall Lee Miller, Bulgaria during the Second World War, Stanford University Press, 1975, ISBN 0-8047-0870-3, p. 123.
12. ^ Cite error: The named reference Hugh Poulton was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
13. ^ Boškovska, Nada (2017). Yugoslavia and Macedonia Before Tito: Between Repression and Integration. Bloomsbury Publishing. pp. 282–284. ISBN 9781786730732.
14. ^ "The Bulgarian occupation forces in the Serbian part of Macedonia were received as liberators and pro-Bulgarian feeling ran high in the early stages of the occupation. Neither the Communist position regarding a separate Macedonian nation nor the idea of a Yugoslav federation met with much response from the Slav population, which nurtured pro-Bulgarian sentiments. The local Communists, led by M. Satorov, splintered off from the Communist Party of Yugoslavia and joined the Bulgarian Labour Party (which was Communist), with the slogan "One state, one party". The subsequent dissatisfaction with the occupation authorities was due to social factors, rather than national ones. This was also why Tito's resistance movement in Yugoslav Macedonia failed to develop." For more see: Spyridon Sfetas, "Autonomist Movements of the Slavophones in 1944: The Attitude of the Communist Party of Greece and the Protection of the Greek-Yugoslav Border". Balkan Studies 1995; 36 (2): pp. 297–317.
15. ^ Tomasevich, Jozo (2002). War and Revolution in Yugoslavia 1941–1945. Stanford University Press. pp. 163–165. ISBN 0804736154.
16. ^ ^{a b} Marshall Lee Miller, Bulgaria during the Second World War, Stanford University Press, 1975, ISBN 0-8047-0870-3, pp. 123-133.
17. ^ Roth, Klaus; Brunnbauer, Ulf (2008). Region, Regional Identity and Regionalism in Southeastern Europe. LIT Verlag Münster. p. 144. ISBN 978-3-8258-1387-1.
18. ^ Historical Dictionary of the Republic of Macedonia, Dimitar Bechev, Scarecrow Press, 2009, ISBN 0810862956 introduction Ixiii.
19. ^ Viktor Meier, Yugoslavia: A History of Its Demise, Routledge, 2005, ISBN 1134665113, p. 181.
20. ^ Dejan Djokić, Yugoslavism: histories of a failed idea, 1918–1992, Hurst, 2003, ISBN 1850656630, p. 120.
21. ^ ^{a b} Andrew Rossos (2008) Macedonia and the Macedonians, A History. Hoover Institution Press, ISBN 9780817948832, pp. 189-194.
22. ^ ^{a b} Cite error: The named reference Roumen Daskalov 2013 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).

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12 October 1692 – The Salem witch trials are ended by a letter from Province of Massachusetts Bay Governor William Phips.

Salem witch trials

Legal proceedings in Massachusetts (1692–93)

For other uses, see Salem witch trials (disambiguation).

"Salem Witches" redirects here. For the minor league baseball team, see Salem Witches (baseball).

The Salem witch trials were a series of hearings and prosecutions of people accused of witchcraft in colonial Massachusetts between February 1692 and May 1693. More than 200 people were accused.^[1] Thirty people were found guilty, nineteen of whom were executed by hanging (fourteen women and five men). One other man, Giles Corey, died under torture after refusing to enter a plea, and at least five people died in the disease-ridden jails without trial.^[2][1]

Although the accusations began in Salem Village (known today as Danvers), accusations and arrests were made in numerous towns beyond the village notably in Andover and Topsfield.^[3] The residency of many of the accused is now unknown; around 151 of those people are able to be traced back to twenty-five different New England communities.^[4] The grand juries and trials for this capital crime were conducted by a Court of Oyer and Terminer in 1692 and by a Superior Court of Judicature in 1693, both held in Salem Town (the regional center for Salem Village), where the hangings also took place. It was the deadliest witch hunt in the history of colonial North America. Fourteen other women and two men were executed in Massachusetts and Connecticut during the 17th century.^[3] The Salem witch trials only came to an end when serious doubts began to arise among leading clergymen about the validity of the spectral evidence that had been used to justify so many of the convictions, and due to the sheer number of those accused, "including several prominent citizens of the colony".^[5]

In the years after the trials, "several of the accusers – mostly teen-age girls – admitted that they had fabricated their charges."^[5] In 1702, the General Court of Massachusetts declared the trials "unlawful",^[6] and in 1711 the colonial legislature annulled the convictions, passing a bill "mentioning 22 individuals by name"^[6] and reversing their attainders.

The episode is one of colonial America's most notorious cases of mass hysteria. It was not unique, but a colonial manifestation of the much broader phenomenon of witch trials in the early modern period, which took the lives of tens of thousands in Europe. In America, Salem's events have been used in political rhetoric and popular literature as a vivid cautionary tale about the dangers of isolation, religious extremism, false accusations, and lapses in due process.^[7] Many historians consider the lasting effects of the trials to have been highly influential in the history of the United States. According to historian George Lincoln Burr, "the Salem witchcraft was the rock on which the [New England] theocracy shattered."^[8]

At the 300th anniversary events held in 1992 to commemorate the victims of the trials, a park was dedicated in Salem and a memorial in Danvers. In 1957, an act passed by the Massachusetts legislature absolved six people,^[9] while another one, passed in 2001, absolved five other victims.^[10] As of 2004, there was still talk about exonerating or pardoning all of the victims.^[11] In 2022, the last convicted Salem witch, Elizabeth Johnson Jr., was officially exonerated, 329 years after she had been found guilty.^[6]

In January 2016, the University of Virginia announced its Gallows Hill Project team had determined the execution site in Salem, where the 19 "witches" had been hanged. The city dedicated the Proctor's Ledge Memorial to the victims there in 2017.^[12][13]

