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This day in .....

Discussion in 'Break Room' started by NewsBot, Apr 6, 2008.

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Page 167 of 168
  1. NewsBot

    NewsBot The Admin that posts the news.

    Articles:
    1
    28 October 1420 – Beijing is officially designated the capital of the Ming dynasty when the Forbidden City is completed.

    Beijing

    "Peking" redirects here. For other uses, see Beijing (disambiguation) and Peking (disambiguation).
    "Beijinger" redirects here. For a website, see The Beijinger.

    Beijing,[a] previously romanized as Peking,[b] is the capital city of China. With more than 22 million residents,[11] it is the world's most populous national capital city, as well as China's second largest city by urban area, after Shanghai.[12] It is located in Northern China, and is governed as a municipality under the direct administration of the State Council with 16 urban, suburban, and rural districts.[13] Beijing is mostly surrounded by Hebei Province and neighbors Tianjin to the southeast; together, the three divisions form the Jing-Jin-Ji cluster.[14]

    Beijing is a global city and one of the world's leading centres for culture, diplomacy, politics, finance, business and economics, education, research, language, tourism, media, sport, science and technology, transportation, and art. It is home to the headquarters of most of China's largest state-owned companies and houses the largest number of Fortune Global 500 companies in the world, as well as the world's four biggest financial institutions by total assets.[15] It is also a major hub for the national highway, expressway, railway, and high-speed rail networks. For a decade before the COVID-19 pandemic, Beijing Capital International Airport was Asia's busiest airport (2009–2019) and the second busiest airport in the world (2010–2019).[16] In 2020, the Beijing subway was the fourth busiest and second longest in the world.[17] Beijing Daxing International Airport, Beijing's second international airport, is the largest single-structure airport terminal in the world.[18][19] The city has hosted numerous international and national sporting events, the most notable being the 2008 Summer Olympics and 2008 Summer Paralympics Games. In 2022, Beijing became the first city ever to host both the Summer and Winter Olympics,[20] and also the Summer and Winter Paralympics.[21]

    The architecture of Beijing contains elements of both traditional Chinese architecture with modern styles, with one side of the city being modernized and renovated, and the other half still offering traditional hutong districts.[22] Beijing is one of the oldest cities in the world, with recorded history spanning over three millennia. As the last remaining one of the Four Great Ancient Capitals of China, Beijing has been and still is the political center of the country for most of the past eight centuries,[23] and was the largest city in the world by population for much of the second millennium AD.[24] With mountains surrounding the inland city on three sides, in addition to the ancient city fortifications, Beijing was strategically poised and developed to be the residence of the emperor. The city is renowned for its opulent palaces, temples, parks, gardens, tombs, walls and gates.[25] Beijing is considered one of the most well-known tourist destinations in the world. In 2018, Beijing was the second highest earning tourist city in the world after Shanghai.[26] Beijing is home to many national monuments and museums and has eight UNESCO World Heritage Sites—the Forbidden City, Temple of Heaven, Summer Palace, Ming Tombs, Zhoukoudian Peking Man Site, Beijing Central Axis and parts of the Great Wall and the Grand Canal—all of which are popular tourist locations.[27] Siheyuans, the city's traditional housing style, and hutongs, the narrow alleys between siheyuans, are major tourist attractions and are common in urban Beijing.

    Beijing's public universities make up more than one-fifth of Double First-Class Construction universities, and many of them consistently rank among the best in the Asia-Pacific and the world,[28][29][30] including Tsinghua University, Peking University and UCAS.[31][32][33] Beijing CBD is a center for Beijing's economic expansion, with the ongoing or recently completed construction of multiple skyscrapers. Beijing's Zhongguancun area is a world leading center of scientific and technological innovation as well as entrepreneurship. Beijing has been ranked the city with the largest scientific research output by the Nature Index since the list's inception in 2016.[34][35] Beijing hosts 176 foreign embassies as well as the headquarters of many organizations, including the Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank (AIIB), the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation (SCO), the Silk Road Fund, the Chinese Academy of Sciences, the Chinese Academy of Engineering, the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, the Central Academy of Fine Arts, the Central Academy of Drama, the Central Conservatory of Music, and the Red Cross Society of China.

    1. ^ "Beijing Info". The People's Government of Beijing Municipality. Archived from the original on 7 August 2024. Retrieved 3 July 2024.
    2. ^ "Government". The People's Government of Beijing Municipality. Archived from the original on 29 July 2024. Retrieved 3 July 2024.
    3. ^ "Doing Business in China – Survey". Ministry of Commerce of the People's Republic of China. Archived from the original on 26 May 2014. Retrieved 5 August 2013.
    4. ^ "Communiqué of the Seventh National Population Census (No. 3)". National Bureau of Statistics of China. 11 May 2021. Archived from the original on 11 May 2021. Retrieved 11 May 2021.
    5. ^ "2024年北京经济稳中向好 高质量发展扎实推进" (Press release). beijing.gov.cn. 21 January 2025. Retrieved 20 February 2025..
    6. ^ "Human Development Indices (8.0)- China". Global Data Lab. Archived from the original on 24 September 2024. Retrieved 23 September 2024.
    7. ^ "Beijing". Lexico UK English Dictionary. Oxford University Press. Archived from the original on 25 October 2020.
    8. ^ Wells, John (3 April 2008). Longman Pronunciation Dictionary (3rd ed.). Pearson Longman. ISBN 978-1-4058-8118-0.
    9. ^ "Peking". Oxford English Dictionary (Online ed.). Oxford University Press. (Subscription or participating institution membership required.)
    10. ^ China Postal Album: Showing the Postal Establishments and Postal Routes in Each Province (1st ed.). Shanghai, China: Directorate General of Posts. 1907.
    11. ^ "中经数据". wap.ceidata.cei.cn. Archived from the original on 13 March 2024. Retrieved 13 March 2024.
    12. ^ "China: Provinces and Major Cities – Population Statistics, Maps, Charts, Weather and Web Information". City Population. Archived from the original on 11 February 2019. Retrieved 15 August 2023.
    13. ^ Figures based on 2006 statistics published in 2007 National Statistical Yearbook of China and available online at 2006年中国乡村人口数 中国人口与发展研究中心 (archive). Retrieved 21 April 2009.
    14. ^ "Basic Information". Beijing Municipal Bureau of Statistics. Archived from the original on 13 March 2012. Retrieved 9 February 2008.
    15. ^ "Top 100 Banks in the World". relbanks.com. Archived from the original on 29 July 2018. Retrieved 12 September 2018.
    16. ^ "Year to date Passenger Traffic". Airports Council International. 23 June 2014. Archived from the original on 29 January 2017. Retrieved 26 June 2014.
    17. ^ UITP Secretariat (May 2022). "WORLD METRO FIGURES 2021" (PDF). UITP. Archived from the original (PDF) on 9 November 2023. Retrieved 14 December 2023.
    18. ^ "What does the world's largest single-building airport terminal look like?". BBC News. 15 April 2019. Archived from the original on 18 April 2019. Retrieved 20 April 2019.
    19. ^ Taylor, Alan (22 September 2019). "Photos: The World's Largest Airport-Terminal Building – The Atlantic". The Atlantic. Archived from the original on 25 September 2019. Retrieved 25 September 2019.
    20. ^ Cite error: The named reference BZ was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    21. ^ Cite error: The named reference IA was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    22. ^ MorTraveling Team. "The Asian Cities You Should Spend Some Time In". MorTraveling. Archived from the original on 2 May 2024. Retrieved 2 May 2024.
    23. ^ "Peking (Beijing)". Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 25 (Macropædia, 15th ed.). p. 468.
    24. ^ "Top Ten Cities Through History". ThingsMadeUnthinkable.com. Archived from the original on 24 June 2011. Retrieved 28 November 2016.
    25. ^ "Beijing". World Book Encyclopedia. 2008. Archived from the original on 19 May 2008. Retrieved 7 August 2008.
    26. ^ Töre, Özgür (22 October 2018). "WTTC reveals the world's best performing tourism cities". ftnnews.com. Archived from the original on 7 August 2021. Retrieved 7 August 2021.
    27. ^ 走进北京七大世界文化遗产 – 千龙网. qianlong.com (in Simplified Chinese). 18 August 2014. Archived from the original on 29 November 2014. Retrieved 21 November 2014.
    28. ^ "US News Best Global Universities in Beijing". US News & World Report. 25 June 2024. Archived from the original on 6 November 2020. Retrieved 30 June 2024.
    29. ^ "World University Rankings 2024: China creeps closer to top 10". Times Higher Education (THE). 27 September 2023. Archived from the original on 8 October 2023. Retrieved 9 October 2023.
    30. ^ "ShanghaiRanking's Academic Ranking of World Universities". www.shanghairanking.com. Retrieved 15 August 2025.
    31. ^ Cite error: The named reference WU was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    32. ^ "Emerging Economies". Times Higher Education (THE). 22 January 2020. Archived from the original on 20 February 2020. Retrieved 13 September 2020.
    33. ^ "University Results | Rankings". research.unsw.edu.au. Archived from the original on 28 June 2023. Retrieved 17 August 2024.
    34. ^ Cite error: The named reference SC was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    35. ^ jknotts (25 September 2020). "Beijing Defends its Title as World's Top City for Scientific Research". thebeijinger.com. Archived from the original on 27 September 2020. Retrieved 27 September 2020.


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    NewsBot, Oct 27, 2025
    #6641
  2. NewsBot

    NewsBot The Admin that posts the news.

    Articles:
    1
    28 October 1420 – Beijing is officially designated the capital of the Ming dynasty when the Forbidden City is completed.

    Beijing

    "Peking" redirects here. For other uses, see Beijing (disambiguation) and Peking (disambiguation).
    "Beijinger" redirects here. For a website, see The Beijinger.

    Beijing,[a] previously romanized as Peking,[b] is the capital city of China. With more than 22 million residents,[11] it is the world's most populous national capital city, as well as China's second largest city by urban area, after Shanghai.[12] It is located in Northern China, and is governed as a municipality under the direct administration of the State Council with 16 urban, suburban, and rural districts.[13] Beijing is mostly surrounded by Hebei Province and neighbors Tianjin to the southeast; together, the three divisions form the Jing-Jin-Ji cluster.[14]

    Beijing is a global city and one of the world's leading centres for culture, diplomacy, politics, finance, business and economics, education, research, language, tourism, media, sport, science and technology, transportation, and art. It is home to the headquarters of most of China's largest state-owned companies and houses the largest number of Fortune Global 500 companies in the world, as well as the world's four biggest financial institutions by total assets.[15] It is also a major hub for the national highway, expressway, railway, and high-speed rail networks. For a decade before the COVID-19 pandemic, Beijing Capital International Airport was Asia's busiest airport (2009–2019) and the second busiest airport in the world (2010–2019).[16] In 2020, the Beijing subway was the fourth busiest and second longest in the world.[17] Beijing Daxing International Airport, Beijing's second international airport, is the largest single-structure airport terminal in the world.[18][19] The city has hosted numerous international and national sporting events, the most notable being the 2008 Summer Olympics and 2008 Summer Paralympics Games. In 2022, Beijing became the first city ever to host both the Summer and Winter Olympics,[20] and also the Summer and Winter Paralympics.[21]

    The architecture of Beijing contains elements of both traditional Chinese architecture with modern styles, with one side of the city being modernized and renovated, and the other half still offering traditional hutong districts.[22] Beijing is one of the oldest cities in the world, with recorded history spanning over three millennia. As the last remaining one of the Four Great Ancient Capitals of China, Beijing has been and still is the political center of the country for most of the past eight centuries,[23] and was the largest city in the world by population for much of the second millennium AD.[24] With mountains surrounding the inland city on three sides, in addition to the ancient city fortifications, Beijing was strategically poised and developed to be the residence of the emperor. The city is renowned for its opulent palaces, temples, parks, gardens, tombs, walls and gates.[25] Beijing is considered one of the most well-known tourist destinations in the world. In 2018, Beijing was the second highest earning tourist city in the world after Shanghai.[26] Beijing is home to many national monuments and museums and has eight UNESCO World Heritage Sites—the Forbidden City, Temple of Heaven, Summer Palace, Ming Tombs, Zhoukoudian Peking Man Site, Beijing Central Axis and parts of the Great Wall and the Grand Canal—all of which are popular tourist locations.[27] Siheyuans, the city's traditional housing style, and hutongs, the narrow alleys between siheyuans, are major tourist attractions and are common in urban Beijing.

    Beijing's public universities make up more than one-fifth of Double First-Class Construction universities, and many of them consistently rank among the best in the Asia-Pacific and the world,[28][29][30] including Tsinghua University, Peking University and UCAS.[31][32][33] Beijing CBD is a center for Beijing's economic expansion, with the ongoing or recently completed construction of multiple skyscrapers. Beijing's Zhongguancun area is a world leading center of scientific and technological innovation as well as entrepreneurship. Beijing has been ranked the city with the largest scientific research output by the Nature Index since the list's inception in 2016.[34][35] Beijing hosts 176 foreign embassies as well as the headquarters of many organizations, including the Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank (AIIB), the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation (SCO), the Silk Road Fund, the Chinese Academy of Sciences, the Chinese Academy of Engineering, the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, the Central Academy of Fine Arts, the Central Academy of Drama, the Central Conservatory of Music, and the Red Cross Society of China.

