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This day in .....

Discussion in 'Break Room' started by NewsBot, Apr 6, 2008.

  1. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    6 September 1642 – England's Parliament bans public stage-plays.

    London theatre closure 1642

    On 2 September 1642, just after the First English Civil War had begun, the Long Parliament ordered the closure of all London theatres. The order cited the current "times of humiliation" and "sad and pious solemnity", a zeitgeist incompatible with "public stage-plays", which were representative of "lascivious Mirth and Levity".[1] The closure was the culmination of the rising anti-theatrical sentiment among Puritans, and along with William Prynne's Histriomastix (1633), its text was the most notorious attack on theatre in English history.[2]

    On 24 January 1643, the actors responded to the suppression of the theatre by writing a pamphlet to Parliament titled "The Actors remonstrance or complaint for the silencing of their profession, and banishment from their severall play-houses", in which they also state, "wee have purged our stages of all obscene and scurrilous jests".[3][4]

    It was unclear to contemporary audiences whether the intent of the Act was a permanent ban or a temporary response to political tensions. The directive did not demand a permanent end to theatre, but rather demanded their absence "while these sad causes and set times of humiliation do continue". Another Act of 11 February 1648, at the beginning of the Second Civil War, was "a much more severe decree"; it provided for the treatment of actors as rogues, the demolition of theatre seating, and fines for spectators.[1]

    In 1660, after the English Restoration brought King Charles II to effective power in England, the theatrical ban was lifted. Under a new licensing system, two London theatres with royal patents were opened: the King's Company and the Duke's Company.[5] This interregnum substantially changed the practice of theatre in Britain; post-1660 plays bore a noticeably different character to their pre-1642 counterparts. For example, actresses were permitted on stage, which was considered scandalous in the previous era.[1]

    Details of orders:

    • 2 September 1642: Order for Stage-plays to cease[6]
    • 22 October 1647: An Ordinance for the Lord Major and City of London, and the Justices of Peace to suppress Stage-playes and Interludes[7]
    • 11 February 1648: An Ordinance for the utter suppression and abolishing of all Stage-Plays and Interludes, within the Penalties to be inflicted on the Actors and Spectators therein expressed[8]
    1. ^ a b c Jane Milling; Peter Thomson (2004). The Cambridge History of British Theatre. Cambridge University Press. pp. 439–459. ISBN 978-0521650403.
    2. ^ Beushausen, Katrin (2018). Theatre, Theatricality and the People before the Civil Wars. Cambridge University Press. p. 80.
    3. ^ Schoch, Richard (2016). Writing the History of the British Stage 1660-1900. Cambridge University Press. p. 64.
    4. ^ "The Actors remonstrance or complaint for the silencing for their profession, and banishment from their severall play-houses". Eighteenth Century Collections Online. 24 January 1643.
    5. ^ Brian Corman (2013). The Broadview Anthology of Restoration and Eighteenth-Century Comedy. Broadview Press. p. ix. ISBN 978-1770482999.
    6. ^ "September 1642: Order for Stage-plays to cease". British History Online. Retrieved 22 October 2021.
    7. ^ "October 1647: An Ordinance for the Lord Major and City of London, and the Justices of Peace to suppress Stage-playes and Interludes". British History Online. Retrieved 22 October 2021.
    8. ^ "February 1648: An Ordinance for the utter suppression and abolishing of all Stage-Plays and Interludes, within the Penalties to be inflicted on the Actors and Spectators therein expressed". British History Online. Retrieved 22 October 2021.
     
  2. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    7 September 1945 – The Berlin Victory Parade of 1945 is held.

    Berlin Victory Parade of 1945

    The Berlin Victory Parade of 1945 was held by the Allies of World War II on 7 September 1945 in Berlin, the capital of the defeated Germany, shortly after the end of World War II. The four participating countries were the Soviet Union, the United States, the United Kingdom, and France.

    The parade was proposed by the Soviet Union, following the June Moscow Victory Parade of 1945.[1] July in Berlin also saw a British parade (the 1945 British Berlin Victory Parade).[2][3]

    Senior officers present at the parade were Marshal of the Soviet Union Georgy Zhukov from the USSR, General George S. Patton from the United States,[1] General Brian Robertson, from the United Kingdom, and General Marie-Pierre Kœnig from France.[4] General Dwight D. Eisenhower and Field Marshal Bernard Montgomery declined the invitations shortly before the parade, and sent Patton and Robertson as their representatives.[5][6] Units present included the Soviet 248th Rifle Division, the French 2nd Infantry Division, the British 131st Infantry Brigade, and the U.S. 82nd Airborne Division; the forces present came primarily from the local garrisons.[6] The armoured contingent came from the British 7th Armoured Division, French 1st Armored Division, and U.S. 16th Mechanized Cavalry Group.[6] The Red Army used this occasion for the first public display of the IS-3 heavy tank, with 52 tanks from the 2nd Guards Tank Army participating.[7]

    Russian sources refer to this parade as a "forgotten parade", as it was mentioned in only a few Western sources.[8] The forces of four Allies also participated in another Berlin parade several months later, on the Charlottenburger Chaussee, in front of the Brandenburg Gate, on the first anniversary of the German surrender on 8 May 1946, in the Berlin Victory Parade of 1946.[9][10] This parade was connected to the inauguration of the Soviet War Memorial at Tiergarten.[9][10] Soviet troops would not be present at the much more widely known in the West London Victory Celebrations of 1946.[11]

    French tricolor on the Victory Column statue during the parade
    1. ^ a b Cite error: The named reference Roberts2012 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    2. ^ Cite error: The named reference iwm was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    3. ^ Cite error: The named reference VE Day & Berlin Victory Parade Commemoration Page was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    4. ^ Cite error: The named reference Soviet Forces - September 7, 1945 in Berlin was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    5. ^ Cite error: The named reference Forgotten Pages of Victory was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    6. ^ a b c Cite error: The named reference ua was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    7. ^ Cite error: The named reference Zaloga2011 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    8. ^ Cite error: The named reference SSEES Film and Video Database: Tape V-1889 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    9. ^ a b Cite error: The named reference ArenhövelBothe1991 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    10. ^ a b Cite error: The named reference SchulleriEschen2002 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    11. ^ Cite error: The named reference nla was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
     
  3. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

  4. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    9 September 1924Hanapepe massacre occurs on Kauai, Hawaii.

    Hanapepe massacre

    The Hanapēpē Massacre (also called the Battle of Hanapēpē) occurred on September 9, 1924, when an interethnic dispute amongst Filipino strike organizers in Hanapēpē, Kaua'i resulted in a violent exchange between local police officers and Filipinos.[1] The conflict began when two Ilocano youth, allegedly breaking the Filipino-led labor strike, were detained and harassed by a group of Visayans at the Hanapepe strike camp.[2] When the local police were called to settle the dispute, they arrived with a group of heavily armed special deputies.[1] Upon arrival, the officers issued warrants of arrest for the two detained Illocanos, causing the collection of Filipino strikers to rally in opposition.[2] Despite previously ridiculing the two Ilocanos, the remaining Filipinos armed themselves and demanded the boys be released.[2] A violent exchange ensued wherein sixteen Filipino laborers and four police officers were left dead.[1]

    1. ^ a b c Beechert, Edward D. (1985). Working in Hawaii: a Labor History. University of Hawaii Press. pp. 221–222. ISBN 0-8248-0890-8. OCLC 906458431.
    2. ^ a b c Reinecke, John E. (1997). The Filipino Piecemeal Sugar Strike of 1924–1925. University of Hawaii Press. pp. 75–76. ISBN 978-0-8248-6253-4. OCLC 1024022244.
     
  5. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    10 September 1823Simón Bolívar is named President of Peru.

    Simón Bolívar

    Simón José Antonio de la Santísima Trinidad Bolívar Palacios Ponte y Blanco[c] (24 July 1783 – 17 December 1830) was a Venezuelan military and political leader who led what are currently the countries of Colombia, Venezuela, Ecuador, Peru, Panama, and Bolivia to independence from the Spanish Empire. He is known colloquially as El Libertador, or the Liberator of America.

    Simón Bolívar was born in Caracas in the Captaincy General of Venezuela into a wealthy family of American-born Spaniards (criollo) but lost both parents as a child. Bolívar was educated abroad and lived in Spain, as was common for men of upper-class families in his day. While living in Madrid from 1800 to 1802, he was introduced to Enlightenment philosophy and married María Teresa Rodríguez del Toro y Alaysa, who died in Venezuela from yellow fever in 1803. From 1803 to 1805, Bolívar embarked on a Grand Tour that ended in Rome, where he swore to end the Spanish rule in the Americas. In 1807, Bolívar returned to Venezuela and promoted Venezuelan independence to other wealthy creoles. When the Spanish authority in the Americas weakened due to Napoleon's Peninsular War, Bolívar became a zealous combatant and politician in the Spanish-American wars of independence.

    Bolívar began his military career in 1810 as a militia officer in the Venezuelan War of Independence, fighting Royalist forces for the first and second Venezuelan republics and the United Provinces of New Granada. After Spanish forces subdued New Granada in 1815, Bolívar was forced into exile on Jamaica. In Haiti, Bolívar met and befriended Haitian revolutionary leader Alexandre Pétion. After promising to abolish slavery in Spanish America, Bolívar received military support from Pétion and returned to Venezuela. He established a third republic in 1817 and then crossed the Andes to liberate New Granada in 1819. Bolívar and his allies defeated the Spanish in New Granada in 1819, Venezuela and Panama in 1821, Ecuador in 1822, Peru in 1824, and Bolivia in 1825. Venezuela, New Granada, Ecuador, and Panama were merged into the Republic of Colombia (Gran Colombia), with Bolívar as president there and in Peru and Bolivia.

    In his final years, Bolívar became increasingly disillusioned with the South American republics, and distanced from them because of his centralist ideology. He was successively removed from his offices until he resigned the presidency of Colombia and died of tuberculosis in 1830. His legacy is diverse and far-reaching within Latin America and beyond. He is regarded as a hero and national and cultural icon throughout Latin America; the nations of Bolivia and Venezuela (as the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela) are named after him, and he has been memorialized all over the world in the form of public art or street names and in popular culture.

    1. ^ "Ley Disponiendo Que El Ejecutivo Comunique A Bolívar La Abolición De La Constitución Vitalicia Y La Elección De Presidente De La República, 22 de Junio de 1827" (in Spanish). Congress of Peru. 22 June 1827. Retrieved 29 March 2023.
    2. ^ "Se enciende el debate por el cargo de Simón Bolívar" [Debate Ignites over Simón Bolívar's Position]. El Día (in Spanish). Santa Cruz de la Sierra. 19 December 2011. Archived from the original on 14 February 2023. Retrieved 14 February 2023.
    3. ^ Cite error: The named reference dict1 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    4. ^ Cite error: The named reference dict2 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).


    Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

     
  6. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    10 September 1823Simón Bolívar is named President of Peru.

    Simón Bolívar

    Simón José Antonio de la Santísima Trinidad Bolívar Palacios Ponte y Blanco[c] (24 July 1783 – 17 December 1830) was a Venezuelan military and political leader who led what are currently the countries of Colombia, Venezuela, Ecuador, Peru, Panama, and Bolivia to independence from the Spanish Empire. He is known colloquially as El Libertador, or the Liberator of America.

    Simón Bolívar was born in Caracas in the Captaincy General of Venezuela into a wealthy family of American-born Spaniards (criollo) but lost both parents as a child. Bolívar was educated abroad and lived in Spain, as was common for men of upper-class families in his day. While living in Madrid from 1800 to 1802, he was introduced to Enlightenment philosophy and married María Teresa Rodríguez del Toro y Alaysa, who died in Venezuela from yellow fever in 1803. From 1803 to 1805, Bolívar embarked on a Grand Tour that ended in Rome, where he swore to end the Spanish rule in the Americas. In 1807, Bolívar returned to Venezuela and promoted Venezuelan independence to other wealthy creoles. When the Spanish authority in the Americas weakened due to Napoleon's Peninsular War, Bolívar became a zealous combatant and politician in the Spanish-American wars of independence.

    Bolívar began his military career in 1810 as a militia officer in the Venezuelan War of Independence, fighting Royalist forces for the first and second Venezuelan republics and the United Provinces of New Granada. After Spanish forces subdued New Granada in 1815, Bolívar was forced into exile on Jamaica. In Haiti, Bolívar met and befriended Haitian revolutionary leader Alexandre Pétion. After promising to abolish slavery in Spanish America, Bolívar received military support from Pétion and returned to Venezuela. He established a third republic in 1817 and then crossed the Andes to liberate New Granada in 1819. Bolívar and his allies defeated the Spanish in New Granada in 1819, Venezuela and Panama in 1821, Ecuador in 1822, Peru in 1824, and Bolivia in 1825. Venezuela, New Granada, Ecuador, and Panama were merged into the Republic of Colombia (Gran Colombia), with Bolívar as president there and in Peru and Bolivia.

    In his final years, Bolívar became increasingly disillusioned with the South American republics, and distanced from them because of his centralist ideology. He was successively removed from his offices until he resigned the presidency of Colombia and died of tuberculosis in 1830. His legacy is diverse and far-reaching within Latin America and beyond. He is regarded as a hero and national and cultural icon throughout Latin America; the nations of Bolivia and Venezuela (as the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela) are named after him, and he has been memorialized all over the world in the form of public art or street names and in popular culture.

    1. ^ "Ley Disponiendo Que El Ejecutivo Comunique A Bolívar La Abolición De La Constitución Vitalicia Y La Elección De Presidente De La República, 22 de Junio de 1827" (in Spanish). Congress of Peru. 22 June 1827. Retrieved 29 March 2023.
    2. ^ "Se enciende el debate por el cargo de Simón Bolívar" [Debate Ignites over Simón Bolívar's Position]. El Día (in Spanish). Santa Cruz de la Sierra. 19 December 2011. Archived from the original on 14 February 2023. Retrieved 14 February 2023.
    3. ^ Cite error: The named reference dict1 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    4. ^ Cite error: The named reference dict2 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).


    Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

     
  7. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    11 September 2008 – A major Channel Tunnel fire breaks out on a freight train, resulting in the closure of part of the tunnel for six months.

    2008 Channel Tunnel fire

    On 11 September 2008, a France-bound Eurotunnel Shuttle train carrying heavy goods vehicles (HGVs) and their drivers caught fire while travelling through the Channel Tunnel. The fire lasted for sixteen hours and reached temperatures of up to 1,000 °C (1,830 °F).[1]

    Of the 32 people aboard the train, 14 suffered minor injuries, including smoke inhalation, and were taken to the hospital. When the fire was reported, the tunnel was immediately shut to all services except emergency traffic. The undamaged south tunnel reopened on 13 September; a freight train entered the tunnel at Folkestone at 00:08 BST and limited service began, with trains travelling in turn in alternating directions in the south tunnel. By the end of September, two-thirds of the north tunnel had reopened. Full service resumed in February 2009, after the completion of repairs costing €60 million.

