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This day in .....

Discussion in 'Break Room' started by NewsBot, Apr 6, 2008.

  1. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    1 October 1992Cartoon Network launched.

    Cartoon Network

    Cartoon Network, often abbreviated as CN, is an American cable television channel owned by Warner Bros. Discovery. It is a part of The Cartoon Network, Inc., a division that also has the broadcasting and production activities of Boomerang, Cartoonito, Discovery Family, Adult Swim, and Toonami under its purview. The channel is headquartered at 1050 Techwood Drive NW in Atlanta, Georgia.

    Founded by Betty Cohen (who was also appointed by Ted Turner as the first president of the network),[1] the channel was launched on October 1, 1992, and primarily broadcasts animated television series, mostly children's programming, ranging from action to animated comedy. It currently runs from 6 a.m. to 5 p.m. ET/PT daily (the sign-off time varies with holidays and special programming). Cartoon Network primarily targets children aged 6 to 12,[2] while its early morning block Cartoonito is aimed at preschool-aged children,[3] and evening block Adult Swim targets older teenagers and young adults aged 18 to 34.[4]

    Cartoon Network offers an alternate Spanish-language audio feed, either via a separate channel with the English audio track removed as part of a package of Spanish-language television networks sold by subscription providers, or a separate audio track accessible through the SAP option, depending on the provider.

    As of March 2021, Cartoon Network is available to approximately 94 million paid television households in the United States.[5]

    1. ^ "Betty Cohen". SheMadeIt.com. The Paley Center for Media. Archived from the original on September 24, 2015. Retrieved October 17, 2015.
    2. ^ "About Cartoon Network" (Press release). Warner Bros. Discovery. Retrieved May 23, 2023.
    3. ^ Milligan, Mercedes (August 16, 2021). "Cartoonito Pre-K Block Debuts Sept. 13 on HBO Max & Cartoon Network". Animation Magazine. Retrieved August 19, 2021.
    4. ^ "Adult Swim/CN Split Cements Strategy". ICv2. GCO. March 3, 2005. Archived from the original on November 7, 2012. Retrieved November 30, 2012.
    5. ^ ""Birdgirl" Takes Flight April 4 on Adult Swim". The Futon Critic. Retrieved March 16, 2021.
     
  2. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    2 October 2002 – The Beltway sniper attacks begin, extending over three weeks.

    D.C. sniper attacks

    The D.C. Sniper Attacks (also known as the Beltway sniper attacks) were a series of coordinated shootings that occurred during three weeks in October 2002 throughout the Washington metropolitan area, consisting of the District of Columbia, Maryland, and Virginia, and preliminary shootings, that consisted of murders and robberies in several states, and lasted for six months starting in February 2002. Seven people were killed, and seven others were injured in the preliminary shootings, and ten people were killed and three others were critically wounded in the October shootings.[1] In total, the snipers killed 17 people and wounded 10 others in a 10-month span.[2]

    The snipers were John Allen Muhammad (age 41 at the time) and Lee Boyd Malvo (age 17 at the time), who traveled in a blue 1990 Chevrolet Caprice sedan.

    In September 2003, Muhammad was sentenced to death, and in October, Malvo, a juvenile, was sentenced to six consecutive life sentences without parole. In November 2009, Muhammad was executed by lethal injection.

    In 2017, the United States Court of Appeals for the Fourth Circuit vacated Malvo's three life sentences without parole in Virginia on appeal, with re-sentencing ordered pursuant to the Supreme Court's ruling in the case of Miller v. Alabama, 567 U.S. 460, 132 S.Ct. 2455 (2012), which held that mandatory life sentences for juvenile criminals without possibility of parole violated the Eighth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution. The U.S. Supreme Court granted certiorari, with oral arguments held on October 16, 2019.[3] Should he be resentenced, Malvo's minimum prison sentence will be determined by a judge; the available maximum sentence would be life imprisonment. The ruling does not apply to the six life sentences Malvo received in Maryland.[4] On February 25, 2020, after the passage of a Virginia law allowing those who are serving life sentences for offenses committed before the age of 18 to seek release after serving 20 years,[5] the U.S. Supreme Court case was dismissed at the request of lawyers on both sides.[6]

    1. ^ "Beltway Snipers". Federal Bureau of Investigation. Archived from the original on September 23, 2020. Retrieved January 7, 2023.
    2. ^ "Sniper reportedly details 4 new shootings". kxmb.com. AP. June 16, 2006. Archived from the original on October 13, 2007.
    3. ^ "U.S. Supreme Court Monthly Calendar, October 2019" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on October 1, 2019. Retrieved October 10, 2019.
    4. ^ Jackman, Tom (May 28, 2017). "Federal judge tosses life sentences for convicted beltway sniper Lee Boyd Malvo". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on November 15, 2017. Retrieved November 5, 2017.
    5. ^ Crummy, Brianna (February 24, 2020). "New Law Gives Va. Prisoners With Life Sentences the Chance at Parole". NBC4 Washington. Archived from the original on July 10, 2020. Retrieved July 10, 2020.
    6. ^ Hurley, Lawrence (February 26, 2020). "U.S. Supreme Court dismisses 'D.C. Sniper' Malvo case after change in law". Reuters. Archived from the original on July 10, 2020. Retrieved July 10, 2020.
     
  3. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    3 October 1932Iraq gains independence from the United Kingdom.

    Iraq

    Iraq,[a] officially the Republic of Iraq,[b] is a country in West Asia and in the geopolitical region known as the Middle East. With a population of over 46 million, it is the 33rd-most populous country. It is a federal parliamentary republic that consists of 18 governorates. The country is bordered by Turkey to the north, Iran to the east, the Persian Gulf and Kuwait to the southeast, Saudi Arabia to the south, Jordan to the southwest, and Syria to the west. The capital and largest city is Baghdad. The Iraqi people are diverse, with similarly diverse geography and wildlife. As part of the Arab and Muslim world,[9][10] most Iraqis are Arab Muslims – minority faiths include Christianity, Yazidism, Mandaeism, Yarsanism, and Zoroastrianism.[11][3][12] The official languages of Iraq are Arabic and Kurdish; others also recognized in specific regions are Turkish (Turkmen), Suret (Assyrian), and Armenian.[13]

    Starting as early as the 6th millennium BC, the fertile alluvial plains between Iraq's Tigris and Euphrates Rivers, referred to as Mesopotamia, gave rise to some of the world's earliest cities, civilizations, and empires in Sumer, Akkad, and Assyria.[14] Mesopotamia was a "Cradle of Civilisation" that saw the inventions of a writing system, mathematics, timekeeping, a calendar, astrology, and a law code.[15][16][17] Following the Muslim conquest of Mesopotamia, Baghdad became the capital and the largest city of the Abbasid Caliphate, and during the Islamic Golden Age, the city evolved into a significant cultural and intellectual center, and garnered a worldwide reputation for its academic institutions, including the House of Wisdom.[18] The city was largely destroyed at the hands of the Mongol Empire in 1258 during the siege of Baghdad, resulting in a decline that would linger through many centuries due to frequent plagues and multiple successive empires.

    Modern Iraq dates to 1920, when the British Mandate for Mesopotamia was created under the authority of the League of Nations. A British-backed monarchy was established in 1921 under Faisal. The Hashemite Kingdom of Iraq gained independence from the UK in 1932. In 1958, the monarchy was overthrown and the Iraqi Republic created.[19] Iraq was ruled by the Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party from 1968 until 2003, led by Ahmad Hassan al-Bakr and then by Saddam Hussein, as a one-party state. Iraq invaded Iran in 1980, sparking a protracted war that ended as a stalemate in 1988, with devastating losses for both sides. In 1990, Iraq invaded Kuwait, leading to global condemnation and a military campaign waged by a US-led international coalition that expelled Iraqi forces from Kuwait. A 2003 invasion launched by another US-led coalition as part of its "Global War on Terror" resulted in the defeat of Ba'athist Iraq and the execution of Saddam Hussein. Discontent with the de-Ba'athification policies of the Provisional Authority stirred up an anti-American insurgency, which escalated into a sectarian civil war. In 2005, a new constitution was adopted and multi-party parliamentary elections were held in Iraq. The Withdrawal of US troops from Iraq began in 2008, and the American occupation officially ended in 2011.[20] Continued repression and sectarian policies of Nouri al-Maliki's Shia government caused the 2012–13 Iraqi protests, after which a coalition of Ba'athist and Sunni militias took up arms during the 2013 Anbar campaign. The climax of the campaign was the Northern Iraq offensive by the Islamic State group that marked its rapid territorial expansion, prompting the return of American troops to fight the War in Iraq, which lasted until 2017. Iran has also intervened in Iraq since 2014, expanding its influence through sectarian parties and Khomeinist militia groups, triggering widespread protests in Iraq.[21]

    Iraq is a federal parliamentary republic. The president is the head of state, the prime minister is the head of government, and the constitution provides for two deliberative bodies, the Council of Representatives and the Council of Union. The judiciary is free and independent of the executive and the legislature.[22] Iraq is considered an emerging middle power[23] with a strategic location[24] and a founding member of the United Nations, the OPEC as well as of the Arab League, OIC, Non-Aligned Movement, and the IMF.

    1. ^ "دەستووری کۆماری عێراق" (in Kurdish). Parliament of Iraq. Retrieved 15 October 2008.
    2. ^ "Iraq, Ministry of Interior – General Directorate for Nationality: Iraqi Constitution (2005)" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 4 March 2011.
    3. ^ a b c Cite error: The named reference cia was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    4. ^ "Surface water and surface water change". Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). Retrieved 11 October 2020.
    5. ^ "وزارة التخطيط، تُصدر بيانا لمناسبة اليوم العالمي للسكان" [Ministry of Planning issues statement on World Population Day]. Ministry of Planning (Iraq) (in Arabic). 7 July 2023. Retrieved 27 February 2024.
    6. ^ a b c d "World Economic Outlook Database, October 2023 Edition. (Iraq)". IMF.org. International Monetary Fund. 10 October 2023. Retrieved 12 October 2023.
    7. ^ "Gini Index - Iraq". World Bank. Archived from the original on 8 December 2015. Retrieved 9 October 2022.
    8. ^ "Human Development Report 2021/2022" (PDF). United Nations Development Programme. 8 September 2022. Retrieved 9 October 2022.
    9. ^ "League of Arab States (LAS) | EEAS". eeas.europa.eu. Retrieved 11 January 2024.
    10. ^ "IRAN'S FOREIGN POLICY IN POST-INVASION IRAQ" (PDF).
    11. ^ Office, Great Britain Foreign (1958). Documents on British Foreign Policy, 1919–1939. H.M. Stationery Office.
    12. ^ "2.15. Religious and ethnic minorities, and stateless persons". European Union Agency for Asylum. Retrieved 13 March 2024.
    13. ^ "Iraq's Constitution" (PDF).
    14. ^ Keith Maisels, Charles (1993). The Near East: The Archaeology in the "Cradle of Civilization". Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-04742-5.
    15. ^ "Iraq | History, Map, Flag, Population, & Facts". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 7 February 2022.
    16. ^ "Mesopotamian Inventions". World History Encyclopedia. Retrieved 7 February 2022.
    17. ^ "Mesopotamia". World History Encyclopedia. Retrieved 7 February 2022.
    18. ^ Gutas, Dimitri (1998). Greek Thought, Arabic Culture: The Graeco-Arabic Translation Movement in Baghdad and Early Abbasid Society (2nd/8th–10th Centuries). London: Routledge.
    19. ^ Hunt, Courtney (2005). The History of Iraq. Greenwood Publishing Group. ISBN 978-0-313-33414-6.
    20. ^ Basu, Moni (18 December 2011). "Deadly Iraq war ends with exit of last U.S. troops". CNN.com. Retrieved 18 December 2011.
    21. ^ Robinson, Kali (18 October 2022). "How Much Influence Does Iran Have in Iraq?". Archived from the original on 30 March 2023.
    22. ^ "Iraq – Government and society". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 5 January 2022.
    23. ^ "A Balancing Act | Strategic Monitor 2018–2019". www.clingendael.org. Retrieved 5 January 2022.
    24. ^ "Iraq – The northeast". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 5 January 2022.


    Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

     
  4. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    4 October 1927Gutzon Borglum begins sculpting Mount Rushmore.

    Mount Rushmore

    The Mount Rushmore National Memorial is a national memorial centered on a colossal sculpture carved into the granite face of Mount Rushmore (Lakota: Tȟuŋkášila Šákpe, or Six Grandfathers) in the Black Hills near Keystone, South Dakota, United States. Sculptor Gutzon Borglum designed the sculpture, called Shrine of Democracy,[2] and oversaw the project's execution from 1927 to 1941 with the help of his son, Lincoln Borglum.[3][4] The sculpture features the 60-foot-tall (18 m) heads of four United States presidents: George Washington, Thomas Jefferson, Theodore Roosevelt, and Abraham Lincoln,[5] chosen to represent the nation's birth, growth, development and preservation, respectively.[6] Mount Rushmore attracts more than two million visitors annually[1] to the memorial park which covers 1,278 acres (2.00 sq mi; 5.17 km2).[7] The mountain's elevation is 5,725 feet (1,745 m) above sea level.[8]

    The sculptor chose Mount Rushmore in part because it faces southeast for maximum sun exposure. The carving was the idea of Doane Robinson, a historian for the state of South Dakota. Robinson originally wanted the sculpture to feature American West heroes, such as Lewis and Clark, their expedition guide Sacagawea, Oglala Lakota chief Red Cloud,[9] Buffalo Bill Cody,[10] and Oglala Lakota chief Crazy Horse.[11] Borglum chose the four presidents instead.

    Peter Norbeck, U.S. senator from South Dakota, sponsored the project and secured federal funding.[12] Construction began in 1927 and the presidents' faces were completed between 1934 and 1939. After Gutzon Borglum died in March 1941, his son Lincoln took over as leader of the construction project. Each president was originally to be depicted from head to waist, but lack of funding forced construction to end on October 31, 1941,[13] and only Washington's sculpture includes any detail below chin level.

    The sculpture at Mount Rushmore is built on land that was illegally taken from the Sioux Nation in the 1870s. The Sioux continue to demand return of the land, and in 1980 the US Supreme Court ruled in United States v. Sioux Nation of Indians that the taking of the Black Hills required just compensation, and awarded the tribe $102 million. The Sioux have refused the money, which has grown with interest to over a billion dollars, and demand the return of the land. This conflict continues, leading some critics of the monument to refer to it as a "Shrine of Hypocrisy".[14]

    1. ^ a b "Annual Park Ranking Report for Recreation Visits in: 2022". National Park Service. Retrieved July 23, 2023.
    2. ^ Rosenberg, Jennifer (January 16, 2021). "10 Things You Didn't Know About Mount Rushmore". ThoughtCo. Retrieved March 28, 2023.
    3. ^ Roberts, Sam (June 28, 2016). "An Immigrant's Contribution to Mount Rushmore Is Recognized, 75 Years Later". The New York Times. Retrieved September 19, 2017.
    4. ^ Andrews, John (May 2014). "Slight of Hand". South Dakota Magazine. Retrieved September 22, 2017.
    5. ^ Mount Rushmore National Memorial. December 6, 2005.60 SD Web Traveler, Inc. Retrieved April 7, 2006.
    6. ^ "Why These Four Presidents?". nps.gov. National Park Service. Retrieved February 13, 2019.
    7. ^ McGeveran, William A. Jr. et al. (2004). The World Almanac and Book of Facts 2004. New York: World Almanac Education Group, Inc. ISBN 0-88687-910-8.
    8. ^ "Mount Rushmore, South Dakota". Peakbagger.com. Retrieved March 13, 2006.
    9. ^ !, episode 5x08 "Mount Rushmore", May 10, 2007.
    10. ^ "Making Mount Rushmore | Mount Rushmore". Oh, Ranger!. Archived from the original on November 20, 2012. Retrieved October 31, 2012.
    11. ^ Pekka Hamalainen, "Lakota America, a New History of Indigenous Power", (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2019), p. 382.
    12. ^ "Senator Peter Norbeck". American Experience: Mount Rushmore. PBS. Retrieved July 20, 2013.
    13. ^ "Complete Program Transcript . Mount Rushmore". American Experience. PBS. Archived from the original on March 1, 2017. Retrieved April 18, 2015.
    14. ^ Cite error: The named reference :0 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
     
  5. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    5 October 1962Dr. No, the first in the James Bond film series, is released.