    1. ^ "Beijing Info". The People's Government of Beijing Municipality. Archived from the original on 7 August 2024. Retrieved 3 July 2024.
    2. ^ "Government". The People's Government of Beijing Municipality. Archived from the original on 29 July 2024. Retrieved 3 July 2024.
    3. ^ "Doing Business in China – Survey". Ministry of Commerce of the People's Republic of China. Archived from the original on 26 May 2014. Retrieved 5 August 2013.
    4. ^ "Communiqué of the Seventh National Population Census (No. 3)". National Bureau of Statistics of China. 11 May 2021. Archived from the original on 11 May 2021. Retrieved 11 May 2021.
    5. ^ "2024年北京经济稳中向好 高质量发展扎实推进" (Press release). beijing.gov.cn. 21 January 2025. Retrieved 20 February 2025..
    6. ^ "Human Development Indices (8.0)- China". Global Data Lab. Archived from the original on 24 September 2024. Retrieved 23 September 2024.
    7. ^ "Beijing". Lexico UK English Dictionary. Oxford University Press. Archived from the original on 25 October 2020.
    8. ^ Wells, John (3 April 2008). Longman Pronunciation Dictionary (3rd ed.). Pearson Longman. ISBN 978-1-4058-8118-0.
    9. ^ "Peking". Oxford English Dictionary (Online ed.). Oxford University Press. (Subscription or participating institution membership required.)
    10. ^ China Postal Album: Showing the Postal Establishments and Postal Routes in Each Province (1st ed.). Shanghai, China: Directorate General of Posts. 1907.
    11. ^ "中经数据". wap.ceidata.cei.cn. Archived from the original on 13 March 2024. Retrieved 13 March 2024.
    12. ^ "China: Provinces and Major Cities – Population Statistics, Maps, Charts, Weather and Web Information". City Population. Archived from the original on 11 February 2019. Retrieved 15 August 2023.
    13. ^ Figures based on 2006 statistics published in 2007 National Statistical Yearbook of China and available online at 2006年中国乡村人口数 中国人口与发展研究中心 (archive). Retrieved 21 April 2009.
    14. ^ "Basic Information". Beijing Municipal Bureau of Statistics. Archived from the original on 13 March 2012. Retrieved 9 February 2008.
    15. ^ "Top 100 Banks in the World". relbanks.com. Archived from the original on 29 July 2018. Retrieved 12 September 2018.
    16. ^ "Year to date Passenger Traffic". Airports Council International. 23 June 2014. Archived from the original on 29 January 2017. Retrieved 26 June 2014.
    17. ^ UITP Secretariat (May 2022). "WORLD METRO FIGURES 2021" (PDF). UITP. Archived from the original (PDF) on 9 November 2023. Retrieved 14 December 2023.
    18. ^ "What does the world's largest single-building airport terminal look like?". BBC News. 15 April 2019. Archived from the original on 18 April 2019. Retrieved 20 April 2019.
    19. ^ Taylor, Alan (22 September 2019). "Photos: The World's Largest Airport-Terminal Building – The Atlantic". The Atlantic. Archived from the original on 25 September 2019. Retrieved 25 September 2019.
    20. ^ Cite error: The named reference BZ was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    21. ^ Cite error: The named reference IA was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    22. ^ MorTraveling Team. "The Asian Cities You Should Spend Some Time In". MorTraveling. Archived from the original on 2 May 2024. Retrieved 2 May 2024.
    23. ^ "Peking (Beijing)". Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 25 (Macropædia, 15th ed.). p. 468.
    24. ^ "Top Ten Cities Through History". ThingsMadeUnthinkable.com. Archived from the original on 24 June 2011. Retrieved 28 November 2016.
    25. ^ "Beijing". World Book Encyclopedia. 2008. Archived from the original on 19 May 2008. Retrieved 7 August 2008.
    26. ^ Töre, Özgür (22 October 2018). "WTTC reveals the world's best performing tourism cities". ftnnews.com. Archived from the original on 7 August 2021. Retrieved 7 August 2021.
    27. ^ 走进北京七大世界文化遗产 – 千龙网. qianlong.com (in Simplified Chinese). 18 August 2014. Archived from the original on 29 November 2014. Retrieved 21 November 2014.
    28. ^ "US News Best Global Universities in Beijing". US News & World Report. 25 June 2024. Archived from the original on 6 November 2020. Retrieved 30 June 2024.
    29. ^ "World University Rankings 2024: China creeps closer to top 10". Times Higher Education (THE). 27 September 2023. Archived from the original on 8 October 2023. Retrieved 9 October 2023.
    30. ^ "ShanghaiRanking's Academic Ranking of World Universities". www.shanghairanking.com. Retrieved 15 August 2025.
    31. ^ Cite error: The named reference WU was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    32. ^ "Emerging Economies". Times Higher Education (THE). 22 January 2020. Archived from the original on 20 February 2020. Retrieved 13 September 2020.
    33. ^ "University Results | Rankings". research.unsw.edu.au. Archived from the original on 28 June 2023. Retrieved 17 August 2024.
    34. ^ Cite error: The named reference SC was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    35. ^ jknotts (25 September 2020). "Beijing Defends its Title as World's Top City for Scientific Research". thebeijinger.com. Archived from the original on 27 September 2020. Retrieved 27 September 2020.


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    NewsBot, Oct 27, 2025
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    29 October 1967 – Montreal's World Fair, Expo 67, closes with over 50 million visitors.

    Expo 67

    The 1967 International and Universal Exposition, commonly known as Expo 67, was a general exhibition from April 28 to October 29, 1967.[2] It was a category one world's fair held in Montreal, Quebec, Canada. It is considered to be one of the most successful world's fairs of the 20th century[3] with the most attendees to that date and 62 nations participating. It also set the single-day attendance record for a world's fair, with 569,500 visitors on its third day.

    Expo 67 was Canada's main celebration during its centennial year. The fair had been intended to be held in Moscow, to help the Soviet Union celebrate the Russian Revolution's 50th anniversary; however, for various reasons, the Soviets decided to cancel, and Canada was awarded it in late 1962.

    The project was not well supported in Canada at first. It took the determination of Montreal's mayor, Jean Drapeau, and a new team of managers to guide it past political, physical and temporal hurdles. Defying a computer analysis that said it could not be done, the fair opened on time.[4]

    After Expo 67 ended in October 1967, the site and most of the pavilions continued on as an exhibition called Man and His World, open during the summer months from 1968 until 1984. By that time, most of the buildings—which had not been designed to last beyond the original exhibition—had deteriorated and were dismantled. Today, the islands that hosted the world exhibition are mainly used as parkland and for recreational use, with only a few remaining structures from Expo 67 to show that the event was held there. Major League Baseball's 1969 expansion team, the Montreal Expos (now the Washington Nationals), was named in tribute to this event.[5]

    1. ^ "The Film".
    2. ^ Cite error: The named reference Fulford was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    3. ^ "The Most Successful World Fair – Expo 67". Voices of East Anglia
    4. ^ OECD (2008). Local Economic and Employment Development (LEED) Local Development Benefits from Staging Global Events. OECD Publishing. p. 54. ISBN 978-9264042070.
    5. ^ "Legacy". Expo 67 Man and His World. Ottawa: Library and Archives Canada. 2007. Archived from the original on March 14, 2012. Retrieved April 25, 2012.
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    NewsBot, Oct 28, 2025
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    30 October 1920 – The Communist Party of Australia is founded in Sydney.

    Communist Party of Australia

    This article is about the first Communist Party of Australia (1920–1991). For the party founded in 1964, see Communist Party of Australia (Marxist–Leninist). For the party founded in 1971 as the Socialist Party of Australia, see Communist Party of Australia (1971).
    "Eureka Youth League" redirects here. For the Eureka Youth League founded in 2010, see Australia First Party § Patriotic/Eureka Youth League.

    The Communist Party of Australia (CPA), known as the Australian Communist Party (ACP) from 1944 to 1951, was an Australian communist party founded in 1920. The party existed until roughly 1991, with its membership and influence having been in a steady decline since its peak in 1945. Like most communist parties in the West, the party was heavily involved in the labour movement and the trade unions. Its membership, popularity and influence grew significantly during most of the interwar period before reaching its climax in 1945, where the party achieved a membership of slightly above 22,000 members. At its peak it was the largest communist party in the Anglophone countries on a population basis, and held industrial strength greater than the parties of "India, Latin America, and most of Western Europe".[3][7]

    Although the party did not achieve a federal MP, Fred Paterson was elected to the Parliament of Queensland (for Bowen) at the 1944 state election. He won re-election in 1947 before the seat was abolished. The party also held office in over a dozen local government areas across New South Wales and Queensland.

    After nineteen years of activity, the CPA was formally banned on 15 June 1940 under the relatively new Menzies government (1939–1941).[4][2] The party was banned under the National Security (Subversive Associations) Regulations 1940. Two-and-a-half years later, the party was again a lawful organisation.[3] When the party contested the federal election eight months later, it received its biggest vote total. Getting a total of 81,816 votes (1.93–2.00%), the party received over 20,000 in Victoria and Queensland, and over 19,000 in New South Wales.[8] It was the party's biggest vote total since the 1934 federal election. However, by the late 1960s the party fell into single digit numbers before a brief spike in the mid 1970s. In the mid-to-late 1980s, the party was effectively stagnant and was dissolved in 1989.[9] To the present, the party is the fourth-oldest political party in Australian political history since Federation, lasting for 70 years, 122 days.

    1. ^ "Communist Party of Australia". aec.gov.au. Australian Electoral Commission (AEC).
    2. ^ a b c Winterton, George (1992). "The Significance of the Communist Party Case". Melbourne University Law Review.
    3. ^ a b c d Macintyre, Stuart (1 February 2022). The Party: The Communist Party of Australia From Heyday to Reckoning. Allen & Unwin. p. 103. ISBN 978-1-76087-518-3.
    4. ^ a b "Government Notices Gazette, No. 110". Australian Government Gazette. 15 June 1940.
    5. ^ a b c Hobday, Charles (1986). Communist and Marxist Parties of the World. Longman. pp. 386–387.
    6. ^ Fitzgerald, Ross (1997). The People's Champion Fred Paterson: Australia's Only Communist Party Meember of Parliament. University of Queensland Press.
    7. ^ Claudin, Fernando (1975). The Communist Movement from Comintern to Cominform. London: Penguin. ISBN 0853454000.
    8. ^ Barber, Stephen. "Federal election results 1901–2016—Reissue #2". parlinfo.aph.gov.au. Parliamentary Library of Australia.
    9. ^ Michelle Grattan 'The Rise of Labor and the Right', Melbourne Age 26 December 1989 p. 11


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    NewsBot, Oct 29, 2025
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    31 October 475 – Romulus Augustulus is proclaimed Western Roman Emperor.

    Romulus Augustulus

    Romulus Augustus (c. 460-465) – (c. 511-530[b]), nicknamed Augustulus, was Roman emperor of the West from 31 October 475 until 4 September 476. Romulus was placed on the imperial throne while still a minor by his father Orestes, the magister militum, for whom he served as little more than a figurehead. After a rule of ten months, the barbarian general Odoacer defeated and killed Orestes and deposed Romulus. As Odoacer did not proclaim any successor, Romulus is typically regarded as the last Western Roman emperor, his deposition marking the end of the Western Roman Empire as a political entity. The deposition of Romulus Augustulus is also sometimes used by historians to mark the transition from antiquity to the medieval period.

    Very few records survive of Romulus's reign. There are no known policies, laws or inscriptions of significance of the emperor, which leaves the impression that he was a shadowy and relatively inconsequential figure. The nickname "Augustulus" means "little Augustus" and was a derisive reference to his young age. Romulus's immediate family, including his father and possibly his mother, and maybe both his paternal and maternal grandparents, were from the Roman province of Pannonia, and many of his family members had military backgrounds.

    Romulus came to power through the usurpation of his predecessor Julius Nepos (r. 474–475 in Italy) in 475. Nepos fled to Dalmatia and continued to claim the imperial title in exile, which hampered Romulus's legitimacy and ensured that he was never recognised by the Eastern Roman emperor Zeno. In 476, the allied barbarian foederati in Italy demanded Italian lands to settle on, which was refused by Orestes. Under Odoacer, the foederati defeated and killed Orestes and deposed Romulus, whereafter Odoacer became the first King of Italy and accepted Emperor Zeno as his nominal superior.

    Romulus's life was spared by Odoacer, and he was allowed to retire to the castellum Lucullanum, a great fortress in Campania. Little certain information is known concerning Romulus's life in exile. He might have played a role in founding a monastery at castellum Lucullanum in the 480s or 490s, dedicated to Saint Severinus of Noricum.[3][4] Romulus could have been alive as late as 507 or 511 when Theodoric the Great, Odoacer's successor, wrote a letter to a "Romulus" concerning a pension, but was likely dead before his mid-40s, as accounts of the eastern Roman invasion of Italy at that time do not mention him.[3]

    1. ^ Mathisen 1997.
    2. ^ Jones et al 1980, pp. 949–950.
    3. ^ a b Nathan 1997.
    4. ^ Kos 2008, p. 446.


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    1 November 1814 – Congress of Vienna opens to re-draw the European political map after the defeat of France in the Napoleonic Wars.

    Congress of Vienna

    For other uses, see Congress of Vienna (disambiguation).
    "Vienna peace congress" redirects here. For the 2015 congress on Syria, see Vienna peace talks for Syria.

    The national boundaries within Europe agreed upon by the Congress of Vienna
    Frontispiece of the Acts of the Congress of Vienna

    The Congress of Vienna[a] of 1814–1815 was a series of international diplomatic meetings to discuss and agree upon a possible new layout of the European political and constitutional order after the downfall of the French Emperor Napoleon Bonaparte.[1] Participants were representatives of all European powers (other than the Ottoman Empire)[b] and other stakeholders. The Congress was chaired by Austrian statesman Klemens von Metternich, and was held in Vienna from September 1814 to June 1815.

    The objective of the Congress was to provide a long-term peace plan for Europe by settling critical issues arising from the French Revolutionary Wars and the Napoleonic Wars through negotiation. The goal was not simply to restore old boundaries, but to resize the main powers so they could balance each other and remain at peace, being at the same time shepherds for the smaller powers. More generally, conservative leaders like Metternich also sought to restrain or eliminate republican, liberal, and revolutionary movements which, from their point of view, had upended the constitutional order of the European ancien régime.

    At the negotiation table, the position of France was weak in relation to that of Britain, Prussia, Austria, and Russia, partly due to the military strategy of its leader, Napoleon Bonaparte, over the previous two decades, and his recent defeat. In the settlement the parties did reach, France had to give up all recent conquests, while the other three main powers made major territorial gains around the world. Prussia added territory from smaller states: Swedish Pomerania, most of the Kingdom of Saxony, and the western part of the former Duchy of Warsaw. Austria gained much of northern Italy. Russia added the central and eastern parts of the Duchy of Warsaw. All agreed upon ratifying the creation of the new Kingdom of the Netherlands, which had been created just months before from the former Dutch Seven Provinces together with formerly Austrian territory, and was meant to serve as a buffer between the German Confederation and France.

    The immediate background was Napoleonic France's defeat and surrender in May 1814, which brought an end to 23 years of nearly continuous war. Remarkably, negotiations continued unaffected despite the outbreak of fighting triggered by Napoleon's return from exile and resumption of power in France during the Hundred Days of March to July 1815. The Congress's agreement was signed nine days before Napoleon's final defeat at Waterloo on 18 June 1815.

    Some historians have criticised the outcomes of the Congress for causing the subsequent suppression of national, democratic, and liberal movements,[3] and it has been seen as a reactionary settlement for the benefit of traditional monarchs. Others have praised the Congress for protecting Europe from large and widespread wars for almost a century.


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    1. ^ Cite error: The named reference :0 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    2. ^ Ozavci, Ozan (2022). "A Priceless Grace? The Congress of Vienna of 1815, the Ottoman Empire and Historicising the Eastern Question". The English Historical Review. 136 (583). Oxford University Press: 1459–1461. doi:10.1093/ehr/ceab356.
    3. ^ Cite error: The named reference Olson-Shadle was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
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    2 November 1899 – The Boers begin their 118-day siege of British-held Ladysmith during the Second Boer War

    Siege of Ladysmith

    The siege of Ladysmith was a protracted engagement in the Second Boer War, taking place between 2 November 1899 and 28 February 1900 at Ladysmith, Natal.