    The fire was the third to force the tunnel's closure since its opening in 1994,[2] the first being the 1996 Channel Tunnel fire, the second an August 2006 fire that broke out on a truck aboard a HGV Shuttle, shutting the tunnel down for several hours.

    1. ^ Rayner, Gordon; Millward, David; Simpson, Aislinn (11 September 2008). "Channel Tunnel closed after freight train fire". The Daily Telegraph. London. Archived from the original on 12 September 2008. Retrieved 11 September 2008.
    2. ^ "How the 2008 fire changed Channel Tunnel history". KentOnline. 5 May 2009. Archived from the original on 28 May 2009. Retrieved 20 May 2009.
     
  8. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    12 September 1940Cave paintings are discovered in Lascaux, France.

    Cave painting

    Cueva de las Manos, Perito Moreno, Argentina, Mesoamerica. The art in the cave is dated between 7,300 BC and 700 AD;[a] stenciled, mostly left hands are shown.[3][4]

    In archaeology, cave paintings are a type of parietal art (which category also includes petroglyphs, or engravings), found on the wall or ceilings of caves. The term usually implies prehistoric origin. These paintings were often created by Homo sapiens, but also Denisovans and Neanderthals; other species in the same Homo genus. Discussion around prehistoric art is important in understanding the history of the Homo sapiens species and how Homo sapiens have come to have unique abstract thoughts. Some point to these prehistoric paintings as possible examples of creativity, spirituality, and sentimental thinking in prehistoric humans.

    The oldest known are more than 40,000 years old (art of the Upper Paleolithic) and found in the caves in the district of Maros (Sulawesi, Indonesia). The oldest are often constructed from hand stencils and simple geometric shapes.[5] More recently, in 2021, cave art of a pig found in Sulawesi, Indonesia, and dated to over 45,500 years ago, has been reported.[6][7]

    A 2018 study claimed an age of 64,000 years for the oldest examples of non-figurative cave art in the Iberian Peninsula. Represented by three red non-figurative symbols found in the caves of Maltravieso, Ardales and La Pasiega, Spain, these predate the appearance of modern humans in Europe by at least 20,000 years and thus must have been made by Neanderthals rather than modern humans.[8]

    In November 2018, scientists reported the discovery of the then-oldest known figurative art painting, over 40,000 (perhaps as old as 52,000) years old, of an unknown animal, in the cave of Lubang Jeriji Saléh on the Indonesian island of Borneo.[9][10] In December 2019, cave paintings portraying pig hunting within the Maros-Pangkep karst region in Sulawesi were discovered to be even older, with an estimated age of at least 43,900 years. This finding was recognized as "the oldest known depiction of storytelling and the earliest instance of figurative art in human history."[11][12]

    1. ^ World Heritage Sites: a Complete Guide to 1007 UNESCO World Heritage Sites (6th ed.). UNESCO Publishing. 2014. p. 607. ISBN 978-1-77085-640-0. OCLC 910986576.
    2. ^ UNESCO World Heritage Centre. "Cueva de las Manos, Río Pinturas". UNESCO World Heritage Centre. Archived from the original on 2021-04-14. Retrieved 2021-04-07.
    3. ^ Art & Place: Site-Specific Art of the Americas. Editorial Director: Amanda Renshaw; Text & Expertise provided by Daniel Arsenault et al. Phaidon Press. 2013. pp. 354–355. ISBN 978-0-7148-6551-5. OCLC 865298990. Archived from the original on 2021-10-29. Retrieved 2021-03-27.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: others (link)
    4. ^ Cite error: The named reference :9 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    5. ^ M. Aubert et al., "Pleistocene cave art from Sulawesi, Indonesia", Nature volume 514, pages 223–227 (9 October 2014). "using uranium-series dating of coralloid speleothems directly associated with 12 human hand stencils and two figurative animal depictions from seven cave sites in the Maros karsts of Sulawesi, we show that rock art traditions on this Indonesian island are at least compatible in age with the oldest European art. The earliest dated image from Maros, with a minimum age of 39.9 kyr, is now the oldest known hand stencil in the world. In addition, a painting of a babirusa ('pig-deer') made at least 35.4 kyr ago is among the earliest dated figurative depictions worldwide, if not the earliest one. Among the implications, it can now be demonstrated that humans were producing rock art by ~40 kyr ago at opposite ends of the Pleistocene Eurasian world."
    6. ^ Brumm, Adam; Oktaviana, Adhi Agus; Burhan, Basran; Hakim, Budianto; Lebe, Rustan; Zhao, Jian-xin; Sulistyarto, Priyatno Hadi; Ririmasse, Marlon; Adhityatama, Shinatria; Sumantri, Iwan; Aubert, Maxime (2021-01-01). "Oldest cave art found in Sulawesi". Science Advances. 7 (3): eabd4648. Bibcode:2021SciA....7.4648B. doi:10.1126/sciadv.abd4648. ISSN 2375-2548. PMC 7806210. PMID 33523879.
    7. ^ Ferreira, Becky (January 13, 2021). "Pig Painting May Be World's Oldest Cave Art Yet, Archaeologists Say – The depiction of the animal on an Indonesian island is at least 45,500 years old, the researchers say". The New York Times. Retrieved January 14, 2021.
    8. ^ D. L. Hoffmann; C. D. Standish; M. García-Diez; P. B. Pettitt; J. A. Milton; J. Zilhão; J. J. Alcolea-González; P. Cantalejo-Duarte; H. Collado; R. de Balbín; M. Lorblanchet; J. Ramos-Muñoz; G.-Ch. Weniger; A. W. G. Pike (2018). "U-Th dating of carbonate crusts reveals Neandertal origin of Iberian cave art". Science. 359 (6378): 912–915. Bibcode:2018Sci...359..912H. doi:10.1126/science.aap7778. hdl:10498/21578. PMID 29472483. "we present dating results for three sites in Spain that show that cave art emerged in Iberia substantially earlier than previously thought. Uranium-thorium (U-Th) dates on carbonate crusts overlying paintings provide minimum ages for a red linear motif in La Pasiega (Cantabria), a hand stencil in Maltravieso (Extremadura), and red-painted speleothems in Ardales (Andalucía). Collectively, these results show that cave art in Iberia is older than 64.8 thousand years (ka). This cave art is the earliest dated so far and predates, by at least 20 ka, the arrival of modern humans in Europe, which implies Neandertal authorship."
    9. ^ Cite error: The named reference NYT-20181107-cz was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    10. ^ Cite error: The named reference NAT-20181107 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    11. ^ Aubert, M.; et al. (11 December 2019). "Earliest hunting scene in prehistoric art". Nature. 576 (7787): 442–445. Bibcode:2019Natur.576..442A. doi:10.1038/s41586-019-1806-y. PMID 31827284. S2CID 209311825.
    12. ^ Ferreira, Becky (11 December 2019). "Mythical Beings May Be Earliest Imaginative Cave Art by Humans - The paintings on an Indonesian island are at least 43,900 years old and depict humanoid figures with animal-like features in a hunting scene". The New York Times. Retrieved 12 December 2019.


    Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

     
  9. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    13 September 1791 – King Louis XVI of France accepts the new constitution.

    French Constitution of 1791

    The French Constitution of 1791 (French: Constitution française du 3 septembre 1791) was the first written constitution in France, created after the collapse of the absolute monarchy of the Ancien Régime. One of the basic precepts of the French Revolution was adopting constitutionality and establishing popular sovereignty.

     
  10. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    14 September 1808Finnish War: Russians defeat the Swedes at the Battle of Oravais.

    Battle of Oravais

    The Battle of Oravais (occasionally Orawais; Finnish: Oravaisten taistelu; Swedish: Slaget vid Oravais) from September 14 until September 15 was one of the decisive battles in the Finnish War, fought from 1808 to 1809 between Sweden and the Russian Empire as part of the wider Napoleonic Wars. Taking place in modern-day Vörå in western Finland, it is sometimes regarded as the turning point of the Finnish War: the last chance for Sweden to turn the war to her advantage. It was the bloodiest battle of the conflict, along with the Battle of Sävar, which some historians attribute to the exhaustion, resignation and desperation of the Swedish army: it was losing the war, and defeat led to its loss of Finland to Russia.

    In this battle Nikolay Kamensky, who was in charge of the Russians, displayed outstanding military qualities, showing himself a worthy disciple of Suvorov. Considering the uncertain situation before the battle, he deploys his forces in echelons; but, as soon as the main Swedish force at Oravais is determined, he endeavours to bring everyone onto the battlefield at a crucial moment.[9]

    1. ^ a b Nive 1910, p. 268.
    2. ^ Nive 1910, p. 266.
    3. ^ a b c d e Clodfelter 2017, p. 190.
    4. ^ "Orawais". Clash of Steel, Battle database. Retrieved 24 January 2024.
    5. ^ a b c d e Bodart 1908, p. 390.
    6. ^ van Suchtelen 1835, p. 63.
    7. ^ a b c Montgomery 1842, pp. 18–29.
    8. ^ a b c Hornborg 1955, pp. 155–160.
    9. ^ a b c d e f Оровайс // Sytin Military Encyclopedia. Vol. 17: "Нитроглицерин – Патруль", pp. 167–168
    10. ^ van Suchtelen 1854, pp. 160–161.
    11. ^ a b Generalstaben 1910, pp. 244–245.
    12. ^ a b Каменский 2-й, Николай Михайлович // Russian Biographical Dictionary. Vol. 8 (1897): "Ибак – Ключарев", pp. 423–439


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  11. Admin2

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  12. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    16 September 1975Papua New Guinea gains independence from Australia.

    Papua New Guinea

    Papua New Guinea[a] is a country in Oceania that comprises the eastern half of the island of New Guinea and its offshore islands in Melanesia (a region of the southwestern Pacific Ocean north of Australia). Officially[13] the Independent State of Papua New Guinea (Tok Pisin: Independen Stet bilong Papua Niugini; Hiri Motu: Independen Stet bilong Papua Niu Gini), it shares its only land border with Indonesia to the west and it is directly adjacent to Australia to the south and the Solomon Islands to the east. Its capital, located along its southeastern coast, is Port Moresby. The country is the world's third largest island country, with an area of 462,840 km2 (178,700 sq mi).[14]

    At the national level, after being ruled by three external powers since 1883, including nearly 60 years of Australian administration starting during World War I, Papua New Guinea established its sovereignty in 1975, becoming an independent Commonwealth realm with Elizabeth II as its queen. Since Elizabeth II's death in 2022, Charles III has been the country's king. It is also a member of the Commonwealth of Nations in its own right.

    There are 839 known languages of Papua New Guinea, making it the most linguistically diverse country in the world.[5] It is also one of the most rural countries, with only 13.25% of its population living in urban centres in 2019.[15] Most of its people live in customary communities.[16] Although government estimates reported the country's population to be 9.4 million, it was reported in December 2022 that its population was in fact closer to 17 million.[17][18] Papua New Guinea is the most populous Pacific island country.

    The country is believed to be the home of many undocumented species of plants and animals.[19]

    The sovereign state is classified as a developing economy by the International Monetary Fund;[20] nearly 40% of the population are subsistence farmers, living relatively independently of the cash economy.[21] Their traditional social groupings are explicitly acknowledged by the Papua New Guinea Constitution, which expresses the wish for "traditional villages and communities to remain as viable units of Papua New Guinean society"[22] and protects their continuing importance to local and national community life.

    Papua New Guinea has been an observer state in the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) since 1976, and has filed its application for full membership status.[23] It is a full member of the Commonwealth of Nations,[24] the Pacific Community, and the Pacific Islands Forum.[25]

    1. ^ Somare, Michael (6 December 2004). "Stable Government, Investment Initiatives, and Economic Growth". Keynote address to the 8th Papua New Guinea Mining and Petroleum Conference. Archived from the original on 28 June 2006. Retrieved 9 August 2007.
    2. ^ "Never more to rise". The National. 6 February 2006. Archived from the original on 13 July 2007. Retrieved 19 January 2005.
    3. ^ Cite error: The named reference cia was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    4. ^ "Sign language becomes an official language in PNG". Radio New Zealand. 21 May 2015. Archived from the original on 28 May 2015. Retrieved 28 May 2015.
    5. ^ a b Papua New Guinea Archived 3 July 2013 at the Wayback Machine, Ethnologue
    6. ^ Koloma. Kele, Roko. Hajily. "Papua New Guinea 2011 National Report-National Statistical Office". sdd.spc.int. Archived from the original on 12 August 2017. Retrieved 2 September 2016.
    7. ^ "Population | National Statistical Office | Papua New Guinea".
    8. ^ "2011 National Population and Housing Census of Papua New Guinea – Final Figures". National Statistical Office of Papua New Guinea. Archived from the original on 6 September 2015. Retrieved 16 December 2019.
    9. ^ a b c d "World Economic Outlook Database, October 2023 Edition. (PG)". IMF.org. International Monetary Fund. 10 October 2023. Retrieved 15 October 2023.
    10. ^ "GINI index (World Bank estimate)". data.worldbank.org. World Bank. Archived from the original on 7 April 2019. Retrieved 23 February 2019.
    11. ^ "Human Development Report 2021/2022" (PDF). United Nations Development Programme. 8 September 2022. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 11 October 2022.
    12. ^ Jones, Daniel (2003) [1917], Peter Roach; James Hartmann; Jane Setter (eds.), English Pronouncing Dictionary, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-3-12-539683-8
    13. ^ "Constitution of the Independent State of Papua New Guinea" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 25 February 2022. Retrieved 25 February 2022.
    14. ^ Cite error: The named reference world-atlas was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    15. ^ "Urban population (% of total population) – Papua New Guinea". data.worldbank.org. Archived from the original on 20 July 2020. Retrieved 19 July 2020.
    16. ^ James, Paul; Nadarajah, Yaso; Haive, Karen; Stead, Victoria (2012). Sustainable Communities, Sustainable Development: Other Paths for Papua New Guinea. Honolulu, HI: University of Hawaii Press. Archived from the original on 9 August 2021. Retrieved 15 December 2017.
    17. ^ Lagan, Bernard (5 December 2022). "Papua New Guinea finds real population is almost double official estimates". The Times. ISSN 0140-0460. Archived from the original on 6 December 2022. Retrieved 6 December 2022.
    18. ^ Fildes, Nic (5 December 2022). "Papua New Guinea's population size puzzles prime minister and experts". Financial Times. Archived from the original on 5 December 2022. Retrieved 5 December 2022.
    19. ^ Gelineau, Kristen (26 March 2009). "Spiders and frogs identified among 50 new species". The Independent. Archived from the original on 24 May 2022. Retrieved 26 March 2009.
    20. ^ World Economic Outlook Database, October 2015 Archived 1 January 2016 at the Wayback Machine, International Monetary Fund Archived 14 February 2006 at Archive-It. Database updated on 6 October 2015. Accessed on 6 October 2015.
    21. ^ World Bank. 2010. World Development Indicators. Washington DC.
    22. ^ "Constitution of Independent State of Papua New Guinea (consol. to amendment #22)". Pacific Islands Legal Information Institute. Archived from the original on 26 August 2012. Retrieved 16 July 2005.
    23. ^ "Papua New Guinea keen to join ASEAN". The Brunei Times. 7 March 2016. Archived from the original on 7 March 2016.
    24. ^ "Profile: The Commonwealth". 1 February 2012. Archived from the original on 9 March 2021. Retrieved 14 November 2018 – via news.bbc.co.uk.
    25. ^ "About Us – Forum Sec". Archived from the original on 29 December 2018. Retrieved 14 November 2018.


    Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

     
  13. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    17 September 1787 – The United States Constitution is signed in Philadelphia.

    United States Constitution

     
  14. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    18 September 1809 – The Royal Opera House in London opens.

    Royal Opera House

    The Royal Opera House (ROH) is a historic opera house and major performing arts venue in Covent Garden, central London. The large building is often referred to as simply Covent Garden, after a previous use of the site. It is the home of The Royal Opera, The Royal Ballet, and the Orchestra of the Royal Opera House. The first theatre on the site, the Theatre Royal (1732), served primarily as a playhouse for the first hundred years of its history. In 1734, the first ballet was presented. A year later, the first season of operas, by George Frideric Handel, began. Many of his operas and oratorios were specifically written for Covent Garden and had their premieres there.

    The current building is the third theatre on the site, following disastrous fires in 1808 and 1856 to previous buildings.[2] The façade, foyer, and auditorium date from 1858, but almost every other element of the present complex dates from an extensive reconstruction in the 1990s. The main auditorium seats 2,256 people, making it the third largest in London, and consists of four tiers of boxes and balconies and the amphitheatre gallery. The proscenium is 14.80 metres (48 ft 7 in) wide, with the stage of the same depth and 12.20 metres (40 ft 0 in) high. The main auditorium is a Grade I listed building.[3]

    1. ^ Historic England (9 January 1970). "The Royal Opera House (1066392)". National Heritage List for England. Retrieved 9 July 2015.
    2. ^ "11 Secrets of London's Royal Opera House". Londonist. 16 February 2017.
    3. ^ "Royal Opera House (London)" Archived 23 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine description on theatrestrust.org.uk Retrieved 10 May 2013
     
  15. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    19 September 1997 – The Guelb El-Kebir massacre in Algeria kills 53 people.

    Guelb El-Kebir massacre

    36°14′46.9″N 3°24′29.9″E / 36.246361°N 3.408306°E / 36.246361; 3.408306

    The Guelb El-Kebir massacre took place in the village of Guelb el-Kebir, near Beni Slimane, in the Algerian province of Medea, on 20 September 1997.[1] 53 people were killed by attackers that were not immediately identified, though the attack was similar to others carried out by Islamic groups opposed to the Algerian government.[2]

    1. ^ "53 die in Algerian massacre". Daily Dispatch. 22 September 1997. Archived from the original on 27 February 2005. Retrieved 11 May 2017.
    2. ^ "53 Algerians Massacred as Killing Goes On". The New York Times. 22 September 2017. Retrieved 11 May 2017.
     
  16. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    20 September 1967RMS Queen Elizabeth 2 is launched Clydebank, Scotland.

    Queen Elizabeth 2

    Queen Elizabeth 2 (QE2) is a retired British passenger ship converted into a floating hotel. Originally built for the Cunard Line, the ship was operated by Cunard as both a transatlantic liner and a cruise ship from 1969 to 2008. She was then laid up until converted and since 18 April 2018 has been operating as a floating hotel in Dubai.[4]

    Queen Elizabeth 2 was designed for the transatlantic service from her home port of Southampton, UK, to New York, United States.[5] She served as the flagship of the line from 1969 until succeeded by Queen Mary 2 in 2004. Queen Elizabeth 2 was designed in Cunard's offices in Liverpool and Southampton and built in Clydebank, Scotland. She was considered the last of the transatlantic ocean liners until "Project Genesis" was announced by Cunard Line in 1995 after the business purchase of Cunard by Micky Arison; chairman of Carnival and Carnival UK. Project Genesis was intended to create new life in the ocean liner saga, and in 1998, Cunard revealed the name: RMS Queen Mary 2.

    Queen Elizabeth 2 was refitted with a modern diesel powerplant in 1986–87. She undertook regular world cruises during almost 40 years of service, and later operated predominantly as a cruise ship, sailing out of Southampton, England. Queen Elizabeth 2 had no running mate and never ran a year-round weekly transatlantic express service to New York. She did, however, continue the Cunard tradition of regular scheduled transatlantic crossings every year of her service life.

    Queen Elizabeth 2 retired from active Cunard service on 27 November 2008. She had been acquired by the private equity arm of Dubai World, which planned to begin conversion of the vessel to a 500-room floating hotel moored at the Palm Jumeirah, Dubai.[6][7] The 2008 financial crisis intervened, however, and the ship was laid up at Dubai Drydocks and later Mina Rashid.[8] Subsequent conversion plans were announced in 2012[9] and then again by the Oceanic Group in 2013,[10] but both plans stalled. In November 2015, Cruise Arabia & Africa quoted DP World chairman Ahmed Sultan Bin Sulayem as saying that QE2 would not be scrapped[11] and a Dubai-based construction company announced in March 2017 that it had been contracted to refurbish the ship.[12] The restored QE2 opened to visitors on 18 April 2018,[13] with a soft opening.

    1. ^ Rouquayrol, Gautier (9 May 2022). "Accor adds legendary Queen Elizabeth 2 to its portfolio in Dubai" (Press release). Paris: Accor – Newsroom.
    2. ^ Maritime Information Exchange, search for Queen Elizabeth 2
    3. ^ Frame, Chris (2024), QE2 Facts
    4. ^ Frame, Chris (10 April 2018). "QE2 reopens as a Hotel in Dubai on 18 April after 9 ½ years of retirement". chrisframe.com.au. Retrieved 15 September 2022.
    5. ^ Frame, Chris (2 May 2019). "QE2 50th Anniversary". chrisframe.com.au. Retrieved 15 September 2022.
    6. ^ Fitch, Asa (19 January 2013). "QE II Ocean Liner Heads to Asia to Become Floating Hotel". Zawya.
    7. ^ "QE2 To Leave Cunard Fleet And Be Sold To Dubai World To Begin A New Life at the Palm". Cunard.com. 2007. Archived from the original on 6 July 2007. Retrieved 20 June 2007.
    8. ^ Morris, Hugh (13 January 2016). "'Forlorn' QE2 is not coming home from Dubai, campaigners concede". Telegraph Media Group. Archived from the original on 12 January 2022. Retrieved 18 January 2016.
    9. ^ "Cruise liner Queen Elizabeth 2 to be converted into hotel". HT Media Limited. 3 July 2012. Archived from the original on 4 September 2015. Retrieved 29 August 2015.
    10. ^ "New home for Queen Elizabeth 2". CNN International. 18 January 2013. Retrieved 18 January 2016.
    11. ^ "There is a new plan for former Cunard liner QE2 – she will not be scrapped insists DP World Chairman". 10 November 2015. Retrieved 6 February 2018.
    12. ^ "Queen Elizabeth 2 – Refurbishment Works". Shafa Al Nahda. Retrieved 6 February 2018.
    13. ^ "Queen Mary 2 Guests to be First to Board the QE2 Hotel in Dubai".
     
  17. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    21 September 1937 – J. R. R. Tolkien's The Hobbit is published.

    The Hobbit

    The Hobbit, or There and Back Again is a children's fantasy novel by the English author J. R. R. Tolkien. It was published in 1937 to wide critical acclaim, being nominated for the Carnegie Medal and awarded a prize from the New York Herald Tribune for best juvenile fiction. The book is recognized as a classic in children's literature and is one of the best-selling books of all time, with over 100 million copies sold.

    The Hobbit is set in Middle-earth and follows home-loving Bilbo Baggins, the hobbit of the title, who joins the wizard Gandalf and the thirteen dwarves of Thorin's Company, on a quest to reclaim the dwarves' home and treasure from the dragon Smaug. Bilbo's journey takes him from his peaceful rural surroundings into more sinister territory.

    The story is told in the form of a picaresque or episodic quest; several chapters introduce a new type of monster or threat as Bilbo progresses through the landscape. Bilbo gains a new level of maturity, competence, and wisdom by accepting the disreputable, romantic, fey, and adventurous sides of his nature and applying his wits and common sense. The story reaches its climax in the Battle of Five Armies, where many of the characters and creatures from earlier chapters re-emerge to engage in conflict. Personal growth and forms of heroism are central themes of the story, along with motifs of warfare. These themes have led critics to view Tolkien's own experiences during World War I as instrumental in shaping the story. The author's scholarly knowledge of Germanic philology and interest in mythology and fairy tales are often noted as influences, but more recent fiction including adventure stories and the works of William Morris also played a part.

    The publisher was encouraged by the book's critical and financial success and, therefore, requested a sequel. As Tolkien's work progressed on its successor, The Lord of the Rings, he made retrospective accommodations for it in The Hobbit. These few but significant changes were integrated into the second edition. Further editions followed with minor emendations, including those reflecting Tolkien's changing concept of the world into which Bilbo stumbled. The work has never been out of print. Its ongoing legacy encompasses many adaptations for stage, screen, radio, board games, and video games. Several of these adaptations have received critical recognition on their own merits.

     
  18. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    22 September 1711 – The Tuscarora War begins in present-day North Carolina.

    Tuscarora War


    The Tuscarora War was fought in North Carolina from September 10, 1711, until February 11, 1715, between the Tuscarora people and their allies on one side and European American settlers, the Yamasee, and other allies on the other. This was considered the bloodiest colonial war in North Carolina.[1][page needed] The Tuscarora signed a treaty with colonial officials in 1718 and settled on a reserved tract of land in Bertie County, North Carolina. The war incited further conflict on the part of the Tuscarora and led to changes in the slave trade of North and South Carolina.

    The first successful English settlement of North Carolina had begun in 1653. The Tuscarora lived in peace with the settlers for more than 50 years, while nearly every other colony in America was involved in some conflict with Native Americans. After the early 18th century war, most of the Tuscarora migrated north to New York. They joined the Five Nations of the Haudenosaunee Confederacy, all Iroquoian-speaking peoples, as the sixth nation.

    1. ^ La Vere, David. (2013). The Tuscarora War : Indians, settlers, and the fight for the Carolina colonies (1st ed.). Chapel Hill [North Carolina]: The University of North Carolina Press. ISBN 978-1-4696-1257-7. OCLC 856017210.[page needed]
     
  19. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    23 September 1932 – The unification of Saudi Arabia is completed.

    Unification of Saudi Arabia

    The Unification of Saudi Arabia was a military and political campaign in which the various tribes, sheikhdoms, city-states, emirates, and kingdoms of most of the central Arabian Peninsula were conquered by the House of Saud, or Al Saud. Unification started in 1902 and continued until 1932, when the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia was proclaimed under the leadership of Abdulaziz, known in the West as Ibn Saud, creating what is sometimes referred to as the Third Saudi State, to differentiate it from the Emirate of Diriyah, the First Saudi State and the Emirate of Nejd, the Second Saudi State, also House of Saud states.

    The Al-Saud had been in exile in the British-protected Emirate of Kuwait since 1893, after their second episode of removal from power and dissolution of their polity, this time by the Al Rashid Emirate of Ha'il. In 1902, Abdulaziz Al Saud recaptured Riyadh, the Al Saud dynasty's former capital. He went on to subdue the rest of Nejd, al-Hasa, Jebel Shammar, Asir, and Hejaz (the location of the Muslim holy cities of Mecca and Medina) between 1913 and 1926. The resultant polity was named the Kingdom of Nejd and Hejaz from 1927 until it was further consolidated with al-Hasa into the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia in 1932.

    It has often been claimed that this process caused some 400,000 to 800,000 casualties. However, recent research suggests that though bloody, the number of deaths and injuries was significantly lower.[16]

    1. ^ Peter W. Wilson, Douglas Graham. Saudi Arabia: the coming storm . M.E.Sharpe, 1994: p.45
    2. ^ Leatherdale, Clive. and Saudi Arabia, 1925–1939: the Imperial Oasis. p.115.
    3. ^ Chisholm, Hugh (25 March 2018). "The Encyclopedia Britannica: a dictionary of arts, sciences, literature and general information". The Encyclopedia Britannica Co.
    4. ^ Barmin, Yury. "How Moscow lost Riyadh in 1938". www.aljazeera.com.
    5. ^ "Karim Hakimov – "Red Pasha" and the Arabian Vizier of the Kremlin". islam-russia.com.
    6. ^ "The Story of the Shammar Tribe, the Indigenous Inhabitants of the Region". رصيف 22. 14 March 2018.
    7. ^ Almana 1982, p. 271.
    8. ^ Upbringing & Education 1902–1915 Archived 12 October 2017 at the Wayback Machine – The King Saud Foundation Website
    9. ^ Helmut Mejcher (May 2004). "King Faisal bin Abdulaziz Al Saud in the Arena of World Politics: A Glimpse from Washington, 1950 to 1971" (PDF). British Journal of Middle Eastern Studies. 31 (1): 5–23. doi:10.1080/1353019042000203412. S2CID 218601838. Archived from the original (PDF) on 9 May 2013. Retrieved 15 April 2012.
    10. ^ a b Al Kahtani, Mohammad Zaid (December 2004). "The Foreign Policy of King Abdulaziz" (PDF). University of Leeds. Retrieved 21 July 2013.
    11. ^ Sabri, Sharaf (2001). The House of Saud in commerce: A study of royal entrepreneurship in Saudi Arabia. New Delhi: I.S. Publications. ISBN 81-901254-0-0.
    12. ^ "الجيش السعودي.. من قوة «الإخوان» إلى القوة النظامية". Arsharq Al-Awsat. 9 October 2009. Archived from the original on 25 November 2015.
    13. ^ Murphy, David (2008). The Arab Revolt 1916-18: Lawrence Sets Arabia Ablaze. Osprey Publishing. p. 26.
    14. ^ Kostiner, Joseph (2 December 1993). The Making of Saudi Arabia, 1916–1936: From Chieftaincy to Monarchical State. Oxford University Press. pp. 170, 171. ISBN 9780195360707.
    15. ^ Cite error: The named reference narrative was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    16. ^ Eden, Jeff (2019). "Did Ibn Saud's militants cause 400,000 casualties? Myths and evidence about the Wahhabi conquests, 1902–1925". British Journal of Middle Eastern Studies. 46 (4): 519–534. doi:10.1080/13530194.2018.1434612. S2CID 149088619.
     