1. ^ ^{a b} Baker, Emerson W. (July 7, 2016), "The Salem Witch Trials", Oxford Research Encyclopedia of American History, Oxford University Press, doi:10.1093/acrefore/9780199329175.013.324, ISBN 978-0-19-932917-5, retrieved April 27, 2025
2. ^ Snyder, Heather. "Giles Corey". Salem Witch Trials. Archived from the original on November 22, 2019. Retrieved December 3, 2019.
3. ^ ^{a b} Demos, John (1983). Entertaining Satan : Witchcraft and the Culture of Early New England. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 11, 401–409. ISBN 9780195033786.
4. ^ Latner, Richard (2008). "The Long and Short of Salem Witchcraft: Chronology and Collective Violence in 1692". Journal of Social History. 42 (1): 137–156. doi:10.1353/jsh.0.0056. ISSN 0022-4529. JSTOR 25096601.
5. ^ ^{a b} Vaughan, Alden (1997). The Puritan Tradition in America. UP of New England. p. 283. ISBN 978-0874518528. Archived from the original on September 19, 2023. Retrieved November 13, 2020.
6. ^ ^{a b c} Katz, Brigit (August 3, 2022). "Last Convicted Salem 'Witch' Is Finally Cleared". Smithsonian Magazine. Retrieved October 12, 2024.
7. ^ Adams 2008
8. ^ Burr, George Lincoln, ed. (1914). Narratives of the Witchcraft Cases, 1648–1706. C. Scribner's Sons. p. 195n1.
9. ^ "Six Victims of 1692 Salem Witch Trials 'Cleared' by Massachusetts..." December 2, 2015. Archived from the original on January 18, 2018. Retrieved January 17, 2018.
10. ^ "Massachusetts Clears 5 From Salem Witch Trials". The New York Times. November 2, 2001. Archived from the original on January 30, 2018. Retrieved January 29, 2018.
11. ^ "Salem may pardon accused witches of 1692". archive.boston.com. The Boston Globe. Archived from the original on January 17, 2018. Retrieved January 17, 2018.
12. ^ Writer, Dustin Luca Staff (July 19, 2017). "On 325th anniversary, city dedicates Proctor's Ledge memorial to Salem Witch Trials victims". Salem News. Archived from the original on November 1, 2019. Retrieved November 1, 2019.
13. ^ Newman, Caroline (January 19, 2016). "With UVA's Help, Salem Finally Discovers Where Its 'Witches' Were Executed | UVA Today". news.virginia.edu. University of Virginia. Archived from the original on March 6, 2016. Retrieved January 31, 2025.

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13 October 1821 – The Declaration of Independence of the Mexican Empire is publicly proclaimed.

Declaration of Independence (Mexico)

1821 document

The Declaration of Independence of the Mexican Empire (Spanish: Acta de Independencia del Imperio Mexicano) is the document by which Mexico declared independence from Spain’s Spanish Empire. This founding document of the Mexican nation was drafted in the National Palace in Mexico City on September 28, 1821, by Juan José Espinosa de los Monteros, secretary of the Provisional Governmental Board.

Three copies of the act were executed. One was destroyed in a fire in 1909. The other two copies are in the Museo Histórico de Acapulco Fuerte de San Diego in Acapulco and in the General Archive of the Nation in Mexico City.^[1]

The document is 52.9 centimeters (20.8 in) wide and 71.8 centimeters (28.3 in) high.^[2]

1. ^ "Resguardó descendiente de Nicolás Bravo una de tres copias del Acta de Independencia" (in Spanish). September 23, 2023.^{[dead link]}
2. ^ "Acta de Independencia, sana". Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia. August 24, 2010. Archived from the original on July 29, 2020. Retrieved September 28, 2018.

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14 October 1908 – The Chicago Cubs defeat the Detroit Tigers, 2–0, clinching the 1908 World Series; this would be their last until winning the 2016 World Series.

1908 World Series

Major League Baseball championship games

Baseball championship series

The 1908 World Series was the championship series in Major League Baseball for the 1908 season. The fifth edition of the World Series, it matched the defending National League champion Chicago Cubs against the American League champion Detroit Tigers in a rematch of the 1907 Series. In this first-ever rematch of this young event, the Cubs won in five games for their second straight World Series title.

The 1908 World Series was significant for being the last World Series championship the Cubs would win until 2016 (108 years later). That became the longest World Series championship drought for any team in MLB history.^[1] Before the 2016 series, the team would go on to appear in seven World Series; in 1910, 1918, 1929, 1932, 1935, 1938, and 1945, losing each time. The Cubs had been one of baseball's most dominant teams in the early 1900s. This was the year of the infamous "Merkle's Boner" play that allowed the Chicago Cubs to reach the World Series after beating the New York Giants (now the San Francisco Giants) in a one-game "playoff", actually the makeup game for the tie that the Merkle play had caused.

The Series was anticlimactic after tight pennant races in both leagues. Ty Cobb had a much better World Series than in the previous year, as did the rest of his team. The final two games, held in Detroit, were shutouts. This was also the most poorly attended World Series in history, with the final game drawing a record-low 6,210 fans. Attendance in Chicago was harmed by a ticket-scalping scheme that fans accused the club's owner of participating in, and the World Series was boycotted to some degree.

For the first time, four umpires were used in the series, in alternating two-man teams. Games 1, 4, and 5 were played in Detroit, while Games 2 and 3 were played in Chicago. Had the series continued, Game 6 would have been played in Chicago, and the home team for Game 7 would have been decided randomly, "by lot".^[2]

This was also the first World Series with a defending champion and the first to feature a team that won back-to-back titles.

1. ^ Kelly, Matt; Simon, Andrew; Langs, Sarah (October 30, 2024). "MLB's longest active title droughts". MLB.com. MLB Advanced Media. Retrieved July 28, 2025.
2. ^ "World Series Schedule". The Washington Times. Washington, D.C. October 9, 1908. p. 10. Retrieved October 31, 2021 – via newspapers.com.

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15 October 1990 – Soviet Union leader Mikhail Gorbachev is awarded the Nobel Peace Prize for his efforts to lessen Cold War tensions and open up his nation.

Nobel Peace Prize

One of five Nobel Prizes established by Alfred Nobel

"Nobel Peace" redirects here. For the film, see Nobel Peace (film).

