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This day in .....

Discussion in 'Break Room' started by NewsBot, Apr 6, 2008.

  1. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    20 January 1841Hong Kong Island is occupied by the British.

    Hong Kong Island

    The panoramic night view of "Island side" as seen from "Kowloon side" - TST
    A view of Middle Island in the foreground and Repulse Bay in the background from the Ocean Park cable car ride (in the Southern District)
    Kornhill and Shau Kei Wan, located in the northern part of Eastern District

    Hong Kong Island (Chinese: 香港島; Cantonese Yale: Hēunggóng Dóu) is an island in the southern part of Hong Kong. Known colloquially and on road signs simply as Hong Kong, the island had a population of 1,289,500 and a population density of 16,390 per square kilometre (42,400/sq mi),[1] as of 2008. The island had a population of about 3,000 inhabitants scattered in a dozen fishing villages when it was occupied by the United Kingdom in the First Opium War (1839–1842). In 1842, the island was formally ceded in perpetuity to the UK under the Treaty of Nanking and the City of Victoria was then established on the island by the British Force in honour of Queen Victoria. The Central area on the island is the historical, political and economic centre of Hong Kong. The northern coast of the island forms the southern shore of the Victoria Harbour, which is largely responsible for the development of Hong Kong due to its deep waters favoured by large trade ships.

    The island is home to many famous sights, such as "The Peak", Ocean Park, many historical sites and various large shopping centres. The mountain ranges across the island are also famous for hiking. The northern part of Hong Kong Island, together with Kowloon and Tsuen Wan New Town, forms the core urban area of Hong Kong. Their combined area is approximately 88.3 square kilometres (34.1 square miles) and their combined population (that of the northern part of the island and of Kowloon) is approximately 3,156,500, reflecting a population density of 35,700/km2 (91,500/sq. mi.).

    The island is often referred to locally as "Hong Kong side" or "Island side". The suffix "side" applied to other locations (e.g. China-side and Kowloon Walled City-side), the sole remnant of which is "Kowloon side" when indicating the two sides of the harbour.[2]

    1. ^ Census and Statistics Department (2008), Population and Vital Events (PDF), archived from the original (PDF) on 24 August 2009, retrieved 31 August 2009
    2. ^ Booth, Martin. Gweilo: A memoir of a Hong Kong childhood, Bantam Books, 2005. ISBN 0-553-81672-1, pp108, 173
     
  2. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    21 January 1911 – The first Monte Carlo Rally takes place.

    Monte Carlo Rally

    RMC 1911 Poster for the inaugural Monte Carlo Rally. The lower part of the poster illustrates the rally together of the cars towards Monte Carlo

    The Monte Carlo Rally or Rallye Monte-Carlo (officially Rallye Automobile de Monte-Carlo) is a rallying event organized each year by the Automobile Club de Monaco. From its inception in 1911 by Prince Albert I, the rally was intended to demonstrate improvements and innovations in automobiles, and promote Monaco as a tourist resort on the Mediterranean shore. Before the format changed in 1997,[1] the event was a “concentration rally” in which competitors would set off from various starting points around Europe and drive to Monaco, where the rally would continue to a set of special stages. The rally now takes place along the French Riviera in Monaco and southeast France.

    1. ^ "Rallies - Monte Carlo". Jonkka’s World Rally Archive. Retrieved 16 January 2023.
     
  3. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    22 January 1970 – The Boeing 747, the world's first "jumbo jet", enters commercial service for launch customer Pan American Airways with its maiden voyage from John F. Kennedy International Airport to London Heathrow Airport.

    Boeing 747

    The Boeing 747 is a large, long-range wide-body airliner designed and manufactured by Boeing Commercial Airplanes in the United States between 1968 and 2023. After introducing the 707 in October 1958, Pan Am wanted a jet 2+12 times its size, to reduce its seat cost by 30%. In 1965, Joe Sutter left the 737 development program to design the 747. In April 1966, Pan Am ordered 25 Boeing 747-100 aircraft, and in late 1966, Pratt & Whitney agreed to develop the JT9D engine, a high-bypass turbofan. On September 30, 1968, the first 747 was rolled out of the custom-built Everett Plant, the world's largest building by volume. The first flight took place on February 9, 1969, and the 747 was certified in December of that year. It entered service with Pan Am on January 22, 1970. The 747 was the first airplane called a "Jumbo Jet" as the first wide-body airliner.

    The 747 is a four-engined jet aircraft, initially powered by Pratt & Whitney JT9D turbofan engines, then General Electric CF6 and Rolls-Royce RB211 engines for the original variants. With a ten-abreast economy seating, it typically accommodates 366 passengers in three travel classes. It has a pronounced 37.5° wing sweep, allowing a Mach 0.85 (490 kn; 900 km/h) cruise speed, and its heavy weight is supported by four main landing gear legs, each with a four-wheel bogie. The partial double-deck aircraft was designed with a raised cockpit so it could be converted to a freighter airplane by installing a front cargo door, as it was initially thought that it would eventually be superseded by supersonic transports.