    Dr. No (film)

    Dr. No is a 1962 spy film directed by Terence Young. It is the first film in the James Bond series. Starring Sean Connery, Ursula Andress, Joseph Wiseman and Jack Lord, it was adapted by Richard Maibaum, Johanna Harwood, and Berkely Mather from the 1958 novel of the same name by Ian Fleming. The film was produced by Harry Saltzman and Albert R. Broccoli, a partnership that continued until 1975. It was followed by From Russia with Love in 1963. In the film, James Bond is sent to Jamaica to investigate the disappearance of a fellow British agent. The trail leads him to the underground base of Dr. Julius No, who is plotting to disrupt an early American space launch from Cape Canaveral with a radio beam weapon.

    Although it was the first of the Bond books to be made into a film, Dr. No was the sixth of Fleming's series, beginning with Casino Royale. The film makes a few references to threads from earlier books, and later books in the series as well, such as the criminal organisation SPECTRE, which was not introduced until the 1961 novel Thunderball. Produced on a low budget, Dr. No was a financial success. While the film received a mixed critical reaction upon release, it has gained a reputation over time as one of the series' best instalments. Dr. No also launched a genre of secret agent films that flourished in the 1960s. The film spawned a comic book adaptation and soundtrack album as part of its promotion and marketing.

    Many aspects of a typical James Bond film were established in Dr. No. The film begins with an introduction to the character through the view of a gun barrel and a highly stylised main title sequence, both of which were created by Maurice Binder.[5] It also introduced the iconic theme music. Production designer Ken Adam established an elaborate visual style that is one of the hallmarks of the film series.

    1. ^ "Dr. No". Lumiere. European Audiovisual Observatory. Archived from the original on 29 September 2020. Retrieved 9 October 2020.
    2. ^ "AFI|Catalog". Archived from the original on 29 August 2019. Retrieved 17 December 2019.
    3. ^ Chapman, L. (2021). “They wanted a bigger, more ambitious film”: Film Finances and the American “Runaways” That Ran Away. Journal of British Cinema and Television, 18(2), 176–197 p 180. https://doi.org/10.3366/jbctv.2021.0565
    4. ^ Chapman, J. (2022). The Money Behind the Screen: A History of British Film Finance, 1945–1985. Edinburgh University Press p 360
    5. ^ "Spies". Mark Kermode's Secrets of Cinema. Series 2. Episode 3. 2 April 2020. Event occurs at 13:26. BBC. BBC Four. Archived from the original on 9 May 2020. Retrieved 3 April 2020.
     
  6. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    5 October 1962Dr. No, the first in the James Bond film series, is released.

    Dr. No (film)

    Dr. No is a 1962 spy film directed by Terence Young. It is the first film in the James Bond series. Starring Sean Connery, Ursula Andress, Joseph Wiseman and Jack Lord, it was adapted by Richard Maibaum, Johanna Harwood, and Berkely Mather from the 1958 novel of the same name by Ian Fleming. The film was produced by Harry Saltzman and Albert R. Broccoli, a partnership that continued until 1975. It was followed by From Russia with Love in 1963. In the film, James Bond is sent to Jamaica to investigate the disappearance of a fellow British agent. The trail leads him to the underground base of Dr. Julius No, who is plotting to disrupt an early American space launch from Cape Canaveral with a radio beam weapon.

    Although it was the first of the Bond books to be made into a film, Dr. No was the sixth of Fleming's series, beginning with Casino Royale. The film makes a few references to threads from earlier books, and later books in the series as well, such as the criminal organisation SPECTRE, which was not introduced until the 1961 novel Thunderball. Produced on a low budget, Dr. No was a financial success. While the film received a mixed critical reaction upon release, it has gained a reputation over time as one of the series' best instalments. Dr. No also launched a genre of secret agent films that flourished in the 1960s. The film spawned a comic book adaptation and soundtrack album as part of its promotion and marketing.

    Many aspects of a typical James Bond film were established in Dr. No. The film begins with an introduction to the character through the view of a gun barrel and a highly stylised main title sequence, both of which were created by Maurice Binder.[5] It also introduced the iconic theme music. Production designer Ken Adam established an elaborate visual style that is one of the hallmarks of the film series.

    1. ^ "Dr. No". Lumiere. European Audiovisual Observatory. Archived from the original on 29 September 2020. Retrieved 9 October 2020.
    2. ^ "AFI|Catalog". Archived from the original on 29 August 2019. Retrieved 17 December 2019.
    3. ^ Chapman, L. (2021). “They wanted a bigger, more ambitious film”: Film Finances and the American “Runaways” That Ran Away. Journal of British Cinema and Television, 18(2), 176–197 p 180. https://doi.org/10.3366/jbctv.2021.0565
    4. ^ Chapman, J. (2022). The Money Behind the Screen: A History of British Film Finance, 1945–1985. Edinburgh University Press p 360
    5. ^ "Spies". Mark Kermode's Secrets of Cinema. Series 2. Episode 3. 2 April 2020. Event occurs at 13:26. BBC. BBC Four. Archived from the original on 9 May 2020. Retrieved 3 April 2020.
     
  7. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    6 October 1903 – The High Court of Australia sits for the first time.

    High Court of Australia

    The High Court of Australia is the apex court of the Australian legal system.[2] It exercises original and appellate jurisdiction on matters specified in the Constitution of Australia and supplementary legislation.

    The High Court was established following the passage of the Judiciary Act 1903 (Cth).[3] Its authority derives from chapter III of the Australian Constitution, which vests it (and other courts the Parliament creates) with the judicial power of the Commonwealth.[4] Another legal instrument pertaining to the High Court is the High Court of Australia Act 1979 (Cth).[5]

    The court consists of seven justices, including a chief justice, currently Stephen Gageler. Justices of the High Court are appointed by the governor-general on the formal advice of the attorney-general following the approval of the prime minister and Cabinet.[6] They are appointed permanently until their mandatory retirement at age 70, unless they retire earlier.

    Typically, the court operates by receiving applications for appeal from parties in a process called special leave. If a party's application is accepted, the court will proceed to a full hearing, usually with oral and written submissions from both parties. After conclusion of the hearing, the result is decided by the court. The special leave process does not apply in situations where the court elects to exercise its original jurisdiction; however, the court typically delegates its original jurisdiction to Australia's inferior courts.

    The court has resided in Canberra since 1980, following the construction of a purpose-built High Court building, located in the Parliamentary Triangle and overlooking Lake Burley Griffin.[7] Sittings of the court previously rotated between state capitals, particularly Melbourne and Sydney, and the court continues to regularly sit outside Canberra.

    1. ^ Australian Constitution (Cth) s 72
    2. ^ "Courts". Australian Bureau of Statistics. 24 May 2012. Archived from the original on 25 September 2020. Retrieved 4 May 2013. The High Court of Australia is the highest court of appeal
    3. ^ Judiciary Act 1903 (Cth)
    4. ^ Constitution of Australia (Cth) s 71
    5. ^ Cite error: The named reference High Court of Australia Act was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    6. ^ Davis, Cassie (10 November 2021). "Judicial Appointments". Parliament of Australia. FlagPost.
    7. ^ "High Court of Australia, King Edward Tce, Parkes, ACT, Australia (Place ID 105557)". Australian Heritage Database. Australian Government. 22 June 2004. Retrieved 20 May 2020.
     
  8. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    7 October 1950Mother Teresa establishes the Missionaries of Charity.

    Mother Teresa

    Mary Teresa Bojaxhiu MC (born Anjezë Gonxhe Bojaxhiu, Albanian: [aˈɲɛzə ˈɡɔndʒɛ bɔjaˈdʒi.u]; 26 August 1910 – 5 September 1997), better known as Mother Teresa,[a] was an Albanian-Indian Catholic nun and the founder of the Missionaries of Charity. Born in Skopje, then part of the Ottoman Empire,[b] at the age of 18 she moved to Ireland and later to India, where she lived most of her life. On 4 September 2016, she was canonised by the Catholic Church as Saint Teresa of Calcutta. The anniversary of her death, 5 September, is her feast day.

    Mother Teresa founded Missionaries of Charity, a religious congregation, which grew to have over 4,500 nuns across 133 countries as of 2012.[6] The congregation manages homes for people who are dying of HIV/AIDS, leprosy, and tuberculosis. The congregation also runs soup kitchens, dispensaries, mobile clinics, children's and family counselling programmes, as well as orphanages and schools. Members take vows of chastity, poverty, and obedience and also profess a fourth vow: to give "wholehearted free service to the poorest of the poor."[7]

    Mother Teresa received several honours, including the 1962 Ramon Magsaysay Peace Prize and the 1979 Nobel Peace Prize. A controversial figure during her life and after her death, Mother Teresa was admired by many for her charitable work, but was criticised for her views on abortion and contraception, as well as the poor conditions in her houses for the dying. Her authorised biography, written by Navin Chawla, was published in 1992, and she has been the subject of many other works. On 6 September 2017, Mother Teresa and Saint Francis Xavier were named co-patrons of the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Calcutta.

    1. ^ "St. Teresa of Kolkata". Catholic News Agency. Archived from the original on 8 October 2018. Retrieved 6 September 2023.
    2. ^ Banerjee, Manik (6 September 2017). "Vatican declares Mother Teresa a patron saint of Calcutta". Associated Press. Archived from the original on 6 September 2017. Retrieved 6 September 2017.
    3. ^ "Mother Teresa to be named co-patron of Calcutta Archdiocese on first canonization anniversary". First Post. 4 September 2017. Archived from the original on 26 April 2020. Retrieved 5 September 2017. {{cite magazine}}: Unknown parameter |agency= ignored (help)
    4. ^ Cite error: The named reference Cannon2013 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    5. ^ "Kur Nënë Tereza vinte në Tiranë/2" [When Mother Teresa came to Tirana/2]. Shqiptari i Italisë (in Albanian). 2 December 2010. Archived from the original on 18 September 2016. Retrieved 4 September 2016.
    6. ^ Poplin, Mary (2011). Finding Calcutta: What Mother Teresa Taught Me About Meaningful Work and Service. InterVarsity Press. p. 112. ISBN 978-0-8308-6848-3. Archived from the original on 1 February 2022. Retrieved 3 October 2020.
    7. ^ Muggeridge (1971), chapter 3, "Mother Teresa Speaks", pp. 105, 113


    Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

     
  9. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    8 October 1982 – Cats opens on Broadway and runs for nearly 18 years before closing on September 10, 2000.

    Cats (musical)

    Preview warning: Page using Template:Infobox musical with unknown parameter "choreography"
    Preview warning: Page using Template:Infobox musical with unknown parameter "direction"

    Cats is a sung-through musical with music by Andrew Lloyd Webber. It is based on the 1939 poetry collection Old Possum's Book of Practical Cats by T. S. Eliot. The musical tells the story of a tribe of cats called the Jellicles and the night they make the "Jellicle choice" by deciding which cat will ascend to the Heaviside Layer and come back to a new life. As of 2022, Cats remains the fifth-longest-running Broadway show and the seventh-longest-running West End show.

    Lloyd Webber began setting Eliot's poems to music in 1977, and the compositions were first presented as a song cycle in 1980. Producer Cameron Mackintosh then recruited director Trevor Nunn and choreographer Gillian Lynne to turn the songs into a complete musical. Cats opened to positive reviews at the New London Theatre in the West End in 1981 and then to mixed reviews at the Winter Garden Theatre on Broadway in 1982. It won numerous awards including Best Musical at both the Laurence Olivier and Tony Awards. Despite its unusual premise that deterred investors initially, the musical turned out to be an unprecedented commercial success, with a worldwide gross of US$3.5 billion by 2012.

    The London production ran for 21 years and 8,949 performances, while the Broadway production ran for 18 years and 7,485 performances, making Cats the longest-running musical in both theatre districts for a number of years. Cats has since been revived in the West End twice and on Broadway once. It has also been translated into multiple languages and performed around the world many times. Long-running foreign productions include a 15-year run at the Operettenhaus in Hamburg that played over 6,100 performances, as well as an ongoing run in a purpose-built theatre in Japan that has played over 10,000 performances since it opened in 1983.

    Cats started the megamusical phenomenon, establishing a global market for musical theatre and directing the industry's focus to big-budget blockbusters, as well as family- and tourist-friendly shows. The musical's profound but polarising influence also reshaped the aesthetic, technology, and marketing of the medium. Cats was adapted into a direct-to-video film in 1998 and a feature film in 2019.

    1. ^ "Japan's Shiki Theatre Company Focusing on Original Productions; After Long-Running Productions of 'Cats' and 'The Lion King'". 17 September 2023.
     
  10. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    9 October 1804Hobart, capital of Tasmania, is founded.

    Hobart

    Hobart (/ˈhbɑːrt/ HOH-bart;[5] Nuennonne/palawa kani: nipaluna) is the capital and most populous city of the island state of Tasmania, Australia.[6] Home to almost half of all Tasmanians, it is the southernmost and least-populated Australian state capital city, and second-smallest if territories are taken into account, before Darwin, Northern Territory.[2] Hobart is located in Tasmania's south-east on the estuary of the River Derwent, making it the most southern of Australia's capital cities. Its skyline is dominated by the 1,271-metre (4,170 ft) kunanyi/Mount Wellington,[7] and its harbour forms the second-deepest natural port in the world,[8] with much of the city's waterfront consisting of reclaimed land.[9] The metropolitan area is often referred to as Greater Hobart, to differentiate it from the City of Hobart, one of the seven local government areas that cover the city.[2] [10] It has a mild maritime climate.

    The city lies on country which was known by the local Mouheneener people as nipaluna, a name which includes surrounding features such as kunanyi/Mt. Wellington and timtumili minanya (River Derwent).[11] Prior to British settlement, the land had been occupied for possibly as long as 35,000 years[12] by Aboriginal Tasmanians.[13]

    Founded in 1804 as a British penal colony,[14] Hobart is Australia's second-oldest capital city after Sydney, New South Wales. Whaling quickly emerged as a major industry in the area, and for a time Hobart served as the Southern Ocean's main whaling port. Penal transportation ended in the 1850s, after which the city experienced periods of growth and decline. The early 20th century saw an economic boom on the back of mining, agriculture and other primary industries, and the loss of men who served in the world wars was counteracted by an influx of immigration.[15] Despite the rise in migration from Asia and other non-English speaking regions, Hobart's population remains predominantly ethnically Anglo-Celtic, and has the highest percentage of Australian-born residents among Australia's capital cities.[16]

    Today, Hobart is the financial and administrative hub of Tasmania, serving as the home port for both Australian and French Antarctic operations and acting as a tourist destination, with over 1.192 million visitors in 2011–12,[17] and 924,000 during 2022–23.[18] Well-known drawcards include its convict-era architecture, Salamanca Market and the Museum of Old and New Art (MONA), the Southern Hemisphere's largest private museum.