Award

The Nobel Peace Prize^[a] is one of the five Nobel Prizes established by the will of Swedish industrialist, inventor, and armaments manufacturer Alfred Nobel, along with the prizes in Chemistry, Physics, Physiology or Medicine, and Literature.

Since March 1901,^[5] it has been awarded annually (with some exceptions) to people who have "done the most or the best work for fraternity between nations, for the abolition or reduction of standing armies and for the holding and promotion of peace congresses".^[6] The Oxford Dictionary of Contemporary History describes it as "the most prestigious prize in the world".^[7]

In accordance with Nobel's will, the recipient is selected by the Norwegian Nobel Committee, a five-member committee appointed by the Parliament of Norway. The prize award ceremony has been held in Oslo City Hall since 1990, previously in the assembly hall of the University of Oslo (1947–1989), Norwegian Nobel Institute (1905–1946), and the Parliament (1901–1904).

Due to its political nature, the Nobel Peace Prize has for most of its history been subject to numerous controversies. The 2025 prize was awarded to María Corina Machado "for her tireless work promoting democratic rights for the people of Venezuela and for her struggle to achieve a just and peaceful transition from dictatorship to democracy".^[8] This caused criticism due to her denial of the Gaza genocide and ties to Benjamin Netanyahu.^[9]

1. ^ "Behind the scenes of the Nobel Peace Prize". The Nobel Prize. 28 September 2021. Archived from the original on 15 December 2023. Retrieved 29 March 2024.
2. ^ "Nobel Foundation raises the amount for this year's Nobel Prize awards to 11 million kronor". Associated Press. 15 September 2023. Retrieved 11 September 2025.
3. ^ Cite error: The named reference Fortune was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
4. ^ "The Nobel Peace Prize 1901". www.nobelprize.org. Archived from the original on 2 January 2007. Retrieved 29 October 2017.
5. ^ "The Nobel Peace Prize 1901". Nobel Foundation. 1972. Archived from the original on 2 January 2007. Retrieved 19 March 2016.
6. ^ "Nobel Peace Prize", The Oxford Dictionary of Twentieth Century World History
7. ^ Palmowski, Jan (1 January 2008), "Nobel Peace Prize", A Dictionary of Contemporary World History, Oxford University Press, doi:10.1093/acref/9780199295678.001.0001, ISBN 978-0-19-929567-8, archived from the original on 29 March 2024, retrieved 6 April 2023
8. ^ "The Norwegian Nobel Committee has decided to award the Nobel Peace Prize for 2025 to Maria Corina Machado - Nobel Peace Prize". www.nobelpeaceprize.org. 2 October 2025. Retrieved 10 October 2025.
9. ^ "Nobel Prize winner urged to renounce Israel, far-right support". The New Arab. 11 October 2025. Retrieved 4 November 2025.

Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

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16 October 1793 – French Revolution: Queen Marie Antoinette is executed.

Marie Antoinette

Queen of France from 1774 to 1792

For other uses, see Marie Antoinette (disambiguation).

Marie Antoinette (/ˌæntwəˈnɛt, ˌɒ̃t-/;^[1] French: [maʁi ɑ̃twanɛt] ^ⓘ; Maria Antonia Josefa Johanna; 2 November 1755 – 16 October 1793) was the last queen of France before the fall of the monarchy during the French Revolution. She was the wife of King Louis XVI.

Born an archduchess of Austria, she was the penultimate child and youngest daughter of Empress Maria Theresa and Emperor Francis I of the Holy Roman Empire. She married Louis Auguste, Dauphin of France, in May 1770 at age 14, becoming the Dauphine of France. On 10 May 1774, her husband ascended the throne as king, and she became queen.

As queen, Marie Antoinette became increasingly a target of criticism by opponents of the domestic and foreign policies of Louis XVI and those opposed to the monarchy in general. The French libelles accused her of being profligate,^[2] promiscuous, having illegitimate children, and harboring sympathies for France's perceived enemies, including her native Austria. She was falsely accused of defrauding the Crown's jewelers in the Affair of the Diamond Necklace, but the accusations damaged her reputation further. During the French Revolution, she became known as Madame Déficit because the country's financial crisis was blamed on her lavish spending and her opposition to social and financial reforms proposed by Anne Robert Jacques Turgot and Jacques Necker.

Several events were linked to Marie Antoinette during the Revolution after the government placed the royal family under house arrest in the Tuileries Palace in October 1789. The June 1791 attempted flight to Varennes and her role in the War of the First Coalition were immensely damaging to her image among French citizens. On 10 August 1792, the attack on the Tuileries forced the royal family to take refuge at the Legislative Assembly, and they were imprisoned in the Temple Prison on 13 August 1792. On 21 September 1792, France was declared a republic and the monarchy was abolished. Louis XVI was executed by guillotine on 21 January 1793. Marie Antoinette's trial began on 14 October 1793; two days later, she was convicted by the Revolutionary Tribunal of high treason and executed by guillotine on 16 October 1793 at the Place de la Révolution.

1. ^ Jones, Daniel (2003) [1917], Peter Roach; James Hartmann; Jane Setter (eds.), English Pronouncing Dictionary, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-3-12-539683-8.
2. ^ Royal household spending in 1788 was 13% of total state expenses (excluding interest on debts). Finances of Louis XVI (1788) | Nicholas E. Bomba https://blogs.nvcc.edu Archived 20 April 2011 at the Wayback Machine › nbomba › files › 2016 https://books.google.com/books?id=ixJWG9q0Eo4C

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17 October 1931 – Al Capone is convicted of income tax evasion.

Al Capone

American gangster and businessman (1899–1947)

This article is about the gangster. For other uses, see Al Capone (disambiguation).

"Capone" redirects here. For other uses, see Capone (disambiguation).

Alphonse Gabriel Capone (/kəˈpoʊn/ kə-POHN;^[1] Italian: [kaˈpoːne]; January 17, 1899 – January 25, 1947), sometimes known by the nickname "Scarface", was an American gangster and businessman who attained notoriety during the Prohibition era as the co-founder and boss of the Chicago Outfit from 1925 to 1931. His seven-year reign as a crime boss ended when he was imprisoned at the age of 33.