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    3 November 1812 – Napoleon's armies are defeated at the Battle of Vyazma.

    Battle of Vyazma

    This article is about the 1812 battle. For the World War II battles around Vyazma, see Battle of Bryansk, Vyazma airborne operation, and Operation Hannover.

    The Battle of Vyazma (3 November 1812; 22 October by OS), occurred at the beginning of Napoleon's retreat from Moscow. In this encounter a Russian force commanded by General of the Infantry Miloradovich pressed and inflicted heavy losses on the rear guard of the Grande Armée.[8] Although the French thwarted Miloradovich's goal of encircling and destroying the corps of Marshal Davout, they withdrew in a partial state of disorder due to ongoing Russian harassment and heavy artillery bombardments,[9][10][11] and the town of Vyazma itself was captured in heavy fighting by Miloradovich's troops, namely the 11th Infantry Division under the command of Major General P. Choglokov (from Ostermann-Tolstoy's IV Infantry Corps) and the Cossacks of Ataman Platov. In addition to his four corps, Miloradovich also coordinated General Paskevich's 26th Division and those Cossacks during the battle. The French reversal at Vyazma, although indecisive, was significant due to its damaging moral impact on several corps of Napoleon's retreating army, namely, the corps of Davout, Eugène, Marshal Ney, and Prince Poniatowski. From then on, Napoleon's rearguard withdrew in disarray.[12]


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    1. ^ Милорадович, Михаил Андреевич, граф // [Линтулакс — Минный (учебно-минный) отряд Балтийского флота]. — СПб. ; [М.] : Тип. т-ва И. Д. Сытина, 1914. — С. 291–293. — (Военная энциклопедия : [в 18 т.] / под ред. К. И. Величко … [и др.] ; 1911—1915, т. 15).
    2. ^ a b Cite error: The named reference riehn340 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    3. ^ a b Bodart 1908, p. 442.
    4. ^ Riehn, page 340, claims that of the 37,500 Frenchmen, two thirds were involved
    5. ^ Егоршина 2023, p. 285.
    6. ^ Foord, page 319, cites the figure of 2,500 Russian losses
    7. ^ a b Foord, p. 319
    8. ^ Lieven, pp. 264–265
    9. ^ Lieven, p. 264
    10. ^ Caulaincourt, p. 1974
    11. ^ Segur, p. 167
    12. ^ Caulaincourt, p. 197; Segur, p. 168
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    4 November 1798 – The Russo-Ottoman siege of Corfu begins.

    Siege of Corfu (1798–1799)

    For other sieges of Corfu, see Siege of Corfu (disambiguation).

    The Siege of Corfu (November 1798 – March 1799) was a military operation by a joint Russian and Turkish fleet against French troops occupying the fortified island of Corfu; ended in Coalition victory. Corfu fortifications had a strong reputation, but by the siege time they were in a parlous state.[4][7]

    1. ^ Russell & Russell 2017, pp. 169–170.
    2. ^ a b c d Bodart 1908.
    3. ^ a b c d e f Tashlykov 2016.
    4. ^ a b c d e f g h Velichko et al. 1913.
    5. ^ Baeyens 1973, p. 46.
    6. ^ a b c Novikov 1948, p. 153.
    7. ^ Baeyens 1973, pp. 23–24.


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    5 November 1605 – Gunpowder Plot: Guy Fawkes is arrested in the cellars of the Houses of Parliament, where he had planted gunpowder in an attempt to blow up the building and kill King James I of England.

    Gunpowder Plot

    Not to be confused with Main Plot.
    For other uses, see Gunpowder Plot (disambiguation).

    The Gunpowder Plot of 1605, in earlier centuries often called the Gunpowder Treason Plot or the Jesuit Treason, was an unsuccessful attempted regicide against King James VI of Scotland and I of England by a group of English Catholics, led by Robert Catesby.

    The plan was to blow up the House of Lords during the State Opening of Parliament on Tuesday 5 November 1605,[a] as the prelude to a popular revolt in the Midlands during which King James's nine-year-old daughter, Elizabeth, was to be installed as the new head of state. Catesby is suspected by historians to have embarked on the scheme after hopes of greater religious tolerance under James had faded, leaving many English Catholics disappointed. His fellow conspirators were John and Christopher Wright, Robert and Thomas Wintour, Thomas Percy, Guy Fawkes, Robert Keyes, Thomas Bates, John Grant, Ambrose Rookwood, Sir Everard Digby and Francis Tresham. Fawkes, who had 10 years of military experience fighting in the Spanish Netherlands in the failed suppression of the Dutch Revolt, was given charge of the explosives.

    On 26 October 1605, an anonymous letter of warning was sent to William Parker, 4th Baron Monteagle, a Catholic member of Parliament, who immediately showed it to the authorities. During a search of the House of Lords on the evening of 4 November, Fawkes was discovered guarding 36 barrels of gunpowder—enough to reduce the House of Lords to rubble—and arrested. Hearing that the plot had been discovered, most of the conspirators fled from London while trying to enlist support along the way. Several made a last stand against the pursuing Sheriff of Worcestershire and a posse of his men at Holbeche House; in the ensuing gunfight Catesby was one of those shot and killed. At their trial on 27 January 1606, eight of the surviving conspirators, including Fawkes, were convicted and sentenced to be hanged, drawn and quartered.

    Some details of the assassination attempt were allegedly known by the principal Jesuit of England, Henry Garnet. Although Garnet was convicted of high treason and put to death, doubt has been cast on how much he really knew. As the plot's existence was revealed to him through confession, Garnet was prevented from informing the authorities by the absolute confidentiality of the confessional. Although anti-Catholic legislation was introduced soon after the discovery of the plot, many important and loyal Catholics remained in high office during the rest of King James I's reign. The thwarting of the Gunpowder Plot was commemorated for many years afterwards by special sermons and other public events such as the ringing of church bells, which evolved into the British variant of Bonfire Night of today.
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    6 November 1947 – Meet the Press, the longest running television program in history, makes its debut on NBC Television

    Meet the Press

    This article is about the American public affairs program. For the Australian program, see Meet the Press (Australian TV program).

    Meet the Press is a weekly American television Sunday morning talk show broadcast on NBC.[6][7] It is the longest-running program on American television, though its format has changed since the debut episode on November 6, 1947.[8][9] Meet the Press specializes in interviews with leaders in Washington, D.C., across the country, and around the world on issues of politics, economics, foreign policy, and other public affairs, along with panel discussions that provide opinions and analysis. In January 2021, production moved to NBC's bureau on Capitol Hill in Washington, D.C.[5][10]

    The longevity of Meet the Press is attributable in part to the fact that the program debuted during what was only the second official "network television season" for American television. It was the first live television network news program on which a sitting president of the United States appeared; this occurred on its broadcast on November 9, 1975, which featured Gerald Ford. The program has been hosted by 12 moderators, beginning with creator Martha Rountree. The show's current moderator is Kristen Welker, who became moderator in September 2023 following longtime moderator Chuck Todd's departure.

    Meet the Press airs Sundays from 9:00 a.m.–10:00 a.m. ET on NBC, 10:30 a.m.–11:30 a.m. ET in New York and Washington.[11] Meet the Press is also occasionally pre-empted by network coverage of sports events held outside the U.S. The program is syndicated by Westwood One to various radio stations around the United States, and is on C-SPAN Radio as part of its replays of the Sunday morning talk shows.

    1. ^ a b Cite error: The named reference 60th was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    2. ^ Cite error: The named reference shemadeit was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    3. ^ "Meet the Press – Credits". NBCUniversal. Retrieved July 31, 2017.
    4. ^ "The Sounds of War". Slate. April 2003.
    5. ^ a b Johnson, Ted (January 25, 2021). "NBCU Debuts New Washington Bureau And Studios". Deadline. Retrieved January 26, 2021.
    6. ^ "Meet the Press: Cast & Details". TV Guide. Retrieved December 30, 2008.
    7. ^ "About Meet The Press". MSNBC. December 8, 2003. Archived from the original on February 3, 2004. Retrieved December 30, 2008.
    8. ^ "Meet the Press: U.S. Public Affairs/Interview". Museum of Broadcast Communications. Archived from the original on September 25, 2012.
    9. ^ "About 'Meet the Press' – Meet the Press – About us". NBC News. December 31, 2012. Archived from the original on December 31, 2012. Retrieved October 27, 2023.
    10. ^ Ball, Rick (1998). Meet the Press: Fifty Years of History in the Making. McGraw Hill. pp. 12 (Farley), 14–15 (Chambers), 15–17 (Bentley), 51–53 (Castro), 67–68 (JFK) 92 (MLK), 167 (satellite). Retrieved March 18, 2020.
    11. ^ "Watch NBC's 'Meet the Press with Kristen Welker' in your area". NBC News. September 18, 2023. Retrieved January 7, 2024.
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    7 November 1916 – Jeannette Rankin is the first woman elected to the United States Congress.

    Jeannette Rankin

    Jeannette Pickering Rankin (June 11, 1880 – May 18, 1973) was an American politician and women's rights advocate who became the first woman to hold federal office in the United States. She was elected to the U.S. House of Representatives as a Republican from Montana in 1916 for one term, then was elected again in 1940. Rankin remains the only woman ever elected to Congress from Montana.[1][2]

    Each of Rankin's congressional terms coincided with the initiation of U.S. military intervention in both world wars. A lifelong pacifist, she was one of 50 House members who opposed the declaration of war on Germany in 1917. In 1941, she was the sole member of Congress to vote against the declaration of war on Japan following the attack on Pearl Harbor. As of 2025, she remains the last member of Congress to vote against a declaration of war.

    A suffragist during the Progressive Era, Rankin organized and lobbied for legislation enfranchising women in several states, including Montana, New York, and North Dakota. While in Congress, she introduced legislation that eventually became the 19th Constitutional Amendment, granting unrestricted voting rights to women nationwide. She championed a multitude of diverse women's rights and civil rights causes throughout a career that spanned more than six decades. In 1920, she helped found the American Civil Liberties Union and served as a vice president.

    1. ^ Greenspan, Jesse (November 2, 2016). "7 Things You May Not Know About Jeannette Rankin – History Lists". HISTORY.com. Retrieved November 19, 2016.
    2. ^ Lutey, Tom. "Montana's women candidates are out to set another record". The Billings Gazette. Retrieved April 12, 2018.
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    8 November 1965 – The Murder (Abolition of Death Penalty) Act 1965 is given Royal Assent, formally abolishing the death penalty in the United Kingdom for almost all crimes.

    Murder (Abolition of Death Penalty) Act 1965

    The Murder (Abolition of Death Penalty) Act 1965[1] (c. 71) is an act of the Parliament of the United Kingdom. It abolished the death penalty for murder in Great Britain (the death penalty for murder survived in Northern Ireland until 1973). The act replaced the penalty of death with a mandatory sentence of imprisonment for life.

    1. ^ a b The citation of this act by this short title is authorised by section 3(1) of this act.
    2. ^ The Murder (Abolition of Death Penalty) Act 1965, section 3(4)
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    9 November 1729 – Spain, France and Great Britain sign the Treaty of Seville.

    Treaty of Seville

    The Treaty of Seville was signed on 9 November 1729 between Britain, France, and Spain, formally ending the 1727–1729 Anglo-Spanish War; the Dutch Republic joined the Treaty on 29 November.

    However, the Treaty failed to resolve underlying tensions that led first to the War of Jenkins' Ear in 1739, then the wider War of the Austrian Succession in 1740.

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    10 November 1983 – Bill Gates introduces Windows 1.0.

    Windows 1.0

    Not to be confused with Windows 10.

    Windows 1.0 is the first major release of Microsoft Windows, a family of graphical user shells and operating systems for personal computers developed by Microsoft. It was first released to manufacturing in the United States on November 20, 1985, while the European version was released as Windows 1.02 in May 1986.

    Its development began after Microsoft co-founder Bill Gates saw a demonstration of a similar software suite, Visi On, at COMDEX in 1982. The operating environment was showcased to the public in November 1983, although it ended up being released two years later. Windows 1.0 runs on MS-DOS, as a 16-bit shell program known as MS-DOS Executive, and it provides an environment which can run graphical programs designed for Windows, as well as existing MS-DOS software. It included multitasking and the use of the mouse, and various built-in programs such as Calculator, Paint, and Notepad. The operating environment does not allow its windows to overlap, and instead, the windows are tiled. Windows 1.0 received four releases numbered 1.01 through 1.04, mainly adding support for newer hardware or additional languages.

    The system received lukewarm reviews; critics raised concerns about not fulfilling expectations, its compatibility with very little software, and its performance issues, while it also received positive responses to Microsoft's early presentations and support from a number of hardware manufacturers and software developers. Its last release was 1.04, and it was succeeded by Windows 2.0, which was released in December 1987. Microsoft ended its support for Windows 1.0 on December 31, 2001, making it the longest-supported out of all versions of Windows.

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    11 November 1880 – Australian bushranger Ned Kelly is hanged at Melbourne Gaol.

    Ned Kelly

    This article is about the Australian bushranger. For other uses, see Ned Kelly (disambiguation).
    "Kelly Gang" redirects here. For other uses, see The Kelly Gang (disambiguation).

    Edward Kelly (December 1854[a] – 11 November 1880) was an Australian bushranger, gang leader and police-murderer. One of the last bushrangers, he is known for wearing a suit of bulletproof armour during his final shootout with the police.

    Kelly was born and raised in rural Victoria, the third of eight children to Irish parents. His father, a transported convict, died in 1866, leaving Kelly, then aged 12, as the eldest male of the household. The Kellys were a poor selector family who saw themselves as downtrodden by the squattocracy and as victims of persecution by the Victoria Police. While a teenager, Kelly was arrested for associating with bushranger Harry Power and served two prison terms for a variety of offences, the longest stretch being from 1871 to 1874. He later joined the "Greta Mob", a group of bush larrikins known for stock theft. A violent confrontation with a policeman occurred at the Kelly family's home in 1878, and Kelly was indicted for his attempted murder. Fleeing to the bush, Kelly vowed to avenge his mother, who was imprisoned for her role in the incident. After he, his brother Dan, and associates Joe Byrne and Steve Hart shot dead three policemen, the government of Victoria proclaimed them outlaws.

    Kelly and his gang, with the help of a network of sympathisers, evaded the police for two years. The gang's crime spree included raids on Euroa and Jerilderie, and the killing of Aaron Sherritt, a sympathiser turned police informer. In a manifesto letter, Kelly—denouncing the police, the Victorian government and the British Empire—set down his own account of the events leading up to his outlawry. Demanding justice for his family and the rural poor, he threatened dire consequences for his enemies. In 1880, the gang tried to derail and ambush a police train as a prelude to attacking Benalla, the base of police operations in the region. The police, tipped off, confronted them at Glenrowan. In the ensuing 12-hour siege and gunfight, the outlaws wore armour fashioned from plough mouldboards. Kelly, the only survivor, was severely wounded by police fire and captured. Despite thousands of supporters rallying and petitioning for his reprieve, Kelly was tried for murder, convicted and hanged at the Melbourne Gaol.