    1. ^ "Regional Population - 2021". abs.gov.au. Australian Bureau of Statistics. Archived from the original on 30 March 2021. Retrieved 24 April 2023.
    2. ^ a b c "Greater Hobart - 2021 Census All persons QuickStats". Australian Bureau of Statistics. 28 June 2022. Archived from the original on 28 June 2022. Retrieved 28 June 2022. Material was copied from this source, which is available under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License Archived 16 October 2017 at the Wayback Machine
    3. ^ "Queen to Honour David Collins in Historic Unveiling". The Mercury. Hobart, Tasmania. 19 February 1954. p. 8, Royal Visit Souvenir supplement. Archived from the original on 7 January 2019. Retrieved 17 January 2012.
    4. ^ a b c Cite error: The named reference BoM was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    5. ^ Macquarie ABC Dictionary. The Macquarie Library. 2003. p. 465. ISBN 1-876429-37-2.
    6. ^ "Nipaluna". Tasmanian Aboriginal Centre. Archived from the original on 15 February 2022. Retrieved 15 February 2022.
    7. ^ "kunanyi / Mount Wellington". Hobart City Council. Archived from the original on 26 June 2017. Retrieved 9 June 2015.
    8. ^ "Antarctic Tasmania". Government of Tasmania. 14 August 2014. Archived from the original on 6 October 2014. Retrieved 29 August 2014.
    9. ^ Mocatta, Gabi; Rawlings-Way, Charles; Worby, Meg (2008). Tasmania (5th ed.). Footscray, Vic.: Lonely Planet. ISBN 9781741046915. Archived from the original on 5 October 2023. Retrieved 1 November 2020.
    10. ^ "Economic Profile". City of Hobart. Archived from the original on 30 October 2014. Retrieved 7 November 2014.
    11. ^ "nipaluna is the name of the country in which the city of Hobart sits". Tasmanian Aboriginal Centre. Hobart. Archived from the original on 11 May 2021. Retrieved 5 May 2021. The nomenclature of Tasmanian Aborigines is not the same as that of the colonisers in that geographical features, like rivers and mountains and so on, are all part of country, and while there may be specific names for those features, they are also a part of the surrounding country. The nipaluna includes geographical features such as kunanyi/Mt. Wellington and timtumili minanya (River Derwent).
    12. ^ "History of Tasmania". Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived from the original on 6 July 2008. Retrieved 17 July 2008.
    13. ^ Horton, David, ed. (1994). The Encyclopedia of Aboriginal Australia. Canberra: Aboriginal Studies Press. (See: Vol. 2, pp.1008–10 [with map]; individual tribal entries; and the 'Further reading' section on pp.1245–72).
    14. ^ Bolt, Frank (2004). The Founding of Hobart. Kettering, Tasmania: Peregrine Press. ISBN 0-9757166-0-3.
    15. ^ "Tasmanian Yearbook". Australian Bureau of Statistics. 13 September 2002. Archived from the original on 31 May 2008. Retrieved 17 July 2008.
    16. ^ "Tasmanian Community Profile". Australian Bureau of Statistics. Archived from the original on 5 October 2023. Retrieved 17 July 2008.
    17. ^ "Regional Overview". Tourism Research Australia. Archived from the original on 11 March 2015. Retrieved 7 November 2014.
    18. ^ "Tasmanian Tourism Snapshot" (PDF). Tourism Tasmania. Archived (PDF) from the original on 4 August 2023. Retrieved 2 August 2023.
     
  11. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    10 October 2010 – The Netherlands Antilles are dissolved as a country.

    Netherlands Antilles

    The Netherlands Antilles (Dutch: Nederlandse Antillen, pronounced [ˈneːdərlɑntsə ʔɑnˈtɪlə(n)] ; Papiamento: Antia Hulandes)[2] was a constituent country of the Kingdom of the Netherlands. The country consisted of several island territories located in the Caribbean Sea. The islands were also informally known as the Dutch Antilles.[3] The country came into being in 1954 as the autonomous successor of the Dutch colony of Curaçao and Dependencies. The Antilles were dissolved in 2010. The Dutch colony of Surinam, although relatively close by on the continent of South America, did not become part of the Netherlands Antilles but became a separate autonomous country in 1954. All the island territories that belonged to the Netherlands Antilles remain part of the kingdom today, although the legal status of each differs. As a group they are still commonly called the Dutch Caribbean, regardless of their legal status.[4] People from this former territory continue to be called Antilleans (Antillianen) in the Netherlands.[5]

    1. ^ "Landsverordening officiële talen". decentrale.regelgeving.overheid.nl. 28 March 2007. Archived from the original on 26 December 2018. Retrieved 5 January 2011.
    2. ^ Ratzlaff, Betty. Papiamentu/Ingles Dikshonario (in Papiamento). p. 11.
    3. ^ "Status change means the Dutch Antilles no longer exists". BBC News. 10 October 2010. Archived from the original on 11 October 2010. Retrieved 11 October 2010.
    4. ^ "Visa for the Dutch Caribbean". Netherlands embassy in the United Kingdom. Archived from the original on 19 January 2014. Retrieved 7 May 2013.
    5. ^ Jennissen, Roel (2014), "On the deviant age-crime curve of Afro-Caribbean populations: The case of Antilleans living in the Netherlands", American Journal of Criminal Justice, 39 (3): 571–594, doi:10.1007/s12103-013-9234-2, S2CID 144184065, archived from the original on 12 January 2024, retrieved 8 December 2020
     
  12. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    11 October 2001 – The Polaroid Corporation files for federal bankruptcy protection.

    Polaroid Corporation

    Polaroid Corporation was an American company best known for its instant film and cameras, which now survives as a brand for consumer electronics. The company was founded in 1937 by Edwin H. Land, to exploit the use of his Polaroid polarizing polymer.[1] Land and Polaroid created the first instant camera, the Land Camera, in 1948.[2]

    Land ran the company until 1981. Its peak employment was 21,000 in 1978, and its peak revenue was $3 billion in 1991.[3]

    Polaroid Corporation was declared bankrupt in 2001;[4][5] its brand and assets were sold off.[6] A new Polaroid company formed,[4][6] and the brand assets changed hands multiple times before being sold to Polish billionaire Wiaczesław Smołokowski [pl] in 2017. This acquisition allowed Impossible Project, which had started producing instant films for older Polaroid cameras in 2008,[7] to rebrand as Polaroid Originals in 2017, and eventually as Polaroid in 2020.[8] Since the original company's downfall, Polaroid-branded products in other fields, such as LCD televisions and DVD players, have been developed and released by various licensees globally.[9][10]

    1. ^ "History of Polaroid and Edwin Land". Boston.com. Boston: The New York Times Company. 2012-10-03. Archived from the original on 2016-01-04. Retrieved 2015-01-31.
    2. ^ "History of Polaroid and Edwin Land".
    3. ^ "Polaroid quits instant film". Sun Journal. Lewiston, Maine. Associated Press. February 9, 2008. pp. B8, B7. Archived from the original on April 15, 2021. Retrieved January 12, 2021.
    4. ^ a b Cite error: The named reference pdcmain was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    5. ^ Cite error: The named reference pdcshare was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    6. ^ a b Cite error: The named reference pdcfaq was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    7. ^ Zhang, Michael (2017). Polaroid Acquired by The Impossible Project’s Largest Shareholder Archived 2019-08-11 at the Wayback Machine, PetaPixel.com, 10 May 2017
    8. ^ Polaroid [@Polaroid] (March 26, 2020). "This is Polaroid — now. From The Impossible Project to Polaroid Originals, we are returning to where it all began. With the one name, the one brand: Polaroid. No matter where you joined us in this journey, thank you for your support. Together, we can make history... again" (Tweet) – via Twitter.
    9. ^ Walker, Rob (2008-03-16). "Photo Finish (Published 2008)". The New York Times. Retrieved 2023-08-10.
    10. ^ "Polaroid to Finally Get the Museum It's Always Deserved". Time. 2014-01-10. Retrieved 2023-08-10.
     
  13. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    12 October 1979The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy, the first of five books in the Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy comedy science fiction series by Douglas Adams is published.

    The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy

    The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy[a][b] is a comedy science fiction franchise created by Douglas Adams. Originally a 1978 radio comedy broadcast on BBC Radio 4, it was later adapted to other formats, including novels, stage shows, comic books, a 1981 TV series, a 1984 text adventure game, and 2005 feature film.

    The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy is an international multimedia phenomenon; the novels are the most widely distributed, having been translated into more than 30 languages by 2005.[4][5] The first novel, The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy (1979), has been ranked fourth on the BBC's The Big Read poll.[6] The sixth novel, And Another Thing..., was written by Eoin Colfer with additional unpublished material by Douglas Adams. In 2017, BBC Radio 4 announced a 40th-anniversary celebration with Dirk Maggs, one of the original producers, in charge.[7] The first of six new episodes was broadcast on 8 March 2018.[8]

    The broad narrative of Hitchhiker follows the misadventures of the last surviving man, Arthur Dent, following the demolition of the Earth by a Vogon constructor fleet to make way for a hyperspace bypass. Dent is rescued from Earth's destruction by Ford Prefect—a human-like alien writer for the eccentric, electronic travel guide The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy—by hitchhiking onto a passing Vogon spacecraft. Following his rescue, Dent explores the galaxy with Prefect and encounters Trillian, another human who had been taken from Earth (before its destruction) by the self-centred President of the Galaxy Zaphod Beeblebrox and the depressed Marvin the Paranoid Android. Certain narrative details were changed among the various adaptations.


    Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

    1. ^ "Jo Kent saves cult hg2g game from scrapheap". Ariel. 12 March 2014. Retrieved 24 June 2014.
    2. ^ "The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy". Douglasadams.com. Archived from the original on 29 March 2022. Retrieved 24 June 2014.
    3. ^ Gaiman, Neil (2003). Don't Panic: Douglas Adams and the "Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy". Titan Books. pp. 144–145. ISBN 978-1-84023-742-9.
    4. ^ Simpson, M. J. (2005). The Pocket Essential Hitchhiker's Guide (Second ed.). Pocket Essentials. p. 120. ISBN 978-1-904048-46-6.
    5. ^ "The Ultimate Reference Guide to British Popular Culture". Oxford Royale. 23 November 2016.
    6. ^ "The Big Read - Top 100 Books". BBC. April 2003. Retrieved 7 September 2019
    7. ^ "The Hitchhiker’s Guide To The Galaxy to land back on Radio 4 in 2018 together with new series from Rob Grant and Andrew Marshall". BBC Media Centre, 12 October 2017.
    8. ^ "The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy: Hexagonal Phase". BBC Radio 4, 28 February 2018.
     
  14. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    13 October 1972 – An Aeroflot Ilyushin Il-62 crashes outside Moscow killing 174.

    Ilyushin Il-62

    The Ilyushin Il-62 (Russian: Илью́шин Ил-62; NATO reporting name: Classic) is a Soviet long-range narrow-body jetliner conceived in 1960 by Ilyushin. As successor to the popular turboprop Il-18 and with capacity for almost 200 passengers and crew, the Il-62 was the world's largest jet airliner when first flown in 1963.[1] The seventh quad engined, long-range jet airliner to fly (the predecessors being the De Havilland Comet (1949), Avro Jetliner (1949), Boeing 707 (1954), Douglas DC-8 (1958), Vickers VC10 (1962), and experimental Tupolev Tu-110 (1957)), it was the first such type to be operated by the Soviet Union and a number of allied nations.

    The Il-62 entered Aeroflot civilian service on 15 September 1967 with an inaugural passenger flight from Moscow to Montreal,[1] and remained the standard long-range airliner for the Soviet Union (and later, Russia) for several decades. It was the first Soviet pressurised aircraft with non-circular cross-section fuselage[citation needed] and ergonomic passenger doors,[citation needed] and the first Soviet jet with six-abreast seating (the turboprop Tu-114 shared this arrangement) and international-standard position lights.

    Over 30 nations operated the Il-62 with over 80 examples exported and others having been leased by Soviet-sphere and several Western airlines. The Il-62M variant became the longest-serving model in its airliner class (average age of examples in service as of 2016 is over 32 years). Special VIP (salon) and other conversions were also developed and used as head-of-state transport by some 14 countries. However, because it is expensive to operate compared to newer generation airliners, the number in service was greatly reduced after the 2008 Great Recession. The Il-62's successors include the wide-bodied Il-86 and Il-96, both of which were made in much smaller numbers and neither of which was widely exported.

    1. ^ a b Singh, Sumit (3 January 2022). "Once The Largest Jetliner In The World: 59 Years Of Ilyushin Il-62 Flight". Simple Flying. Retrieved 12 May 2023.
     
  15. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    14 October – U.S. President Ronald Reagan proclaims a War on Drugs.

    War on drugs

    The war on drugs is the policy of a global campaign,[5] led by the United States federal government, of drug prohibition, military aid, and military intervention, with the aim of reducing the illegal drug trade in the United States.[6][7][8][9] The initiative includes a set of drug policies that are intended to discourage the production, distribution, and consumption of psychoactive drugs that the participating governments, through United Nations treaties, have made illegal.

    The term "war on drugs" was popularized by the media shortly after a press conference, given on June 17, 1971, during which President Richard Nixon declared drug abuse "public enemy number one".[10] He stated, "In order to fight and defeat this enemy, it is necessary to wage a new, all-out offensive. … This will be a worldwide offensive. … It will be government-wide … and it will be nationwide." Earlier that day, Nixon had presented a special message to Congress on Drug Abuse Prevention and Control, which included text about devoting more federal resources to the "prevention of new addicts, and the rehabilitation of those who are addicted" but that aspect did not receive the same public attention as the term "war on drugs".[11][10][12][13]

    In the years since, presidential administrations have generally maintained or expanded Nixon's original initiatives, with the emphasis on law enforcement and interdiction over public health and treatment.

    In June 2011, the Global Commission on Drug Policy released a critical report, declaring: "The global war on drugs has failed, with devastating consequences for individuals and societies around the world."[5] In 2015, the Drug Policy Alliance, which advocates for an end to the war on drugs, estimated that the United States spends $51 billion annually on these initiatives; in 2021, after 50 years of the drug war, others have estimated that the US has spent a cumulative $1 trillion on it.[14][15]

    1. ^ Mann, Brian (June 17, 2021). "After 50 Years Of The War On Drugs, 'What Good Is It Doing For Us?'". NPR.
    2. ^ Lopez, German (January 30, 2017). "How the war on drugs has made drug traffickers more ruthless and efficient". Vox. Retrieved February 17, 2024.
    3. ^ Scherlen, Renee (January 4, 2012). "The Never-Ending Drug War: Obstacles to Drug War Policy Termination". PS: Political Science & Politics. 45: 67–73. doi:10.1017/S1049096511001739. S2CID 153399320 – via Cambridge Core.
    4. ^ Doward, Jamie (April 2, 2016). "The UN's war on drugs is a failure. Is it time for a different approach?". The Observer. ISSN 0029-7712. Retrieved February 17, 2024.
    5. ^ a b "War on Drugs: Report of the Global Commission on Drug Policy". Global Commission on Drug Policy. June 2011. Retrieved February 21, 2024. The global war on drugs has failed. When the United Nations Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs came into being 50 years ago, and when President Nixon launched the US government's war on drugs 40 years ago, policymakers believed that harsh law enforcement action against those involved in drug production, distribution and use would lead to an ever-diminishing market in controlled drugs such as heroin, cocaine and cannabis, and the eventual achievement of a 'drug free world'. In practice, the global scale of illegal drug markets – largely controlled by organized crime – has grown dramatically over this period.
    6. ^ Baum, Writer Dan. "Legalize All Drugs? The 'Risks Are Tremendous' Without Defining The Problem". NPR.org. Archived from the original on January 15, 2018. Retrieved April 3, 2018.
    7. ^ "(And) Richard Nixon was the one who coined the phrase, 'war on drugs.'"
    8. ^ Cockburn and St. Clair, 1998: Chapter 14
    9. ^ Bullington, Bruce; Block, Alan A. (March 1990). "A Trojan horse: Anti-communism and the war on drugs". Crime, Law and Social Change. 14 (1): 39–55. doi:10.1007/BF00728225. ISSN 1573-0751. S2CID 144145710.
    10. ^ a b Mann, Brian (June 17, 2021). "After 50 Years Of The War On Drugs, 'What Good Is It Doing For Us?'". NPR. Retrieved December 8, 2023.
    11. ^ "Richard Nixon: Special Message to the Congress on Drug Abuse Prevention and Control". Archived from the original on December 12, 2013. Retrieved December 8, 2013.
    12. ^ "Nixon Calls War on Drugs". Palm Beach Post. June 18, 1971. Retrieved December 8, 2023.
    13. ^ Dufton, Emily (March 26, 2012). "The War on Drugs: How President Nixon Tied Addiction to Crime". The Atlantic. Archived from the original on November 5, 2012. Retrieved October 13, 2012.
    14. ^ "Drug War Statistics". Drug Policy Alliance. Archived from the original on July 5, 2017. Retrieved February 25, 2014.
    15. ^ Mann, Brian (June 17, 2021). "After 50 Years Of The War On Drugs, 'What Good Is It Doing For Us?'". NPR. The campaign  – which by some estimates cost more than $1 trillion  – also exacerbated racial divisions and infringed on civil liberties in ways that transformed American society.
     