Capone was born in New York City in 1899 to Italian immigrants. He joined the Five Points Gang as a teenager and became a bouncer in organized crime premises such as brothels. In his early twenties, Capone moved to Chicago and became a bodyguard of Johnny Torrio, head of a criminal syndicate that illegally supplied alcohol—the forerunner of the Outfit—and was politically protected through the Unione Siciliana.

A conflict with the North Side Gang was instrumental in Capone's rise and fall. Torrio went into retirement after North Side gunmen almost killed him, handing control to Capone. Although Capone expanded the bootlegging business through increasingly violent means, his mutually profitable relationships with Mayor William Hale Thompson and the Chicago Police Department meant he seemed safe from law enforcement.

Capone apparently reveled in attention, such as the cheers from spectators when he appeared at baseball games. He made donations to various charities and was viewed by many as a "modern-day Robin Hood".^[2] The Saint Valentine's Day Massacre, in which seven people from rival gangs were murdered in broad daylight, damaged the public image of Chicago and Capone, leading influential citizens to demand government action and newspapers to dub Capone "Public Enemy No. 1".

Federal authorities became intent on jailing Capone and charged him with twenty-two counts of tax evasion. He was convicted of five counts in 1931. During a highly publicized case, the judge admitted as evidence Capone's admissions of his income and unpaid taxes, made during prior and ultimately abortive negotiations to pay the government taxes he owed. He was convicted and sentenced to eleven years in federal prison. After conviction, he replaced his defense team with experts in tax law, and his grounds for appeal were strengthened by a U.S. Supreme Court ruling, although his appeal ultimately failed. Capone showed signs of neurosyphilis early in his sentence and became increasingly debilitated before being released after almost eight years of incarceration. In 1947, he died of cardiac arrest after a stroke.

1. ^ "the definition of al capone". Dictionary.com. Archived from the original on June 18, 2018. Retrieved October 2, 2018.
2. ^ Cite error: The named reference vintage was invoked but never defined (see the help page).

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18 October 1944 – World War II: The state funeral of Field Marshal Erwin Rommel takes place in Ulm, Germany.

Erwin Rommel

German field marshal (1891–1944)

"Rommel" and "General Rommel" redirect here. For the Polish general, see Juliusz Rómmel. For other uses, see Rommel (disambiguation).

Johannes Erwin Eugen Rommel (pronounced [ˈɛɐviːn ˈʁɔməl] ^ⓘ; 15 November 1891 – 14 October 1944), popularly known as The Desert Fox (German: Wüstenfuchs, pronounced [ˈvyːstn̩ˌfʊks] ^ⓘ), was a German Generalfeldmarschall (field marshal) during World War II. He served in the Wehrmacht of Nazi Germany, as well as in the Reichswehr of the Weimar Republic, and the Imperial German Army of the German Empire.

Rommel was a highly decorated officer in World War I and was awarded the Pour le Mérite for his actions on the Italian Front. In 1937, he published his classic book on military tactics, Infantry Attacks, drawing on his experiences in that war. In World War II, he commanded the 7th Panzer Division during the 1940 invasion of France. His leadership of German and Italian forces in the North African campaign established his reputation as one of the ablest tank commanders of the war, and earned him the nickname der Wüstenfuchs, "the Desert Fox". Among his British adversaries he had a reputation for chivalry, and his phrase "war without hate" has been uncritically used to describe the North African campaign.^[2] Other historians have since rejected the phrase as a myth, citing exploitation of North African Jewish populations during the conflict.^[3] Other historians note that there is no clear evidence Rommel was involved in or aware of these crimes,^[4] with some pointing out that the war in the desert, as fought by Rommel and his opponents, still came as close to a clean fight as there was in World War II.^[5] He later commanded the German forces opposing the Allied cross-channel invasion of Normandy in June 1944.

After the Nazis gained power in Germany, Rommel gradually accepted the new regime. Historians have given different accounts of the specific period and his motivations.^[6] He was a supporter of Adolf Hitler, at least until near the end of the war, if not necessarily sympathetic to the party and the paramilitary forces associated with it.^[7] In 1944, Rommel was implicated in the 20 July plot to assassinate Hitler. Because of Rommel's status as a national hero, Hitler wanted to eliminate him quietly instead of having him immediately executed, as many other plotters were. Rommel was given a choice between suicide, in return for assurances that his reputation would remain intact and that his family would not be persecuted following his death, or facing a trial that would result in his disgrace and execution; he chose the former and took a cyanide pill.^[8] Rommel was given a state funeral, and it was announced that he had succumbed to his injuries from the strafing of his staff car in Normandy.

Rommel became a larger-than-life figure in both Allied and Nazi propaganda, and in postwar popular culture. Numerous authors portray him as an apolitical, brilliant commander and a victim of Nazi Germany, although other authors have contested this assessment and called it the "Rommel myth". Rommel's reputation for conducting a clean war was used in the interest of the West German rearmament and reconciliation between the former enemies – the United Kingdom and the United States on one side and the new Federal Republic of Germany on the other. Several of Rommel's former subordinates, notably his chief of staff Hans Speidel, played key roles in German rearmament and integration into NATO in the postwar era. The German Army's largest military base, the Field Marshal Rommel Barracks, Augustdorf, and a third ship of the Lütjens-class destroyer of the German Navy are both named in his honour. His son Manfred Rommel was the longtime mayor of Stuttgart, Germany and namesake of Stuttgart Airport.

1. ^ Remy 2002, p. 15.
2. ^ Bierman, John; Smith, Colin (2004). War Without Hate: The Desert Campaign of 1940–43. Penguin Books. ISBN 978-0-14-200394-7.^{[page needed]}
3. ^ Villahermosa, Gilberto N. (2010). Hitler's paratrooper: the life and battles of Rudolf Witzig. London: Frontline Books. p. 137. ISBN 978-1-84832-559-3.
4. ^ Gabel 2014, p. 202.
5. ^ Dimbleby, Jonathan (2012). Destiny in the Desert: The road to El Alamein – the Battle that Turned the Tide. Profile Books. p. 273. ISBN 978-1-84765-467-0.
6. ^ Cite error: The named reference FrankAllg112012 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
7. ^ Searle 2014, p. 26.
8. ^ Martin, Douglas (9 November 2013). "Manfred Rommel, Son of German Field Marshal, Dies at 84". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 1 December 2021. Retrieved 26 February 2017.