  20. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    24 September 1948 – The Honda Motor Company is founded.

    Honda

    Honda Motor Co., Ltd. (本田技研工業株式会社, Honda Giken Kōgyō Kabushiki gaisha, lit.'Honda Institute of Technology and Industry Company', IPA: [honda] ; /ˈhɒndə/) is a Japanese public multinational conglomerate manufacturer of automobiles, motorcycles, and battery-powered equipment, headquartered in Minato, Tokyo, Japan.

    Honda has been the world's largest motorcycle manufacturer since 1959,[4][5] reaching a production of 400 million by the end of 2019.[6] It is also the world's largest manufacturer of internal combustion engines measured by volume, producing more than 14 million internal combustion engines each year.[7] Honda became the second-largest Japanese automobile manufacturer in 2001.[8][9] In 2015, Honda was the eighth largest automobile manufacturer in the world.[10]

    Honda was the first Japanese automobile manufacturer to release a dedicated luxury brand, Acura, in 1986. Aside from their core automobile and motorcycle businesses, Honda also manufactures garden equipment, marine engines, personal watercraft, power generators, and other products. Since 1986, Honda has been involved with artificial intelligence/robotics research and released their ASIMO robot in 2000. They have also ventured into aerospace with the establishment of GE Honda Aero Engines in 2004 and the Honda HA-420 HondaJet, which began production in 2012. Honda has two joint-ventures in China: Dongfeng Honda and GAC Honda.

    In 2013, Honda invested about 5.7% (US$6.8 billion) of its revenues into research and development.[11] Also in 2013, Honda became the first Japanese automaker to be a net exporter from the United States, exporting 108,705 Honda and Acura models, while importing only 88,357.[12]

    1. ^ "About Honda (as of June 21, 2023)". Retrieved 5 January 2024.
    2. ^ a b c d e "2022 Fiscal Year Consolidated Financial Results" (PDF). Honda IR. 13 May 2022. Archived from the original (PDF) on 6 September 2022. Retrieved 5 September 2022.
    3. ^ "2022 Financial Results (Form 20-F)" (PDF). Honda IR. 22 June 2022. Archived from the original (PDF) on 22 July 2022. Retrieved 5 September 2022.
    4. ^ Grant, Robert M.; Neupert, Kent E. (2003). Cases in contemporary strategy analysis (3rd ed.). Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 1-4051-1180-1.
    5. ^ Johnson, Richard Alan (2005). Six men who built the modern auto industry. MotorBooks International. p. 52. ISBN 0-7603-1958-8.
    6. ^ "Honda is celebrating the production of 400 million motorcycles". hondanews.eu. Retrieved 29 May 2020.
    7. ^ Miller, Edward (18 April 2008). "First Motorcycle Airbag Earns Takata and Honda 2008 Automotive News Pace Innovation Partnership Award". Honda.com. Archived from the original on 8 March 2009. Retrieved 28 July 2009.
    8. ^ "Harga Honda Mobilio". Mobilio. Archived from the original on 10 September 2014. Retrieved 22 November 2009.
    9. ^ "The History of Honda". Cars-directory.net. Retrieved 22 November 2009.
    10. ^ "World motor vehicle production OICA correspondents survey without double counts world ranking of manufacturers year 2011" (PDF). Retrieved 29 May 2020.
    11. ^ Le top 20 des entreprises les plus innovantes du monde, Challenges, 22 October 2013
    12. ^ Ross, Jeffrey N. (29 January 2014). "Honda is first Japanese carmaker to be a net-exporter from US". autoblog. Retrieved 25 July 2014.
     
  21. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    25 September 1964 – The Mozambican War of Independence against Portugal begins.

    Mozambican War of Independence

    The Mozambican War of Independence[48] was an armed conflict between the guerrilla forces of the Mozambique Liberation Front or FRELIMO (Frente de Libertação de Moçambique) and Portugal. The war officially started on September 25, 1964, and ended with a ceasefire on September 8, 1974, resulting in a negotiated independence in 1975.

    Portugal's wars against guerrilla fighters seeking independence in its 400-year-old African territories began in 1961 with Angola. In Mozambique, the conflict erupted in 1964 as a result of unrest and frustration amongst many indigenous Mozambican populations, who perceived foreign rule as exploitation and mistreatment, which served only to further Portuguese economic interests in the region. Many Mozambicans also resented Portugal's policies towards indigenous people, which resulted in discrimination and limited access to Portuguese-style education and skilled employment.

    As successful self-determination movements spread throughout Africa after World War II, many Mozambicans became progressively more nationalistic in outlook, and increasingly frustrated by the nation's continued subservience to foreign rule. For the other side, many enculturated indigenous Africans who were fully integrated into the social organization of Portuguese Mozambique, in particular those from urban centres, reacted to claims of independence with a mixture of discomfort and suspicion. The ethnic Portuguese of the territory, which included most of the ruling authorities, responded with increased military presence and fast-paced development projects.

    A mass exile of Mozambique's political intelligentsia to neighbouring countries provided havens from which radical Mozambicans could plan actions and foment political unrest in their homeland. The formation of FRELIMO and the support of the Soviet Union, Romania, China, Cuba, Yugoslavia, Bulgaria, Tanzania, Zambia, Egypt, Algeria, Gaddafi regime in Libya and Brazil through arms and advisers, led to the outbreak of violence that was to last well over a decade.

    From a military standpoint, the Portuguese regular army held the upper hand during the conflict against FRELIMO guerrilla forces. Nonetheless, Mozambique succeeded in achieving independence on June 25, 1975, after a civil resistance movement known as the Carnation Revolution backed by portions of the military in Portugal overthrew the Salazar regime, thus ending 470 years of Portuguese colonial rule in the East African region. According to historians of the Revolution, the military coup in Portugal was in part fuelled by protests concerning the conduct of Portuguese troops in their treatment of some of the indigenous Mozambican populace.[49][50] The growing communist influence within the group of Portuguese insurgents who led the military coup and the pressure of the international community in relation to the Portuguese Colonial War were the primary causes of the outcome.[51]

    1. ^ Robert J. Griffiths:U.S. Security Cooperation with Africa: Political and Policy Challenges, Routledge, 2016, p.75.
    2. ^ Ronald Dreyer:Namibia & Southern Africa, Routledge, 2016, p. 89.
    3. ^ Cox, Courtland (1976) "The U.S. Involvement in Angola", New Directions: Vol. 3: Iss. 2, Article 4. Available at: https://dh.howard.edu/newdirections/vol3/iss2/4
    4. ^ Mike Bowker, Phil Williams: Superpower Detente, SAGE, 1988, p. 117. "The CIA had supplied Roberto with money and arms from 1962 to 1969."
    5. ^ Frontiersmen: Warfare In Africa Since 1950, 2002. p. 49.
    6. ^ Southern Africa The Escalation of a Conflict : a Politico-military Study, 1976. p. 99.
    7. ^ Fidel Castro: My Life: A Spoken Autobiography, 2008. p. 315
    8. ^ The Cuban Military Under Castro, 1989. p. 45
    9. ^ Translations on Sub-Saharan Africa 607–623, 1967. p. 65.
    10. ^ Underdevelopment and the Transition to Socialism: Mozambique and Tanzania, 2013. p. 38.
    11. ^ a b c d e Miguel Cardina: The Portuguese Colonial War and the African Liberation Struggles: Memory, Politics and Uses of the Past, Taylor & Francis, 2023, p. 166. "Besides cooperation from Guinea-Conakry and Senegal, the movement [PAIGC] also received military and technical assistance, primarily from the Soviet Union, Czechoslovakia, East Germany, China and Cuba.
    12. ^ Tor Sellström: Sweden and National Liberation in Southern Africa: Vol 2, Solidarity and assistance 1970-1994, Nordiska Afrikainstitutet, 2002, p. 50.
    13. ^ Anna Calori, Anne-Kristin Hartmetz, Bence Kocsev, James Mark, Jan Zofka, Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co KG, Oct 21, 2019, Between East and South: Spaces of Interaction in the Globalizing Economy of the Cold War, pp. 133–134
    14. ^ Ion Rațiu, Foreign Affairs Publishing Company, 1975, Contemporary Romania: Her Place in World Affairs, p. 90
    15. ^ Liberalism, Black Power, and the Making of American Politics, 1965–1980. 2009. p. 83
    16. ^ United Front against imperialism: China's foreign policy in Africa, 1986. p. 174
    17. ^ Portuguese Africa: a handbook, 1969. p. 423.
    18. ^ China Into Africa: Trade, Aid, and Influence, 2009. p. 156.
    19. ^ Tito in the world press on the occasion of the 80th birthday, 1973. p. 33.
    20. ^ Mozambique, Resistance and Freedom: A Case for Reassessment, 1994. p. 64.
    21. ^ Frelimo candidate Filipe Nyusi leading Mozambique presidential election
    22. ^ Encyclopedia Americana: Sumatra to Trampoline, 2005. p. 275
    23. ^ Nyerere and Africa: End of an Era, 2007. p. 226
    24. ^ Moscow's Next Target in Africa by Robert Moss
    25. ^ FRELIMO. Departamento de Informação e Propaganda, Mozambique revolution, Page 10
    26. ^ Culture And Customs of Mozambique, 2007. p. 16
    27. ^ Mozambique in the twentieth century: from colonialism to independence, 1979. p. 271
    28. ^ A History of FRELIMO, 1982. p. 13
    29. ^ Intercontinental Press, 1974. p. 857.
    30. ^ The Last Bunker: A Report on White South Africa Today, 1976. p. 122
    31. ^ Vectors of Foreign Policy of the Mozambique Front (1962–1975): A Contribution to the Study of the Foreign Policy of the People's Republic of Mozambique, 1988. p. 8
    32. ^ Africa's Armies: From Honor to Infamy, 2009. p. 76
    33. ^ Paraska Tolan-Szkilnik: Maghreb Noir: The Militant-Artists of North Africa and the Struggle for a Pan-African, Postcolonial Future, Stanford University Press, 2023.
    34. ^ Imagery and Ideology in U.S. Policy Toward Libya 1969–1982, 1988. p.. 70
    35. ^ Qaddafi: his ideology in theory and practice, 1986. p. 140.
    36. ^ Selcher, Wayne A. (1976). "Brazilian Relations with Portuguese Africa in the Context of the Elusive "Luso-Brazilian Community"". Journal of Interamerican Studies and World Affairs. 18 (1): 25–58. doi:10.2307/174815. JSTOR 174815.
    37. ^ South Africa in Africa: A Study in Ideology and Foreign Policy, 1975. p. 173.
    38. ^ The dictionary of contemporary politics of Southern Africa, 1988. p. 250.
    39. ^ Terror on the Tracks: A Rhodesian Story, 2011. p. 5.
    40. ^ Kohn, George C. (2006). Dictionary of Wars. Infobase. ISBN 978-1438129167.
    41. ^ Chirambo, Reuben (2004). "'Operation Bwezani': The Army, Political Change, and Dr. Banda's Hegemony in Malawi" (PDF). Nordic Journal of African Studies. 13 (2): 146–163. Archived from the original (PDF) on June 19, 2018. Retrieved May 12, 2011.
    42. ^ Salazar: A Political Biography, 2009. p. 530.
    43. ^ Prominent African Leaders Since Independence, 2012. p. 383.
    44. ^ Beit-Hallahmi, Benjamin (January 28, 1987). Beit-Hallahmi, Benjamin. The Israeli Connection: Who Israel Arms and why. p. 64. "Though Israel was busy establishing ties with newly independent African nations in the 1960s, it did not support all forms of decolonization. When it came to Portugal's colonies, Israel was on the side of continuing European rule.". Pantheon Books. ISBN 978-0-394-55922-3.
    45. ^ Westfall, William C., Jr., United States Marine Corps, Mozambique-Insurgency Against Portugal, 1963–1975, 1984. Retrieved on March 10, 2007
    46. ^ Walter C. Opello, Jr. Issue: A Journal of Opinion, Vol. 4, No. 2, 1974, p. 29
    47. ^ Cite error: The named reference Leonard38 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    48. ^ (Portuguese: Guerra da Independência de Moçambique, 'War of Independence of Mozambique')
    49. ^ George Wright, The Destruction of a Nation, 1996
    50. ^ Phil Mailer, Portugal – The Impossible Revolution?, 1977
    51. ^ Stewart Lloyd-Jones, ISCTE (Lisbon), Portugal's history since 1974, "The Portuguese Communist Party (PCP–Partido Comunista Português), which had courted and infiltrated the MFA from the very first days of the revolution, decided that the time was now right for it to seize the initiative. Much of the radical fervour that was unleashed following Spínola's coup attempt was encouraged by the PCP as part of their own agenda to infiltrate the MFA and steer the revolution in their direction.", Centro de Documentação 25 de Abril, University of Coimbra
     
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    26 September 1580Francis Drake finishes his circumnavigation of the Earth

    Francis Drake

    Sir Francis Drake (c. 1540 – 28 January 1596) was an English explorer and privateer best known for his circumnavigation of the world in a single expedition between 1577 and 1580. This was the first English circumnavigation, and third circumnavigation overall. Having started as a simple seaman, in 1588 he was part of the fight against the Spanish Armada as a vice-admiral.

    At an early age, Drake was placed into the household of a relative, William Hawkins, a prominent sea captain in Plymouth. In 1572, he set sail on his first independent mission, privateering along the Spanish Main. Drake's circumnavigation began on 15 December 1577. He crossed the Pacific Ocean, until then an area of exclusive Spanish interest, and laid claim to New Albion, plundering coastal towns and ships for treasure and supplies as he went. He arrived back in England on 26 September 1580. Elizabeth I awarded Drake a knighthood in 1581 which he received aboard his galleon the Golden Hind.

    Drake's circumnavigation inaugurated an era of conflict with the Spanish and in 1585, the Anglo-Spanish War began. Drake was in command of an expedition to the Americas that attacked Spanish shipping and ports. When Philip II sent the Spanish Armada to England in 1588 as a precursor to its invasion, Drake was second-in-command of the English fleet that fought against and repulsed the Spanish fleet. A year later he led the English Armada in a failed attempt to destroy the remaining Spanish fleet.

    Drake was the Member of Parliament (MP) for three constituencies: Camelford in 1581, Bossiney in 1584, and Plymouth in 1593. Drake's exploits made him a hero to the English, but his privateering led the Spanish to brand him a pirate, known to them as El Draque ("The Dragon" in old Spanish).[1] He died of dysentery after his failed assault on Panama in January 1596.