    Historian Geoffrey Serle called Kelly and his gang "the last expression of the lawless frontier in what was becoming a highly organised and educated society, the last protest of the mighty bush now tethered with iron rails to Melbourne and the world".[1] In the century after his death, Kelly became a cultural icon, inspiring numerous works in the arts and popular culture, and is the subject of more biographies than any other Australian. Kelly continues to cause division in his homeland: he is variously considered a Robin Hood-like folk hero and crusader against oppression, and a murderous villain and terrorist.[2][3] Journalist Martin Flanagan wrote: "What makes Ned a legend is not that everyone sees him the same—it's that everyone sees him. Like a bushfire on the horizon casting its red glow into the night."[4]


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    1. ^ Serle, Geoffrey (1971). The Rush to Be Rich: A History of the Colony of Victoria 1883–1889. Melbourne University Press. p. 11. ISBN 978-0-522-84009-4.
    2. ^ Basu 2012, pp. 182–187.
    3. ^ Cite error: The named reference :8 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    4. ^ Flanagan, Martin (30 March 2013). "Rebels who knew the end was coming, but stood up anyway" Archived 20 May 2013 at the Wayback Machine, The Age. Retrieved 13 July 2015.
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    12 November 1927 – Leon Trotsky is expelled from the Soviet Communist Party, leaving Joseph Stalin in undisputed control of the Soviet Union.

    Leon Trotsky

    "Trotsky" redirects here. For other uses, see Trotsky (disambiguation).

    Lev Davidovich Trotsky[b][c] (né Bronstein;[d] 7 November [O.S. 26 October] 1879 – 21 August 1940), better known as Leon Trotsky,[e] was a Russian revolutionary, Soviet politician and political theorist. He was a key figure in the 1905 Revolution, October Revolution of 1917, Russian Civil War, and the establishment of the Soviet Union, from which he was exiled in 1929 before his assassination in 1940. Trotsky and Vladimir Lenin were widely considered the two most prominent figures in the Soviet state from 1917 until Lenin's death in 1924. Ideologically a Marxist and a Leninist, Trotsky's ideas inspired a school of Marxism known as Trotskyism.

    Trotsky joined the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party in 1898, being arrested and exiled to Siberia for his activities. In 1902 he escaped to London, where he met Lenin. Trotsky initially sided with the Mensheviks against Lenin's Bolsheviks in the party's 1903 schism, but declared himself non-factional in 1904. During the 1905 Revolution, Trotsky was elected chairman of the Saint Petersburg Soviet. He was again exiled to Siberia, but escaped in 1907 and lived abroad. After the February Revolution of 1917, Trotsky joined the Bolsheviks and was elected chairman of the Petrograd Soviet. He helped to lead the October Revolution, and as the People's Commissar for Foreign Affairs negotiated the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, by which Russia withdrew from World War I. He served as People's Commissar for Military Affairs from 1918 to 1925, during which he built the Red Army and led it to victory in the civil war. In 1922 Lenin formed a bloc with Trotsky against the growing Soviet bureaucracy[3] and proposed that he should become a deputy premier,[4] but Trotsky declined.[5] Beginning in 1923, Trotsky led the party's Left Opposition faction, which supported greater levels of industrialisation, voluntary collectivisation and party democratisation in a shared framework with the New Economic Policy.[6]

    After Lenin's death in 1924, Trotsky emerged as a prominent critic of Joseph Stalin, who soon politically outmanoeuvred him. Trotsky was expelled from the Politburo in 1926 and from the party in 1927, exiled to Alma Ata in 1928 and deported in 1929. He lived in Turkey, France and Norway before settling in Mexico in 1937. In exile, Trotsky wrote polemics against Stalinism, advocating proletarian internationalism against Stalin's theory of socialism in one country. Trotsky's theory of permanent revolution held that the revolution could only survive if spread to more advanced capitalist countries. In The Revolution Betrayed (1936), he argued that the Soviet Union had become a "degenerated workers' state", and in 1938 founded the Fourth International as an alternative to the Comintern. After being sentenced to death in absentia at the Moscow show trials in 1936, Trotsky was assassinated in 1940 in Mexico City by Ramón Mercader, a Stalinist agent.

    Written out of official history under Stalin, Trotsky was one of the few of his rivals who were never politically rehabilitated by later Soviet leaders. In the Western world Trotsky emerged as a hero of the anti-Stalinist left for his defence of a more democratic, internationalist form of socialism[7][8] against Stalinist totalitarianism, and for his intellectual contributions to Marxism. While some of his wartime actions are controversial, such as his ideological defence of the Red Terror[9] and violent suppression of the Kronstadt rebellion, scholarship ranks Trotsky's leadership of the Red Army highly among historical figures, and he is credited for his major involvement with the military, economic, cultural[10] and political development of the Soviet Union.


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    1. ^ Cliff, Tony (2004) [1976]. "Lenin Rearms the Party". All Power to the Soviets: Lenin 1914–1917. Vol. 2. Chicago: Haymarket Books. p. 139. ISBN 9781931859103. Retrieved 17 December 2021. Trotsky was a leader of a small group, the Mezhraionts, consisting of almost four thousand members.
    2. ^ "Trotsky". Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary. Merriam-Webster.
    3. ^ Mccauley 2014, p. 59; Deutscher 2003b, p. 63; Kort 2015, p. 166; Service 2010, p. 301–20; Pipes 1993, p. 469; Volkogonov 1996, p. 242; Lewin 2005, p. 67; Tucker 1973, p. 336; Figes 2017, pp. 796, 797; D'Agostino 2011, p. 67.
    4. ^ Getty 2013b, p. 53; Douds 2019b, p. 165.
    5. ^ Bullock 1991b, p. 163; Rees & Rosa 1992b, p. 129; Kosheleva 1995b, pp. 80–81.
    6. ^ Deutscher 2015a, pp. 646, 674–678.
    7. ^ Barnett, Vincent (7 March 2013). A History of Russian Economic Thought. Routledge. p. 101. ISBN 978-1-134-26191-8.
    8. ^ Deutscher 2015a, pp. 1053.
    9. ^ "Leon Trotsky: Terrorism and Communism (Chapter 4)". www.marxists.org. Retrieved 16 November 2022.
    10. ^ Knei-Paz 1979, p. 296; Kivelson & Neuberger 2008, p. 149.
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    12 November 1927 – Leon Trotsky is expelled from the Soviet Communist Party, leaving Joseph Stalin in undisputed control of the Soviet Union.

    Leon Trotsky

    "Trotsky" redirects here. For other uses, see Trotsky (disambiguation).

    Lev Davidovich Trotsky[b][c] (né Bronstein;[d] 7 November [O.S. 26 October] 1879 – 21 August 1940), better known as Leon Trotsky,[e] was a Russian revolutionary, Soviet politician and political theorist. He was a key figure in the 1905 Revolution, October Revolution of 1917, Russian Civil War, and the establishment of the Soviet Union, from which he was exiled in 1929 before his assassination in 1940. Trotsky and Vladimir Lenin were widely considered the two most prominent figures in the Soviet state from 1917 until Lenin's death in 1924. Ideologically a Marxist and a Leninist, Trotsky's ideas inspired a school of Marxism known as Trotskyism.

    Trotsky joined the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party in 1898, being arrested and exiled to Siberia for his activities. In 1902 he escaped to London, where he met Lenin. Trotsky initially sided with the Mensheviks against Lenin's Bolsheviks in the party's 1903 schism, but declared himself non-factional in 1904. During the 1905 Revolution, Trotsky was elected chairman of the Saint Petersburg Soviet. He was again exiled to Siberia, but escaped in 1907 and lived abroad. After the February Revolution of 1917, Trotsky joined the Bolsheviks and was elected chairman of the Petrograd Soviet. He helped to lead the October Revolution, and as the People's Commissar for Foreign Affairs negotiated the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, by which Russia withdrew from World War I. He served as People's Commissar for Military Affairs from 1918 to 1925, during which he built the Red Army and led it to victory in the civil war. In 1922 Lenin formed a bloc with Trotsky against the growing Soviet bureaucracy[3] and proposed that he should become a deputy premier,[4] but Trotsky declined.[5] Beginning in 1923, Trotsky led the party's Left Opposition faction, which supported greater levels of industrialisation, voluntary collectivisation and party democratisation in a shared framework with the New Economic Policy.[6]

    After Lenin's death in 1924, Trotsky emerged as a prominent critic of Joseph Stalin, who soon politically outmanoeuvred him. Trotsky was expelled from the Politburo in 1926 and from the party in 1927, exiled to Alma Ata in 1928 and deported in 1929. He lived in Turkey, France and Norway before settling in Mexico in 1937. In exile, Trotsky wrote polemics against Stalinism, advocating proletarian internationalism against Stalin's theory of socialism in one country. Trotsky's theory of permanent revolution held that the revolution could only survive if spread to more advanced capitalist countries. In The Revolution Betrayed (1936), he argued that the Soviet Union had become a "degenerated workers' state", and in 1938 founded the Fourth International as an alternative to the Comintern. After being sentenced to death in absentia at the Moscow show trials in 1936, Trotsky was assassinated in 1940 in Mexico City by Ramón Mercader, a Stalinist agent.

    Written out of official history under Stalin, Trotsky was one of the few of his rivals who were never politically rehabilitated by later Soviet leaders. In the Western world Trotsky emerged as a hero of the anti-Stalinist left for his defence of a more democratic, internationalist form of socialism[7][8] against Stalinist totalitarianism, and for his intellectual contributions to Marxism. While some of his wartime actions are controversial, such as his ideological defence of the Red Terror[9] and violent suppression of the Kronstadt rebellion, scholarship ranks Trotsky's leadership of the Red Army highly among historical figures, and he is credited for his major involvement with the military, economic, cultural[10] and political development of the Soviet Union.


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    1. ^ Cliff, Tony (2004) [1976]. "Lenin Rearms the Party". All Power to the Soviets: Lenin 1914–1917. Vol. 2. Chicago: Haymarket Books. p. 139. ISBN 9781931859103. Retrieved 17 December 2021. Trotsky was a leader of a small group, the Mezhraionts, consisting of almost four thousand members.
    2. ^ "Trotsky". Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary. Merriam-Webster.
    3. ^ Mccauley 2014, p. 59; Deutscher 2003b, p. 63; Kort 2015, p. 166; Service 2010, p. 301–20; Pipes 1993, p. 469; Volkogonov 1996, p. 242; Lewin 2005, p. 67; Tucker 1973, p. 336; Figes 2017, pp. 796, 797; D'Agostino 2011, p. 67.
    4. ^ Getty 2013b, p. 53; Douds 2019b, p. 165.
    5. ^ Bullock 1991b, p. 163; Rees & Rosa 1992b, p. 129; Kosheleva 1995b, pp. 80–81.
    6. ^ Deutscher 2015a, pp. 646, 674–678.
    7. ^ Barnett, Vincent (7 March 2013). A History of Russian Economic Thought. Routledge. p. 101. ISBN 978-1-134-26191-8.
    8. ^ Deutscher 2015a, pp. 1053.
    9. ^ "Leon Trotsky: Terrorism and Communism (Chapter 4)". www.marxists.org. Retrieved 16 November 2022.
    10. ^ Knei-Paz 1979, p. 296; Kivelson & Neuberger 2008, p. 149.
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    13 November 1927 – The Holland Tunnel opens to traffic as the first Hudson River vehicle tunnel linking New Jersey to New York City.

    Holland Tunnel

    The Holland Tunnel is a vehicular tunnel under the Hudson River that connects Hudson Square and Lower Manhattan in New York City in the east to Jersey City, New Jersey, in the west. The tunnel is operated by the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey and carries Interstate 78. The New Jersey side of the tunnel is the eastern terminus of New Jersey Route 139. The Holland Tunnel is one of three vehicular crossings between Manhattan and New Jersey; the two others are the Lincoln Tunnel and George Washington Bridge.

    Plans for a fixed vehicular crossing over the Hudson River were first drawn up in 1906. However, disagreements prolonged the planning process until 1919, when it was decided to build a tunnel under the river. Construction of the Holland Tunnel started in 1920, and it opened in 1927. At the time of its opening, it was the longest continuous underwater tunnel for vehicular traffic in the world.

    The Holland Tunnel was the world's first mechanically ventilated tunnel. Its ventilation system was designed by Ole Singstad, who oversaw the tunnel's completion. Original names considered for the tunnel included Hudson River Vehicular Tunnel and Canal Street Tunnel, but it was ultimately named the Holland Tunnel in memory of Clifford Milburn Holland, its initial chief engineer, who died suddenly in 1924 prior to the tunnel's opening.

    1. ^ Cite error: The named reference tolls was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    2. ^ Cite error: The named reference nycdot16 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    3. ^ Cite error: The named reference nris was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
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    14 November 1680 – German astronomer Gottfried Kirch discovers the Great Comet of 1680, the first comet to be discovered by telescope

    Great Comet of 1680

    C/1680 V1, also called the Great Comet of 1680, Kirch's Comet, and Newton's Comet, was the first comet discovered by telescope. It was discovered by Gottfried Kirch and was one of the brightest comets of the seventeenth century.

    1. ^ a b c "JPL Small-Body Database Browser: C/1680 V1" (1681-03-19 last obs (Encke: 125-day data arc)). Jet Propulsion Laboratory. Retrieved 26 July 2011.
    2. ^ a b c Cite error: The named reference ssdjplnasa was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    3. ^ Cite error: The named reference barycenter was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
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    15 November 1920 – The first assembly of the League of Nations is held in Geneva, Switzerland.

    League of Nations

    Not to be confused with Commonwealth of Nations or Nations League.
    This article is about the intergovernmental organisation. For the group in professional wrestling, see League of Nations (professional wrestling).

    The League of Nations (LN or LoN; French: Société des Nations [sɔsjete de nɑsjɔ̃], SdN) was the first worldwide intergovernmental organisation whose principal mission was to maintain world peace.[2] It was founded on 10 January 1920 by the Paris Peace Conference that ended the First World War. The main organisation ceased operations on 18 April 1946 when many of its components were relocated into the new United Nations (UN) which was created in the aftermath of the Second World War.

    The League's primary goals were stated in its eponymous Covenant. They included preventing wars through collective security and disarmament and settling international disputes through negotiation and arbitration.[3] Its other concerns included labour conditions, just treatment of native inhabitants, human and drug trafficking, the arms trade, global health, prisoners of war, and protection of minorities in Europe.[4] The Covenant of the League of Nations was signed on 28 June 1919 as Part I of the Treaty of Versailles, and it became effective with the rest of the Treaty on 10 January 1920. Australia was granted the right to participate as an autonomous member nation, marking the start of Australian independence on the global stage.[5] The first meeting of the Council of the League took place on 16 January 1920, and the first meeting of the Assembly of the League took place on 15 November 1920. In 1919, U.S. president Woodrow Wilson won the Nobel Peace Prize for his role as the leading architect of the League. Despite this, he was ultimately unsuccessful in getting his country to join it.