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18 October 1944 – World War II: The state funeral of Field Marshal Erwin Rommel takes place in Ulm, Germany.

Erwin Rommel

German field marshal (1891–1944)

"Rommel" and "General Rommel" redirect here. For the Polish general, see Juliusz Rómmel. For other uses, see Rommel (disambiguation).

Johannes Erwin Eugen Rommel (pronounced [ˈɛɐviːn ˈʁɔməl] ^ⓘ; 15 November 1891 – 14 October 1944), popularly known as The Desert Fox (German: Wüstenfuchs, pronounced [ˈvyːstn̩ˌfʊks] ^ⓘ), was a German Generalfeldmarschall (field marshal) during World War II. He served in the Wehrmacht of Nazi Germany, as well as in the Reichswehr of the Weimar Republic, and the Imperial German Army of the German Empire.

Rommel was a highly decorated officer in World War I and was awarded the Pour le Mérite for his actions on the Italian Front. In 1937, he published his classic book on military tactics, Infantry Attacks, drawing on his experiences in that war. In World War II, he commanded the 7th Panzer Division during the 1940 invasion of France. His leadership of German and Italian forces in the North African campaign established his reputation as one of the ablest tank commanders of the war, and earned him the nickname der Wüstenfuchs, "the Desert Fox". Among his British adversaries he had a reputation for chivalry, and his phrase "war without hate" has been uncritically used to describe the North African campaign.^[2] Other historians have since rejected the phrase as a myth, citing exploitation of North African Jewish populations during the conflict.^[3] Other historians note that there is no clear evidence Rommel was involved in or aware of these crimes,^[4] with some pointing out that the war in the desert, as fought by Rommel and his opponents, still came as close to a clean fight as there was in World War II.^[5] He later commanded the German forces opposing the Allied cross-channel invasion of Normandy in June 1944.

After the Nazis gained power in Germany, Rommel gradually accepted the new regime. Historians have given different accounts of the specific period and his motivations.^[6] He was a supporter of Adolf Hitler, at least until near the end of the war, if not necessarily sympathetic to the party and the paramilitary forces associated with it.^[7] In 1944, Rommel was implicated in the 20 July plot to assassinate Hitler. Because of Rommel's status as a national hero, Hitler wanted to eliminate him quietly instead of having him immediately executed, as many other plotters were. Rommel was given a choice between suicide, in return for assurances that his reputation would remain intact and that his family would not be persecuted following his death, or facing a trial that would result in his disgrace and execution; he chose the former and took a cyanide pill.^[8] Rommel was given a state funeral, and it was announced that he had succumbed to his injuries from the strafing of his staff car in Normandy.

Rommel became a larger-than-life figure in both Allied and Nazi propaganda, and in postwar popular culture. Numerous authors portray him as an apolitical, brilliant commander and a victim of Nazi Germany, although other authors have contested this assessment and called it the "Rommel myth". Rommel's reputation for conducting a clean war was used in the interest of the West German rearmament and reconciliation between the former enemies – the United Kingdom and the United States on one side and the new Federal Republic of Germany on the other. Several of Rommel's former subordinates, notably his chief of staff Hans Speidel, played key roles in German rearmament and integration into NATO in the postwar era. The German Army's largest military base, the Field Marshal Rommel Barracks, Augustdorf, and a third ship of the Lütjens-class destroyer of the German Navy are both named in his honour. His son Manfred Rommel was the longtime mayor of Stuttgart, Germany and namesake of Stuttgart Airport.

1. ^ Remy 2002, p. 15.
2. ^ Bierman, John; Smith, Colin (2004). War Without Hate: The Desert Campaign of 1940–43. Penguin Books. ISBN 978-0-14-200394-7.^{[page needed]}
3. ^ Villahermosa, Gilberto N. (2010). Hitler's paratrooper: the life and battles of Rudolf Witzig. London: Frontline Books. p. 137. ISBN 978-1-84832-559-3.
4. ^ Gabel 2014, p. 202.
5. ^ Dimbleby, Jonathan (2012). Destiny in the Desert: The road to El Alamein – the Battle that Turned the Tide. Profile Books. p. 273. ISBN 978-1-84765-467-0.
6. ^ Cite error: The named reference FrankAllg112012 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
7. ^ Searle 2014, p. 26.
8. ^ Martin, Douglas (9 November 2013). "Manfred Rommel, Son of German Field Marshal, Dies at 84". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 1 December 2021. Retrieved 26 February 2017.

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19 October 1847 – The novel Jane Eyre is published in London.

Jane Eyre

1847 novel by Charlotte Brontë

This article is about the novel. For its title character, see Jane Eyre (character). For other uses, see Jane Eyre (disambiguation).

Jane Eyre (/ɛər/ AIR; originally published as Jane Eyre: An Autobiography) is a novel by the English writer Charlotte Brontë. It was published under her pen name "Currer Bell" on 19 October 1847 by Smith, Elder & Co. of London. The first American edition was published in January 1848 by Harper & Brothers of New York.^[2] Jane Eyre is a bildungsroman that follows the experiences of its eponymous heroine, including her growth to adulthood and her love for Mr Rochester, the brooding master of Thornfield Hall.^[3]

The novel revolutionised prose fiction, being the first to focus on the moral and spiritual development of its protagonist through an intimate first-person narrative, where actions and events are coloured by a psychological intensity. Charlotte Brontë has been called the "first historian of the private consciousness" and the literary ancestor of writers such as Marcel Proust and James Joyce.^[4]

The book contains elements of social criticism with a strong sense of Christian morality at its core, and it is considered by many to be ahead of its time because of Jane's individualistic character and how the novel approaches the topics of class, sexuality, religion and feminism.^[5][6] Jane Eyre, along with Jane Austen's Pride and Prejudice, is one of the most famous romance novels.^[7] It is considered one of the greatest novels in the English language,^[8] and in 2003 was ranked as the tenth best-loved book in Britain by the BBC in The Big Read poll.

Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

1. ^ "On Tuesday next will be published, and may be had at all the libraries, Jane Eyre. An Autobiography. Edited by Currer Bell. 3 vols, post 8vo. London: Smith, Elder, and Co., 65, Cornhill". Daily News. 13 October 1847. p. 1.
2. ^ Silvey, Jane (2005). "It all began with "Jane Eyre": the complex transatlantic web of women writers". The Gaskell Society Journal. 19 (4). Gaskell Society: 52. JSTOR 45185876.
3. ^ Lollar, Cortney. "Jane Eyre: A Bildungsroman". The Victorian Web. Retrieved 22 January 2019.
4. ^ Burt, Daniel S. (2008). The Literature 100: A Ranking of the Most Influential Novelists, Playwrights, and Poets of All Time. Infobase Publishing. ISBN 9781438127064.
5. ^ Gilbert, Sandra; Gubar, Susan (1979). The Madwoman in the Attic. Yale University Press.
6. ^ Martin, Robert B. (1966). Charlotte Brontë's Novels: The Accents of Persuasion. New York: Norton.
7. ^ Roberts, Timothy (2011). Jane Eyre. p. 8.
8. ^ "The 100 best novels written in English: the full list". The Guardian. 17 August 2015.

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20 October 1883 – Peru and Chile sign the Treaty of Ancón, by which the Tarapacá province is ceded to the latter, bringing an end to Peru's involvement in the War of the Pacific.

Treaty of Ancón

1883 territorial settlement between Chile and Peru

The Treaty of Ancón was a peace treaty signed by Chile and Peru on 20 October 1883, in Ancón, near Lima. It was intended to settle the two nations' remaining territorial differences at the conclusion of their involvement in the War of the Pacific and to stabilise post-bellum relations between them.

Under the treaty's terms, Chile gained control over Tarapacá. Chile was also to retain the conquered provinces of Tacna and Arica for ten years, after which their fate was to be decided by a plebiscite, which was never held.^[1] The Tacna–Arica question would only be settled in 1929, through the mediation of the United States under President Herbert Hoover. This treaty, known as the Treaty of Lima, ceded Arica to Chile, while Peru regained Tacna and received USD $6 million indemnity and other concessions.^[2]

1. ^ Egaña, Rafael (1900) The Tacna and Arica question. Historical antecedents.--Diplomatic action. Present state of the affair (translated from the Spanish edition by Edwin C. Reed) Barcelona Printing Office, Santiago, Chile, OCLC 19301902
2. ^ Jane, Lionel Cecil (1930) "The question of Tacna-Arica ..." Transactions of the Grotius Society 15: pp. 93–119

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21 October 1956 – The Mau Mau Uprising in Kenya is defeated.

Mau Mau rebellion

Anti-colonial Insurgency in Kenya (1952–1960)

This article is about the conflict in Kenya. For other uses, see Mau Mau (disambiguation).

The Mau Mau rebellion (1952–1960), also known as the Mau Mau uprising, Mau Mau revolt, or Kenya Emergency, was a war in the British Kenya Colony (1920–1963) between the Kenya Land and Freedom Army (KLFA), also known as the Mau Mau, and the British authorities.^[9] Dominated by Kikuyu, Meru and Embu fighters, the KLFA also comprised units of Kamba^[10] and Maasai who fought against the European colonists in Kenya — the British Army, and the local Kenya Regiment (British colonists, local auxiliary militia, and pro-British Kikuyu).^[11][b]

The capture of Field Marshal Dedan Kimathi on 21 October 1956 signalled the defeat of the Mau Mau, and essentially ended the British military campaign.^[12] However, the rebellion survived until after Kenya's independence from Britain, driven mainly by the Meru units led by Field Marshal Musa Mwariama. General Baimungi, one of the last Mau Mau leaders, was killed shortly after Kenya attained self-rule.^[13]

The KLFA failed to capture wide public support.^[14] Frank Füredi, in The Mau Mau War in Perspective, suggests this was due to a British divide and rule strategy,^[15] which they had developed in suppressing the Malayan Emergency (1948–60).^[16] The Mau Mau movement remained internally divided, despite attempts to unify the factions. On the colonial side, the uprising created a rift between the European colonial community in Kenya and the metropole,^[17] as well as violent divisions within the Kikuyu community:^[8] "Much of the struggle tore through the African communities themselves, an internecine war waged between rebels and 'loyalists' – Africans who took the side of the government and opposed Mau Mau."^[18] Suppressing the Mau Mau Uprising in the Kenyan colony cost Britain £55 million^[19] and caused at least 11,000 deaths among the Mau Mau and other forces, with some estimates considerably higher.^[20] This included 1,090 executions by hanging.^[20]