    1. ^ a b Edmundson, William (2009). A History of the British Presence in Chile: From Bloody Mary to Charles Darwin and the Decline of British Influence. Springer. p. 9. ISBN 978-0230101210. The fame of his exploits spread to the extent that by the mid-1570s, Philip began to refer to him as Draque, Francisco Draque, El Draque, and even more intimately as El Capitán Francisco. Educated Spaniards called him Francisco Draguez, and Spanish mothers warned their children that if they did not behave, El Draco would come and take them away – a play on words, since el drake in old Spanish means "the dragon", derived from the Latin Draco.
    2. ^ 1634–1699: McCusker, J. J. (1997). How Much Is That in Real Money? A Historical Price Index for Use as a Deflator of Money Values in the Economy of the United States: Addenda et Corrigenda (PDF). American Antiquarian Society. 1700–1799: McCusker, J. J. (1992). How Much Is That in Real Money? A Historical Price Index for Use as a Deflator of Money Values in the Economy of the United States (PDF). American Antiquarian Society. 1800–present: Federal Reserve Bank of Minneapolis. "Consumer Price Index (estimate) 1800–". Retrieved 29 February 2024.
    3. ^ Woolsey, Matt (19 September 2008). "Top-Earning Pirates". Forbes.com. Forbes Magazine. Retrieved 5 February 2013.
     
  23. Admin2

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    26 September 1580Francis Drake finishes his circumnavigation of the Earth

    Francis Drake

    Sir Francis Drake (c. 1540 – 28 January 1596) was an English explorer and privateer best known for his circumnavigation of the world in a single expedition between 1577 and 1580. This was the first English circumnavigation, and third circumnavigation overall. Having started as a simple seaman, in 1588 he was part of the fight against the Spanish Armada as a vice-admiral.

    At an early age, Drake was placed into the household of a relative, William Hawkins, a prominent sea captain in Plymouth. In 1572, he set sail on his first independent mission, privateering along the Spanish Main. Drake's circumnavigation began on 15 December 1577. He crossed the Pacific Ocean, until then an area of exclusive Spanish interest, and laid claim to New Albion, plundering coastal towns and ships for treasure and supplies as he went. He arrived back in England on 26 September 1580. Elizabeth I awarded Drake a knighthood in 1581 which he received aboard his galleon the Golden Hind.

    Drake's circumnavigation inaugurated an era of conflict with the Spanish and in 1585, the Anglo-Spanish War began. Drake was in command of an expedition to the Americas that attacked Spanish shipping and ports. When Philip II sent the Spanish Armada to England in 1588 as a precursor to its invasion, Drake was second-in-command of the English fleet that fought against and repulsed the Spanish fleet. A year later he led the English Armada in a failed attempt to destroy the remaining Spanish fleet.

    Drake was the Member of Parliament (MP) for three constituencies: Camelford in 1581, Bossiney in 1584, and Plymouth in 1593. Drake's exploits made him a hero to the English, but his privateering led the Spanish to brand him a pirate, known to them as El Draque ("The Dragon" in old Spanish).[1] He died of dysentery after his failed assault on Panama in January 1596.

    1. ^ a b Edmundson, William (2009). A History of the British Presence in Chile: From Bloody Mary to Charles Darwin and the Decline of British Influence. Springer. p. 9. ISBN 978-0230101210. The fame of his exploits spread to the extent that by the mid-1570s, Philip began to refer to him as Draque, Francisco Draque, El Draque, and even more intimately as El Capitán Francisco. Educated Spaniards called him Francisco Draguez, and Spanish mothers warned their children that if they did not behave, El Draco would come and take them away – a play on words, since el drake in old Spanish means "the dragon", derived from the Latin Draco.
    2. ^ 1634–1699: McCusker, J. J. (1997). How Much Is That in Real Money? A Historical Price Index for Use as a Deflator of Money Values in the Economy of the United States: Addenda et Corrigenda (PDF). American Antiquarian Society. 1700–1799: McCusker, J. J. (1992). How Much Is That in Real Money? A Historical Price Index for Use as a Deflator of Money Values in the Economy of the United States (PDF). American Antiquarian Society. 1800–present: Federal Reserve Bank of Minneapolis. "Consumer Price Index (estimate) 1800–". Retrieved 29 February 2024.
    3. ^ Woolsey, Matt (19 September 2008). "Top-Earning Pirates". Forbes.com. Forbes Magazine. Retrieved 5 February 2013.
     
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    27 September 1959Typhoon Vera kills nearly 5,000 people in Japan.

    Typhoon Vera

    Typhoon Vera, also known as the Isewan Typhoon (伊勢湾台風, Ise-wan Taifū), was an exceptionally intense tropical cyclone that struck Japan in September 1959, becoming the strongest and deadliest typhoon on record to make landfall on the country as a Category 5 equivalent storm. The storm's intensity resulted in catastrophic damage of unparalleled severity and extent, and was a major setback to the Japanese economy, which was still recovering from World War II. In the aftermath of Vera, Japan's disaster management and relief systems were significantly reformed, and the typhoon's effects would set a benchmark for future storms striking the country.

    Vera developed on September 20 between Guam and Chuuk State, and initially tracked westward before taking a more northerly course, reaching tropical storm strength the following day. By this point Vera had assumed a more westerly direction of movement and had begun to rapidly intensify, and reached its peak intensity on September 23 with maximum sustained winds equivalent to that of a modern-day Category 5 hurricane. With little change in strength, Vera curved and accelerated northward, resulting in a landfall on September 26 near Shionomisaki on Honshu. Atmospheric wind patterns caused the typhoon to briefly emerge into the Sea of Japan before recurving eastward and moving ashore Honshu for a second time. Movement over land greatly weakened Vera, and after reentering the North Pacific Ocean later that day, Vera transitioned into an extratropical cyclone on September 27; these remnants continued to persist for an additional two days.

    Though Vera was accurately forecast and its track into Japan was well anticipated, limited coverage of telecommunications, combined with lack of urgency from Japanese media and the storm's intensity, greatly inhibited potential evacuation and disaster mitigation processes. Rainfall from the storm's outer rainbands began to cause flooding in river basins well in advance of the storm's landfall. Upon moving ashore Honshu, the typhoon brought a strong storm surge that destroyed numerous flood defense systems, inundating coastal regions and sinking ships. Damage totals from Vera reached US$600 million (equivalent to US$6.02 billion in 2022). The number of fatalities caused by Vera remain discrepant, though current estimates indicate that the typhoon caused more than 5,000 deaths, making it one of the deadliest typhoons in Japanese history. It also injured almost 39,000 people and displaced about 1.6 million.[2]

    Relief efforts were initiated by Japanese and American governments immediately following Typhoon Vera. Due to the inundation caused by the typhoon, localized epidemics were reported, including those of dysentery and tetanus. The spread of disease and blocking debris slowed the ongoing relief efforts. Due to the unprecedented damage and loss of life following Vera, the National Diet passed legislation in order to more efficiently assist affected regions and mitigate future disasters. This included the passage of the Disaster Countermeasures Basic Act in 1961, which set standards for Japanese disaster relief, including the establishment of the Central Disaster Prevention Council.

    1. ^ 1959 伊勢湾台風 - 災害教訓の継承に関する専門調査会報告書
    2. ^ "Ise Bay typhoon of 1959". Encyclopaedia Britannica.
     
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    28 September 1919Race riots begin in Omaha, Nebraska.

    Omaha race riot of 1919

    The Omaha Race Riot occurred in Omaha, Nebraska, September 28–29, 1919. The race riot resulted in the lynching of Will Brown, a black civilian; the death of two white rioters; the injuries of many Omaha Police Department officers and civilians, including the attempted hanging of Mayor Edward Parsons Smith; and a public rampage by thousands of white rioters who set fire to the Douglas County Courthouse in downtown Omaha. It followed more than 20 race riots that occurred in major industrial cities and certain rural areas of the United States during the Red Summer of 1919.

     
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    29 September 1911 – Italy declares war on the Ottoman Empire.

    Italo-Turkish War

    The Italo-Turkish or Turco-Italian War (Turkish: Trablusgarp Savaşı, "Tripolitanian War", Italian: Guerra di Libia, "War of Libya") was fought between the Kingdom of Italy and the Ottoman Empire from 29 September 1911, to 18 October 1912. As a result of this conflict, Italy captured the Ottoman Tripolitania Vilayet, of which the main sub-provinces were Fezzan, Cyrenaica, and Tripoli itself. These territories became the colonies of Italian Tripolitania and Cyrenaica, which would later merge into Italian Libya.

    During the conflict, Italian forces also occupied the Dodecanese islands in the Aegean Sea. Italy agreed to return the Dodecanese to the Ottoman Empire in the Treaty of Ouchy[9] in 1912. However, the vagueness of the text, combined with subsequent adverse events unfavourable to the Ottoman Empire (the outbreak of the Balkan Wars and World War I), allowed a provisional Italian administration of the islands, and Turkey eventually renounced all claims on these islands in Article 15 of the 1923 Treaty of Lausanne.[10]

    The war is considered a precursor of the First World War. Members of the Balkan League, seeing how easily Italy defeated the Ottomans[11] and motivated by incipient Balkan nationalism, attacked the Ottoman Empire in October 1912, starting the First Balkan War a few days before the end of the Italo-Turkish War.[12]

    The Italo-Turkish War saw numerous technological changes, most notably the use of airplanes in combat. On 23 October 1911, an Italian pilot, Capitano Carlo Piazza, flew over Turkish lines on the world's first aerial reconnaissance mission,[13] and on 1 November, the first aerial bomb was dropped by Sottotenente Giulio Gavotti, on Turkish troops in Libya, from an early model of Etrich Taube aircraft.[14] The Turks, using rifles, were the first to shoot down an airplane.[15] Another use of new technology was a network of wireless telegraphy stations established soon after the initial landings.[16] Guglielmo Marconi, the inventor of wireless telegraphy, came to Libya to conduct experiments with the Italian Corps of Engineers.

    1. ^ Erik Goldstein (2005). Wars and Peace Treaties: 1816 to 1991. Routledge. p. 37. ISBN 978-1134899128.
    2. ^ a b Translated and Compiled from the Reports of the Italian General Staff, "The Italo-Turkish War (1911–12)" (Franklin Hudson Publishing Company, 1914), p. 15
    3. ^ a b The History of the Italian-Turkish War, William Henry Beehler, pp. 13–36
    4. ^ a b Spencer C. Tucker; Priscilla Mary Roberts. World War I: A Student Encyclopedia. p. 946.
    5. ^ a b c Emigrant nation: the making of Italy abroad, Mark I. Choate, Harvard University Press, 2008, ISBN 0-674-02784-1, p. 176.
    6. ^ Translated and Compiled from the Reports of the Italian General Staff, "The Italo-Turkish War (1911–12)" (Franklin Hudson Publishing Company, 1914), p. 82
    7. ^ Lyall, Jason (2020). "Divided Armies": Inequality and Battlefield Performance in Modern War. Princeton University Press. p. 278.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
    8. ^ Spencer Tucker, Priscilla Mary Roberts: World War I: A Student Encyclopedia, ABC-CLIO, 2005, ISBN 1-85109-879-8, p. 946.
    9. ^ "Treaty of Lausanne, October, 1912". www.mtholyoke.edu. Archived from the original on 25 October 2021. Retrieved 25 March 2018.
    10. ^ "Treaty of Lausanne - World War I Document Archive". wwi.lib.byu.edu. Retrieved 25 March 2018.
    11. ^ Jean-Michel Rabaté (2008). 1913: The Cradle of Modernism. Wiley-Blackwell. p. 7. ISBN 978-0-470-69147-2. Realizing how easily the Italians had defeated the Ottomans, the members of the Balkan League attacked the empire before the war with Italy was over
    12. ^ Stanton, Andrea L. (2012). Cultural Sociology of the Middle East, Asia, and Africa: An Encyclopedia. Sage. p. 310. ISBN 978-1412981767.
    13. ^ Maksel, Rebecca. "The World's First Warplane". airspacemag.com. Retrieved 25 March 2018.
    14. ^ U.S. Centennial of Flight Commission: Aviation at the Start of the First World War Archived 2012-10-09 at the Wayback Machine
    15. ^ James D. Crabtree: On air defense, ISBN 0275947920, Greenwood Publishing Group, p. 9
    16. ^ Wireless telegraphy in the Italo-Turkish War
     
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    30 September 1399Henry IV is proclaimed king of England.

    Henry IV of England

    Henry IV (c. April 1367 – 20 March 1413), also known as Henry Bolingbroke, was King of England from 1399 to 1413. Henry's grandfather Edward III had begun the Hundred Years War by claiming the French throne in opposition to the House of Valois, a claim that Henry would continue during his reign. However, unlike his forebears, Henry was the first English ruler whose mother tongue was English rather than French, since the Norman Conquest, over three hundred years before.[4]

    Henry was the son of John of Gaunt, Duke of Lancaster, himself the son of Edward III.[2] Gaunt was a powerful figure in England during the reign of his nephew, Richard II. Henry was involved in the 1388 revolt of Lords Appellant against Richard, but he was not punished. However, he was exiled from court in 1398. After Gaunt died in 1399, Richard blocked Henry's inheritance of his father's duchy. That year, Henry rallied a group of supporters, overthrew and imprisoned Richard II, and usurped the throne, actions that later would lead to what is termed the Wars of the Roses and, eventually, a more stabilized monarchy.

    As king, Henry faced a number of rebellions, most seriously those of Owain Glyndŵr, the last Welsh Prince of Wales, and the English knight Henry Percy (Hotspur), who was killed in the Battle of Shrewsbury in 1403. Henry IV had six children from his first marriage to Mary de Bohun, while his second marriage to Joan of Navarre was childless. Henry and Mary's eldest son, Henry of Monmouth, assumed the reins of government in 1410 as the king's health worsened. Henry IV died in 1413, and his son succeeded him as Henry V.

    1. ^ Mortimer 2007, p. 176.
    2. ^ a b Weir 2008, p. 124.
    3. ^ Mortimer, I. (6 December 2006). "Henry IV's date of birth and the royal Maundy" (PDF). Historical Research. 80 (210): 567–576. doi:10.1111/j.1468-2281.2006.00403.x. ISSN 0950-3471. Archived from the original (PDF) on 13 September 2019.
    4. ^ Janvrin & Rawlinson 2016, p. 16.
     
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    1 October 1553 – Coronation of Queen Mary I of England.

    Mary I of England

    Mary I (18 February 1516 – 17 November 1558), also known as Mary Tudor, and as "Bloody Mary" by her Protestant opponents, was Queen of England and Ireland from July 1553 and Queen of Spain and the Habsburg dominions as the wife of King Philip II from January 1556 until her death in 1558. She is best known for her vigorous attempt to reverse the English Reformation, which had begun during the reign of her father, King Henry VIII. Her attempt to restore to the Church the property confiscated in the previous two reigns was largely thwarted by Parliament, but during her five-year reign, Mary had over 280 religious dissenters burned at the stake in the Marian persecutions.