  16. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    14 October 1982 – U.S. President Ronald Reagan proclaims a War on Drugs.

    War on drugs

    The war on drugs is the policy of a global campaign,[5] led by the United States federal government, of drug prohibition, military aid, and military intervention, with the aim of reducing the illegal drug trade in the United States.[6][7][8][9] The initiative includes a set of drug policies that are intended to discourage the production, distribution, and consumption of psychoactive drugs that the participating governments, through United Nations treaties, have made illegal.

    The term "war on drugs" was popularized by the media shortly after a press conference, given on June 17, 1971, during which President Richard Nixon declared drug abuse "public enemy number one".[10] He stated, "In order to fight and defeat this enemy, it is necessary to wage a new, all-out offensive. … This will be a worldwide offensive. … It will be government-wide … and it will be nationwide." Earlier that day, Nixon had presented a special message to Congress on Drug Abuse Prevention and Control, which included text about devoting more federal resources to the "prevention of new addicts, and the rehabilitation of those who are addicted" but that aspect did not receive the same public attention as the term "war on drugs".[11][10][12][13]

    In the years since, presidential administrations have generally maintained or expanded Nixon's original initiatives, with the emphasis on law enforcement and interdiction over public health and treatment.

    In June 2011, the Global Commission on Drug Policy released a critical report, declaring: "The global war on drugs has failed, with devastating consequences for individuals and societies around the world."[5] In 2015, the Drug Policy Alliance, which advocates for an end to the war on drugs, estimated that the United States spends $51 billion annually on these initiatives; in 2021, after 50 years of the drug war, others have estimated that the US has spent a cumulative $1 trillion on it.[14][15]

    1. ^ Mann, Brian (June 17, 2021). "After 50 Years Of The War On Drugs, 'What Good Is It Doing For Us?'". NPR.
    2. ^ Lopez, German (January 30, 2017). "How the war on drugs has made drug traffickers more ruthless and efficient". Vox. Retrieved February 17, 2024.
    3. ^ Scherlen, Renee (January 4, 2012). "The Never-Ending Drug War: Obstacles to Drug War Policy Termination". PS: Political Science & Politics. 45: 67–73. doi:10.1017/S1049096511001739. S2CID 153399320 – via Cambridge Core.
    4. ^ Doward, Jamie (April 2, 2016). "The UN's war on drugs is a failure. Is it time for a different approach?". The Observer. ISSN 0029-7712. Retrieved February 17, 2024.
    5. ^ a b "War on Drugs: Report of the Global Commission on Drug Policy". Global Commission on Drug Policy. June 2011. Retrieved February 21, 2024. The global war on drugs has failed. When the United Nations Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs came into being 50 years ago, and when President Nixon launched the US government's war on drugs 40 years ago, policymakers believed that harsh law enforcement action against those involved in drug production, distribution and use would lead to an ever-diminishing market in controlled drugs such as heroin, cocaine and cannabis, and the eventual achievement of a 'drug free world'. In practice, the global scale of illegal drug markets – largely controlled by organized crime – has grown dramatically over this period.
    6. ^ Baum, Writer Dan. "Legalize All Drugs? The 'Risks Are Tremendous' Without Defining The Problem". NPR.org. Archived from the original on January 15, 2018. Retrieved April 3, 2018.
    7. ^ "(And) Richard Nixon was the one who coined the phrase, 'war on drugs.'"
    8. ^ Cockburn and St. Clair, 1998: Chapter 14
    9. ^ Bullington, Bruce; Block, Alan A. (March 1990). "A Trojan horse: Anti-communism and the war on drugs". Crime, Law and Social Change. 14 (1): 39–55. doi:10.1007/BF00728225. ISSN 1573-0751. S2CID 144145710.
    10. ^ a b Mann, Brian (June 17, 2021). "After 50 Years Of The War On Drugs, 'What Good Is It Doing For Us?'". NPR. Retrieved December 8, 2023.
    11. ^ "Richard Nixon: Special Message to the Congress on Drug Abuse Prevention and Control". Archived from the original on December 12, 2013. Retrieved December 8, 2013.
    12. ^ "Nixon Calls War on Drugs". Palm Beach Post. June 18, 1971. Retrieved December 8, 2023.
    13. ^ Dufton, Emily (March 26, 2012). "The War on Drugs: How President Nixon Tied Addiction to Crime". The Atlantic. Archived from the original on November 5, 2012. Retrieved October 13, 2012.
    14. ^ "Drug War Statistics". Drug Policy Alliance. Archived from the original on July 5, 2017. Retrieved February 25, 2014.
    15. ^ Mann, Brian (June 17, 2021). "After 50 Years Of The War On Drugs, 'What Good Is It Doing For Us?'". NPR. The campaign  – which by some estimates cost more than $1 trillion  – also exacerbated racial divisions and infringed on civil liberties in ways that transformed American society.
     
  17. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    15 October 1956Fortran, the first modern computer language, is shared with the coding community for the first time.

    Fortran

    Fortran (/ˈfɔːrtræn/; formerly FORTRAN) is a third generation, compiled, imperative programming language that is especially suited to numeric computation and scientific computing.

    Fortran was originally developed by IBM.[2] It first compiled correctly in 1958.[3] Fortran computer programs have been written to support scientific and engineering applications, such as numerical weather prediction, finite element analysis, computational fluid dynamics, geophysics, computational physics, crystallography and computational chemistry. It is a popular language for high-performance computing[4] and is used for programs that benchmark and rank the world's fastest supercomputers.[5][6]

    The IBM Blue Gene/P supercomputer installation in 2007 at the Argonne Leadership Angela Yang Computing Facility located in the Argonne National Laboratory, in Lemont, Illinois, US

    Fortran has evolved through numerous versions and dialects. In 1966, the American National Standards Institute (ANSI) developed a standard for Fortran because new compilers would slightly change the syntax.[7] Nonetheless, successive versions have added support for strings (Fortran 77), structured programming, array programming, modular programming, generic programming (Fortran 90), parallel computing (Fortran 95), object-oriented programming (Fortran 2003), and concurrent programming (Fortran 2008).

    FORTRAN and COBOL genealogy tree

    Since August 2021, Fortran has ranked among the top fifteen languages in the TIOBE index, a measure of the popularity of programming languages.[8]

    1. ^ "Chapel spec (Acknowledgements)" (PDF). Cray Inc. October 1, 2015. Archived (PDF) from the original on February 5, 2016. Retrieved January 14, 2016.
    2. ^ John Backus. "The history of FORTRAN I, II and III" (PDF). Softwarepreservation.org. Archived (PDF) from the original on July 26, 2007. Retrieved November 19, 2014.
    3. ^ Wilson, Leslie B. (2001). Comparative Programming Languages, Third Edition. Addison-Wesley. p. 16. ISBN 0-201-71012-9. The manual for Fortran I was released in 1956, but it was 1958 before successful compilers were running programs correctly.
    4. ^ Eugene Loh (June 18, 2010). "The Ideal HPC Programming Language". Queue. 8 (6).
    5. ^ "HPL – A Portable Implementation of the High-Performance Linpack Benchmark for Distributed-Memory Computers". Retrieved February 21, 2015.
    6. ^ "Q13. What are the benchmarks?". Overview – CPU 2017. SPEC. Retrieved November 13, 2019.
    7. ^ Wilson, Leslie B. (2001). Comparative Programming Languages, Third Edition. Addison-Wesley. p. 18. ISBN 0-201-71012-9. Another problem was that there was no standard for Fortran and so slightly different versions ... would likely fail when used with a different compiler.
    8. ^ TIOBE Software BV (September 2022). "TIOBE Index". TIOBE.com. TIOBE. Retrieved September 23, 2022.
     
  18. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    16 October 1984Desmond Tutu is awarded the Nobel Peace Prize.

    Desmond Tutu

    Desmond Tutu (7 October 1931 – 26 December 2021) was a South African Anglican bishop and theologian, known for his work as an anti-apartheid and human rights activist. He was Bishop of Johannesburg from 1985 to 1986 and then Archbishop of Cape Town from 1986 to 1996, in both cases being the first black African to hold the position. Theologically, he sought to fuse ideas from black theology with African theology.

    Tutu was born of mixed Xhosa and Motswana heritage to a poor family in Klerksdorp, South Africa. Entering adulthood, he trained as a teacher and married Nomalizo Leah Tutu, with whom he had several children. In 1960, he was ordained as an Anglican priest and in 1962 moved to the United Kingdom to study theology at King's College London. In 1966 he returned to southern Africa, teaching at the Federal Theological Seminary and then the University of Botswana, Lesotho and Swaziland. In 1972, he became the Theological Education Fund's director for Africa, a position based in London but necessitating regular tours of the African continent. Back in southern Africa in 1975, he served first as dean of St Mary's Cathedral in Johannesburg and then as Bishop of Lesotho; from 1978 to 1985 he was general-secretary of the South African Council of Churches. He emerged as one of the most prominent opponents of South Africa's apartheid system of racial segregation and white minority rule. Although warning the National Party government that anger at apartheid would lead to racial violence, as an activist he stressed non-violent protest and foreign economic pressure to bring about universal suffrage.

    In 1985, Tutu became Bishop of Johannesburg and in 1986 the Archbishop of Cape Town, the most senior position in southern Africa's Anglican hierarchy. In this position, he emphasised a consensus-building model of leadership and oversaw the introduction of female priests. Also in 1986, he became president of the All Africa Conference of Churches, resulting in further tours of the continent. After President F. W. de Klerk released the anti-apartheid activist Nelson Mandela from prison in 1990 and the pair led negotiations to end apartheid and introduce multi-racial democracy, Tutu assisted as a mediator between rival black factions. After the 1994 general election resulted in a coalition government headed by Mandela, the latter selected Tutu to chair the Truth and Reconciliation Commission to investigate past human rights abuses committed by both pro and anti-apartheid groups. Following apartheid's fall, Tutu campaigned for gay rights and spoke out on a wide range of subjects, among them his criticism of South African presidents Thabo Mbeki and Jacob Zuma, his opposition to the Iraq War, and describing Israel's treatment of Palestinians as apartheid. In 2010, he retired from public life, but continued to speak out on numerous topics and events.

    As Tutu rose to prominence in the 1970s, different socio-economic groups and political classes held a wide range of views about him, from critical to admiring. He was popular among South Africa's black majority and was internationally praised for his work involving anti-apartheid activism, for which he won the Nobel Peace Prize and other international awards. He also compiled several books of his speeches and sermons.

     
  19. Admin2

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    17 October 1814 – Eight people die in the London Beer Flood.

    London Beer Flood

    Etching of brewery working; two drays of horses pull deliveries away from the building.
    Horse Shoe Brewery, London, c. 1800

    The London Beer Flood was an accident at Meux & Co's Horse Shoe Brewery, London, on 17 October 1814. It took place when one of the 22-foot-tall (6.7 m) wooden vats of fermenting porter burst. The escaping liquid dislodged the valve of another vessel and destroyed several large barrels: between 128,000 and 323,000 imperial gallons (580,000–1,470,000 L; 154,000–388,000 US gal) of beer were released in total.

    The resulting wave of porter destroyed the back wall of the brewery and swept into an area of slum dwellings known as the St Giles rookery. Eight people were killed, five of them mourners at the wake being held by an Irish family for a two-year-old boy. The coroner's inquest returned a verdict that the eight had lost their lives "casually, accidentally and by misfortune".[1] The brewery was nearly bankrupted by the event; it avoided collapse after a rebate from HM Excise on the lost beer. The brewing industry gradually stopped using large wooden vats after the accident. The brewery moved in 1921, and the Dominion Theatre is now where the brewery used to stand. Meux & Co went into liquidation in 1961.

     
  20. Admin2

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    18 October 1914 – The Schoenstatt Movement is founded in Germany.

    Schoenstatt Apostolic Movement

    The Apostolic Movement of Schoenstatt (German: Schönstatt-Bewegung) is a Catholic Marian movement founded in Germany in 1914 by Fr Joseph Kentenich, who saw the movement as a means of spiritual renewal for the Catholic Church.[2] The movement is named after the small locality of Schönstatt (which means "beautiful place") which is part of the town of Vallendar near Koblenz, in Germany.

    As a movement of renewal within the Catholic Church, Schoenstatt works to revitalize the Church and society in the spirit of the Gospel. Its members seek to connect faith with daily life, especially through a deep love for Mary, the Mother of God, who helps, educates and guides them in becoming better followers of Christ. As an international movement, it has expanded to every continent and has members from all vocations and walks in life. It is a spiritual family whose many branches and communities join to form a single Schoenstatt Family.[3]

    1. ^ "Apostolic Movement of Schoenstatt". Pontifical Council for the Laity. Retrieved 27 May 2017.
    2. ^ "International Associations of the Faithful, Directory - Pontifical Councils for the Laity". www.vatican.va. Retrieved 8 February 2020.
    3. ^ "What is Schoenstatt?". Schoenstatt Apostolic Movement. Retrieved 6 September 2020.
     
  21. Admin2

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    19 October 1974Niue becomes a self-governing colony of New Zealand.

    Niue Constitution Act

    The Schedules of the Niue Constitution Act 1974 form the Constitution of Niue. It stipulates the make-up of the executive branch of the government, the legislative branch, and the judicial branch. The Niue Constitution Act 1974 is the supreme law of Niue; any other Niue law that is inconsistent with the Niue Constitution Act 1974 will be deemed to be invalid.

    Its granting by the New Zealand Parliament in 1974 is celebrated yearly as Niue's independence on "Constitution Day" on 19 October. The road towards self-government for Niue started with the UN Decolonisation Committee putting pressure on New Zealand for Niue to decide what form of status Niue wanted. The people of Niue voted in 1974 choosing the self-government option as the best direction for Niue. The Niue Constitution is the legal doctrine that put the wishes of the Niue people for self-government into practice. Self-government allows for Niueans to lead and take charge of their own affairs; this has reduced the number of New Zealand expats working in key Government positions from around 20 in 1974 to none at the moment.

    The Niue Constitution requires 2/3 majority in the three readings in the Legislative Assembly and also requires 2/3 support from the electors before it can be amended. There is a select committee that have been working on reviewing the constitution but have made little progress, which is normal when dealing with a complex document like this.

     
  22. Admin2

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    20 October 1982 – During the UEFA Cup match between FC Spartak Moscow and HFC Haarlem, 66 people are crushed to death in the Luzhniki disaster.