    Boeing introduced the -200 in 1971, with uprated engines for a heavier maximum takeoff weight (MTOW) of 833,000 pounds (378 t) from the initial 735,000 pounds (333 t), increasing the maximum range from 4,620 to 6,560 nautical miles [nmi] (8,560 to 12,150 km; 5,320 to 7,550 mi). It was shortened for the longer-range 747SP in 1976, and the 747-300 followed in 1983 with a stretched upper deck for up to 400 seats in three classes. The heavier 747-400 with improved RB211 and CF6 engines or the new PW4000 engine (the JT9D successor), and a two-crew glass cockpit, was introduced in 1989 and is the most common variant. After several studies, the stretched 747-8 was launched on November 14, 2005, with new General Electric GEnx engines, and was first delivered in October 2011. The 747 is the basis for several government and military variants, such as the VC-25 (Air Force One), E-4 Emergency Airborne Command Post, Shuttle Carrier Aircraft, and some experimental testbeds such as the YAL-1 and SOFIA airborne observatory.

    Initial competition came from the smaller trijet widebodies: the Lockheed L-1011 (introduced in 1972), McDonnell Douglas DC-10 (1971) and later MD-11 (1990). Airbus competed with later variants with the heaviest versions of the A340 until surpassing the 747 in size with the A380, delivered between 2007 and 2021. Freighter variants of the 747 remain popular with cargo airlines. The final 747 was delivered to Atlas Air in January 2023 after a 54-year production run, with 1,574 aircraft built. As of December 2023, 64 Boeing 747s (4.1%) have been lost in accidents and incidents, in which a total of 3,746 people have died.

     
  4. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    23 January 1912 – The International Opium Convention is signed at The Hague.

    International Opium Convention

    The expression International Opium Convention refers either to the first International Opium Convention signed at The Hague in 1912, or to the second International Opium Convention signed at Geneva in 1925.

     
  5. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    24 January 1742Charles VII Albert becomes Holy Roman Emperor.

    Charles VII, Holy Roman Emperor

    Charles VII (6 August 1697 – 20 January 1745) was Prince-Elector of Bavaria from 26 February 1726 and Holy Roman Emperor from 24 January 1742 to his death. He was also King of Bohemia (as Charles III) from 1741 to 1743. Charles was a member of the House of Wittelsbach, and his reign as Holy Roman Emperor thus marked the end of three centuries of uninterrupted Habsburg imperial rule, although he was related to the Habsburgs by both blood and marriage.

    Charles was the eldest son of Maximilian II Emanuel, Elector of Bavaria, and the Polish princess Theresa Kunegunda Sobieska. He became elector following the death of his father in 1726. In 1722, Charles married Archduchess Maria Amalia of Austria, daughter of Holy Roman Emperor Joseph I and niece of Emperor Charles VI. The couple had seven children together. After Charles VI died in 1740, Elector Charles claimed the Archduchy of Austria and briefly gained hold of the Bohemian throne. In 1742, he was elected emperor of the Holy Roman Empire. He ruled until his death three years later.[1][2][3]

    1. ^ Fritz Wagner. "Karl VII". Deutsche Biographie. Retrieved January 12, 2020.
    2. ^ Die Herrscher Bayerns: 25 historische Portraits von Tassilo III. bis Ludwig III. C.H.Beck. 2006. pp. 250–. ISBN 978-3-406-54468-2.
    3. ^ Bettina Braun; Katrin Keller; Matthias Schnettger (2016). Nur die Frau des Kaisers?: Kaiserinnen in der Frühen Neuzeit. Böhlau Verlag Wien. pp. 194–. ISBN 978-3-205-20085-7.
     
  6. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    25 January 1980Mother Teresa is honored with India's highest civilian award, the Bharat Ratna

    Mother Teresa

    Mary Teresa Bojaxhiu MC (born Anjezë Gonxhe Bojaxhiu, Albanian: [aˈɲɛzə ˈɡɔndʒɛ bɔjaˈdʒi.u]; 26 August 1910 – 5 September 1997), better known as Mother Teresa,[a] was an Albanian-Indian Catholic nun and the founder of the Missionaries of Charity. Born in Skopje, then part of the Ottoman Empire,[b] at the age of 18 she moved to Ireland and later to India, where she lived most of her life. On 4 September 2016, she was canonised by the Catholic Church as Saint Teresa of Calcutta. The anniversary of her death, 5 September, is her feast day.