    Mary was the only surviving child of Henry VIII by his first wife, Catherine of Aragon. She was declared illegitimate and barred from the line of succession following the annulment of her parents' marriage in 1533, though she would later be restored via the Third Succession Act 1543. Her younger half-brother, Edward VI, succeeded their father in 1547 at the age of nine. When Edward became terminally ill in 1553, he attempted to remove Mary from the line of succession because he supposed, correctly, that she would reverse the Protestant reforms that had taken place during his reign. Upon his death, leading politicians proclaimed Mary and Edward's Protestant cousin, Lady Jane Grey, as queen instead. Mary speedily assembled a force in East Anglia and deposed Jane, who was eventually beheaded. Mary was—excluding the disputed reigns of Jane and the Empress Matilda—the first queen regnant of England. In July 1554, Mary married Prince Philip of Spain, becoming queen consort of Habsburg Spain on his accession in 1556.

    After Mary's death in 1558, her re-establishment of Roman Catholicism was reversed by her younger half-sister and successor, Elizabeth I.

    1. ^ Weir (p. 160)
    2. ^ Sweet and Maxwell's (p. 28)


    Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

     
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    2 October 1967Thurgood Marshall is sworn in as the first African-American justice of the United States Supreme Court.

    Thurgood Marshall

    Thoroughgood "Thurgood" Marshall (July 2, 1908 – January 24, 1993) was an American civil rights lawyer and jurist who served as an associate justice of the Supreme Court of the United States from 1967 until 1991. He was the Supreme Court's first African-American justice. Prior to his judicial service, he was an attorney who fought for civil rights, leading the NAACP Legal Defense and Educational Fund. Marshall was a prominent figure in the movement to end racial segregation in American public schools. He won 29 of the 32 civil rights cases he argued before the Supreme Court, culminating in the Court's landmark 1954 decision in Brown v. Board of Education, which rejected the separate but equal doctrine and held segregation in public education to be unconstitutional. President Lyndon B. Johnson appointed Marshall to the Supreme Court in 1967. A staunch liberal, he frequently dissented as the Court became increasingly conservative.

    Born in Baltimore, Maryland, Marshall attended Lincoln University and the Howard University School of Law. At Howard, he was mentored by Charles Hamilton Houston, who taught his students to be "social engineers" willing to use the law to fight for civil rights. Marshall opened a law practice in Baltimore but soon joined Houston at the NAACP in New York. They worked together on the segregation case of Missouri ex rel. Gaines v. Canada; after Houston returned to Washington, Marshall took his place as special counsel of the NAACP, and he became director-counsel of the newly formed NAACP Legal Defense and Educational Fund. He participated in numerous landmark Supreme Court cases involving civil rights, including Smith v. Allwright, Morgan v. Virginia, Shelley v. Kraemer, McLaurin v. Oklahoma State Regents, Sweatt v. Painter, Brown, and Cooper v. Aaron. His approach to desegregation cases emphasized the use of sociological data to show that segregation was inherently unequal.

    In 1961, President John F. Kennedy appointed Marshall to the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit, where he favored a broad interpretation of constitutional protections. Four years later, Johnson appointed him as the U.S. Solicitor General. In 1967, Johnson nominated Marshall to replace Justice Tom C. Clark on the Supreme Court; despite opposition from Southern senators, he was confirmed by a vote of 69 to 11. He was often in the majority during the consistently liberal Warren Court period, but after appointments by President Richard Nixon made the Court more conservative, Marshall frequently found himself in dissent. His closest ally on the Court was Justice William J. Brennan Jr., and the two voted the same way in most cases.

    Marshall's jurisprudence was pragmatic and drew on his real-world experience. His most influential contribution to constitutional doctrine, the "sliding-scale" approach to the Equal Protection Clause, called on courts to apply a flexible balancing test instead of a more rigid tier-based analysis. He fervently opposed the death penalty, which in his view constituted cruel and unusual punishment; he and Brennan dissented in more than 1,400 cases in which the majority refused to review a death sentence. He favored a robust interpretation of the First Amendment in decisions such as Stanley v. Georgia, and he supported abortion rights in Roe v. Wade and other cases. Marshall retired from the Supreme Court in 1991 and was replaced by Clarence Thomas. He died in 1993.

     
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    3 October 1932Iraq gains independence from the United Kingdom.

    Iraq

    Iraq,[a] officially the Republic of Iraq,[b] is a country in West Asia and in the geopolitical region known as the Middle East. With a population of over 46 million, it is the 33rd-most populous country. It is a federal parliamentary republic that consists of 18 governorates. The country is bordered by Turkey to the north, Iran to the east, the Persian Gulf and Kuwait to the southeast, Saudi Arabia to the south, Jordan to the southwest, and Syria to the west. The capital and largest city is Baghdad. The Iraqi people are diverse, with similarly diverse geography and wildlife. As part of the Arab and Muslim world,[9][10] most Iraqis are Arab Muslims – minority faiths include Christianity, Yazidism, Mandaeism, Yarsanism, and Zoroastrianism.[11][3][12] The official languages of Iraq are Arabic and Kurdish; others also recognized in specific regions are Turkish (Turkmen), Suret (Assyrian), and Armenian.[13]

    Starting as early as the 6th millennium BC, the fertile alluvial plains between Iraq's Tigris and Euphrates Rivers, referred to as Mesopotamia, gave rise to some of the world's earliest cities, civilizations, and empires in Sumer, Akkad, and Assyria.[14] Mesopotamia was a "Cradle of Civilisation" that saw the inventions of a writing system, mathematics, timekeeping, a calendar, astrology, and a law code.[15][16][17] Following the Muslim conquest of Mesopotamia, Baghdad became the capital and the largest city of the Abbasid Caliphate, and during the Islamic Golden Age, the city evolved into a significant cultural and intellectual center, and garnered a worldwide reputation for its academic institutions, including the House of Wisdom.[18] The city was largely destroyed at the hands of the Mongol Empire in 1258 during the siege of Baghdad, resulting in a decline that would linger through many centuries due to frequent plagues and multiple successive empires.

    Modern Iraq dates to 1920, when the British Mandate for Mesopotamia was created under the authority of the League of Nations. A British-backed monarchy was established in 1921 under Faisal. The Hashemite Kingdom of Iraq gained independence from the UK in 1932. In 1958, the monarchy was overthrown and the Iraqi Republic created.[19] Iraq was ruled by the Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party from 1968 until 2003, led by Ahmad Hassan al-Bakr and then by Saddam Hussein, as a one-party state. Iraq invaded Iran in 1980, sparking a protracted war that ended as a stalemate in 1988, with devastating losses for both sides. In 1990, Iraq invaded Kuwait, leading to global condemnation and a military campaign waged by a US-led international coalition that expelled Iraqi forces from Kuwait. A 2003 invasion launched by another US-led coalition as part of its "Global War on Terror" resulted in the defeat of Ba'athist Iraq and the execution of Saddam Hussein. Discontent with the de-Ba'athification policies of the Provisional Authority stirred up an anti-American insurgency, which escalated into a sectarian civil war. In 2005, a new constitution was adopted and multi-party parliamentary elections were held in Iraq. The Withdrawal of US troops from Iraq began in 2008, and the American occupation officially ended in 2011.[20] Continued repression and sectarian policies of Nouri al-Maliki's Shia government caused the 2012–13 Iraqi protests, after which a coalition of Ba'athist and Sunni militias took up arms during the 2013 Anbar campaign. The climax of the campaign was the Northern Iraq offensive by the Islamic State group that marked its rapid territorial expansion, prompting the return of American troops to fight the War in Iraq, which lasted until 2017. Iran has also intervened in Iraq since 2014, expanding its influence through sectarian parties and Khomeinist militia groups, triggering widespread protests in Iraq.[21]

    Iraq is a federal parliamentary republic. The president is the head of state, the prime minister is the head of government, and the constitution provides for two deliberative bodies, the Council of Representatives and the Council of Union. The judiciary is free and independent of the executive and the legislature.[22] Iraq is considered an emerging middle power[23] with a strategic location[24] and a founding member of the United Nations, the OPEC as well as of the Arab League, OIC, Non-Aligned Movement, and the IMF.

    1. ^ "دەستووری کۆماری عێراق" (in Kurdish). Parliament of Iraq. Retrieved 15 October 2008.
    2. ^ "Iraq, Ministry of Interior – General Directorate for Nationality: Iraqi Constitution (2005)" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 4 March 2011.
    3. ^ a b c Cite error: The named reference cia was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    4. ^ "Surface water and surface water change". Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). Retrieved 11 October 2020.
    5. ^ "وزارة التخطيط، تُصدر بيانا لمناسبة اليوم العالمي للسكان" [Ministry of Planning issues statement on World Population Day]. Ministry of Planning (Iraq) (in Arabic). 7 July 2023. Retrieved 27 February 2024.
    6. ^ a b c d "World Economic Outlook Database, October 2023 Edition. (Iraq)". IMF.org. International Monetary Fund. 10 October 2023. Retrieved 12 October 2023.
    7. ^ "Gini Index - Iraq". World Bank. Archived from the original on 8 December 2015. Retrieved 9 October 2022.
    8. ^ "Human Development Report 2021/2022" (PDF). United Nations Development Programme. 8 September 2022. Retrieved 9 October 2022.
    9. ^ "League of Arab States (LAS) | EEAS". eeas.europa.eu. Retrieved 11 January 2024.
    10. ^ "IRAN'S FOREIGN POLICY IN POST-INVASION IRAQ" (PDF).
    11. ^ Office, Great Britain Foreign (1958). Documents on British Foreign Policy, 1919–1939. H.M. Stationery Office.
    12. ^ "2.15. Religious and ethnic minorities, and stateless persons". European Union Agency for Asylum. Retrieved 13 March 2024.
    13. ^ "Iraq's Constitution" (PDF).
    14. ^ Keith Maisels, Charles (1993). The Near East: The Archaeology in the "Cradle of Civilization". Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-04742-5.
    15. ^ "Iraq | History, Map, Flag, Population, & Facts". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 7 February 2022.
    16. ^ "Mesopotamian Inventions". World History Encyclopedia. Retrieved 7 February 2022.
    17. ^ "Mesopotamia". World History Encyclopedia. Retrieved 7 February 2022.
    18. ^ Gutas, Dimitri (1998). Greek Thought, Arabic Culture: The Graeco-Arabic Translation Movement in Baghdad and Early Abbasid Society (2nd/8th–10th Centuries). London: Routledge.
    19. ^ Hunt, Courtney (2005). The History of Iraq. Greenwood Publishing Group. ISBN 978-0-313-33414-6.
    20. ^ Basu, Moni (18 December 2011). "Deadly Iraq war ends with exit of last U.S. troops". CNN.com. Retrieved 18 December 2011.
    21. ^ Robinson, Kali (18 October 2022). "How Much Influence Does Iran Have in Iraq?". Archived from the original on 30 March 2023.
    22. ^ "Iraq – Government and society". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 5 January 2022.
    23. ^ "A Balancing Act | Strategic Monitor 2018–2019". www.clingendael.org. Retrieved 5 January 2022.
    24. ^ "Iraq – The northeast". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 5 January 2022.


    Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

     
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    4 October 1302 – The Byzantine–Venetian War comes to an end.

    Byzantine–Venetian War (1296–1302)

    The Byzantine–Venetian War of 1296–1302 was an offshoot of the second Venetian–Genoese War of 1294–1299.

     
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    5 October 1938 – In Nazi Germany, Jews' passports are invalidated.

    Nuremberg Laws

    Title page of the German government gazette Reichsgesetzblatt issue proclaiming the laws, published on 16 September 1935 (RGBl. I No. 100)

    The Nuremberg Laws (German: Nürnberger Gesetze, pronounced [ˈnʏʁnbɛʁɡɐ ɡəˈzɛtsə] ) were antisemitic and racist laws that were enacted in Nazi Germany on 15 September 1935, at a special meeting of the Reichstag convened during the annual Nuremberg Rally of the Nazi Party. The two laws were the Law for the Protection of German Blood and German Honour, which forbade marriages and extramarital intercourse between Jews and Germans and the employment of German females under 45 in Jewish households; and the Reich Citizenship Law, which declared that only those of German or related blood were eligible to be Reich citizens. The remainder were classed as state subjects without any citizenship rights. A supplementary decree outlining the definition of who was Jewish was passed on 14 November, and the Reich Citizenship Law officially came into force on that date. The laws were expanded on 26 November 1935 to include Romani and Black people. This supplementary decree defined Romanis as "enemies of the race-based state", the same category as Jews.

    Out of foreign policy concerns, prosecutions under the two laws did not commence until after the 1936 Summer Olympics, held in Berlin. After Hitler rose to power in 1933, the Nazis began to implement antisemitic policies, which included the formation of a Volksgemeinschaft (people's community) based on race. Chancellor and Führer (leader) of the Nazi Party Adolf Hitler declared a national boycott of Jewish businesses on 1 April 1933, and the Law for the Restoration of the Professional Civil Service, passed on 7 April, excluded so-called non-Aryans from the legal profession, the civil service, and from teaching in secondary schools and universities. Books considered un-German, including those by Jewish authors, were destroyed in a nationwide book burning on 10 May. Jewish citizens were harassed and subjected to violent attacks. They were actively suppressed, stripped of their citizenship and civil rights, and eventually completely removed from German society.

    The Nuremberg Laws had a crippling economic and social impact on the Jewish community. Persons convicted of violating the marriage laws were imprisoned, and (subsequent to 8 March 1938) upon completing their sentences were re-arrested by the Gestapo and sent to Nazi concentration camps. Non-Jews gradually stopped socialising with Jews or shopping in Jewish-owned stores, many of which closed due to a lack of customers. As Jews were no longer permitted to work in the civil service or government-regulated professions such as medicine and education, many middle-class business owners and professionals were forced to take menial employment. Emigration was problematic, as Jews were required to remit up to 90% of their wealth as a tax upon leaving the country.[1] By 1938 it was almost impossible for potential Jewish emigrants to find a country willing to take them. Mass deportation schemes such as the Madagascar Plan proved to be impossible for the Nazis to carry out, and starting in mid-1941, the German government started mass exterminations of European Jews.

    1. ^ Longerich 2010, pp. 64, 66.
     
  33. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    6 October 1903 – The High Court of Australia sits for the first time.

    High Court of Australia

    The High Court of Australia is the apex court of the Australian legal system.[2] It exercises original and appellate jurisdiction on matters specified in the Constitution of Australia and supplementary legislation.