    The diplomatic philosophy behind the League represented a fundamental shift from the preceding hundred years. The League lacked its own armed force and depended on the victorious Allied Powers of World War I (Britain, France, Italy and Japan were the initial permanent members of the Council) to enforce its resolutions, keep to its economic sanctions, or provide an army when needed. The Great Powers were often reluctant to do so. Sanctions could hurt League members, so they were reluctant to comply with them. During the Second Italo-Ethiopian War, when the League accused Italian soldiers of targeting International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement medical tents, Benito Mussolini responded that "the League is very well when sparrows shout, but no good at all when eagles fall out."[6]

    At its greatest extent from 28 September 1934 to 23 February 1935, it had 58 members. After some notable successes and some early failures in the 1920s, the League ultimately proved incapable of preventing aggression by the Axis powers in the 1930s. Its credibility was weakened because the United States never joined. Japan and Germany left in 1933, Italy left in 1937, and Spain left in 1939. The Soviet Union only joined in 1934 and was expelled in 1939 after invading Finland.[7][8][9][10] Furthermore, the League demonstrated an irresolute approach to sanction enforcement for fear it might only spark further conflict, further decreasing its credibility. One example of this hesitancy was the Abyssinia Crisis, in which Italy's sanctions were only limited from the outset (coal and oil were not restricted), and later altogether abandoned despite Italy being declared the aggressors in the conflict. The onset of the Second World War in 1939 showed that the League had failed its primary purpose: to prevent another world war. It was largely inactive until its abolition. The League lasted for 26 years; the United Nations effectively replaced it in 1945, inheriting several agencies and organisations founded by the League, with the League itself formally dissolving the following year.

    Current scholarly consensus views that, even though the League failed to achieve its main goal of world peace, it did manage to build new roads towards expanding the rule of law across the globe; strengthened the concept of collective security, gave a voice to smaller nations; fostered economic stabilisation and financial stability, especially in Central Europe in the 1920s; helped to raise awareness of problems such as epidemics, slavery, child labour, colonial tyranny, refugee crises and general working conditions through its numerous commissions and committees; and paved the way for new forms of statehood, as the mandate system put the colonial powers under international observation.[11] Professor David Kennedy portrays the League as a unique moment when international affairs were "institutionalised", as opposed to the pre–First World War methods of law and politics.[12]

    1. ^ "League of Nations". United Nations Secretary-General. 4 October 2010. UN Doc ID A/65/488. Archived from the original on 16 April 2024. Retrieved 27 July 2024.
    2. ^ Christian, Tomuschat (1995). The United Nations at Age Fifty: A Legal Perspective. Martinus Nijhoff Publishers. p. 77. ISBN 978-90-411-0145-7.
    3. ^ "The Covenant of the League of Nations". The Avalon Project. Archived from the original on 26 July 2011. Retrieved 30 August 2011.
    4. ^ See Article 23, "The Covenant of the League of Nations". The Avalon Project. Archived from the original on 26 July 2011. Retrieved 20 April 2009., Treaty of Versailles. Archived from the original on 19 January 2010. Retrieved 23 January 2010. and Minority Treaties.
    5. ^ Rees, Yves (2020). "The women of the League of Nations". La Trobe University. Retrieved 28 October 2023.
    6. ^ Jahanpour, Farhang. "The Elusiveness of Trust: the experience of Security Council and Iran" (PDF). Transnational Foundation of Peace and Future Research. p. 2. Archived (PDF) from the original on 27 July 2014. Retrieved 27 June 2008.
    7. ^ Osakwe, C O (1972). The participation of the Soviet Union in universal international organizations.: A political and legal analysis of Soviet strategies and aspirations inside ILO, UNESCO and WHO. Springer. p. 5. ISBN 978-90-286-0002-7.
    8. ^ Pericles, Lewis (2000). Modernism, Nationalism, and the Novel. Cambridge University Press. p. 52. ISBN 978-1-139-42658-9.
    9. ^ Ginneken, Anique H. M. van (2006). Historical Dictionary of the League of Nations. Scarecrow Press. p. 174. ISBN 978-0-8108-6513-6.
    10. ^ Ellis, Charles Howard (2003). The Origin, Structure & Working of the League of Nations. Lawbook Exchange Ltd. p. 169. ISBN 978-1-58477-320-7.
    11. ^ Cite error: The named reference Pedersen2007 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    12. ^ Kennedy 1987.
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    16 November 1855 – David Livingstone becomes the first European to see the Victoria Falls in what is now Zambia-Zimbabwe.

    David Livingstone

    For other people named David Livingstone, see David Livingstone (disambiguation).

    David Livingstone (/ˈlɪvɪŋstən/; 19 March 1813 – 1 May 1873) was a Scottish doctor, Congregationalist, pioneer Christian missionary[2] with the London Missionary Society, and an explorer in Africa. Livingstone was married to Mary Moffat Livingstone, from the prominent 18th-century Moffat missionary family.[3] Livingstone came to have a mythic status as a Protestant missionary martyr, working-class "rags-to-riches" inspirational story, scientific investigator and explorer, imperial reformer, anti-slavery crusader, and advocate of British commercial and colonial expansion. As a result, he became one of the most popular British heroes of the late 19th-century Victorian era.

    Livingstone's fame as an explorer and his obsession with learning the sources of the Nile was founded on the belief that if he could solve that age-old mystery, his fame would give him the influence to end the East African Arab–Swahili slave trade. "The Nile sources", he told a friend, "are valuable only as a means of opening my mouth with power among men. It is this power [with] which I hope to remedy an immense evil."[4] His subsequent exploration of the central African watershed was the culmination of the classic period of European geographical discovery and colonial penetration of Africa. At the same time, his missionary travels, "disappearance" and eventual death in Africa‍—‌and subsequent glorification as a posthumous national hero in 1874‍—‌led to the founding of several major central African Christian missionary initiatives carried forward in the era of the European "Scramble for Africa",[5] during which almost all of Africa fell under European rule for decades.

    1. ^ "David Livingstone (1813–1873)". BBC – History – Historic Figures. 2014. Retrieved 12 July 2018.
    2. ^ Easton, Mark (3 September 2017). "Why don't many British tourists visit Victoria Falls?". BBC News. Retrieved 12 July 2018.
    3. ^ Bayly, Paul (2013). David Livingstone, Africa's greatest explorer : the man, the missionary and the myth. Stroud. p. 50. ISBN 978-1-78155-333-6. OCLC 853507173.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
    4. ^ Jeal 2013, p. 289.
    5. ^ Mackenzie, John M. (1990). "David Livingstone: The Construction of the Myth". In Walker, Graham; Gallagher, Tom (eds.). Sermons and battle hymns: Protestant popular culture in modern Scotland. Edinburgh University Press. ISBN 978-0-7486-0217-9.
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    17 November 1603 – English explorer, writer and courtier Sir Walter Raleigh goes on trial for treason.

    Walter Raleigh

    For other people named Walter Raleigh, see Walter Raleigh (disambiguation).

    Sir Walter Raleigh[a] (/ˈrɔːli, ˈrɑːli, ˈræli/; c. 1553 – 29 October 1618) was an English statesman, soldier, writer and explorer. One of the most notable figures of the Elizabethan era, he played a leading part in English colonisation of North America, suppressed rebellion in Ireland, helped defend England against the Spanish Armada and held political positions under Elizabeth I.

    Raleigh was born to a landed gentry family of Protestant faith in Devon, the son of Walter Raleigh and Catherine Champernowne. He was the younger half-brother of Sir Humphrey Gilbert and a cousin of Sir Richard Grenville. Little is known of his early life, though in his late teens he spent some time in France taking part in the religious civil wars. In his 20s he took part in the suppression of rebellion in the colonisation of Ireland; he also participated in the siege of Smerwick. Later, he became a landlord of property in Ireland and mayor of Youghal in east Munster, where his house still stands in Myrtle Grove.[2] He rose rapidly in the favour of Queen Elizabeth I and was knighted in 1585. He was granted a royal patent to explore Virginia, paving the way for future English settlements. In 1591, he secretly married Elizabeth Throckmorton, one of the Queen's ladies-in-waiting, without the Queen's permission, for which he and his wife were sent to the Tower of London. After his release, they retired to his estate at Sherborne, Dorset.

    In 1594, Raleigh heard of a "City of Gold" in South America and sailed to find it, publishing an exaggerated account of his experiences in a book that contributed to the legend of "El Dorado". After Queen Elizabeth died in 1603, Raleigh was again imprisoned in the Tower, this time for being involved in the Main Plot against King James I, who was not favourably disposed towards him. In 1616, he was released to lead a second expedition in search of El Dorado. During the expedition, men led by his top commander sacked a Spanish outpost, in violation of both the terms of his pardon and the 1604 peace treaty with Spain. Raleigh returned to England and, to appease the Spanish, he was arrested and executed in 1618.

    1. ^ Wolfe 2018.
    2. ^ "The Church and Town of Sir Walter Raleigh". United Diocese of Cork, Cloyne and Ross. 21 May 2021. Archived from the original on 19 October 2021. Retrieved 15 June 2021.


    Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

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    18 November 1302 – Pope Boniface VIII issues the Papal bull Unam sanctam, claiming spiritual supremacy for the papacy.

    Unam sanctam

    Unam sanctam[a] is a papal bull that was issued by Pope Boniface VIII on 18 November 1302. It laid down dogmatic propositions on the unity of the Catholic Church, the necessity of belonging to it for eternal salvation, the position of the Pope as supreme head of the Church and the duty thence arising of submission to the Pope in order to belong to the Church and thus to attain salvation. The Pope further emphasized the higher position of the spiritual in comparison with the secular order. The historian Brian Tierney calls it "probably the most famous" document on church and state in medieval Europe.[1] The original document is lost, but a version of the text can be found in the registers of Boniface VIII in the Vatican Archives.[2] The bull was the definitive statement of the late medieval theory of hierocracy, which argued for the temporal as well as spiritual supremacy of the pope.[3]

    Boniface VIII, Bishop of Rome


    Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

    1. ^ Tierney, Brian (1988) [1964]. The crisis of church and state, 1050–1300: with selected documents. Medieval Academy reprints for teaching. Vol. 23 (Reprint ed.). Toronto [u.a.]: University of Toronto Press in association with the Medieval Academy of America. p. 182. ISBN 9780802067012.
    2. ^  One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Kirsch, Johann Peter (1912). "Unam Sanctam". In Herbermann, Charles (ed.). Catholic Encyclopedia. Vol. 15. New York: Robert Appleton Company.
    3. ^ Sisson, Keith (2016). "Popes over Princes: Hierocratic Theory". In Sisson, Keith; Larson, Atria A. (eds.). A Companion to the Medieval Papacy: Growth of an Ideology and Institution. Leiden: Brill. p. 131. ISBN 9789004299856.
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    19 November 1952 – Greek Field Marshal Alexander Papagos becomes the 152nd Prime Minister of Greece.

    Alexandros Papagos

    Alexandros Papagos (Greek: Αλέξανδρος Παπάγος; 9 December 1883[1] – 4 October 1955) was a Greek military officer who led the Hellenic Army in World War II and the later stages of the subsequent Greek Civil War.[2]

    The only Greek army career officer to rise to the rank of Field Marshal, Papagos became the first Chief of the Hellenic National Defence General Staff from 1950 until his resignation the following year. He then entered politics, founding the nationalist Greek Rally party and becoming the country's Prime Minister after his victory in the 1952 elections.

    His premiership was shaped by the Cold War and the aftermath of the Greek Civil War, and was defined by several key events, including Greece becoming a member of NATO; U.S. military bases being allowed on Greek territory and the formation of a powerful and vehemently anti-communist security apparatus. Papagos' tenure also saw the start of the Greek economic miracle, and rising tensions with Britain and Turkey during the Cyprus Emergency over the Cyprus issue.

    1. ^ Note: Greece officially adopted the Gregorian calendar on 16 February 1923 (which became 1 March). All dates prior to that, unless specifically denoted, are Old Style.
    2. ^ "Alexandros Papagos | Greek statesman". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 2019-01-13.
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    30 November 1936 – In London, the Crystal Palace is destroyed by fire

    The Crystal Palace

    For other uses, see Crystal Palace (disambiguation).

    The Crystal Palace was a cast iron and plate glass structure, originally built in Hyde Park, London, to house the Great Exhibition of 1851. The exhibition took place from 1 May to 15 October 1851, and more than 14,000 exhibitors from around the world gathered in its 990,000-square-foot (92,000 m2) exhibition space to display examples of technology developed in the Industrial Revolution. Designed by Joseph Paxton, the Great Exhibition building was 1,851 feet (564 m) long, with an interior height of 128 feet (39 m),[1] and was three times the size of St Paul's Cathedral.[2]

    The 293,000 panes of glass were manufactured by Chance Brothers.[3] The 990,000-square-foot building with its 128-foot-high ceiling was completed in thirty-nine weeks. The Crystal Palace boasted the greatest area of glass ever seen in a building. It astonished visitors with its clear walls and ceilings that did not require interior lights.

    It has been suggested that the name of the building resulted from a piece penned by the playwright Douglas Jerrold, who in July 1850 wrote in the satirical magazine Punch about the forthcoming Great Exhibition, referring to a "palace of very crystal".[4]

    After the exhibition, the Palace was relocated to an open area of South London known as Penge Place which had been excised from Penge Common. It was rebuilt at the top of Penge Peak next to Sydenham Hill, an affluent suburb of large villas. It stood there from June 1854 until its destruction by fire in November 1936. The nearby residential area was renamed Crystal Palace after the landmark. This included the Crystal Palace Park that surrounds the site, home of the Crystal Palace National Sports Centre, which was previously a football stadium that hosted the FA Cup Final between 1895 and 1914. Crystal Palace F.C. were founded at the site and played at the Cup Final venue in their early years. The park still contains Benjamin Waterhouse Hawkins's Crystal Palace Dinosaurs which date back to 1854.