1. ^ Nissimi 2006, p. 11.
2. ^ Newsinger, John (1981). "Revolt and Repression in Kenya: The "Mau Mau" Rebellion, 1952–1960". Science & Society. 45 (2): 159–185. doi:10.1177/003682378104500202. JSTOR 40402312.
3. ^ Page 2011, p. 206.
4. ^ Anderson 2005, p. 5.
5. ^ Durrani, Shiraz. Mau Mau, the Revolutionary, Anti-Imperialist Force from Kenya, 1948–63: Selection from Shiraz Durrani's Kenya's War of Independence: Mau Mau and Its Legacy of Resistance to Colonialism and Imperialism, 1948–1990. Vita Books, 2018.
6. ^ David Elstein (7 April 2011). "Daniel Goldhagen and Kenya: recycling fantasy". openDemocracy.org. Archived from the original on 15 December 2018. Retrieved 8 March 2012.
7. ^ ""UK armed forces Deaths: Operational deaths post World War II"" (PDF). Ministry of defense. 25 March 2021
8. ^ ^{a b} Anderson 2005, p. 4.
9. ^ Blakeley, Ruth (2009). State Terrorism and Neoliberalism: The North in the South. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-134-04246-3.
10. ^ Osborne, Myles (2010). "The Kamba and Mau Mau: Ethnicity, Development, and Chiefship, 1952–1960". The International Journal of African Historical Studies. 43 (1): 63–87. ISSN 0361-7882. JSTOR 25741397.
11. ^ Anderson 2005.
12. ^ The Oxford Illustrated History of the British Army (1994) p. 350
13. ^ "Kenya: A Love for the Forest". Time. 17 January 1964. ISSN 0040-781X. Archived from the original on 23 April 2020. Retrieved 12 February 2018.
14. ^ The Oxford Illustrated History of the British Army (1994) p. 346.
15. ^ Mumford 2012, p. 49.
16. ^ Füredi 1989, p. 5
17. ^ Maloba 1998.
18. ^ Branch 2009, p. xii.
19. ^ Gerlach 2010, p. 213.
20. ^ ^{a b} "Bloody uprising of the Mau Mau". BBC News. 7 April 2011. Archived from the original on 2 January 2020. Retrieved 23 July 2019.

Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

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22 October 1877 – The Blantyre mining disaster in Scotland kills 207 miners

Blantyre mining disaster

1877 industrial accident in Scotland

The Blantyre mining disaster, which happened on the morning of 22 October 1877, in Blantyre, Scotland, was Scotland's worst ever mining accident.^[3][4] Pits No. 2 and No. 3 of William Dixon's Blantyre Colliery were the site of an explosion which killed 207 miners, possibly more,^[5] with the youngest being a boy of 11.^[6][7] It was known that firedamp was present in the pit and it is likely that this was ignited by a naked flame. The accident left 92 widows and 250 fatherless children.^[7]

Blantyre was also the scene of two further disasters^[a] in 1878 and 1879.^[8][2] There was a succession of lesser fatalities, some of which—particularly in the earlier years—were caused by firedamp.^[9]

1. ^ Moore, Wales & Willis 1877.
2. ^ ^{a b} Alexander & Moore 1879.
3. ^ Anderson 2014.
4. ^ South Lanarkshire Council.
5. ^ Hutton, Guthrie (2022). The Scottish Coal Industry. Catrine: Stenlake Publishing Ltd. p. 30. ISBN 978-1-84033-928-4.
6. ^ Blantyre 1877.
7. ^ ^{a b} Anon.
8. ^ Blantyre 1878.
9. ^ Blantyre Parish 2014, Accidents pages: to 1880, 1881 to 1914 and post 1914.

Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

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23 October 2001 – Apple Computer releases the iPod.

IPod

Line of portable media players by Apple (2001–2022)

Not to be confused with iPad or AirPods.

"IPOD" redirects here. For other uses, see IPOD (disambiguation).

This article is about the series. For specific versions of the iPod, see iPod Touch, iPod Classic, iPod Mini, iPod Nano, and iPod Shuffle.

For the music player app formerly called iPod, see Music (software).

The iPod is a series of portable media players and multi-purpose mobile devices that were designed and marketed by Apple^[2][3] from 2001 to 2022. The first version was released on October 23, 2001, about 8+1⁄2 months after the Macintosh version of iTunes was released. Apple sold an estimated 450 million iPod products as of 2022. Apple discontinued the iPod product line on May 10, 2022. At over 20 years, the iPod brand is the longest-running to be discontinued by Apple.^[4][5]

Some versions of the iPod can serve as external data storage devices, like other digital music players. Prior to macOS 10.15, Apple's iTunes software (and other alternative software) could be used to transfer music, photos, videos, games, contact information, e-mail settings, Web bookmarks, and calendars to the devices supporting these features from computers using certain versions of Apple macOS and Microsoft Windows operating systems.^[6][7]

Before the release of iOS 5, the iPod branding was used for the media player included with the iPhone and iPad, which was separated into apps named "Music" and "Videos" on the iPod Touch. As of iOS 5, separate Music and Videos apps are standardized across all iOS-powered products.^[8] While the iPhone and iPad have essentially the same media player capabilities as the iPod line, they are generally treated as separate products. During the middle of 2010, iPhone sales overtook those of the iPod.^[9]

1. ^ Mickle, Tripp (May 10, 2022). "Farewell to the iPod". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on December 2, 2022. Retrieved May 11, 2022.
2. ^ Clark, Mitchell (May 14, 2022). "Our Memories of the iPod". The Verge. Retrieved May 14, 2022.
3. ^ "What Is an Ipod? How Does the iPod Work? How to Use an iPod". askdeb.com. August 7, 2016. Archived from the original on June 6, 2020. Retrieved March 26, 2021.
4. ^ Cite error: The named reference :3 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
5. ^ Miller, Chance (May 10, 2022). ""Apple discontinues iPod touch, ending 20 year run of iconic 'iPod' brand"". 9to5Mac. Archived from the original on May 10, 2022.
6. ^ Apple Inc. "iTunes system requirements. Apple iTunes software runs on Mac OS X 10.3.9 or OS X 10.4.9 through to macOS 10.14 and on Microsoft Windows XP (Service Pack 2) or later". Archived from the original on September 5, 2016. Retrieved May 28, 2008.
7. ^ McKillop, Ross (July 8, 2007). "10 Alternatives to iTunes for managing your iPod". Simple Help. Archived from the original on July 28, 2024. Retrieved May 28, 2008.
8. ^ "APPLE IOS 5 IPHONE/IPAD HANDS-ON (screenshot of iPhone home screen with iOS 5 preview)". Boy Genius Report. June 6, 2011. Archived from the original on June 9, 2011. Retrieved June 6, 2011.
9. ^ Dediu, Horace (October 21, 2010). "Turning up the volume: iPhone overtakes iPod". asymco. Archived from the original on December 6, 2021. Retrieved October 25, 2013.

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24 October 1812 – Napoleonic Wars: The Battle of Maloyaroslavets takes place near Moscow.