    Luzhniki disaster

    55°42′57″N 37°33′13″E / 55.71583°N 37.55361°E / 55.71583; 37.55361

    The Luzhniki disaster was a deadly crowd crush that took place at the Grand Sports Arena of the Central Lenin Stadium (Russian: Большая спортивная арена Центрального стадиона им. В. И. Ленина, now known as Luzhniki Stadium) in Moscow during the 1982–83 UEFA Cup match between FC Spartak Moscow and HFC Haarlem on 20 October 1982. According to the official enquiry, 66 FC Spartak Moscow fans,[1][2][3] mostly adolescents,[4] died in the crush, which made it Russia's worst sporting disaster.[5] The number of fatalities in this crush was not officially revealed until seven years later, in 1989. Until then, this figure varied in press reports from 3 to 340 fatalities. The circumstances of this disaster are similar to those of the second Ibrox disaster in Scotland.

    1. ^ Cite error: The named reference iz was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    2. ^ Cite error: The named reference ize was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    3. ^ Cite error: The named reference lan was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    4. ^ Мемориал памяти погибших (in Russian). Moscow: Проект "Двадцатое число". 2007. Retrieved 10 February 2012.
    5. ^ Cite error: The named reference jw was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
     
  23. Admin2

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    21 October 1854Florence Nightingale and a staff of 38 nurses are sent to the Crimean War.

    Florence Nightingale

    Florence Nightingale OM RRC DStJ (/ˈntɪŋɡl/; 12 May 1820 – 13 August 1910) was an English social reformer, statistician and the founder of modern nursing. Nightingale came to prominence while serving as a manager and trainer of nurses during the Crimean War, in which she organised care for wounded soldiers at Constantinople.[4] She significantly reduced death rates by improving hygiene and living standards. Nightingale gave nursing a favourable reputation and became an icon of Victorian culture, especially in the persona of "The Lady with the Lamp" making rounds of wounded soldiers at night.[5][6]

    Recent commentators have asserted that Nightingale's Crimean War achievements were exaggerated by the media at the time, but critics agree on the importance of her later work in professionalising nursing roles for women.[7] In 1860, she laid the foundation of professional nursing with the establishment of her nursing school at St Thomas' Hospital in London. It was the first secular nursing school in the world and is now part of King's College London.[8] In recognition of her pioneering work in nursing, the Nightingale Pledge taken by new nurses, and the Florence Nightingale Medal, the highest international distinction a nurse can achieve, were named in her honour, and the annual International Nurses Day is celebrated on her birthday. Her social reforms included improving healthcare for all sections of British society, advocating better hunger relief in India, helping to abolish prostitution laws that were harsh for women, and expanding the acceptable forms of female participation in the workforce.

    Nightingale was a pioneer in statistics; she represented her analysis in graphical forms to ease drawing conclusions and actionables from data. She is famous for usage of the polar area diagram, also called the Nightingale rose diagram, equivalent to a modern circular histogram. This diagram is still regularly used in data visualisation.

    Nightingale was a prodigious and versatile writer. In her lifetime, much of her published work was concerned with spreading medical knowledge. Some of her tracts were written in simple English so that they could easily be understood by those with poor literary skills. She was also a pioneer in data visualisation with the use of infographics, using graphical presentations of statistical data in an effective way.[7] Much of her writing, including her extensive work on religion and mysticism, has only been published posthumously.

    1. ^ "Florence Nightingale". King's College London. Archived from the original on 8 December 2015. Retrieved 30 November 2015.
    2. ^ "Florence Nightingale 2nd rendition, 1890 – greetings to the dear old comrades of Balaclava". Internet Archive. Retrieved 13 February 2014.
    3. ^ Buhnemann, Kristin (17 February 2020). "Florence Nightingale's Voice, 1890". florence-nightingale.co.uk. Florence Nightingale Museum London. Retrieved 7 April 2022.
    4. ^ Strachey, Lytton (1918). Eminent Victorians. London: Chatto and Windus. p. 123.
    5. ^ Swenson, Kristine (2005). Medical Women and Victorian Fiction. University of Missouri Press. p. 15. ISBN 978-0-8262-6431-2.
    6. ^ Ralby, Aaron (2013). "The Crimean War 1853–1856". Atlas of Military History. Parragon. pp. 281. ISBN 978-1-4723-0963-1.
    7. ^ a b Bostridge, Mark (17 February 2011). "Florence Nightingale: the Lady with the Lamp". BBC. Archived from the original on 25 December 2019. Retrieved 20 December 2019.
    8. ^ Petroni, A (1969). "The first nursing school in the world – St. Thomas Hospital School in London". Munca Sanit. 17 (8): 449–454. PMID 5195090.
     
  24. Admin2

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    22 October 1859 – Spain declares war on Morocco.

    Morocco

    Morocco,[d] officially the Kingdom of Morocco,[e] is a country in the Maghreb region of North Africa. It overlooks the Mediterranean Sea to the north and the Atlantic Ocean to the west, and has land borders with Algeria to the east, and the disputed territory of Western Sahara to the south. Morocco also claims the Spanish exclaves of Ceuta, Melilla and Peñón de Vélez de la Gomera, and several small Spanish-controlled islands off its coast.[16] It has a population of roughly 37 million, the official and predominant religion is Islam, and the official languages are Arabic and Berber; French and the Moroccan dialect of Arabic are also widely spoken. Moroccan identity and culture is a mix of Arab, Berber, African and European cultures. Its capital is Rabat, while its largest city is Casablanca.[17]

    The region constituting Morocco has been inhabited since the Paleolithic era over 300,000 years ago. The Idrisid dynasty was established by Idris I in 788 and was subsequently ruled by a series of other independent dynasties, reaching its zenith as a regional power in the 11th and 12th centuries, under the Almoravid and Almohad dynasties, when it controlled most of the Iberian Peninsula and the Maghreb.[18] Centuries of Arab migration to the Maghreb since the 7th century shifted the demographic scope of the region. In the 15th and 16th centuries, Morocco faced external threats to its sovereignty, with Portugal seizing some territory and the Ottoman Empire encroaching from the east. The Marinid and Saadi dynasties otherwise resisted foreign domination, and Morocco was the only North African nation to escape Ottoman dominion. The 'Alawi dynasty, which rules the country to this day, seized power in 1631, and over the next two centuries expanded diplomatic and commercial relations with the Western world. Morocco's strategic location near the mouth of the Mediterranean drew renewed European interest; in 1912, France and Spain divided the country into respective protectorates, reserving an international zone in Tangier. Following intermittent riots and revolts against colonial rule, in 1956, Morocco regained its independence and reunified.

    Since independence, Morocco has remained relatively stable. It has the fifth-largest economy in Africa and wields significant influence in both Africa and the Arab world; it is considered a middle power in global affairs and holds membership in the Arab League, the Arab Maghreb Union, the Union for the Mediterranean, and the African Union.[19] Morocco is a unitary semi-constitutional monarchy with an elected parliament. The executive branch is led by the King of Morocco and the prime minister, while legislative power is vested in the two chambers of parliament: the House of Representatives and the House of Councillors. Judicial power rests with the Constitutional Court, which may review the validity of laws, elections, and referendums.[20] The king holds vast executive and legislative powers, especially over the military, foreign policy and religious affairs; he can issue decrees called dahirs, which have the force of law, and can also dissolve the parliament after consulting the prime minister and the president of the constitutional court.

    Morocco claims ownership of the non-self-governing territory of Western Sahara, which it has designated its Southern Provinces. In 1975, after Spain agreed to decolonise the territory and cede its control to Morocco and Mauritania, a guerrilla war broke out between those powers and some of the local inhabitants. In 1979, Mauritania relinquished its claim to the area, but the war continued to rage. In 1991, a ceasefire agreement was reached, but the issue of sovereignty remained unresolved. Today, Morocco occupies two-thirds of the territory, and efforts to resolve the dispute have thus far failed to break the political deadlock.

    1. ^ "Constitution of Morocco". www.constituteproject.org. Retrieved 11 March 2024.
    2. ^ a b "Morocco". The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency. 12 January 2022.
    3. ^ "Présentation du Maroc" (in French). Ministère de l'Europe et des Affaires étrangères.
    4. ^ Hyde, Martin (October 1994). "The teaching of English in Morocco: the place of culture". ELT Journal. 48 (4): 295–305. doi:10.1093/elt/48.4.295.
    5. ^ The Report: Morocco 2012. Oxford Business Group. 2012. ISBN 978-1-907065-54-5.
    6. ^ "Regional Profiles: Morocco". The Association of Religion Data Archives. World Religion Database.
    7. ^ Constitution of the Kingdom of Morocco. Translated by Ruchti, Jefri J. Getzville: William S. Hein & Co., Inc. 2012. First published in the Official Bulletin on July 30, 2011
    8. ^ Trinidad, Jamie (2012). "An Evaluation of Morocco's Claims to Spain's Remaining Territories in Africa". The International and Comparative Law Quarterly. 61 (4): 961–975. doi:10.1017/S0020589312000371. ISSN 0020-5893. JSTOR 23279813.
    9. ^ "Horloge de la population" (in French). HCP. 2022. Retrieved 18 December 2022.
    10. ^ "Résultats RGPH 2014" (in French). HCP. 2014. Archived from the original on 9 May 2020. Retrieved 17 October 2019.
    11. ^ a b c d "World Economic Outlook Database, October 2023 Edition. (Morocco)". IMF.org. International Monetary Fund. 10 October 2023. Retrieved 12 October 2023.
    12. ^ Africa's Development Dynamics 2018:Growth, Jobs and Inequalities. AUC/OECD. 2018. p. 179. Retrieved 18 December 2020.
    13. ^ Human Development Report 2021-22: Uncertain Times, Unsettled Lives: Shaping our Future in a Transforming World (PDF). United Nations Development Programme. 8 September 2022. pp. 272–276. ISBN 978-9-211-26451-7. Archived (PDF) from the original on 8 September 2022. Retrieved 8 September 2022.
    14. ^ "Décret royal n° 455-67 du 23 safar 1387 (2 juin 1967) portant loi relatif à l'heure légale". Bulletin Officiel du Royaume du Maroc (2854) – via Banque de Données Juridiques.
    15. ^ "Changements d'heure pour ramadan, quels impacts ?". TelQuel (in French). Retrieved 13 January 2023.
    16. ^ "Ceuta, Melilla profile". BBC News. 2018. Retrieved 13 November 2018.
    17. ^ Jamil M. Abun-Nasr (20 August 1987). A History of the Maghrib in the Islamic Period. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-33767-0.
    18. ^ Hall, John G.; Chelsea Publishing House (2002). North Africa. Infobase Publishing. ISBN 978-0-7910-5746-9.
    19. ^ Balfour, Rosa (March 2009). "The Transformation of the Union for the Mediterranean". Mediterranean Politics. 14 (1): 99–105. doi:10.1080/13629390902747491. ISSN 1362-9395.
    20. ^ Morocco: Remove Obstacles to Access to the Constitutional Court Archived 21 July 2021 at the Wayback Machine. International Commission of Jurists.


    Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

     
  25. Admin2

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    23 October 1707 – The first Parliament of Great Britain meets.

    Parliament of Great Britain

    The Parliament of Great Britain was formed in May 1707 following the ratification of the Acts of Union by both the Parliament of England and the Parliament of Scotland. The Acts ratified the treaty of Union which created a new unified Kingdom of Great Britain and created the parliament of Great Britain located in the former home of the English parliament in the Palace of Westminster, near the City of London. This lasted nearly a century, until the Acts of Union 1800 merged the separate British and Irish Parliaments into a single Parliament of the United Kingdom with effect from 1 January 1801.

     
  26. Admin2

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    24 October 1648 – The Peace of Westphalia is signed, marking the end of the Thirty Years' War.

    Peace of Westphalia

    The Peace of Westphalia (German: Westfälischer Friede, pronounced [vɛstˈfɛːlɪʃɐ ˈfʁiːdə] ) is the collective name for two peace treaties signed in October 1648 in the Westphalian cities of Osnabrück and Münster. They ended the Thirty Years' War (1618–1648) and brought peace to the Holy Roman Empire, closing a calamitous period of European history that killed approximately eight million people. Holy Roman Emperor Ferdinand III, the kingdoms of France and Sweden, and their respective allies among the princes of the Holy Roman Empire, participated in the treaties.[1]

    The negotiation process was lengthy and complex. Talks took place in two cities, because each side wanted to meet on territory under its own control. A total of 109 delegations arrived to represent the belligerent states, but not all delegations were present at the same time. Two treaties were signed to end the war in the Empire: the Treaty of Münster and the Treaty of Osnabrück.[2][3] These treaties ended the Thirty Years' War in the Holy Roman Empire, with the Habsburgs (rulers of Austria and Spain) and their Catholic allies on one side, battling the Protestant powers (Sweden and certain Holy Roman principalities) allied with France (though Catholic, strongly anti-Habsburg under King Louis XIV).

    Several scholars of international relations have identified the Peace of Westphalia as the origin of principles crucial to modern international relations,[4] collectively known as Westphalian sovereignty. However, some historians have argued against this, suggesting that such views emerged during the nineteenth and twentieth century in relation to concerns about sovereignty during that time.[5]

    1. ^ Clodfelter, Micheal (2017). Warfare and Armed Conflicts: A Statistical Encyclopedia of Casualty and Other Figures, 1492–2015. McFarland. p. 40. ISBN 978-0-7864-7470-7.
    2. ^ "APW Einführung". www.pax-westphalica.de. Archived from the original on 23 October 2020. Retrieved 2 November 2020.
    3. ^ "Peace of Westphalia | Definition, Map, Results, & Significance". Encyclopedia Britannica. Archived from the original on 6 August 2015. Retrieved 2 November 2020.
    4. ^ Patton, Steven (2019). "The Peace of Westphalia and it Affects on International Relations, Diplomacy and Foreign Policy". The Histories. Archived from the original on 4 February 2021. Retrieved 19 January 2021.
    5. ^ Osiander, Andreas (2001). "Sovereignty, International Relations, and the Westphalian Myth". International Organization. 55 (2): 251–287. doi:10.1162/00208180151140577. JSTOR 3078632. S2CID 145407931. Archived from the original on 21 August 2021. Retrieved 21 August 2021.
     
  27. Admin2

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    25 October 1828St Katharine Docks open in London.

    St Katharine Docks

    St Katharine Docks is a former dock and now a mixed-used district[1] in Central London, in the London Borough of Tower Hamlets and within the East End. It lies on the north bank of the River Thames, immediately downstream of the Tower of London and Tower Bridge. From 1828 to 1968, it was one of the commercial docks that made up the Port of London. It is in the redevelopment zone known as Docklands and is now a popular housing and leisure complex.

    1. ^ "Urban Structure and Characterisation Study" (PDF). www.towerhamlets.gov.uk. Tower Hamlets London Borough Council. pp. 64–75.
     
  28. Admin2

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    26 October 1921 – The Chicago Theatre opens.

    Chicago Theatre

    The Chicago Theatre, originally known as the Balaban and Katz Chicago Theatre, is a landmark theater located on North State Street in the Loop area of Chicago, Illinois. Built in 1921, the Chicago Theatre was the flagship for the Balaban and Katz (B&K) group of theaters run by A. J. Balaban, his brother Barney Balaban and partner Sam Katz.[5] Along with the other B&K theaters, from 1925 to 1945 the Chicago Theatre was a dominant movie theater enterprise.[6] Currently, Madison Square Garden, Inc. owns and operates the Chicago Theatre as a 3600 seat performing arts venue for stage plays, magic shows, comedy, speeches, sporting events and popular music concerts.