    1. ^ "The Crystal Palace of Hyde Park". Archived from the original on 12 March 2012. Retrieved 4 April 2008.
    2. ^ James Harrison, ed. (1996). "Imperial Britain". Children's Encyclopedia of British History. London: Kingfisher Publications. p. 131. ISBN 0-7534-0299-8.
    3. ^ Chance, Tom. "The Crystal Palace's glass" (PDF). Retrieved 31 March 2023.
    4. ^ The Punch issue of 13 July 1850 carried a contribution by Douglas Jerrold, writing as Mrs Amelia Mouser, which referred to a palace of very crystal. Michael Slater (2002). Douglas Jerrold. London: Duckworth. p. 243. ISBN 0-7156-2824-0. In fact the term "Crystal Palace" itself is used seven times in the same issue of Punch (pages iii. iv, 154, 183 (twice), 214 (twice) and 224. It seems clear, however, that the term was already in use and did not need much explanation. Other sources refer to the 2 November 1850 Punch issue bestowing the "Crystal Palace" name on the design by Terry Strieter (1999). Nineteenth-Century European Art: A Topical Dictionary. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. p. 50. ISBN 0-313-29898-X. (And "Crystal Palace". BBC. Retrieved 21 November 2007. The term 'Crystal Palace' was first applied to Paxton's building by Punch in its issue of 2 November 1850.) Punch had originally sided with The Times against the exhibition committee's proposal of a fixed brick structure, but featured the Crystal Palace heavily throughout 1851 (for example in "Punch Issue 502". Archived from the original on 20 April 2006. included the article "Travels into the Interior of the Crystal Palace" of February 1851). Any earlier name has been lost, according to "Everything2 Crystal Palace Exhibition Building Design #251". 2003.. The use by Mrs Mouser was picked up by a reference in The Leader, no. 17, 20 July 1850 (p. 1): "In more than one country we notice active preparations for sending inanimate representatives of trade and industry to take up their abode in the crystal palace which Mr. Paxton is to build for the Exposition of 1851." Source: British Periodicals database Archived 8 September 2008 at the Wayback Machine or Nineteenth Century Serials Edition Archived 17 April 2009 at the Wayback Machine
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    21 November 1905 – Albert Einstein's paper that leads to the mass–energy equivalence formula, E = mc², is published in the journal Annalen der Physik.

    Mass–energy equivalence

    "E=MC²" and "E=mc²" redirect here. For other uses, see E=MC² (disambiguation).
    Mass near the M87* black hole is converted into a very energetic astrophysical jet, stretching five thousand light-years.

    In physics, mass–energy equivalence is the relationship between mass and energy in a system's rest frame. The two differ only by a multiplicative constant and the units of measurement.[1][2] The principle is described by the physicist Albert Einstein's formula: .[3] In a reference frame where the system is moving, its relativistic energy and relativistic mass (instead of rest mass) obey the same formula.

    The formula defines the energy (E) of a particle in its rest frame as the product of mass (m) with the speed of light squared (c2). Because the speed of light is a large number in everyday units (approximately 300000 km/s or 186000 mi/s), the formula implies that a small amount of mass corresponds to an enormous amount of energy.

    Rest mass, also called invariant mass, is a fundamental physical property of matter, independent of velocity. Massless particles such as photons have zero invariant mass, but massless free particles have both momentum and energy.

    The equivalence principle implies that when mass is lost in chemical reactions or nuclear reactions, a corresponding amount of energy will be released. The energy can be released to the environment (outside of the system being considered) as radiant energy, such as light, or as thermal energy. The principle is fundamental to many fields of physics, including nuclear and particle physics.

    Mass–energy equivalence arose from special relativity as a paradox described by the French polymath Henri Poincaré (1854–1912).[4] Einstein was the first to propose the equivalence of mass and energy as a general principle and a consequence of the symmetries of space and time. The principle first appeared in "Does the inertia of a body depend upon its energy-content?", one of his annus mirabilis papers, published on 21 November 1905.[5][6] The formula and its relationship to momentum, as described by the energy–momentum relation, were later developed by other physicists.

    1. ^ Serway, Raymond A.; Jewett, John W.; Peroomian, Vahé (5 March 2013). Physics for scientists and engineers with modern physics (9th ed.). Boston, MA: Brooks/Cole. pp. 1217–1218. ISBN 978-1-133-95405-7. OCLC 802321453.
    2. ^ Günther, Helmut; Müller, Volker (2019), "Einstein 's Energy–Mass Equivalence", in Günther, Helmut; Müller, Volker (eds.), The Special Theory of Relativity: Einstein's World in New Axiomatics, Singapore: Springer, pp. 97–105, doi:10.1007/978-981-13-7783-9_7, ISBN 978-981-13-7783-9, S2CID 209978258, archived from the original on 2021-02-21, retrieved 2020-10-14
    3. ^ Bodanis, David (2009). E=mc2: A Biography of the World's Most Famous Equation (illustrated ed.). Bloomsbury Publishing. preface. ISBN 978-0-8027-1821-1.
    4. ^ Poincaré, H. (1900). "La théorie de Lorentz et le principe de réaction"  [The Theory of Lorentz and The Principle of Reaction]. Archives Néerlandaises des Sciences Exactes et Naturelles (in French). 5: 252–278.
    5. ^ Einstein, A. (1905). "Ist die Trägheit eines Körpers von seinem Energieinhalt abhängig?" [Does the Inertia of a Body Depend Upon its Energy-Content?]. Annalen der Physik (in German). 323 (13): 639–641. Bibcode:1905AnP...323..639E. doi:10.1002/andp.19053231314. ISSN 1521-3889.
    6. ^ Schatel, John. "The 1905 Papers". The 1905 Papers. 2: 172.
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    22 November 1975 – Juan Carlos is declared King of Spain following the death of Francisco Franco two days earlier.[

    Juan Carlos I

    "Juan Carlos" redirects here. For other uses, see Juan Carlos (disambiguation).
    In this Spanish name, the first or paternal surname is Borbón and the second or maternal family name is Borbón-Dos Sicilias.

    Juan Carlos I (Spanish: [xwaŋˈkaɾlos];[note 1] born Juan Carlos Alfonso Víctor María de Borbón y Borbón-Dos Sicilias, 5 January 1938) is a member of the Spanish royal family who reigned as King of Spain from 22 November 1975 until his abdication on 19 June 2014. In Spain, since his abdication, Juan Carlos has usually been referred to as the rey emérito ('king emeritus') by the press.[1][2]

    Juan Carlos is the son of Infante Juan, Count of Barcelona, and grandson of Alfonso XIII, the last king of Spain before the abolition of the monarchy in 1931 and the subsequent declaration of the Second Spanish Republic. Juan Carlos was born in Rome, Italy, during his family's exile. General Francisco Franco took over the government of Spain after his victory in the Spanish Civil War in 1939, yet in 1947 Spain's status as a monarchy was affirmed and a law was passed allowing Franco to choose his successor. Juan Carlos's father assumed his claims to the throne after King Alfonso XIII died in February 1941. However, Franco saw Juan Carlos's father to be too liberal and in 1969 declared Juan Carlos his successor as head of state.[3]

    Juan Carlos spent his early years in Italy and came to Spain in 1947 to continue his studies. After completing his secondary education in 1955, he began his military training and entered the General Military Academy at Zaragoza. Later, he attended the Naval Military Academy and the General Academy of the Air, and finished his tertiary education at the University of Madrid. In 1962, Juan Carlos married Princess Sophia of Greece and Denmark in Athens. The couple have three children: Elena, Cristina, and Felipe. Due to Franco's advanced age and declining health amid his struggle with Parkinson's disease, Juan Carlos first began periodically acting as Spain's head of state in the summer of 1974. In November the following year, Franco died and Juan Carlos became king.

    Juan Carlos was expected to continue Franco's legacy, but instead introduced reforms to dismantle the Francoist regime and to begin the Spanish transition to democracy soon after his accession. This led to the approval of the Spanish Constitution of 1978 in a referendum which re-established a constitutional monarchy. In 1981, Juan Carlos played a major role in preventing a coup that attempted to revert to Francoist government in the King's name. In 2008, he was considered the most popular leader across all Ibero-America.[4] Hailed for his role in Spain's transition to democracy, the King and the monarchy's reputation began to suffer after controversies surrounding his family arose, exacerbated by the public controversy centering on an elephant-hunting trip he undertook during a time of financial crisis in Spain.

    In June 2014, Juan Carlos abdicated in favour of his son, who acceded to the throne as Felipe VI. Since August 2020, Juan Carlos has lived in self-imposed exile from Spain over allegedly improper ties to business deals in Saudi Arabia.[5][6] The New York Times estimated in 2014 that Juan Carlos's fortune was around €1.8 billion ($2.3 billion).[7]


    Cite error: There are <ref group=note> tags on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=note}} template (see the help page).

    1. ^ País, Miguel González, El (5 August 2020). "How the departure of Spain's former king was planned". EL PAÍS English. Retrieved 26 January 2024.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
    2. ^ Anderson, Jon Lee (25 August 2020). "Juan Carlos's Fall from Grace in Spain and the Precarious Future of the World's Monarchies". The New Yorker. ISSN 0028-792X. Retrieved 25 August 2024.
    3. ^ "Those Apprentice Kings and Queens Who May – One Day – Ascend a Throne", The New York Times. 14 November 1971.
    4. ^ "Uribe es el líder iberoamericano mejor valorado por los ciudadanos de su país" [Uribe is the Ibero-American leader best valued by the citizens of his country]. El Mundo (in Spanish). Spain. Retrieved 2 June 2014.
    5. ^ "Spain's former king to go into self-imposed exile amid corruption allegations". Los Angeles Times. Associated Press. 4 August 2020. Retrieved 4 August 2020.
    6. ^ Minder, Raphael (3 August 2020). "Juan Carlos, Spain's Former King, Quits Country Amid Multiple Investigations". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 4 August 2020.
    7. ^ Rodriguez, Alexis (24 March 2020). "Felipe VI's move to disown his father and his attempt to try to save the Spanish Crown". El Ciudadano.
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    23 November 1808 – French and Poles defeat the Spanish at Battle of Tudela.

    Battle of Tudela

    Peninsular War: Spain
    Map
    About OpenStreetMaps
    Maps: terms of use
    220km
    137miles
    12
    Toulouse
    12 Battle of Toulouse (1814) on 10 April 1814
    12 Battle of Toulouse (1814) on 10 April 1814
    11
    Vitoria
    11 Battle of Vitoria on 21 June 1813
    11 Battle of Vitoria on 21 June 1813
    10
    Tordesillas
    10 Battle of Tordesillas (1812) from 25 to 29 October 1812
    10 Battle of Tordesillas (1812) from 25 to 29 October 1812
    9
    Burgos
    9 Siege of Burgos from 19 September to 21 October 1812
    9 Siege of Burgos from 19 September to 21 October 1812
    8
    Salamanca
    8 Battle of Salamanca on 22 July 1812
    8 Battle of Salamanca on 22 July 1812
    7
    Ciudad
    7 Siege of Ciudad Rodrigo (1812) from 7 to 20 January 1812
    7 Siege of Ciudad Rodrigo (1812) from 7 to 20 January 1812
    6
    Talavera
    6 Battle of Talavera on 27–28 July 1809
    6 Battle of Talavera on 27–28 July 1809
    5
    Corunna
    5 Battle of Corunna on 16 January 1809
    5 Battle of Corunna on 16 January 1809
    4
    Tudela
    3
    Bailén
    3 Battle of Bailén from 16 to 19 July 1808
    3 Battle of Bailén from 16 to 19 July 1808
    2
    Valencia
    2 Battle of Valencia from 26 to 28 June 1808
    2 Battle of Valencia from 26 to 28 June 1808
    1
    Madrid
    1 Madrid Uprising on 2 May 1808
    1 Madrid Uprising on 2 May 1808
      current battle
      Wellington in command
      Wellington not in command

    The Battle of Tudela (23 November 1808) saw an Imperial French army led by Marshal Jean Lannes attack a Spanish army under General Castaños. The battle resulted in the complete victory of the Imperial forces over their adversaries. The combat occurred near Tudela in Navarre, Spain during the Peninsular War, part of a wider conflict known as the Napoleonic Wars.[2]

    1. ^ a b c d Bodart 1908, p. 391.
    2. ^ Esdaile 2003, p. 135.
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    24 November 1429 – Hundred Years' War: Joan of Arc unsuccessfully besieges La Charité.

    Joan of Arc

    Several terms redirect here. For other uses, see Jeanne d'Arc (disambiguation), Joan of Arc (disambiguation), and Jehanne (disambiguation).

    Joan of Arc (French: Jeanne d'Arc [ʒan daʁk] ⓘ; Middle French: Jehanne Darc [ʒəˈãnə ˈdark]; c. 1412 – 30 May 1431) is a patron saint of France, honored as a defender of the French nation for her role in the siege of Orléans and her insistence on the coronation of Charles VII of France during the Hundred Years' War. Claiming to be acting under divine guidance, she became a military leader who gained recognition as a savior of France.

    Joan was born to a propertied peasant family at Domrémy in northeast France. In 1428, she requested to be taken to Charles VII, later testifying that she was guided by visions from the archangel Michael, Saint Margaret, and Saint Catherine to help him save France from English domination. Convinced of her devotion and purity, Charles sent Joan, who was about seventeen years old, to Orléans as part of a relief army. She arrived at the city in April 1429, wielding her banner and bringing hope to the demoralized French army. Nine days after her arrival, the English abandoned the siege. Joan encouraged the French to aggressively pursue the English during the Loire Campaign, which culminated in another decisive victory at Patay, opening the way for the French army to advance on Reims unopposed, where Charles was crowned as the king of France with Joan at his side. These victories boosted French morale, paving the way for their final triumph in the Hundred Years' War several decades later.

    After Charles's coronation, Joan participated in the unsuccessful siege of Paris in September 1429 and the failed siege of La Charité in November. Her role in these defeats reduced the court's faith in her. In early 1430, Joan organized a company of volunteers to relieve Compiègne, which had been besieged by the Burgundians—French allies of the English. She was captured by Burgundian troops on 23 May. After trying unsuccessfully to escape, she was handed to the English in November. She was put on trial by Bishop Pierre Cauchon on accusations of heresy, which included blaspheming by wearing men's clothes, acting upon visions that were demonic, and refusing to submit her words and deeds to the judgment of the church. She was declared guilty and burned at the stake on 30 May 1431, aged about nineteen.

    In 1456, an inquisitorial court reinvestigated Joan's trial and overturned the verdict, declaring that it was tainted by deceit and procedural errors. Joan has been described as an obedient member of the Catholic Church, an early feminist, and a symbol of freedom and independence. She is popularly revered as a martyr. After the French Revolution, she became a national symbol of France. In 1920, Joan of Arc was canonized by Pope Benedict XV and, two years later, was declared one of the patron saints of France. She is portrayed in numerous cultural works, including literature, music, paintings, sculptures, and theater.

    1. ^ Contamine 2007, p. 199: Cette miniature du XVe siècle, très soignée (l'étendard correspond exactement à la description que Jeanne d'Arc elle-même en donnera lors de son procès) ... Mais c'est précisément cette exactitude, et cette coïncidence, trop belle pour être vraie, qui éveillent—ou plutôt auraient dû éveiller—les soupçons ... [This miniature from the 15th century, very neat (the banner corresponds exactly to the description that Joan of Arc herself will give during her trial) ... But it is precisely this exactitude, and this coincidence, too good to be true, which arouses—or rather should have aroused—suspicion ...]; JD:LPP 2025, p. 17; Meunier 2025, p. 92.
    2. ^ Girault 2021.
    3. ^ The Calendar 2021.


    Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

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    25 November 1874 – The United States Greenback Party is established as a political party consisting primarily of farmers affected by the Panic of 1873

    Greenback Party

    The Greenback Party (known successively as the Independent Party and the Greenback Labor Party) was an American political party with an anti-monopoly ideology which was active from 1874 to 1889. The party ran candidates in three presidential elections, in 1876, 1880 and 1884, before it faded away.

    The party's name referred to the non-gold backed paper money, commonly known as "greenbacks", that had been issued by the North during the American Civil War and shortly afterward. The party opposed the deflationary lowering of prices paid to producers that was entailed by a return to a bullion-based monetary system, the policy favored by the Republican and Democratic parties. Continued use of unbacked currency, it was believed, would better foster business and assist farmers by raising prices and making debts easier to pay.

    Initially an agrarian organization associated with the policies of the Grange, the organization took the name Greenback Labor Party in 1878 and attempted to forge a farmer–labor alliance by adding industrial reforms to its agenda, such as support of the 8-hour day and opposition to the use of state or private force to suppress union strikes. The organization faded into obscurity in the second half of the 1880s, with its basic program reborn shortly under the aegis of the People's Party, commonly known as the "Populists". Later, during the early 20th century, parts of the agenda from both parties were accomplished by the Progressives.

    1. ^ Maisano, Chris (2020-06-12). "Labor Party in the USA". Jacobin.com. Jacobin. Retrieved 2025-04-28.
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    26 November 1944 – World War II: Germany begins V-1 and V-2 attacks on Antwerp, Belgium.

    V-1 flying bomb

    "Buzzbomb" redirects here. For the song by the Dead Kennedys, see Buzzbomb (song). For other uses, see V1 (disambiguation).

    The V-1 flying bomb (German: Vergeltungswaffe 1, lit. 'Vengeance Weapon 1'[a]) was an early cruise missile. Its official Reich Aviation Ministry (RLM) name was Fieseler Fi 103 and its suggestive name was Höllenhund (hellhound).[3] It was also known to the Allies as the buzz bomb or doodlebug and Maikäfer (maybug).[4][b]

    The V-1 was the first of the Vergeltungswaffen (V-weapons) deployed for the terror bombing of London. It was developed at Peenemünde Army Research Center in 1942 by the Luftwaffe, and during initial development was known by the codename "Cherry Stone". Due to its limited range, the thousands of V-1 missiles launched into England were fired from launch sites along the French (Pas-de-Calais) and Dutch coasts or by modified Heinkel He 111 aircraft.

    The Wehrmacht first launched the V-1s against London on 13 June 1944, one week after (and prompted by) Operation Overlord, the Allied landings in France.[6] At times more than one hundred V-1s a day were fired at south-east England, 9,521 in total, decreasing in number as sites were overrun until October 1944, when the last V-1 site in range of Britain was overrun by Allied forces. After this, the Germans directed V-1s at the port of Antwerp and at other targets in Belgium, launching another 2,448 V-1s. The attacks stopped only a month before the war in Europe ended, when the last launch site in the Low Countries was overrun on 29 March 1945.

    As part of Operation Crossbow, operations against the V-1, the British air defences consisted of anti-aircraft guns, barrage balloons and fighter aircraft, to intercept the bombs before they reached their targets, while the launch sites and underground storage depots became targets for Allied attacks including strategic bombing.[7]

    In 1944 a number of tests of this weapon were apparently conducted in Tornio, Finland. On one occasion, several Finnish soldiers saw a German plane launch what they described as a bomb shaped like a small, winged aircraft. The flight and impact of another prototype was seen by Finnish frontline soldiers; they noted that its engine stopped suddenly, causing the V-1 to descend sharply, and explode on impact, leaving a crater 20–30 metres (66–98 ft) wide. These V-1s became known to Finnish soldiers as "flying torpedoes".[8]

    1. ^ Zaloga 2005, p. 11.
    2. ^ Werrell 1985, p. 53.
    3. ^ Christopher 2013, p. 108.
    4. ^ a b Vanek 1999, p. 81.
    5. ^ Lloyd & Hall 1997, p. 222.
    6. ^ Frederick French. "War and peace and the price of cat-fish". Uncle Fred's diaries. Archived from the original on 7 July 2017. Retrieved 16 June 2014.
    7. ^ American Sub Rescues Airmen. Universal Newsreel. 1944. Retrieved 21 February 2012.
    8. ^ Tornio 1944 by Osmo Hyvönen page 262, Ilmasotaa Torniossa


    Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

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    26 November 1944 – World War II: Germany begins V-1 and V-2 attacks on Antwerp, Belgium.

    V-1 flying bomb

    "Buzzbomb" redirects here. For the song by the Dead Kennedys, see Buzzbomb (song). For other uses, see V1 (disambiguation).

    The V-1 flying bomb (German: Vergeltungswaffe 1, lit. 'Vengeance Weapon 1'[a]) was an early cruise missile. Its official Reich Aviation Ministry (RLM) name was Fieseler Fi 103 and its suggestive name was Höllenhund (hellhound).[3] It was also known to the Allies as the buzz bomb or doodlebug and Maikäfer (maybug).[4][b]

    The V-1 was the first of the Vergeltungswaffen (V-weapons) deployed for the terror bombing of London. It was developed at Peenemünde Army Research Center in 1942 by the Luftwaffe, and during initial development was known by the codename "Cherry Stone". Due to its limited range, the thousands of V-1 missiles launched into England were fired from launch sites along the French (Pas-de-Calais) and Dutch coasts or by modified Heinkel He 111 aircraft.

    The Wehrmacht first launched the V-1s against London on 13 June 1944, one week after (and prompted by) Operation Overlord, the Allied landings in France.[6] At times more than one hundred V-1s a day were fired at south-east England, 9,521 in total, decreasing in number as sites were overrun until October 1944, when the last V-1 site in range of Britain was overrun by Allied forces. After this, the Germans directed V-1s at the port of Antwerp and at other targets in Belgium, launching another 2,448 V-1s. The attacks stopped only a month before the war in Europe ended, when the last launch site in the Low Countries was overrun on 29 March 1945.

    As part of Operation Crossbow, operations against the V-1, the British air defences consisted of anti-aircraft guns, barrage balloons and fighter aircraft, to intercept the bombs before they reached their targets, while the launch sites and underground storage depots became targets for Allied attacks including strategic bombing.[7]

    In 1944 a number of tests of this weapon were apparently conducted in Tornio, Finland. On one occasion, several Finnish soldiers saw a German plane launch what they described as a bomb shaped like a small, winged aircraft. The flight and impact of another prototype was seen by Finnish frontline soldiers; they noted that its engine stopped suddenly, causing the V-1 to descend sharply, and explode on impact, leaving a crater 20–30 metres (66–98 ft) wide. These V-1s became known to Finnish soldiers as "flying torpedoes".[8]

    1. ^ Zaloga 2005, p. 11.
    2. ^ Werrell 1985, p. 53.
    3. ^ Christopher 2013, p. 108.
    4. ^ a b Vanek 1999, p. 81.
    5. ^ Lloyd & Hall 1997, p. 222.
    6. ^ Frederick French. "War and peace and the price of cat-fish". Uncle Fred's diaries. Archived from the original on 7 July 2017. Retrieved 16 June 2014.
    7. ^ American Sub Rescues Airmen. Universal Newsreel. 1944. Retrieved 21 February 2012.
    8. ^ Tornio 1944 by Osmo Hyvönen page 262, Ilmasotaa Torniossa


    Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

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    27 November 1727 – The foundation stone to the Jerusalem Church in Berlin is laid.

    Jerusalem Church (Berlin)

    Jerusalem Church (German: Jerusalem(s)kirche, Jerusalemer Kirche) is one of the churches of the Evangelical Congregation in the Friedrichstadt (under this name since 2001), a member of the Protestant umbrella organisation Evangelical Church of Berlin-Brandenburg-Silesian Upper Lusatia. The present church building is located in Berlin, borough Friedrichshain-Kreuzberg, in the quarter of Friedrichstadt. Jerusalem Church is fourth in rank of the oldest oratories in the town proper (except of suburbs incorporated in 1920, which are partly older).

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    28 November 1893 – Women's suffrage in New Zealand concludes with the 1893 New Zealand general election.

    Women's suffrage in New Zealand

    Bas-relief of suffragists on the Kate Sheppard National Memorial, Christchurch. The figures shown from left to right are Meri Te Tai Mangakāhia, Amey Daldy, Kate Sheppard, Ada Wells, Harriet Morison, and Helen Nicol.

    Women's suffrage was an important political issue in the late-nineteenth-century New Zealand. In early colonial New Zealand, as in other European societies, women were excluded from any involvement in politics. Public opinion began to change in the latter half of the nineteenth century and after years of effort by women's suffrage campaigners, led by Kate Sheppard, New Zealand became the first nation in the world in which all women had the right to vote in parliamentary elections.[1]

    The Electoral Bill granting women the franchise was given Royal Assent by Governor Lord Glasgow on 19 September 1893.[2] Women voted for the first time in the election held on 28 November 1893 (elections for the Māori electorates were held on 20 December). Also in 1893, Elizabeth Yates became Mayor of Onehunga, the first time such a post had been held by a woman anywhere in the British Empire.[3]

    In the 21st century, there are more eligible female voters than male, and women also vote at a higher rate than men.[4] However, a higher percentage of female than male non-voters perceive a barrier that prevents them from voting.[5]

    1. ^ Cite error: The named reference NZH1 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    2. ^ Brookes, Barbara (2023). Introducing the Women's Suffrage Pettition. Wellington: Bridget Williams Books Ltd. p. 11. ISBN 9781991033291.
    3. ^ Cite error: The named reference DNZB Yates was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    4. ^ "Voting-age women outnumber men". archive.stats.govt.nz. Archived from the original on 18 January 2020. Retrieved 16 December 2018.
    5. ^ "Voting and political participation | Stats NZ". www.stats.govt.nz. Retrieved 16 December 2018.
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    29 November 1961 – Enos, a chimpanzee, is launched into space.

    Enos (chimpanzee)

    Enos being prepared for insertion into the Mercury-Atlas 5 capsule in 1961.
    Enos’ space capsule during the Mercury-Atlas 5 mission, on display at the Museum of Life and Science, in Durham, North Carolina

    Enos (c. 1957 – November 4, 1962) was a chimpanzee launched into space by NASA, following his predecessor Ham. He was the only chimpanzee to orbit the Earth,[1] and the third hominid to do so after cosmonauts Yuri Gagarin and Gherman Titov. Enos's flight occurred on November 29, 1961.[2]

    Enos was brought from the Miami Rare Bird Farm on April 3, 1960. He completed more than 1,250 training hours at the University of Kentucky and Holloman Air Force Base. Training was more intense for him than for Ham, who had become the first great ape in space in January 1961, because Enos was exposed to weightlessness and higher gs for longer periods of time. His training included psychomotor instruction and aircraft flights.[citation needed]

    Enos was selected for his Project Mercury flight only three days before launch. Two months prior, NASA launched Mercury-Atlas 4 on September 13, 1961, to conduct an identical mission with a "crewman simulator" on board. Enos flew into space aboard Mercury-Atlas 5 on November 29, 1961. He completed his first orbit in 1 hour and 28.5 minutes.[3]

    Enos was scheduled to complete three orbits, but the mission was aborted after two, due to two issues: capsule overheating and a malfunctioning "avoidance conditioning" test subjecting the primate to 76 electrical shocks. According to one history of primatology, "The chimpanzee, about five years old, behaved like a true hero: despite the malfunctions of the electronic system, he conscientiously performed all the tasks he had learned during the entire flight of over three hours...Enos demonstrated that he was careful to successfully complete his mission and that he perfectly understood what was expected of him."[4]

    After his space capsule made an ocean landing, Enos "had become angry and frustrated at the three-hour wait" before being retrieved by U.S. Navy seamen.[5][6]

    The capsule was brought aboard USS Stormes in the late afternoon[7] and Enos was immediately taken below deck by his Air Force handlers. Stormes then dropped Enos at the Kindley Air Force Base hospital in Bermuda, where he was found to be in good shape. On December 1, 1961 Enos left Bermuda for Cape Canaveral, and eventually Holloman Air Force Base.[8]

    Enos's flight was a full dress rehearsal for the next Mercury launch on February 20, 1962, which would make John Glenn the first American to orbit Earth.

    Enos was nicknamed "the Penis," allegedly due to his frequent fondling of himself,[9] though this is disputed by author Mary Roach in her book Packing for Mars, instead suggesting that Enos earned this nickname by being difficult to work with.

    On November 4, 1962, Enos died of shigellosis-related dysentery, which was resistant to then-known antibiotics. He was constantly observed for two months before his death. Pathologists reported no symptoms that could be attributed or related to his previous space flight.

    1. ^ "Chimpanzee Who Orbited In '61 Dies of Dysentery". The New York Times. November 6, 1962. Retrieved August 28, 2024.
    2. ^ "Operational Trouble Shortens Chimp's Ride". The Daily Advertiser. Lafayette, Louisiana. Associated Press. November 29, 1961. p. 1 – via Newspapers.com.
    3. ^ Animals In Space: From Research Rockets to the Space Shuttle, Chris Dubbs and Colin Burgess, 2007
    4. ^ Herzfeld, Chris (2017). The great apes : a short history. Kevin Frey, Jane Goodall. New Haven: Yale University Press. pp. 161–163. ISBN 978-0-300-22137-4. OCLC 982651819.
    5. ^ Neufeld, Michael (November 29, 2021) [Nov 29, 2021]. "Enos: The Forgotten Chimp". airandspace.si.edu. Retrieved November 17, 2024.
    6. ^ White, J. Terry (November 27, 2012). "Enos the Astro-Chimp". White Eagle Aerospace. Retrieved November 18, 2024.
    7. ^ "NSSDCA/COSPAR ID: 1961-033A".
    8. ^ "Astrochimp's 1961 Bermuda Splashdown". Bernews. November 29, 2011. Retrieved November 18, 2024.
    9. ^ Donovan, James (2019). "Chapter Five: In Orbit". Shoot for the Moon: The Space Race and the Extraordinary Voyage of Apollo 11. Little, Brown and Company. ISBN 978-0-316-34182-0.
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    30 November 1966 – Decolonization: Barbados becomes independent from the United Kingdom.

    Barbados

    This article is about the easternmost country in the Caribbean and is not to be confused with Barbuda. For other uses, see Barbados (disambiguation).

    Barbados[a] is an island country in the Caribbean located in the Atlantic Ocean. It is part of the Lesser Antilles of the West Indies and the easternmost island of the Caribbean region. It lies on the boundary of the South American and Caribbean plates. Its capital and largest city is Bridgetown.