    The High Court was established following the passage of the Judiciary Act 1903 (Cth).[3] Its authority derives from chapter III of the Australian Constitution, which vests it (and other courts the Parliament creates) with the judicial power of the Commonwealth.[4] Another legal instrument pertaining to the High Court is the High Court of Australia Act 1979 (Cth).[5]

    The court consists of seven justices, including a chief justice, currently Stephen Gageler. Justices of the High Court are appointed by the governor-general on the formal advice of the attorney-general following the approval of the prime minister and Cabinet.[6] They are appointed permanently until their mandatory retirement at age 70, unless they retire earlier.

    Typically, the court operates by receiving applications for appeal from parties in a process called special leave. If a party's application is accepted, the court will proceed to a full hearing, usually with oral and written submissions from both parties. After conclusion of the hearing, the result is decided by the court. The special leave process does not apply in situations where the court elects to exercise its original jurisdiction; however, the court typically delegates its original jurisdiction to Australia's inferior courts.

    The court has resided in Canberra since 1980, following the construction of a purpose-built High Court building, located in the Parliamentary Triangle and overlooking Lake Burley Griffin.[7] Sittings of the court previously rotated between state capitals, particularly Melbourne and Sydney, and the court continues to regularly sit outside Canberra.

    1. ^ Australian Constitution (Cth) s 72
    2. ^ "Courts". Australian Bureau of Statistics. 24 May 2012. Archived from the original on 25 September 2020. Retrieved 4 May 2013. The High Court of Australia is the highest court of appeal
    3. ^ Judiciary Act 1903 (Cth)
    4. ^ Constitution of Australia (Cth) s 71
    5. ^ Cite error: The named reference High Court of Australia Act was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    6. ^ Davis, Cassie (10 November 2021). "Judicial Appointments". Parliament of Australia. FlagPost.
    7. ^ "High Court of Australia, King Edward Tce, Parkes, ACT, Australia (Place ID 105557)". Australian Heritage Database. Australian Government. 22 June 2004. Retrieved 20 May 2020.
     
  34. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    7 October 1996Fox News Channel begins broadcasting.

    Fox News

    The Fox News Channel (FNC), commonly known as Fox News, is an American multinational conservative news and political commentary television channel and website based in New York City.[3][4] It is owned by Fox News Media, which itself is owned by the Fox Corporation.[5] It is the most-watched cable news network in the U.S.,[6][7][8] and as of 2023 generates approximately 70% of its parent company's pre-tax profit.[9] The channel broadcasts primarily from studios at 1211 Avenue of the Americas in Midtown Manhattan. Fox News provides a service to 86 countries and territories,[10] with international broadcasts featuring Fox Extra segments during advertising breaks.[11]

    The channel was created by Australian-American media mogul Rupert Murdoch in 1996 to appeal to a conservative audience, hiring former Republican media consultant and CNBC executive Roger Ailes as its founding CEO.[12][13] It launched on October 7, 1996, to 17 million cable subscribers.[14] Fox News grew during the late 1990s and 2000s to become the dominant United States cable news subscription network.[15] By September 2018, 87 million U.S. households (91 percent of television subscribers) could receive Fox News.[16] In 2019, it was the top-rated cable network, averaging 2.5 million viewers in prime time.[17][18][19] Murdoch, the executive chairman since 2016,[20][21] said in 2023 that he would step down and hand responsibilities to his son, Lachlan.[22] Suzanne Scott has been the CEO since 2018.[23]

    Fox News controversies have included biased reporting in favor of the Republican Party, its politicians, and conservative causes,[24][25][26] while portraying the Democratic Party in a negative light.[27][28] Critics have argued that the channel is damaging to the integrity of news overall.[29][30] In 2009, Fox News denied bias in its news reporting. The channel's official position was that its reporting operates independently of its opinion journalism.[31][needs update]

    After Dominion Voting Systems initiated a defamation lawsuit against Fox regarding their reporting on the 2020 U.S. election, Fox's internal communications were released, showing that its presenters and senior executives privately doubted claims of a stolen election, while Fox continued to broadcast such claims.[32] Other communications showed Fox CEO Suzanne Scott stating that fact-checking such claims would alienate Fox viewers.[33] Fox settled the lawsuit in 2023 by agreeing to pay Dominion $787.5 million and acknowledging the court ruling that Fox spread falsehoods about Dominion.[34][35]

    According to Pew Research Center, in 2019, 65 percent of Republicans and people who lean Republican trusted Fox News.[36]

    1. ^ "HD Channels | HD Report". Archived from the original on January 20, 2022. Retrieved April 9, 2022.
    2. ^ "Corporate Information". Press.FoxNews.com. Fox News Network, LLC. Archived from the original on December 29, 2020. Retrieved July 11, 2020.
    3. ^ Nie, Norman H.; Miller, Darwin W. III; Golde, Saar; Butler, Daniel M.; Winneg, Kenneth (2010). "The World Wide Web and the U.S. Political News Market". American Journal of Political Science. 54 (2): 428–439. doi:10.1111/j.1540-5907.2010.00439.x. ISSN 1540-5907.
    4. ^ Meyers, Christopher (July 2, 2020). "Partisan News, the Myth of Objectivity, and the Standards of Responsible Journalism". Journal of Media Ethics. 35 (3): 180–194. doi:10.1080/23736992.2020.1780131. ISSN 2373-6992. S2CID 221538960.
    5. ^ "Media Relations". Fox News. Archived from the original on December 29, 2020. Retrieved October 1, 2020.
    6. ^ Joyella, Mark. "Fox News Hits 23rd Consecutive Month As Most-Watched In Cable News As CNN Sees Gains In January". Forbes. Archived from the original on March 11, 2023. Retrieved March 11, 2023.
    7. ^ "U.S. most-watched news network 2022". Statista. Archived from the original on March 9, 2023. Retrieved March 11, 2023.
    8. ^ "Fox News Channel had largest cable TV audience for 7th-straight year in 2022 | Fox News". www.foxnews.com. Archived from the original on March 11, 2023. Retrieved March 11, 2023.
    9. ^ Ellison, Sarah; Barr, Jeremy (May 3, 2023). "For the Murdochs, Tucker Carlson became more trouble than he was worth". Washington Post. ISSN 0190-8286. Archived from the original on May 2, 2023. Retrieved December 31, 2023.
    10. ^ "Where in the World is FOX?". Fox News. March 1, 2011. Archived from the original on February 6, 2019. Retrieved February 6, 2019.
    11. ^ "Fox plans to run sponsored stories during ad breaks this fall". FierceVideo. June 18, 2018. Archived from the original on October 21, 2020. Retrieved September 28, 2020.
    12. ^ Mifflin, Lawrie (October 7, 1996). "At the new Fox News Channel, the buzzword is fairness, separating news from bias". The New York Times. Archived from the original on December 11, 2019. Retrieved May 4, 2010.
    13. ^ Richwine, Lisa; Gibson, Ginger (July 21, 2016). "Divisive Ailes gave conservatives a TV home at Fox News". Reuters. Archived from the original on November 7, 2020. Retrieved October 17, 2019.
    14. ^ Cite error: The named reference King was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    15. ^ Gillette, Felix (October 1, 2008). "Viewers Continuing to Flock to Cable News Networks". The New York Observer. Archived from the original on October 28, 2020. Retrieved October 17, 2019.
    16. ^ Bucholtz, Andrew (September 10, 2018). "Nielsen coverage estimates for September see gains at ESPN networks, NBCSN, and NBA TV, drops at MLBN and NFLN". Awful Announcing. Archived from the original on August 19, 2019. Retrieved January 17, 2020.
    17. ^ Joyella, Mark (December 11, 2019). "Fox News Ends 2019 With Biggest Prime Time Ratings Ever". Forbes. Archived from the original on December 7, 2020. Retrieved January 16, 2020.
    18. ^ Andreeva, Nellie; Johnson, Ted (December 27, 2019). "Cable Ratings 2019: Fox News Tops Total Viewers, ESPN Wins 18–49 Demo As Entertainment Networks Slide". Deadline Hollywood. Archived from the original on January 14, 2020. Retrieved January 16, 2020.
    19. ^ Schneider, Michael (December 26, 2019). "Most-Watched Television Networks: Ranking 2019's Winners and Losers". Variety. Archived from the original on January 6, 2020. Retrieved January 16, 2020.
    20. ^ Reilly, Katie (July 21, 2016). "Roger Ailes Resigns From Fox News Amid Sexual Harassment Accusations". Time. Archived from the original on November 22, 2020. Retrieved October 17, 2019.
    21. ^ Redden, Molly (July 21, 2016). "Roger Ailes leaves Fox News in wake of sexual harassment claims". The Guardian. Archived from the original on April 28, 2023. Retrieved October 17, 2019.
    22. ^ Darcy, Oliver (September 21, 2023). "Rupert Murdoch steps down as Fox and News Corp. chairman". CNN Business. Archived from the original on September 21, 2023. Retrieved September 21, 2023.
    23. ^ Steinberg, Brian (May 17, 2018). "Suzanne Scott Named CEO of Fox News". Variety. Archived from the original on November 9, 2020. Retrieved May 17, 2018.
    24. ^ Jamieson, Kathleen Hall; Cappella, Joseph N. (February 4, 2010). Echo Chamber: Rush Limbaugh and the Conservative Media Establishment. Oxford, New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19539-860-1. Archived from the original on June 12, 2020. Retrieved May 11, 2018. We do this to illustrate the ways Fox News, Limbaugh, and the print and web editorial pages of the Wall Street Journal play both offense and defense in service of conservative objectives. As these case studies will suggest, the big three reinforce each other's conservative messages in ways that distinguish them from the other major broadcast media, CBS News, NBC News, ABC News, CNN, MSNBC, CNBC and major print outlets such as the Washington Post and New York Times.
    25. ^ Skocpol, Theda; Williamson, Vanessa (September 1, 2016). The Tea Party and the Remaking of Republican Conservatism. Oxford, New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 5, 8, 86, 123, 125, 130–140. ISBN 978-0-19063-366-0. Archived from the original on May 14, 2020. Retrieved May 11, 2018. ... the challenge of spreading and germinating the Tea Party idea was surmounted with impressive ease because a major sector of the U.S. media today is openly partisan—including Fox News Channel, the right-wing 'blogosphere,' and a nationwide network of right-wing talk radio programs. This aptly named conservative media 'echo chamber' reaches into the homes of many Americans ... Towering above all others is the Fox News empire, the loudest voice in conservative media. Despite its claim to be "fair and balanced", multiple studies have documented FNC's conservative stance ... Fox News's conservative slant encourages a particular worldview.
    26. ^ Cite error: The named reference Kludt-2018 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    27. ^ Grossman, Matt; Hopkins, David A. (October 13, 2016). Asymmetric Politics: Ideological Republicans and Group Interest Democrats. Oxford, New York: Oxford University Press. p. 175. ISBN 978-0-19062-660-0. Archived from the original on May 18, 2020. Retrieved May 11, 2018.
    28. ^ Bard, Mitchell T. (June 2017). "Propaganda, Persuasion, or Journalism?: Fox News' Prime-Time Coverage of Health-Care Reform in 2009 and 2014". Electronic News. 11 (2): 100–118. doi:10.1177/1931243117710278. S2CID 148586375. Archived from the original on April 7, 2022. Retrieved May 10, 2021.
    29. ^ Collings, Anthony (2010). Capturing the News: Three Decades of Reporting Crisis and Conflict. University of Missouri Press. p. 166. ISBN 978-0-8262-7211-9.
    30. ^ McCollum, Jonathan; Hebert, David G. (2014). Theory and Method in Historical Ethnomusicology. Lexington Books. p. 95. ISBN 978-1-4985-0705-9. Archived from the original on July 20, 2023. Retrieved January 27, 2016.
    31. ^ "White House Escalates War of Words With Fox News". Fox News. October 12, 2009. Archived from the original on October 17, 2009. Retrieved March 17, 2021.
    32. ^ Cite error: The named reference Crazy was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    33. ^ Cite error: The named reference Levine was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    34. ^ Cite error: The named reference 787m was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    35. ^ Cite error: The named reference crystal was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    36. ^ Jurkowitz, Mark; Mitchell, Amy; Shearer, Elisa; Walker, Mason (January 24, 2020). "U.S. Media Polarization and the 2020 Election: A Nation Divided". Pew Research Center's Journalism Project. Archived from the original on September 30, 2022. Retrieved September 30, 2022.
     
  35. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    8 October 1813 – The Treaty of Ried is signed between Bavaria and Austria.

    Treaty of Ried

    The Treaty of Ried of 8 October 1813 was a treaty that was signed between the Kingdom of Bavaria and Austrian Empire. By this treaty, Bavaria left the Confederation of the Rhine which was allied with Napoleon, and agreed to join the Sixth Coalition against Napoleon in exchange for a guarantee of her continued sovereign and independent status. On 14 October, Bavaria made a formal declaration of war against Napoleonic France. The treaty was passionately backed by the Crown Prince Louis and by Marshal von Wrede.[1]

    The treaty was drafted by Klemens von Metternich who assembled the German partners in the Sixth Coalition. By separating Bavaria from the Confederation of the Rhine, Metternich checked the ambitions of German nationalists such as Baron von Stein, who had been aiming to use the fall of Napoleon to create a pan-German state. Metternich, a conservative Austrian, desired to avoid a pan-German state which would dissolve local sovereignty and engender liberalism, and also desired to avoid the Prussian ambition of bifurcating Germany between Prussia and Austria. The secret articles in the treaty guaranteed full sovereignty to Bavaria under its existing borders.[2]

    The enactment of the treaty broke Napoleon's supply lines, and two weeks later he was defeated at the Battle of Leipzig.

    1. ^ Der große Schritt nach vorne (in German) Bayerischer Rundfunk, published: 27 April 2015, accessed: 20 October 2015
    2. ^ Zamoyski (2007). Rites of Peace. Harper. pp. 109, 113. ISBN 978-0060775193.
     
  36. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    9 October 1804Hobart, capital of Tasmania, is founded

    Hobart

    Hobart (/ˈhbɑːrt/ HOH-bart;[5] Nuennonne/palawa kani: nipaluna) is the capital and most populous city of the island state of Tasmania, Australia.[6] Home to almost half of all Tasmanians, it is the southernmost and least-populated Australian state capital city, and second-smallest if territories are taken into account, before Darwin, Northern Territory.[2] Hobart is located in Tasmania's south-east on the estuary of the River Derwent, making it the most southern of Australia's capital cities. Its skyline is dominated by the 1,271-metre (4,170 ft) kunanyi/Mount Wellington,[7] and its harbour forms the second-deepest natural port in the world,[8] with much of the city's waterfront consisting of reclaimed land.[9] The metropolitan area is often referred to as Greater Hobart, to differentiate it from the City of Hobart, one of the seven local government areas that cover the city.[2] [10] It has a mild maritime climate.