    The building was added to the National Register of Historic Places on June 6, 1979,[1] and was listed as a Chicago Landmark on January 28, 1983.[7] The distinctive Chicago Theatre marquee, "an unofficial emblem of the city", appears frequently in film, television, artwork, and photography.[7]

    1. ^ a b "National Register Information System". National Register of Historic Places. National Park Service. July 9, 2010.
    2. ^ "National Register of Historical Places: Illinois (IL), Cook County". National Register of Historic Places. nationalregisterofhistoricplaces.com. May 1, 2007. Retrieved August 10, 2009.
    3. ^ a b Schulze, Franz; Harrington, Kevin (November 15, 2003). Chicago's Famous Buildings. University of Chicago Press. pp. 58–9. ISBN 0-226-74066-8.
    4. ^ Steiner, Frances (March 1999). The Architecture of Chicago's Loop. Sigma Press. p. 27. ISBN 0-9667259-0-5.
    5. ^ "Chicago Theatre: home of WurliTzer (opus 434)". Chicago Area Theatre Organ Enthusiasts. April 19, 2012. Archived from the original on March 30, 2015. Retrieved June 13, 2014.
    6. ^ Cite error: The named reference EOCBK was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    7. ^ a b "Chicago Theatre". Commission on Chicago Landmarks. Retrieved June 13, 2014.
     
  29. Admin2

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    27 October 1971 – The Democratic Republic of the Congo is renamed Zaire.

    Democratic Republic of the Congo

    The Democratic Republic of the Congo[b] is a country in Central Africa. By land area, the DRC is the second-largest country in Africa and the 11th-largest in the world. With a population of around 112 million, the Democratic Republic of the Congo is the most populous Francophone country in the world. The national capital and largest city is Kinshasa, which is also the economic center. The country is bordered by the Republic of the Congo, Central African Republic, South Sudan, Uganda, Rwanda, Burundi, Tanzania (across Lake Tanganyika), Zambia, Angola, the Cabinda exclave of Angola, and the South Atlantic Ocean.

    Centered on the Congo Basin, the territory of the DRC was first inhabited by Central African foragers around 90,000 years ago and was reached by the Bantu expansion about 3,000 years ago.[8] In the west, the Kingdom of Kongo ruled around the mouth of the Congo River from the 14th to 19th centuries. In the northeast, center, and east, the kingdoms of Azande, Luba, and Lunda ruled from the 16th and 17th centuries to the 19th century. King Leopold II of Belgium formally acquired rights to the Congo territory from the colonial nations of Europe in 1885 and declared the land his private property, naming it the Congo Free State. From 1885 to 1908, his colonial military forced the local population to produce rubber and committed widespread atrocities. In 1908, Leopold ceded the territory, which thus became a Belgian colony.

    Congo achieved independence from Belgium on 30 June 1960 and was immediately confronted by a series of secessionist movements, the assassination of Prime Minister Patrice Lumumba, and the seizure of power by Mobutu Sese Seko in a 1965 coup d'état. Mobutu renamed the country Zaire in 1971 and imposed a harsh personalist dictatorship until his overthrow in 1997 by the First Congo War.[3] The country then had its name changed back and was confronted by the Second Congo War from 1998 to 2003, which resulted in the deaths of 5.4 million people.[9][10][11][12] The war ended under President Joseph Kabila, who governed the country from 2001 to 2019, under whom human rights in the country remained poor and included frequent abuses such as forced disappearances, torture, arbitrary imprisonment and restrictions on civil liberties.[13] Following the 2018 general election, in the country's first peaceful transition of power since independence, Kabila was succeeded as president by Félix Tshisekedi, who has served as president since.[14] Since 2015, the Eastern DR Congo has been the site of an ongoing military conflict in Kivu.

    The Democratic Republic of the Congo is extremely rich in natural resources but has suffered from political instability, a lack of infrastructure, corruption, and centuries of both commercial and colonial extraction and exploitation, followed by more than 60 years of independence, with little widespread development.[15] Besides the capital Kinshasa, the two next largest cities, Lubumbashi and Mbuji-Mayi, are both mining communities. The DRC's largest export is raw minerals, with China accepting over 50% of its exports in 2019.[3] In 2021, DR Congo's level of human development was ranked 179th out of 191 countries by the Human Development Index[16] and is classed as a least developed country by the UN. As of 2018, following two decades of various civil wars and continued internal conflicts, around 600,000 Congolese refugees were still living in neighbouring countries.[17] Two million children risk starvation, and the fighting has displaced 4.5 million people.[18] The country is a member of the United Nations, Non-Aligned Movement, African Union, COMESA, Southern African Development Community, Organisation Internationale de la Francophonie, and Economic Community of Central African States.


    Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

    1. ^ "Democratic Republic of the Congo". United States Department of State. 2 June 2022. Retrieved 23 March 2023.
    2. ^ Muamba, Clément (21 February 2024). "RDC: Félix Tshisekedi n'a pas acté la démission du Premier ministre et son gouvernement". Actualite.cd (in French). Retrieved 21 February 2024.
    3. ^ a b c Central Intelligence Agency (2014). "Democratic Republic of the Congo". The World Factbook. Langley, Virginia: Central Intelligence Agency. Archived from the original on 22 February 2021. Retrieved 29 April 2014.
    4. ^ "Congo, Democratic Republic of the". The World Factbook (2024 ed.). Central Intelligence Agency. Retrieved 24 September 2022. (Archived 2022 edition)
    5. ^ a b c d "World Economic Outlook Database, October 2023 Edition. (CD)". IMF.org. International Monetary Fund. 10 October 2023. Retrieved 14 October 2023.
    6. ^ "GINI index coefficient". CIA Factbook. Archived from the original on 7 July 2021. Retrieved 16 July 2021.
    7. ^ "Human Development Report 2023/2024". United Nations Development Programme. 19 March 2024. Retrieved 19 March 2024.
    8. ^ Van Reybrouck, David (2015). Congo : the epic history of a people. New York, NY: HarperCollins. pp. Chapter 1 and 2. ISBN 9780062200129.
    9. ^ Coghlan, Benjamin; et al. (2007). Mortality in the Democratic Republic of Congo: An ongoing crisis: Full 26-page report (PDF) (Report). p. 26. Archived (PDF) from the original on 8 September 2013. Retrieved 21 March 2013.
    10. ^ Robinson, Simon (28 May 2006). "The deadliest war in the world". Time. Archived from the original on 11 September 2013. Retrieved 2 May 2010.
    11. ^ Bavier, Joe (22 January 2008). "Congo War driven crisis kills 45,000 a month". Reuters. Archived from the original on 14 April 2011. Retrieved 2 May 2010.
    12. ^ "Measuring Mortality in the Democratic Republic of Congo" (PDF). International Rescue Committee. 2007. Archived (PDF) from the original on 11 August 2011. Retrieved 2 September 2011.
    13. ^ "Democratic Republic of Congo in Crisis | Human Rights Watch". Archived from the original on 13 May 2021. Retrieved 18 May 2021.
    14. ^ Mwanamilongo, Saleh; Anna, Cara (24 January 2019). "Congo's surprise new leader in 1st peaceful power transfer". Associated Press. Archived from the original on 18 May 2021. Retrieved 29 May 2021.
    15. ^ Cite error: The named reference :9 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    16. ^ "Foreword by UNDP Administrator", Arab Human Development Report 2022, Arab Human Development Report, United Nations, pp. ii–iii, 29 June 2022, doi:10.18356/9789210019293c001, ISBN 978-92-1-001929-3, retrieved 16 January 2023
    17. ^ Samir Tounsi (6 June 2018). "DR Congo crisis stirs concerns in central Africa". AFP. Archived from the original on 13 June 2018. Retrieved 6 June 2018.
    18. ^ Robyn Dixon (12 April 2018). "Violence is roiling the Democratic Republic of Congo. Some say it's a strategy to keep the president in power". Los Angeles Times. Archived from the original on 8 June 2018. Retrieved 8 June 2018.
     
  30. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    28 October 2009 – The 28 October 2009 Peshawar bombing kills 117 and wounds 213.

    28 October 2009 Peshawar bombing

    The 28 October 2009 Peshawar bombing occurred in Peshawar, Pakistan, when a car bomb was detonated in a Mina Bazar (Market for women and children) of the city. The bomb killed 137 people and injured more than 200 others, making it the deadliest attack in Peshawar's history. Pakistani government officials believe the Taliban to be responsible, but both Taliban and Al-Qaeda sources have denied involvement in the attack.

    1. ^ a b Cite error: The named reference IT was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    2. ^ Hazrat Bacha, Ali (30 October 2009). "Death toll from Peshawar blast rises to 117". Dawn. Pakistan. Archived from the original on 1 November 2009. Retrieved 6 March 2022.
     
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    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    29 October 1591 – Pope Innocent IX is elected.

    Pope Innocent IX

    Pope Innocent IX (Latin: Innocentius IX; Italian: Innocenzo IX; 20 July 1519 – 30 December 1591), born Giovanni Antonio Facchinetti,[1] was head of the Catholic Church and ruler of the Papal States from 29 October to 30 December 1591.

    Prior to his short papacy, he had been a canon lawyer, diplomat, and chief administrator during the reign of Pope Gregory XIV (r. 1590–1591).

    He entered the service of the influential Cardinal Alessandro Farnese. As papal legate to Venice, he helped negotiate the formation of the Holy League, an alliance of Spanish and Italian maritime powers to challenge the Ottoman Empire’s control of the eastern Mediterranean, and which resulted in victory at the Battle of Lepanto.

    1. ^ Martin, John Jeffries. Venice's Hidden Enemies: Italian Heretics in a Renaissance City, (University of California Press, 1993), 183.
     
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    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    30 October 1485 – King Henry VII of England is crowned.

    Henry VII of England

    Henry VII (28 January 1457 – 21 April 1509) was King of England and Lord of Ireland from his seizure of the crown on 22 August 1485 until his death in 1509. He was the first monarch of the House of Tudor.[a]

    Henry's mother, Margaret Beaufort, was a descendant of John of Gaunt, founder of the House of Lancaster and son of King Edward III. Henry's father, Edmund Tudor, 1st Earl of Richmond, a half-brother of Henry VI of England and a member of the Welsh Tudors of Penmynydd, died three months before his son Henry was born. During Henry's early years, his uncle Henry VI was fighting in the civil wars against Edward IV, a member of the Yorkist branch of the House of Plantagenet. After Edward retook the throne in 1471, Henry Tudor spent 14 years in exile in Brittany. He attained the throne when his forces, supported by France, Scotland, and Wales, defeated Richard III at the Battle of Bosworth Field, the culmination of the Wars of the Roses. He was the last king of England to win his throne on the field of battle. Vindicating the Lancastrian cause, he cemented his claim by marrying the Yorkist heir, Elizabeth of York, daughter of Edward IV.

    Henry restored power and stability to the English monarchy following the civil war. He is credited with many administrative, economic and diplomatic initiatives. His supportive policy toward England's wool industry and his standoff with the Low Countries had long-lasting benefits to the English economy. He paid very close attention to detail, and instead of spending lavishly he concentrated on raising new revenues. He stabilised the government's finances by introducing several new taxes. After his death, a commission found widespread abuses in the tax collection process. Henry reigned for nearly 24 years and was peacefully succeeded by his son, Henry VIII.
    Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

     
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    31 October 1922Benito Mussolini is made Prime Minister of Italy

    Benito Mussolini

    Benito Amilcare Andrea Mussolini (UK: /ˌmʊsəˈlni, ˌmʌs-/, US: /ˌms-/, Italian: [beˈniːto aˈmilkare anˈdrɛːa mussoˈliːni]; 29 July 1883 – 28 April 1945) was an Italian dictator who founded and led the National Fascist Party (PNF). He was Prime Minister of Italy from the March on Rome in 1922 until his deposition in 1943, as well as Duce of Italian fascism from the establishment of the Italian Fasces of Combat in 1919 until his summary execution in 1945 by Italian partisans. As dictator of Italy and principal founder of fascism, Mussolini inspired and supported the international spread of fascist movements during the inter-war period.

    Mussolini was originally a socialist politician and a journalist at the Avanti! newspaper. In 1912, he became a member of the National Directorate of the Italian Socialist Party (PSI), but he was expelled from the PSI for advocating military intervention in World War I, in opposition to the party's stance on neutrality. In 1914, Mussolini founded a newspaper, Il Popolo d'Italia, and served in the Royal Italian Army during the war until he was wounded and discharged in 1917. Mussolini denounced the PSI, his views now centering on Italian nationalism instead of socialism, and later founded the fascist movement which came to oppose egalitarianism and class conflict, instead advocating "revolutionary nationalism" transcending class lines. On 31 October 1922, following the March on Rome (28–30 October), Mussolini was appointed prime minister by King Victor Emmanuel III, becoming the youngest individual to hold the office up to that time. After removing all political opposition through his secret police and outlawing labour strikes, Mussolini and his followers consolidated power through a series of laws that transformed the nation into a one-party dictatorship. Within five years, Mussolini established dictatorial authority by both legal and illegal means and aspired to create a totalitarian state. In 1929, Mussolini signed the Lateran Treaty with the Holy See to establish Vatican City.

    Mussolini's foreign policy was based on the fascist doctrine of "Spazio vitale" (trans: "living space"); which aimed to expand Italian possessions and the fascist sphere of influence. In 1923, Mussolini ordered the bombing of Corfu over an incident with Greece. That same year, Mussolini launched the Second Italo-Senussi war which lasted until 1932 and culminated in the Libyan genocide. He also annexed the city of Fiume into Italy after the Treaty of Rome in 1924 with Yugoslavia. Through the Tirana treaties, Mussolini turned Albania into an Italian protectorate. In 1936, Ethiopia was conquered following the Second Italo-Ethiopian War and merged into Italian East Africa (AOI) with Eritrea and Somalia. In 1939, Italian forces annexed Albania. Between 1936 and 1939, Mussolini ordered an intervention in Spain in favour of Francisco Franco during the Spanish Civil War. At the same time, Mussolini initially tried to retain much of the Versailles status quo by sending troops to the Brenner Pass to delay Hitler's Anschluss, and taking part in the Treaty of Lausanne, the Lytton Report, the Four-Power Pact and the Stresa Front. However, he ultimately alienated the democratic powers as tensions grew in the League of Nations, which he left in 1937. Now hostile to France and Britain, Italy formed the Axis alliance with Nazi Germany and Imperial Japan.

    The wars of the 1930s, although victorious, had cost Italy enormous resources, leaving the country unprepared for the upcoming Second World War. Therefore, when Poland was invaded on 1 September 1939, Mussolini declared Italy's non-belligerence. However, on 10 June 1940, believing that Allied defeat was imminent, he decided to join the war on the side of Germany to share the potential spoils of victory. But after three more years of world war, the tide of the conflict turned in favour of the Allies. Following the invasion of Sicily and a motion of no confidence by the Grand Council of Fascism, King Victor Emmanuel III dismissed Mussolini as head of government and placed him in custody (25 July 1943). After the king agreed to an armistice with the Allies, on 12 September 1943 Mussolini was rescued from captivity in the Gran Sasso raid by German paratroopers and Waffen-SS commandos. After meeting with his fallen ally, Hitler made Mussolini the figurehead of a puppet state in German-occupied northern Italy, the Italian Social Republic (Salò Republic), which served as a collaborationist regime of the Germans in their fight against the Allies, now including the Kingdom of Italy, and the Italian resistance.

    In late April 1945, with Allied victory imminent, Mussolini and his mistress Clara Petacci attempted to flee to Switzerland, but they were captured by Italian communist partisans and summarily executed on 28 April near Lake Como, and their bodies were strung up by the heels outside a service station in Milan.

     
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    1 November 1955 – The Vietnam War begins.