    Inhabited by Kalinago people since the 13th century, and prior to that by other Indigenous peoples, the island was originally named Ichirouganaim.[8] It was claimed for the Crown of Castile by Spanish navigators in the late 15th century, who named it "Barbudos", and it first appeared on a Spanish map in 1511.[9] The Portuguese Empire claimed the island between 1532 and 1536, but abandoned it in 1620 with their only remnants being the introduction of wild boars intended as a supply of meat whenever the island was visited. The indigenous population was mostly sold into slavery, killed or died of disease by this time.[10]

    An English ship, the Olive Blossom, arrived in Barbados on 14 May 1625; its men took possession of the island in the name of King James I. In 1627, the first permanent settlers arrived from England, and Barbados became an English and later British colony.[11] During this period, the colony operated on a plantation economy, relying initially on the labour of Irish indentured servants[12] and subsequently African slaves who worked on the island's plantations. Slavery continued until it was phased out through most of the British Empire by the Slavery Abolition Act 1833.

    On 30 November 1966, Barbados moved toward political independence and assumed the status of a Commonwealth realm, becoming a sovereign state with Elizabeth II as Queen of Barbados. On 30 November 2021, Barbados transitioned to a republic within the Commonwealth, replacing its monarchy with a ceremonial president.[13][14]

    Barbados's population is predominantly of African ancestry. While it is technically an Atlantic island, Barbados is closely associated with the Caribbean and is ranked as one of its leading tourist destinations.[15]

    1. ^ a b Cite error: The named reference cia was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    2. ^ "Our World in Data". Archived from the original on 12 January 2024. Retrieved 11 January 2024.
    3. ^ 2021 Population and Housing Census Report – August 1, 2021 (PDF) (Report). Barbados Statistical Service. June 2023. p. 21.
    4. ^ a b c d "World Economic Outlook Database, October 2023 Edition. (Barbados)". IMF.org. International Monetary Fund. 10 October 2023. Archived from the original on 5 November 2023. Retrieved 20 October 2023.
    5. ^ "Gini index - Barbados". World Bank Open Data. Retrieved 25 November 2025.
    6. ^ "Human Development Report 2023/2024". United Nations Development Programme. 26 May 2025. Retrieved 25 May 2025.
    7. ^ "Barbados". 29 August 2006. Archived from the original on 15 October 2007. (fco.gov.uk), updated 5 June 2006.
    8. ^ "Why tiny Barbados said goodbye to the royal family". ABC News. 29 November 2025. Retrieved 30 November 2025.
    9. ^ Sauer, Carl Ortwin (1969) [1966]. Early Spanish Main, The. University of California Press. pp. 192–197. ISBN 0-520-01415-4.
    10. ^ "Why tiny Barbados said goodbye to the royal family". ABC News. 29 November 2025. Retrieved 30 November 2025.
    11. ^ Secretariat. "Barbados – History". Commonwealth of Nations. Archived from the original on 20 August 2014.
    12. ^ "The story of Irish indentured servants sent from here to the Caribbean". 4 July 2019.
    13. ^ Said-Moorhouse, Lauren; Foster, Max (30 November 2021). "Barbadians celebrate the birth of a republic and bid farewell to the Queen". CNN. Archived from the original on 30 November 2021. Retrieved 29 January 2022.
    14. ^ Safi, Michael (30 November 2021). "Barbados parts way with Queen and becomes world's newest republic". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 30 November 2021. Retrieved 30 November 2021.
    15. ^ Belle, Nicole; Bramwell, Bill (1 August 2005). "Climate Change and Small Island Tourism: Policy Maker and Industry Perspectives in Barbados". Journal of Travel Research. 44: 34–38. doi:10.1177/0047287505276589. ISSN 0047-2875. S2CID 154912745.


    Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

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    1 December 1918 – Iceland becomes a sovereign state, yet remains a part of the Danish kingdom.

    Danish–Icelandic Act of Union

    The Danish–Icelandic Act of Union, an agreement signed by Iceland and Denmark on 1 December 1918, recognized Iceland as a fully independent and sovereign state, known as the Kingdom of Iceland, which was freely associated to Denmark in a personal union with the Danish king. Iceland established its own flag, declared its neutrality and asked Denmark to represent on its behalf foreign affairs and defense interests, while maintaining full control of them. Iceland opened its first embassy in 1920.[1] The Act would be up for revision in 1940 and could be revoked three years later if agreement was not reached.

    1. ^ "Small States and Shelter Theory: Iceland's External Affairs, 1st Edition (Hardback) – Routledge". Routledge.com. p. 108. Retrieved 2019-05-25.
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    2 December 1845 – Manifest Destiny: In a State of the Union message, U.S. President James K. Polk proposes that the United States should aggressively expand into the West.

    Manifest destiny

    For other uses, see Manifest Destiny (disambiguation).

    American Progress (1872) by John Gast is an allegorical representation of the modernization of the new west. Columbia, a personification of the United States, is shown leading civilization westward with the American settlers. She is shown bringing light from east to west, stringing telegraph wire, holding a school book, and highlighting different stages of economic activity and evolving forms of transportation.[1] On the left, Indigenous Americans are displaced from their ancestral homeland.

    Manifest destiny was the expansionist belief in the 19th-century United States that American settlers were destined to expand westward across North America, and that this belief was both obvious ("manifest") and certain ("destiny"). The belief is rooted in American exceptionalism and romantic nationalism,[2][3][4] implying the inevitable spread of republicanism and the American way.[5] It is one of the earliest expressions of American imperialism.[6][7][8]

    According to historian William Earl Weeks, there were three basic tenets behind the concept:[5]

    • The assumption of the unique moral virtue of the United States.
    • The assertion of its mission to redeem the world by the spread of republican government and more generally the "American way of life".
    • The faith in the nation's divinely ordained destiny to succeed in this mission.

    Manifest destiny remained heavily divisive in politics, causing constant conflict with regard to slavery in these new states and territories.[9] It is also associated with the expansion of European settlers onto the territories of Indigenous Americans[10] and the annexation of lands to the west of the United States borders at the time on the continent. The concept became one of several major campaign issues during the 1844 presidential election, where the Democratic Party won and the phrase "Manifest Destiny" was coined within a year.[6][11]

    The concept of manifest destiny was used by Democrats to justify the 1846 Oregon boundary dispute and the 1845 annexation of Texas as a slave state, culminating in the 1846 Mexican–American War. In contrast, the large majority of Whigs and prominent Republicans (such as Abraham Lincoln and Ulysses S. Grant) rejected the concept and campaigned against these actions.[12][13][14] By 1843, former U.S. president John Quincy Adams, originally a major supporter of the concept underlying manifest destiny, had changed his mind and repudiated expansionism because it meant the expansion of slavery in Texas.[6] Ulysses S. Grant served in and condemned the Mexican–American War, declaring it "one of the most unjust ever waged by a stronger against a weaker nation".[13]

    After the American Civil War, the U.S. acquired Alaska in 1867. In the 1890s, Republican president William McKinley annexed Hawaii, the Philippines, Puerto Rico, Guam, and American Samoa. The 1898 Spanish–American War was controversial and imperialism became a major issue in the 1900 United States presidential election. Historian Daniel Walker Howe summarizes that "American imperialism did not represent an American consensus; it provoked bitter dissent within the national polity".[6][15]

    1. ^ "John Gast, American Progress, 1872". Picturing U.S. History. City University of New York. Archived from the original on June 15, 2014.
    2. ^ Navarro, Armando (2005). Mexicano Political Experience in Occupied Aztlan: Struggles and Change. Rowman Altamira. p. 62. ISBN 978-0-7591-0567-6. The origins of Manifest Destiny can be traced to the founding of the United States as a nation-state. Its basis was and continues to be predicated on Anglo-Saxon chauvinism and imperialism. The cultural basis to its formulation was an Anglo-Saxon Protestant ethnocentric ethos, which subsequently evolved into a more inclusive Euroamerican ethos. [...] Manifest Destiny was and continues to be linked to white nationalism and liberal capitalist imperialism.
    3. ^ Wolfe, Patrick (January 12, 2016). Traces of History: Elementary Structures of Race. Verso. ISBN 978-1-78168-918-9. During the nineteenth century, in the United States as in much of Europe, race came to be bound up in nation-building, Whiteness becoming entangled with Manifest Destiny under the aegis of what George Fredrickson termed 'white nationalism'.
    4. ^ Boutelle, R. J. (September 13, 2023). The Race for America: Black Internationalism in the Age of Manifest Destiny. UNC Press Books. p. 181. ISBN 978-1-4696-7664-7. To name Manifest Destiny as a proto-white nationalist discourse, then, is to identify the age of Manifest Destiny as the primal scene where US-Americanness (including its essential 'Greatness') and whiteness (including its essential 'supremacy') become coextensive and where white nationalism and US-American nationalism become difficult to parse.
    5. ^ a b Weeks, William Earl (2002). John Quincy Adams and American Global Empire. University Press of Kentucky. pp. 183–184. ISBN 978-0-8131-9058-7. The rhetoric of American empire comprises three main aspects: the assumption of the unique moral virtue of the United States, the assertion of its mission to redeem the world by the spread of republican government and more generally the "American way of life," and the faith in the nation's divinely ordained destiny to succeed in this mission.
    6. ^ a b c d Merk 1963, pp. 215–216
    7. ^ Byrnes, Mark Eaton (2001). James K. Polk: A Biographical Companion (illustrated ed.). ABC-CLIO. p. 128. ISBN 978-1576070567.
    8. ^ "America's Manifest Destiny | The American Experience in the Classroom". Retrieved April 10, 2024.
    9. ^ Cite error: The named reference support was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    10. ^ Dahl, Adam (2018). Empire of the People: Settler Colonialism and the Foundations of Modern Democratic Thought. University Press of Kansas. pp. 101–26. doi:10.2307/j.ctt22rbjjz.8.
    11. ^ Cite error: The named reference coined was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    12. ^ Greenberg, Amy S. (2013). A Wicked War: Polk, Clay, Lincoln, and the 1846 U.S. Invasion of Mexico. Vintage Books. p. 51. ISBN 978-0307475992.
    13. ^ a b Simpson, Brooks (2014). Ulysses S. Grant: Triumph Over Adversity, 1822–1865. Voyageur Press. p. 30. ISBN 978-0760346969.
    14. ^ Joy, Mark (2014). American Expansionism, 1783–1860: A Manifest Destiny?. Routledge. pp. 62, 70. ISBN 978-1317878452.
    15. ^ Howe, D.W. (2007). What Hath God Wrought: The Transformation of America, 1815–1848. Oxford History of the United States. Oxford University Press. p. 705. ISBN 978-0-19-972657-8.
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    3 December 1938 – Nazi Germany issues the Decree on the Utilization of Jewish Property forcing Jews to sell real property, businesses, and stocks at below market value as part of Aryanization.

    Aryanization

    For the process whereby northern India became dominated by Indo-Aryan speakers, see Indo-Aryan migration.
    "Herzmansky is purely Aryan again!" – The Herzmansky department store in Vienna was confiscated in March 1938 after the Anschluss, which also took place that month.

    Aryanization (German: Arisierung) was the Nazi term for the seizure of property from Jews and its transfer to non-Jews, and the forced expulsion of Jews from economic life in Nazi Germany, Axis-aligned states, and their occupied territories. It entailed the transfer of Jewish property into "Aryan" or non-Jewish hands.

    "Aryanization" is, according to Kreutzmüller and Zaltin in Dispossession: Plundering German Jewry, 1933-1953, "a Nazi slogan that was used to camouflage theft and its political consequences."[1]

    The process started in 1933 in Nazi Germany with transfers of Jewish property and ended with the Holocaust.[2][3] Two phases have generally been identified: a first phase in which the theft from Jewish victims was concealed under a veneer of legality, and a second phase, in which property was more openly confiscated. In both cases, Aryanization corresponded to Nazi policy and was defined, supported, and enforced by Germany's legal and financial bureaucracy.[4][5][6][7][8]

    Michael Bazyler wrote that the Holocaust was "both the greatest murder and the greatest theft in history". Between $230 and $320 billion (in 2005 US dollars) was stolen from Jews across Europe,[9] with hundreds of thousands of businesses Aryanized.[10]

    1. ^ Kreutzmüller, Christoph; Zatlin, Jonathan (2020). Dispossession: Plundering German Jewry, 1933-1953. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press. doi:10.3998/mpub.9315192. ISBN 978-0-472-13203-4. S2CID 240613308.
    2. ^ Bopf, Britta (2004). "Arisierung" in Köln: Die wirtschaftliche Existenzvernichtung der Juden 1933-1945. Cologne: Emons Verlag Köln. ISBN 389705311X. Archived from the original on 2017-12-01. Retrieved 2017-12-01.
    3. ^ Shoah Resource Center. "Aryanization" (PDF). Yad Vashem. Retrieved 1 December 2017.
    4. ^ "Confiscation of Jewish Property in Europe, 1933–1945 New Sources and Perspectives Symposium Proceedings" (PDF). UNITED STATES HOLOCAUST MEMORIAL MUSEUM CENTER FOR ADVANCED HOLOCAUST STUDIES. 2003. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2 December 2017. Retrieved 2 December 2017. Particularly impressive and equally disturbing is the robbers' effort to ensure that property confiscation was carried out by "legal" means through a vast array of institutions and organizations set up for this purpose. The immensely bureaucratic nature of the confiscation process emerges from the vast archival trail that has survived. Arguments that no one knew about the Jews' fate become untenable once it is clear how many people were involved in processing their property. "Legal" measures often masked theft, but blatant robbery and extortion through intimidation and physical assault were also commonplace.
    5. ^ Döblin, Alfred (28 November 2010). "Plünderung jüdischen Eigentums Billigende Inkaufnahme "Wie Deutsche ihre jüdischen Mitbürger verwerteten": Die Enteignung der Juden ist gut dokumentiert. Wolfgang Dreßen hat die Akten gesichtet". Die Tageszeitung: Taz. Retrieved 2 December 2017.
    6. ^ Kieser, Albrecht (February 15, 2006). "Späte Enthüllungen An der Aufklärung über Arisierungen ist man in Deutschland noch immer nicht sonderlich interessiert". Telopolis. Heise Online. Archived from the original on December 2, 2017. Retrieved 2 December 2017.
    7. ^ "Das Finanzamt Moabit-West "verwertete" das Hab und Gut jüdischer Opfer des Nationalsozialismus". Berline Woche. 18 January 2017. Retrieved 2 December 2017.
    8. ^ ""Arisierung" in Köln". Portal Rheinische Geschichte. Landschaftsverband Rheinland. Archived from the original on 20 March 2018. Retrieved 2 December 2017.
    9. ^ Bazyler, Michael J. (2005). Holocaust Justice: The Battle for Restitution in America's Courts. NYU Press. p. xi. ISBN 978-0-8147-2938-0.
    10. ^ Gotz., Aly (2016). Hitler's beneficiaries. Verso Books. ISBN 978-1-78478-634-2. OCLC 946605582.
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