    The city lies on country which was known by the local Mouheneener people as nipaluna, a name which includes surrounding features such as kunanyi/Mt. Wellington and timtumili minanya (River Derwent).[11] Prior to British settlement, the land had been occupied for possibly as long as 35,000 years[12] by Aboriginal Tasmanians.[13]

    Founded in 1804 as a British penal colony,[14] Hobart is Australia's second-oldest capital city after Sydney, New South Wales. Whaling quickly emerged as a major industry in the area, and for a time Hobart served as the Southern Ocean's main whaling port. Penal transportation ended in the 1850s, after which the city experienced periods of growth and decline. The early 20th century saw an economic boom on the back of mining, agriculture and other primary industries, and the loss of men who served in the world wars was counteracted by an influx of immigration.[15] Despite the rise in migration from Asia and other non-English speaking regions, Hobart's population remains predominantly ethnically Anglo-Celtic, and has the highest percentage of Australian-born residents among Australia's capital cities.[16]

    Today, Hobart is the financial and administrative hub of Tasmania, serving as the home port for both Australian and French Antarctic operations and acting as a tourist destination, with over 1.192 million visitors in 2011–12,[17] and 924,000 during 2022–23.[18] Well-known drawcards include its convict-era architecture, Salamanca Market and the Museum of Old and New Art (MONA), the Southern Hemisphere's largest private museum.

    1. ^ "Regional Population - 2021". abs.gov.au. Australian Bureau of Statistics. Archived from the original on 30 March 2021. Retrieved 24 April 2023.
    2. ^ a b c "Greater Hobart - 2021 Census All persons QuickStats". Australian Bureau of Statistics. 28 June 2022. Archived from the original on 28 June 2022. Retrieved 28 June 2022. Material was copied from this source, which is available under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License Archived 16 October 2017 at the Wayback Machine
    3. ^ "Queen to Honour David Collins in Historic Unveiling". The Mercury. Hobart, Tasmania. 19 February 1954. p. 8, Royal Visit Souvenir supplement. Archived from the original on 7 January 2019. Retrieved 17 January 2012.
    4. ^ a b c Cite error: The named reference BoM was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    5. ^ Macquarie ABC Dictionary. The Macquarie Library. 2003. p. 465. ISBN 1-876429-37-2.
    6. ^ "Nipaluna". Tasmanian Aboriginal Centre. Archived from the original on 15 February 2022. Retrieved 15 February 2022.
    7. ^ "kunanyi / Mount Wellington". Hobart City Council. Archived from the original on 26 June 2017. Retrieved 9 June 2015.
    8. ^ "Antarctic Tasmania". Government of Tasmania. 14 August 2014. Archived from the original on 6 October 2014. Retrieved 29 August 2014.
    9. ^ Mocatta, Gabi; Rawlings-Way, Charles; Worby, Meg (2008). Tasmania (5th ed.). Footscray, Vic.: Lonely Planet. ISBN 9781741046915. Archived from the original on 5 October 2023. Retrieved 1 November 2020.
    10. ^ "Economic Profile". City of Hobart. Archived from the original on 30 October 2014. Retrieved 7 November 2014.
    11. ^ "nipaluna is the name of the country in which the city of Hobart sits". Tasmanian Aboriginal Centre. Hobart. Archived from the original on 11 May 2021. Retrieved 5 May 2021. The nomenclature of Tasmanian Aborigines is not the same as that of the colonisers in that geographical features, like rivers and mountains and so on, are all part of country, and while there may be specific names for those features, they are also a part of the surrounding country. The nipaluna includes geographical features such as kunanyi/Mt. Wellington and timtumili minanya (River Derwent).
    12. ^ "History of Tasmania". Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived from the original on 6 July 2008. Retrieved 17 July 2008.
    13. ^ Horton, David, ed. (1994). The Encyclopedia of Aboriginal Australia. Canberra: Aboriginal Studies Press. (See: Vol. 2, pp.1008–10 [with map]; individual tribal entries; and the 'Further reading' section on pp.1245–72).
    14. ^ Bolt, Frank (2004). The Founding of Hobart. Kettering, Tasmania: Peregrine Press. ISBN 0-9757166-0-3.
    15. ^ "Tasmanian Yearbook". Australian Bureau of Statistics. 13 September 2002. Archived from the original on 31 May 2008. Retrieved 17 July 2008.
    16. ^ "Tasmanian Community Profile". Australian Bureau of Statistics. Archived from the original on 5 October 2023. Retrieved 17 July 2008.
    17. ^ "Regional Overview". Tourism Research Australia. Archived from the original on 11 March 2015. Retrieved 7 November 2014.
    18. ^ "Tasmanian Tourism Snapshot" (PDF). Tourism Tasmania. Archived (PDF) from the original on 4 August 2023. Retrieved 2 August 2023.
     
  37. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    9 October 1804Hobart, capital of Tasmania, is founded

    Hobart

    Hobart (/ˈhbɑːrt/ HOH-bart;[5] Nuennonne/palawa kani: nipaluna) is the capital and most populous city of the island state of Tasmania, Australia.[6] Home to almost half of all Tasmanians, it is the southernmost and least-populated Australian state capital city, and second-smallest if territories are taken into account, before Darwin, Northern Territory.[2] Hobart is located in Tasmania's south-east on the estuary of the River Derwent, making it the most southern of Australia's capital cities. Its skyline is dominated by the 1,271-metre (4,170 ft) kunanyi/Mount Wellington,[7] and its harbour forms the second-deepest natural port in the world,[8] with much of the city's waterfront consisting of reclaimed land.[9] The metropolitan area is often referred to as Greater Hobart, to differentiate it from the City of Hobart, one of the seven local government areas that cover the city.[2] [10] It has a mild maritime climate.

    The city lies on country which was known by the local Mouheneener people as nipaluna, a name which includes surrounding features such as kunanyi/Mt. Wellington and timtumili minanya (River Derwent).[11] Prior to British settlement, the land had been occupied for possibly as long as 35,000 years[12] by Aboriginal Tasmanians.[13]

    Founded in 1804 as a British penal colony,[14] Hobart is Australia's second-oldest capital city after Sydney, New South Wales. Whaling quickly emerged as a major industry in the area, and for a time Hobart served as the Southern Ocean's main whaling port. Penal transportation ended in the 1850s, after which the city experienced periods of growth and decline. The early 20th century saw an economic boom on the back of mining, agriculture and other primary industries, and the loss of men who served in the world wars was counteracted by an influx of immigration.[15] Despite the rise in migration from Asia and other non-English speaking regions, Hobart's population remains predominantly ethnically Anglo-Celtic, and has the highest percentage of Australian-born residents among Australia's capital cities.[16]

    Today, Hobart is the financial and administrative hub of Tasmania, serving as the home port for both Australian and French Antarctic operations and acting as a tourist destination, with over 1.192 million visitors in 2011–12,[17] and 924,000 during 2022–23.[18] Well-known drawcards include its convict-era architecture, Salamanca Market and the Museum of Old and New Art (MONA), the Southern Hemisphere's largest private museum.

    1. ^ "Regional Population - 2021". abs.gov.au. Australian Bureau of Statistics. Archived from the original on 30 March 2021. Retrieved 24 April 2023.
    2. ^ a b c "Greater Hobart - 2021 Census All persons QuickStats". Australian Bureau of Statistics. 28 June 2022. Archived from the original on 28 June 2022. Retrieved 28 June 2022. Material was copied from this source, which is available under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License Archived 16 October 2017 at the Wayback Machine
    3. ^ "Queen to Honour David Collins in Historic Unveiling". The Mercury. Hobart, Tasmania. 19 February 1954. p. 8, Royal Visit Souvenir supplement. Archived from the original on 7 January 2019. Retrieved 17 January 2012.
    4. ^ a b c Cite error: The named reference BoM was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    5. ^ Macquarie ABC Dictionary. The Macquarie Library. 2003. p. 465. ISBN 1-876429-37-2.
    6. ^ "Nipaluna". Tasmanian Aboriginal Centre. Archived from the original on 15 February 2022. Retrieved 15 February 2022.
    7. ^ "kunanyi / Mount Wellington". Hobart City Council. Archived from the original on 26 June 2017. Retrieved 9 June 2015.
    8. ^ "Antarctic Tasmania". Government of Tasmania. 14 August 2014. Archived from the original on 6 October 2014. Retrieved 29 August 2014.
    9. ^ Mocatta, Gabi; Rawlings-Way, Charles; Worby, Meg (2008). Tasmania (5th ed.). Footscray, Vic.: Lonely Planet. ISBN 9781741046915. Archived from the original on 5 October 2023. Retrieved 1 November 2020.
    10. ^ "Economic Profile". City of Hobart. Archived from the original on 30 October 2014. Retrieved 7 November 2014.
    11. ^ "nipaluna is the name of the country in which the city of Hobart sits". Tasmanian Aboriginal Centre. Hobart. Archived from the original on 11 May 2021. Retrieved 5 May 2021. The nomenclature of Tasmanian Aborigines is not the same as that of the colonisers in that geographical features, like rivers and mountains and so on, are all part of country, and while there may be specific names for those features, they are also a part of the surrounding country. The nipaluna includes geographical features such as kunanyi/Mt. Wellington and timtumili minanya (River Derwent).
    12. ^ "History of Tasmania". Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived from the original on 6 July 2008. Retrieved 17 July 2008.
    13. ^ Horton, David, ed. (1994). The Encyclopedia of Aboriginal Australia. Canberra: Aboriginal Studies Press. (See: Vol. 2, pp.1008–10 [with map]; individual tribal entries; and the 'Further reading' section on pp.1245–72).
    14. ^ Bolt, Frank (2004). The Founding of Hobart. Kettering, Tasmania: Peregrine Press. ISBN 0-9757166-0-3.
    15. ^ "Tasmanian Yearbook". Australian Bureau of Statistics. 13 September 2002. Archived from the original on 31 May 2008. Retrieved 17 July 2008.
    16. ^ "Tasmanian Community Profile". Australian Bureau of Statistics. Archived from the original on 5 October 2023. Retrieved 17 July 2008.
    17. ^ "Regional Overview". Tourism Research Australia. Archived from the original on 11 March 2015. Retrieved 7 November 2014.
    18. ^ "Tasmanian Tourism Snapshot" (PDF). Tourism Tasmania. Archived (PDF) from the original on 4 August 2023. Retrieved 2 August 2023.
     
  38. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    10 October 1963 – The Partial Nuclear Test Ban Treaty comes into effect.

    Partial Nuclear Test Ban Treaty

    The Partial Test Ban Treaty (PTBT), formally known as the 1963 Treaty Banning Nuclear Weapon Tests in the Atmosphere, in Outer Space and Under Water, prohibited all test detonations of nuclear weapons except for those conducted underground. It is also abbreviated as the Limited Test Ban Treaty (LTBT) and Nuclear Test Ban Treaty (NTBT), though the latter may also refer to the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty (CTBT), which succeeded the PTBT for ratifying parties.

    Negotiations initially focused on a comprehensive ban, but that was abandoned because of technical questions surrounding the detection of underground tests and Soviet concerns over the intrusiveness of proposed verification methods. The impetus for the test ban was provided by rising public anxiety over the magnitude of nuclear tests, particularly tests of new thermonuclear weapons (hydrogen bombs), and the resulting nuclear fallout. A test ban was also seen as a means of slowing nuclear proliferation and the nuclear arms race. Though the PTBT did not halt proliferation or the arms race, its enactment did coincide with a substantial decline in the concentration of radioactive particles in the atmosphere.

    The PTBT was signed by the governments of the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom, and the United States in Moscow on 5 August 1963 before it was opened for signature by other countries. The treaty formally went into effect on 10 October 1963. Since then, 123 other states have become party to the treaty. Ten states have signed but not ratified the treaty.

     
  39. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    11 October 2001 – The Polaroid Corporation files for federal bankruptcy protection.

    Polaroid Corporation

    Polaroid Corporation was an American company best known for its instant film and cameras, which now survives as a brand for consumer electronics. The company was founded in 1937 by Edwin H. Land, to exploit the use of his Polaroid polarizing polymer.[1] Land and Polaroid created the first instant camera, the Land Camera, in 1948.[2]

    Land ran the company until 1981. Its peak employment was 21,000 in 1978, and its peak revenue was $3 billion in 1991.[3]

    Polaroid Corporation was declared bankrupt in 2001;[4][5] its brand and assets were sold off.[6] A new Polaroid company formed,[4][6] and the brand assets changed hands multiple times before being sold to Polish billionaire Wiaczesław Smołokowski [pl] in 2017. This acquisition allowed Impossible Project, which had started producing instant films for older Polaroid cameras in 2008,[7] to rebrand as Polaroid Originals in 2017, and eventually as Polaroid in 2020.[8] Since the original company's downfall, Polaroid-branded products in other fields, such as LCD televisions and DVD players, have been developed and released by various licensees globally.[9][10]

    1. ^ "History of Polaroid and Edwin Land". Boston.com. Boston: The New York Times Company. 2012-10-03. Archived from the original on 2016-01-04. Retrieved 2015-01-31.
    2. ^ "History of Polaroid and Edwin Land".
    3. ^ "Polaroid quits instant film". Sun Journal. Lewiston, Maine. Associated Press. February 9, 2008. pp. B8, B7. Archived from the original on April 15, 2021. Retrieved January 12, 2021.
    4. ^ a b Cite error: The named reference pdcmain was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    5. ^ Cite error: The named reference pdcshare was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    6. ^ a b Cite error: The named reference pdcfaq was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    7. ^ Zhang, Michael (2017). Polaroid Acquired by The Impossible Project’s Largest Shareholder Archived 2019-08-11 at the Wayback Machine, PetaPixel.com, 10 May 2017
    8. ^ Polaroid [@Polaroid] (March 26, 2020). "This is Polaroid — now. From The Impossible Project to Polaroid Originals, we are returning to where it all began. With the one name, the one brand: Polaroid. No matter where you joined us in this journey, thank you for your support. Together, we can make history... again" (Tweet) – via Twitter.
    9. ^ Walker, Rob (2008-03-16). "Photo Finish (Published 2008)". The New York Times. Retrieved 2023-08-10.
    10. ^ "Polaroid to Finally Get the Museum It's Always Deserved". Time. 2014-01-10. Retrieved 2023-08-10.
     
  40. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    12 October 1773 – America's first insane asylum opens.

    Eastern State Hospital (Virginia)

    37°17′17.8″N 76°44′5.3″W / 37.288278°N 76.734806°W / 37.288278; -76.734806

    The hospital's rebuilt original 1774 building as it stands today in Williamsburg, Virginia

    Eastern State Hospital is a psychiatric hospital in Williamsburg, Virginia. Built in 1773, it was the first public facility in the present-day United States constructed solely for the care and treatment of the mentally ill. The original building had burned but was reconstructed in 1985.

     

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