    Vietnam War

    The Vietnam War (also known by other names) was a conflict in Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia from 1 November 1955[A 1] to the fall of Saigon on 30 April 1975. It was the second of the Indochina Wars and was a major conflict of the Cold War. While the war was officially fought between North Vietnam and South Vietnam, the north was supported by the Soviet Union, China, and other communist states, while the south was supported by the United States and other anti-communist allies, making the war a proxy war between the United States and the Soviet Union. It lasted almost 20 years, with direct U.S. military involvement ending in 1973. The conflict also spilled over into neighboring states, exacerbating the Laotian Civil War and the Cambodian Civil War, which ended with all three countries officially becoming communist states by 1976.

    After the fall of French Indochina with the 1954 Geneva Conference on 21 July, the country gained independence from France but was divided into two parts: the Viet Minh took control of North Vietnam, while the U.S. assumed financial and military support for South Vietnam.[56][A 8] The Viet Cong (VC), a South Vietnamese common front under the direction of the north, initiated a guerrilla war in the south. The People's Army of Vietnam (PAVN), also known as the North Vietnamese Army (NVA), engaged in more conventional warfare with U.S. and Army of the Republic of Vietnam (ARVN) forces. North Vietnam invaded Laos in 1958, establishing the Ho Chi Minh Trail to supply and reinforce the VC.[57]: 16  By 1963, the north had sent 40,000 soldiers to fight in the south.[57]: 16  U.S. involvement increased under President John F. Kennedy, from just under a thousand military advisors in 1959 to 23,000 by 1964.[58][29]: 131 

    Following the Gulf of Tonkin incident in August 1964, the U.S. Congress passed a resolution that gave President Lyndon B. Johnson broad authority to increase U.S. military presence in Vietnam, without a formal declaration of war. Johnson ordered the deployment of combat units for the first time and dramatically increased the number of American troops to 184,000.[58] U.S. and South Vietnamese forces relied on air superiority and overwhelming firepower to conduct search and destroy operations, involving ground forces, artillery, and airstrikes. The U.S. also conducted a large-scale strategic bombing campaign against North Vietnam[29]: 371–374 [59] and continued significantly building up its forces, despite little progress being made. In 1968, North Vietnamese forces launched the Tet Offensive. Though it was a tactical defeat for them, it was a strategic victory, as it caused U.S. domestic support for the war to fade.[29]: 481  By the end of the year, the VC held little territory and were sidelined by the PAVN.[60] In 1969, North Vietnam declared the Provisional Revolutionary Government of the Republic of South Vietnam. Operations crossed national borders, and the U.S. bombed North Vietnamese supply routes in Laos and Cambodia. The 1970 deposing of the Cambodian monarch, Norodom Sihanouk, resulted in a PAVN invasion of the country (at the request of the Khmer Rouge), and then a U.S.-ARVN counter-invasion, escalating the Cambodian Civil War. After the election of Richard Nixon in 1969, a policy of "Vietnamization" began, which saw the conflict fought by an expanded ARVN, while U.S. forces withdrew in the face of increasing domestic opposition. U.S. ground forces had largely withdrawn by early 1972, and their operations were limited to air and artillery support, advisors, and materiel shipments. The Paris Peace Accords of January 1973 saw all U.S. forces withdrawn [61]: 457  The accords were broken almost immediately, and fighting continued for two more years. Phnom Penh fell to the Khmer Rouge on 17 April 1975, while the 1975 spring offensive saw the Fall of Saigon to the PAVN on 30 April, marking the end of the war. North and South Vietnam were reunified on 2 July the following year.

    The war exacted an enormous human cost: estimates of the number of Vietnamese soldiers and civilians killed range from 966,000 to 3 million. Some 275,000–310,000 Cambodians, 20,000–62,000 Laotians, and 58,220 U.S. service members also died in the conflict.[A 7] The end of the Vietnam War would precipitate the Vietnamese boat people and the larger Indochina refugee crisis, which saw millions of refugees leave Indochina, an estimated 250,000 of whom perished at sea. Once in power, the Khmer Rouge carried out the Cambodian genocide, while conflict between them and the unified Vietnam would eventually escalate into the Cambodian–Vietnamese War, which toppled the Khmer Rouge government in 1979 and ended the genocide. In response, China invaded Vietnam, with subsequent border conflicts lasting until 1991. Within the United States, the war gave rise to what was referred to as Vietnam syndrome, a public aversion to American overseas military involvement,[62] which, together with the Watergate scandal, contributed to the crisis of confidence that affected America throughout the 1970s.[63]

    The U.S. Air Force destroyed more than 20% of the jungles of South Vietnam and 20–50% of the mangrove forests, by spraying over 20 million U.S. gallons (75 million liters) of toxic herbicides (defoliants), including Agent Orange.[64][65][66] The war is one of the most commonly used examples of ecocide.[67][68][69]

    1. ^ "Name of Technical Sergeant Richard B. Fitzgibbon to be added to the Vietnam Veterans Memorial". Department of Defense (DoD). Archived from the original on 20 October 2013.
    2. ^ a b Lawrence, A.T. (2009). Crucible Vietnam: Memoir of an Infantry Lieutenant. McFarland. ISBN 978-0-7864-4517-2.
    3. ^ Olson & Roberts 2008, p. 67.
    4. ^ "Chapter 5, Origins of the Insurgency in South Vietnam, 1954–1960". The Pentagon Papers (Gravel Edition), Volume 1. Boston: Beacon Press. 1971. Section 3, pp. 314–346. Archived from the original on 19 October 2017. Retrieved 17 August 2008 – via International Relations Department, Mount Holyoke College.
    5. ^ The Paris Agreement on Vietnam: Twenty-five Years Later (Conference Transcript). Washington, DC: The Nixon Center. April 1998. Archived from the original on 1 September 2019. Retrieved 5 September 2012 – via International Relations Department, Mount Holyoke College.
    6. ^ Military History Institute of Vietnam 2002, p. 182. "By the end of 1966 the total strength of our armed forces was 690,000 soldiers."
    7. ^ Doyle, Edward; Lipsman, Samuel; Maitland, Terence (1986). The Vietnam Experience The North. Time Life Education. pp. 45–49. ISBN 978-0-939526-21-5.
    8. ^ "China admits 320,000 troops fought in Vietnam". Toledo Blade. Reuters. 16 May 1989. Retrieved 24 December 2013.
    9. ^ Roy, Denny (1998). China's Foreign Relations. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 27. ISBN 978-0-8476-9013-8.
    10. ^ a b Womack, Brantly (2006). China and Vietnam. Cambridge University Press. p. 179. ISBN 978-0-521-61834-2.
    11. ^ a b c d e f Tucker, Spencer C (2011). The Encyclopedia of the Vietnam War: A Political, Social, and Military History. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 978-1-85109-960-3.
    12. ^ "Area Handbook Series Laos". Retrieved 1 November 2019.
    13. ^ O'Ballance, Edgar (1982). Tracks of the bear: Soviet imprints in the seventies. Presidio. p. 171. ISBN 978-0-89141-133-8.
    14. ^ Pham Thi Thu Thuy (1 August 2013). "The colorful history of North Korea-Vietnam relations". NK News. Archived from the original on 24 April 2015. Retrieved 3 October 2016.
    15. ^ Le Gro, William (1985). Vietnam from ceasefire to capitulation (PDF). US Army Center of Military History. p. 28. ISBN 978-1-4102-2542-9. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2 February 2023.
    16. ^ "The rise of Communism". www.footprinttravelguides.com. Archived from the original on 17 November 2010. Retrieved 31 May 2018.
    17. ^ "Hmong rebellion in Laos". Members.ozemail.com.au. Archived from the original on 4 April 2023. Retrieved 11 April 2021.
    18. ^ "Vietnam War Allied Troop Levels 1960–73". Archived from the original on 2 August 2016. Retrieved 2 August 2016., accessed 7 November 2017
    19. ^ Doyle, Jeff; Grey, Jeffrey; Pierce, Peter (2002). "Australia's Vietnam War – A Select Chronology of Australian Involvement in the Vietnam War" (PDF). Texas A&M University Press. Archived from the original (PDF) on 10 November 2022.
    20. ^ Blackburn, Robert M. (1994). Mercenaries and Lyndon Johnson's "More Flage": The Hiring of Korean, Filipino, and Thai Soldiers in the Vietnam War. McFarland. ISBN 0-89950-931-2.
    21. ^ Marín, Paloma (9 April 2012). "Spain's secret support for US in Vietnam". El País.
    22. ^ a b c d e Hirschman, Charles; Preston, Samuel; Vu, Manh Loi (December 1995). "Vietnamese Casualties During the American War: A New Estimate" (PDF). Population and Development Review. 21 (4): 783. doi:10.2307/2137774. JSTOR 2137774. Archived from the original (PDF) on 12 October 2013.
    23. ^ a b c d e Lewy, Guenter (1978). America in Vietnam. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-987423-1.
    24. ^ "Battlefield:Vietnam – Timeline". PBS. Archived from the original on 4 June 2023.
    25. ^ a b Moyar, Mark. "Triumph Regained: The Vietnam War, 1965–1968." Encounter Books, December 2022. Chapter 17 index: "Communists provided further corroboration of the proximity of their casualty figures to American figures in a postwar disclosure of total losses from 1960 to 1975. During that period, they stated, they lost 849,018 killed plus approximately 232,000 missing and 463,000 wounded. Casualties fluctuated considerably from year to year, but a degree of accuracy can be inferred from the fact that 500,000 was 59 percent of the 849,018 total and that 59 percent of the war's days had passed by the time of Fallaci's conversation with Giap. The killed in action figure comes from "Special Subject 4: The Work of Locating and Recovering the Remains of Martyrs From Now Until 2020 And Later Years," downloaded from the Vietnamese government website datafile on 1 December 2017. The above figures on missing and wounded were calculated using Hanoi's declared casualty ratios for the period of 1945 to 1979, during which time the Communists incurred 1.1 million killed, 300,000 missing, and 600,000 wounded. Ho Khang, ed, Lich Su Khang Chien Chong My, Cuu Nuoc 1954–1975, Tap VIII: Toan Thang (Hanoi: Nha Xuat Ban Chinh Tri Quoc Gia, 2008), 463."
    26. ^ "Chuyên đề 4 CÔNG TÁC TÌM KIẾM, QUY TẬP HÀI CỐT LIỆT SĨ TỪ NAY ĐẾN NĂM 2020 VÀ NHỮNG NĂM TIẾP THEO". Datafile.chinhsachquandoi.gov.vn. Archived from the original on 4 April 2023. Retrieved 11 April 2021.
    27. ^ "Công tác tìm kiếm, quy tập hài cốt liệt sĩ từ nay đến năm 2020 và những năn tiếp theo" [The work of searching and collecting the remains of martyrs from now to 2020 and the next] (in Vietnamese). Ministry of Defence, Government of Vietnam. Archived from the original on 17 December 2018. Retrieved 11 June 2018.
    28. ^ Joseph Babcock (29 April 2019). "Lost Souls: The Search for Vietnam's 300,000 or More MIAs". Pulitzer Centre. Archived from the original on 10 November 2022. Retrieved 28 June 2021.
    29. ^ a b c d Hastings, Max (2018). Vietnam an epic tragedy, 1945–1975. Harper Collins. ISBN 978-0-06-240567-8.
    30. ^ James F. Dunnigan; Albert A. Nofi (2000). Dirty Little Secrets of the Vietnam War: Military Information You're Not Supposed to Know. Macmillan. ISBN 978-0-312-25282-3.
    31. ^ "North Korea fought in Vietnam War". BBC News Online. 31 March 2000. Archived from the original on 12 March 2023. Retrieved 18 October 2015.
    32. ^ Pribbenow, Merle (November 2011). "North Korean Pilots in the Skies over Vietnam" (PDF). Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars. p. 1. Archived from the original (PDF) on 5 June 2023. Retrieved 3 March 2023.
    33. ^ Thayer, Thomas C. (1985). War Without Fronts: The American Experience in Vietnam. Westview Press. ISBN 978-0-8133-7132-0.
    34. ^ Rummel, R.J (1997), "Table 6.1A. Vietnam Democide : Estimates, Sources, and Calculations", Freedom, Democracy, Peace; Power, Democide, and War, University of Hawaii System, archived from the original (GIF) on 13 March 2023
    35. ^ Clarke, Jeffrey J. (1988). United States Army in Vietnam: Advice and Support: The Final Years, 1965–1973. Center of Military History, United States Army. The Army of the Republic of Vietnam suffered 254,256 recorded combat deaths between 1960 and 1974, with the highest number of recorded deaths being in 1972, with 39,587 combat deaths
    36. ^ "The Fall of South Vietnam" (PDF). Rand.org. Archived from the original (PDF) on 29 January 2023. Retrieved 11 April 2021.
    37. ^ Vietnam Veterans Memorial Fund (4 May 2021). "2021 NAME ADDITIONS AND STATUS CHANGES ON THE VIETNAM VETERANS MEMORIAL" (Press release). Archived from the original on 29 April 2023.
    38. ^ National Archives–Vietnam War U.S. Military Fatal Casualties, 15 August 2016, retrieved 29 July 2020
    39. ^ "Vietnam War U.S. Military Fatal Casualty Statistics: HOSTILE OR NON-HOSTILE DEATH INDICATOR." U.S. National Archives. 29 April 2008. Accessed 13 July 2019.
    40. ^ America's Wars (PDF) (Report). Department of Veterans Affairs. May 2010. Archived from the original (PDF) on 24 January 2014.
    41. ^ Anne Leland; Mari–Jana "M-J" Oboroceanu (26 February 2010). American War and Military Operations: Casualties: Lists and Statistics (PDF) (Report). Congressional Research Service. Archived from the original (PDF) on 14 May 2023.
    42. ^ Aaron Ulrich (editor); Edward FeuerHerd (producer and director) (2005, 2006). Heart of Darkness: The Vietnam War Chronicles 1945–1975 (Box set, Color, Dolby, DVD-Video, Full Screen, NTSC, Dolby, Vision Software) (Documentary). Koch Vision. Event occurs at 321 minutes. ISBN 1-4172-2920-9.
    43. ^ Kueter, Dale (2007). Vietnam Sons: For Some, the War Never Ended. AuthorHouse. ISBN 978-1-4259-6931-8.
    44. ^ T. Lomperis, From People's War to People's Rule (1996)
    45. ^ "Australian casualties in the Vietnam War, 1962–72". Australian War Memorial. Archived from the original on 14 February 2023. Retrieved 29 June 2013.
    46. ^ "Overview of the war in Vietnam". New Zealand and the Vietnam War. 16 July 1965. Archived from the original on 26 July 2013. Retrieved 29 June 2013.
    47. ^ "America Wasn't the Only Foreign Power in the Vietnam War". 2 October 2013. Archived from the original on 18 April 2023. Retrieved 10 June 2017.
    48. ^ "Vietnam Reds Said to Hold 17 From Taiwan as Spies". The New York Times. 1964. Archived from the original on 7 March 2023.
    49. ^ Larsen, Stanley (1975). Vietnam Studies Allied Participation in Vietnam (PDF). Department of the Army. ISBN 978-1-5176-2724-9. Archived from the original (PDF) on 6 June 2023.
    50. ^ "Asian Allies in Vietnam" (PDF). Embassy of South Vietnam. March 1970. Archived from the original (PDF) on 21 May 2023. Retrieved 18 October 2015.
    51. ^ Shenon, Philip (23 April 1995). "20 Years After Victory, Vietnamese Communists Ponder How to Celebrate". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 27 May 2023. Retrieved 24 February 2011. The Vietnamese government officially claimed a rough estimate of 2 million civilian deaths, but it did not divide these deaths between those of North and South Vietnam.
    52. ^ a b c Obermeyer, Ziad; Murray, Christopher J L; Gakidou, Emmanuela (23 April 2008). "Fifty years of violent war deaths from Vietnam to Bosnia: analysis of data from the world health survey programme". British Medical Journal. 336 (7659): 1482–1486. doi:10.1136/bmj.a137. PMC 2440905. PMID 18566045. From 1955 to 2002, data from the surveys indicated an estimated 5.4 million violent war deaths ... 3.8 million in Vietnam
    53. ^ Heuveline, Patrick (2001). "The Demographic Analysis of Mortality Crises: The Case of Cambodia, 1970–1979". Forced Migration and Mortality. National Academies Press. pp. 102–104, 120, 124. ISBN 978-0-309-07334-9. As best as can now be estimated, over two million Cambodians died during the 1970s because of the political events of the decade, the vast majority of them during the mere four years of the 'Khmer Rouge' regime. ... Subsequent reevaluations of the demographic data situated the death toll for the [civil war] in the order of 300,000 or less.
    54. ^ Banister, Judith; Johnson, E. Paige (1993). Genocide and Democracy in Cambodia: The Khmer Rouge, the United Nations and the International Community. Yale University Southeast Asia Studies. p. 97. ISBN 978-0-938692-49-2. An estimated 275,000 excess deaths. We have modeled the highest mortality that we can justify for the early 1970s.
    55. ^ Sliwinski, Marek (1995). Le Génocide Khmer Rouge: Une Analyse Démographique [The Khmer Rouge genocide: A demographic analysis]. L'Harmattan. pp. 42–43, 48. ISBN 978-2-7384-3525-5.
    56. ^ Eckhardt, George (1991). Vietnam Studies Command and Control 1950–1969. Department of the Army. p. 6. Archived from the original on 19 October 2017. Retrieved 31 October 2014.
    57. ^ a b Ang, Cheng Guan (2002). The Vietnam War from the Other Side. RoutledgeCurzon. ISBN 978-0-7007-1615-9.
    58. ^ a b "Vietnam War Allied Troop Levels 1960–73". Archived from the original on 2 August 2016. Retrieved 1 June 2018.
    59. ^ Li, Xiaobing (2010). Voices from the Vietnam War: Stories from American, Asian, and Russian Veterans. University Press of Kentucky. p. 85. ISBN 978-0-8131-7386-3.
    60. ^ Military History Institute of Vietnam 2002, pp. 247–249.
    61. ^ Kolko, Gabriel (1985). Anatomy of a War: Vietnam, the United States, and the Modern Historical Experience. Pantheon Books. ISBN 978-0-394-74761-3.
    62. ^ Kalb, Marvin (22 January 2013). "It's Called the Vietnam Syndrome, and It's Back". Brookings Institution. Archived from the original on 24 December 2022. Retrieved 12 June 2015.
    63. ^ Horne, Alistair (2010). Kissinger's Year: 1973. Phoenix Press. pp. 370–371. ISBN 978-0-7538-2700-0.
    64. ^ Cite error: The named reference :02 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    65. ^ Kolko 1994, pp. 144–145.
    66. ^ Cite error: The named reference :0 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    67. ^ Cite error: The named reference :2 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    68. ^ Cite error: The named reference :4 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    69. ^ Cite error: The named reference :6 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).