Battle of Maloyaroslavets

1812 battle of the French invasion of Russia

French invasion of Russia

330km
205miles

15

Pultusk

14

Gorodeczno

13

Drohiczyn

12

Tauroggen

11

Riga

10

Tilsit

9

Warsaw

8

Berezina

7

Maloyaroslavets

6

Moscow

5

Borodino

4

Smolensk

3

Vitebsk

2

Vilna

1

Kowno

   

  current battle

  Prussian corps

  Napoleon

  Austrian corps

The Battle of Maloyaroslavets took place on 24 October 1812^[a] as part of the French invasion of Russia. It was Mikhail Kutuzov's decisive battle to force Napoleon to retreat northwest over Mozhaisk to Smolensk on the devastated route of his advance with a higher probability of starvation.^[3] Kutuzov's next attack against the remnants of the Grande Armée, the Battle of Krasnoi, began on 15 November 1812, three weeks later.

1. ^ ^{a b c d} Bodart 1916, p. 119.
2. ^ ^{a b c} Riehn 1990, p. 329.
3. ^ Wilson 1860, p. 232.

Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

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25 October 1973 – Egypt and Israel accept United Nations Security Council Resolution 339.

United Nations Security Council Resolution 339

1973 UN Security Council resolution calling for a ceasefire in the Yom Kippur War

United Nations resolution approved in 1973

United Nations Security Council Resolution 339 was adopted on 23 October 1973 in order to bring a ceasefire in the Yom Kippur War where Resolution 338 two days before had failed.

The resolution primarily reaffirmed the terms outlined in Resolution 338 (itself based on Resolution 242), returning the forces of both sides back to the position they held when the cease fire (338) came into effect, and a request from the United Nations Secretary-General to undertake measures toward the placement of observers to supervise the cease fire.

The resolution was adopted with 14 votes to none; the People's Republic of China did not participate in the voting.

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26 October 1881 – Wyatt Earp and Doc Holliday participate in the Gunfight at the O.K. Corral in Tombstone, Arizona.

Gunfight at the O.K. Corral

1881 shootout in Tombstone, Arizona, United States

For the film, see Gunfight at the O.K. Corral (film).

"O.K. Corral" redirects here. For the location, see O.K. Corral (building).

"The OK Corral" redirects here. For the Doctor Who episode, see The Gunfighters.

The gunfight at the O.K. Corral pitted lawmen against members of a loosely organized group of cattle rustlers and horse thieves called the Cochise County Cowboys on October 26, 1881. While lasting less than a minute, the gunfight has been the subject of books and films into the 21st century. Taking place in the town of Tombstone in Arizona Territory, the battle has become one archetype of the American Old West. The gunfight was the result of a long-simmering feud between five outlaws (including two sets of brothers) and four representatives of the law, including three brothers. The trigger for the event was the local marshal's decision to enforce a city ordinance that prohibited the carrying of weapons into town. To enforce that ordinance, the lawmen would have to disarm the Cowboys.

The lawmen were three brothers, Virgil, Wyatt, and Morgan Earp, and Wyatt’s close friend Doc Holliday. As Deputy U.S. Marshal and Town Marshal, Virgil was in charge, and it was his decision to enforce the ordinance that led to the shoot out. His two brothers and Doc Holliday were temporary assistant marshals.^[1][2][3] The Cowboys were a loosely connected group of outlaws. In Tombstone at the time of the gunfight were five members of the Cowboys: Billy Claiborne, brothers Ike and Billy Clanton, and brothers Tom and Frank McLaury. Despite its name, the gunfight did not take place within or next to the O.K. Corral, which fronted Allen Street and had a rear entrance lined with horse stalls on Fremont Street. The shootout actually took place in a narrow lot on the side of C. S. Fly's photography studio on Fremont Street, six doors west of the O.K. Corral's rear entrance. Some members of the two opposing parties were initially only about 6 feet (1.8 m) apart. About thirty shots were fired in thirty seconds.^[4] During that brief battle, three men were killed, three were wounded, two ran away, and one fought but was unharmed. Ike Clanton subsequently filed murder charges against the Earps and Holliday. After a thirty-day preliminary hearing and a brief stint in jail, the defendants were shown to have acted lawfully.

The gunfight was not the end of the conflict. On December 28, 1881, Virgil was ambushed and maimed in a murder attempt by the Cowboys. On March 18, 1882, a Cowboy fired from a dark alley through the glass door of Campbell & Hatch's saloon and billiard parlor, killing Morgan. The suspects in both incidents furnished alibis supplied by other Cowboys and were not indicted. Wyatt, newly appointed as Deputy U.S. Marshal in Cochise County, then took matters into his own hands in a personal vendetta. He was pursued by county sheriff Johnny Behan, who had received a warrant from Tucson for Wyatt's killing of Frank Stilwell.

The gunfight was not widely known until two years after Wyatt Earp's death, when Stuart Lake published his 1931 book Wyatt Earp: Frontier Marshal.^[5] The book was the basis for the 1939 film Frontier Marshal, with Randolph Scott and Cesar Romero, the 1946 film My Darling Clementine, directed by John Ford,^[5] and the 1957 film Gunfight at the O.K. Corral, after which the shootout became known by that name. The shootout was also depicted in the 1993 film Tombstone and the next year in Kevin Costner's less well received film Wyatt Earp. Since then, the conflict has been portrayed with varying degrees of accuracy in numerous Western films and books, and has become an archetype for much of the popular imagery associated with the Old West.

1. ^ Correa, Tom (November 27, 2012). "Gunfight at the OK Corral – The Aftermath – Part One". Archived from the original on May 18, 2015. Retrieved May 16, 2015.
2. ^ "Virgil Earp: In a Brother's Shadow". HistoryNet. March 23, 2018.
3. ^ "This Civil War vet was the real hero of the O.K. Corral shootout". May 18, 2020.
4. ^ "Shootout at the OK Corral". History Channel. Archived from the original on March 20, 2016. Retrieved April 5, 2016.
5. ^ ^{a b} Goodman, Michael (2005). Wyatt Earp. The Creative Company. p. 95. ISBN 1583413391. Archived from the original on May 18, 2016.

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