    Cite error: There are <ref group=A> tags on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=A}} template (see the help page).

     
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    3 November 1812Napoleon's armies are defeated at the Battle of Vyazma.

    Battle of Vyazma

    The Battle of Vyazma (3 November 1812; 22 October by OS), occurred at the beginning of Napoleon's retreat from Moscow. In this encounter a Russian force commanded by General Miloradovich inflicted heavy losses on the rear guard of the Grande Armée.[4] Although the French thwarted Miloradovich's goal of encircling and destroying the corps of Marshal Davout, they withdrew in a partial state of disorder due to ongoing Russian harassment and heavy artillery bombardments.[5][6][7] The French reversal at Vyazma, although indecisive, was significant due to its damaging impact on several corps of Napoleon's retreating army.[8]

    1. ^ Foord, page 319, cites the figure of 2,500 Russian losses
    2. ^ Foord, p. 319
    3. ^ Foord, p. 319
    4. ^ Lieven, pp. 264–265
    5. ^ Lieven, p. 264
    6. ^ Caulaincourt, p. 1974
    7. ^ Segur, p. 167
    8. ^ Caulaincourt, p. 197; Segur, p. 168
     
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    4 November 1921 – Japanese Prime Minister Hara Takashi is assassinated in Tokyo.

    Hara Takashi

    Hara Takashi (原 敬, 15 March 1856 – 4 November 1921) was a Japanese politician who served as the Prime Minister of Japan from 1918 until his assassination.

    Hara held several minor ambassadorial roles before rising through the ranks of the Rikken Seiyūkai and being elected to the House of Representatives. Hara served as Home Minister in several cabinets under Saionji Kinmochi and Yamamoto Gonnohyōe between 1906 and 1913. Hara was appointed Prime Minister following the Rice Riots of 1918 and positioned himself as a moderate, participating in the Paris Peace Conference, founding the League of Nations, and relaxing oppressive policies in Japanese Korea. Hara's premiership oversaw the Siberian intervention and the suppression of the March 1st Movement in Japanese-occupied Korea. Hara was assassinated by Nakaoka Kon'ichi, a far-right nationalist, on 4 November 1921.

    Hara was the first commoner and first Christian appointed to be Prime Minister of Japan, informally known as Hara Kei, and given the moniker of "commoner prime minister" (平民宰相, heimin saishō).

     
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    5 November 1943 – World War II: Bombing of the Vatican.

    Bombing of the Vatican

    Map of Vatican City showing the buildings of the Governatorate, the Tribunal, and the Archpriest, and the railway station, which were damaged on 5 November 1943. The mosaic workshop, which received a direct hit, is positioned between the railway station and the residence of the archpriest.

    Vatican City was bombed twice during World War II. The first occasion was on the evening of 5 November 1943, when a plane dropped bombs on the area south-west of St. Peter's Basilica, causing considerable damage but no casualties. The second bombing, which affected only the outer margin of the city, was at about the same hour on 1 March 1944. It killed one person and injured another.[1]

     
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    6 November 1956Dwight D. Eisenhower is reelected President of the United States.

    Dwight D. Eisenhower

    Dwight David Eisenhower (/ˈzənh.ər/ EYE-zən-how-ər; born David Dwight Eisenhower; October 14, 1890 – March 28, 1969), nicknamed Ike, was an American military officer and statesman who served as the 34th president of the United States from 1953 to 1961. During World War II, he was Supreme Commander of the Allied Expeditionary Force in Europe and achieved the five-star rank as General of the Army. Eisenhower planned and supervised two of the most consequential military campaigns of World War II: Operation Torch in the North Africa campaign in 1942–1943 and the invasion of Normandy in 1944.

    Eisenhower was born in Denison, Texas, and raised in Abilene, Kansas. His family had a strong religious background, and his mother became a Jehovah's Witness. Eisenhower, however, belonged to no organized church until 1952. He graduated from West Point in 1915 and later married Mamie Doud, with whom he had two sons. During World War I, he was denied a request to serve in Europe and instead commanded a unit that trained tank crews. Following the war, he was promoted to the rank of brigadier general in 1941. After the United States entered World War II, Eisenhower oversaw the invasions of North Africa and Sicily before supervising the invasions of France and Germany. After the war ended in Europe, he served as military governor of the American-occupied zone of Germany (1945), Army Chief of Staff (1945–1948), president of Columbia University (1948–1953), and as the first supreme commander of NATO (1951–1952).

    In 1952, Eisenhower entered the presidential race as a Republican to block the isolationist foreign policies of Senator Robert A. Taft, who opposed NATO. Eisenhower won that election and the 1956 election in landslides, both times defeating Adlai Stevenson II. Eisenhower's main goals in office were to contain the spread of communism and reduce federal deficits. In 1953, he considered using nuclear weapons to end the Korean War and may have threatened China with nuclear attack if an armistice was not reached quickly. China did agree and an armistice resulted, which remains in effect. His New Look policy of nuclear deterrence prioritized "inexpensive" nuclear weapons while reducing funding for expensive Army divisions. He continued Harry S. Truman's policy of recognizing Taiwan as the legitimate government of China, and he won congressional approval of the Formosa Resolution. His administration provided major aid to help the French fight off Vietnamese Communists in the First Indochina War. After the French left, he gave strong financial support to the new state of South Vietnam. He supported regime-changing military coups in Iran and Guatemala orchestrated by his own administration. During the Suez Crisis of 1956, he condemned the Israeli, British, and French invasion of Egypt, and he forced them to withdraw. He also condemned the Soviet invasion during the Hungarian Revolution of 1956 but took no action. He deployed 15,000 soldiers during the 1958 Lebanon crisis. Near the end of his term, a summit meeting with the Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev was cancelled when a US spy plane was shot down over the Soviet Union. Eisenhower approved the Bay of Pigs Invasion, which was left to John F. Kennedy to carry out.

    On the domestic front, Eisenhower governed as a moderate conservative who continued New Deal agencies and expanded Social Security. He covertly opposed Joseph McCarthy and contributed to the end of McCarthyism by openly invoking executive privilege. He signed the Civil Rights Act of 1957 and sent Army troops to enforce federal court orders which integrated schools in Little Rock, Arkansas. His administration undertook the development and construction of the Interstate Highway System, which remains the largest construction of roadways in American history. In 1957, following the Soviet launch of Sputnik, Eisenhower led the American response which included the creation of NASA and the establishment of a stronger, science-based education via the National Defense Education Act. The Soviet Union began to reinforce their own space program, escalating the Space Race. His two terms saw unprecedented economic prosperity except for a minor recession in 1958. In his farewell address, he expressed his concerns about the dangers of massive military spending, particularly deficit spending and government contracts to private military manufacturers, which he dubbed "the military–industrial complex". Historical evaluations of his presidency place him among the upper tier of American presidents.

    1. ^ "The Eisenhowers". Dwight D. Eisenhower Presidential Library, Museum and Boyhood Home. Archived from the original on August 18, 2021. Retrieved October 1, 2021.
    2. ^ "Post-presidential years". The Eisenhower Presidential Library and Museum. Archived from the original on October 23, 2013. Retrieved September 5, 2012.
     
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    7 November 1929 – In New York City, the Museum of Modern Art opens to the public.

    Museum of Modern Art

    The Museum of Modern Art (MoMA) is an art museum located in Midtown Manhattan, New York City, on 53rd Street between Fifth and Sixth Avenues. The institution was conceived in 1929 by Abby Aldrich Rockefeller, Lillie P. Bliss, and Mary Quinn Sullivan. Initially located in the Heckscher Building on Fifth Avenue, it opened just days after the Wall Street Crash. The museum, America's first devoted exclusively to modern art, was led by A. Conger Goodyear as president and Abby Rockefeller as treasurer, with Alfred H. Barr Jr. as its first director. Under Barr's leadership, the museum's collection rapidly expanded, beginning with an inaugural exhibition of works by European modernists. Despite financial challenges, including opposition from John D. Rockefeller Jr., the museum moved to several temporary locations in its early years, and John D. Rockefeller Jr. eventually donated the land for its permanent site.

    During the 1930s and 1950s, MoMA gained international recognition with landmark exhibitions, such as Barr's influential "Cubism and Abstract Art" in 1936, a retrospective of Pablo Picasso's works organized in 1939-40 and the "Indian Art of the United States" exhibition in 1941. Abby Rockefeller's son, Nelson, became the museum's president in 1939, playing a key role in its expansion and publicity. His brother, David Rockefeller, joined the board in 1948 and continued the family's close association with the museum. Significant events during this period included a major fire in 1958, which destroyed a painting by Claude Monet and led to the evacuation of other artworks. The museum's architectural evolution also continued, with a redesign of the sculpture garden by Philip Johnson and relocation to its current home designed by Philip L. Goodwin and Edward Durell Stone, which opened in 1939.

    In later decades, the controversial decision to withdraw funding from the antiwar poster "And Babies" in 1969, and the subsequent protests, highlighted the museum's involvement in contemporary sociopolitical issues. It was also among several institutions to aid CIA in its efforts to engage in cultural propaganda during the Cold War.[2] Major expansions in the 1980s and the early 21st century, including the selection of Japanese architect Yoshio Taniguchi for a significant renovation, nearly doubled MoMA's space for exhibitions and programs. The 2000s saw the formal merger with the P.S. 1 Contemporary Art Center, and in 2019, another major renovation added significant gallery space.

    In 2022, MoMA was the 17th most-visited art museum in the world and the 4th most-visited museum in the United States. MoMA's collection spans the late 19th-century to the present, and includes over 200,000 works of architecture and design, drawing, painting, sculpture, photography, prints, illustrated and artist's books, film, as well as electronic media.[3] The museum is considered one of the most influential cultural institutions globally devoted to modern and contemporary art.[4] At the same time, MoMA has long faced criticism for developing and perpetuating Eurocentric narratives of modernism and for its insufficient focus on expanding access to socioeconomically underprivileged groups.[5][6][7] The museum has been involved in controversies regarding its labor practices, and the institution's labor union, founded in 1971, has been described as the first of its kind in the U.S.[8] The MoMA Library includes about 300,000 books and exhibition catalogs, more than 1,000 periodical titles and more than 40,000 files of ephemera about individual artists and groups.[9] The archives hold primary source material related to the history of modern and contemporary art.[10]

    1. ^ The Art Newspaper, List of most-visited museums in 2022, published 28 March 2023
    2. ^ Dasal, Jennifer (September 24, 2020). "How MoMA and the CIA Conspired to Use Unwitting Artists to Promote American Propaganda During the Cold War". Artnet News. Retrieved December 16, 2023.
    3. ^ "About the Collection". The Museum of Modern Art. Retrieved January 19, 2024.
    4. ^ Kleiner, Fred S.; Christin J. Mamiya (2005). "The Development of Modernist Art: The Early 20th Century". Gardner's Art through the Ages: The Western Perspective. Thomson Wadsworth. p. 796. ISBN 978-0-4950-0478-3. Archived from the original on May 10, 2016. The Museum of Modern Art in New York City is consistently identified as the institution most responsible for developing modernist art ... the most influential museum of modern art in the world.
    5. ^ Reilly, Maura (October 31, 2019). "MoMA's Revisionism Is Piecemeal and Problem-Filled: Feminist Art Historian Maura Reilly on the Museum's Rehang". ARTnews.com. Retrieved December 16, 2023. According to Barr, "modern art" was a synchronic, linear progression of "isms" in which one (heterosexual, white) male "genius" from Europe or the U.S. influenced another who inevitably trumped or subverted his previous master, thereby producing an avant-garde progression. Barr's story was so ingrained in the institution that it was never questioned as problematic. The fact that very few women, artists of color, and those not from Europe or North America—in other words, all "Other" artists—were not on display was not up for discussion.
    6. ^ Cotter, Holland (October 10, 2019). "MoMA Reboots With 'Modernism Plus'". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved December 16, 2023. After decades of stonewalling multiculturalism, MoMA is now acknowledging it, even investing in it, most notably in a permanent collection rehang that features art — much of it recently acquired — from Africa, Asia, South America, and African America, and a significant amount of work by women.
    7. ^ McGrath, Jack (October 18, 2019). "What the New MoMA Misunderstands About Pablo Picasso and Faith Ringgold". Frieze. Retrieved December 16, 2023. Despite MoMA's progressive intentions, however, questions remain about what revamped purpose its expansion announces – especially on the levels of education, curatorial method and economic positionality.
    8. ^ Greenberger, Alex (October 16, 2019). "'Art Workers Don't Kiss Ass': Looking Back on the Formation of MoMA's Pioneering Union in the 1970s". ARTnews.com. Retrieved December 16, 2023.
    9. ^ "Library". MoMA. Archived from the original on February 5, 2016.
    10. ^ "About the Archives". MoMA. Archived from the original on February 13, 2016.
     

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