    Mother Teresa founded Missionaries of Charity, a religious congregation, which grew to have over 4,500 nuns across 133 countries as of 2012.[6] The congregation manages homes for people who are dying of HIV/AIDS, leprosy, and tuberculosis. The congregation also runs soup kitchens, dispensaries, mobile clinics, children's and family counselling programmes, as well as orphanages and schools. Members take vows of chastity, poverty, and obedience and also profess a fourth vow: to give "wholehearted free service to the poorest of the poor."[7]

    Mother Teresa received several honours, including the 1962 Ramon Magsaysay Peace Prize and the 1979 Nobel Peace Prize. A controversial figure during her life and after her death, Mother Teresa was admired by many for her charitable work, but was criticised for her views on abortion and contraception, as well as the poor conditions in her houses for the dying. Her authorised biography, written by Navin Chawla, was published in 1992, and she has been the subject of many other works. On 6 September 2017, Mother Teresa and Saint Francis Xavier were named co-patrons of the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Calcutta.

    1. ^ "St. Teresa of Kolkata". Catholic News Agency. Archived from the original on 8 October 2018. Retrieved 6 September 2023.
    2. ^ Banerjee, Manik (6 September 2017). "Vatican declares Mother Teresa a patron saint of Calcutta". Associated Press. Archived from the original on 6 September 2017. Retrieved 6 September 2017.
    3. ^ "Mother Teresa to be named co-patron of Calcutta Archdiocese on first canonization anniversary". First Post. Indo-Asian News Service. 4 September 2017. Archived from the original on 26 April 2020. Retrieved 5 September 2017.
    4. ^ Cite error: The named reference Cannon2013 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    5. ^ "Kur Nënë Tereza vinte në Tiranë/2" [When Mother Teresa came to Tirana/2]. Shqiptari i Italisë (in Albanian). 2 December 2010. Archived from the original on 18 September 2016. Retrieved 4 September 2016.
    6. ^ Poplin, Mary (2011). Finding Calcutta: What Mother Teresa Taught Me About Meaningful Work and Service. InterVarsity Press. p. 112. ISBN 978-0-8308-6848-3. Archived from the original on 1 February 2022. Retrieved 3 October 2020.
    7. ^ Muggeridge (1971), chapter 3, "Mother Teresa Speaks", pp. 105, 113


    Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

     
  7. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    26 January 1808 – The Rum Rebellion is the only successful (albeit short-lived) armed takeover of the government in Australia.

    Rum Rebellion

    The Rum Rebellion of 1808 was a coup d'état in the then-British penal colony of New South Wales, staged by the New South Wales Corps in order to depose Governor William Bligh. Australia's first and only military coup, its name derives from the illicit rum trade of early Sydney, over which the 'Rum Corps', as it became known, maintained a monopoly. During the first half of the 19th century, it was widely referred to in Australia as the Great Rebellion.[2]

    Bligh, a former Royal Navy captain known for his overthrow in the mutiny on the Bounty, had been appointed governor in 1805 to rein in the power of the Corps. Over the next two years, Bligh made enemies not only of Sydney's military elite, but several prominent civilians, notably John Macarthur, who joined Major George Johnston in organising an armed takeover. On 26 January 1808, 400 soldiers marched on Government House and arrested Bligh. He was kept in confinement in Sydney, then aboard a ship off Hobart, Van Diemen's Land, for the next two years while Johnston acted as Lieutenant-Governor of New South Wales. The military remained in control until the 1810 arrival from Britain of Major-General Lachlan Macquarie, who took over as governor.[3]

    1. ^ "First Australian political cartoon fuels Rum Rebellion folklore" (PDF). Media Releases. State Library of New South Wales. 2008. Archived from the original (PDF) on 29 February 2008. Retrieved 4 February 2008. When an unknown artist created Australia's first political cartoon, little did he know his drawing would seep into the country's folklore and shape the perceptions on Governor Bligh's dramatic arrest and overthrow, 200 years ago on Australia Day. This cartoon [was] created within hours of the mutiny and ridicul[es] Bligh. ... The coloured work depicts the hunted Governor being dragged from underneath a bed by the red-coated members of the NSW Corps, later referred to as the Rum Corps. 'It was very unlikely that Bligh would have hidden under the bed, the image was political propaganda, intending to portray Bligh as a coward.' The slur on Bligh's character created by the cartoon was extremely powerful. The work was first illuminated by candles and displayed prominently in the window of Sergeant Major Whittle's house. Throughout the years the image continued to blur the reality about the true events of the rebellion.
    2. ^ "NOTABLE AUSTRALIAN EVENTS". The Sunday Times. No. 619. New South Wales, Australia. 7 November 1897. p. 9. Retrieved 25 February 2019 – via National Library of Australia.
    3. ^ "Rum Rebellion | Australian history". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 30 March 2021.
     
  8. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    27 January 1944 – World War II: The 900-day Siege of Leningrad is lifted.

    Siege of Leningrad

    The siege of Leningrad (Russian: Блокада Ленинграда, romanizedBlokada Leningrada; German: Leningrader Blockade; Finnish: Leningradin piiritys, Italian: Assedio di Leningrado) was a prolonged military blockade undertaken by the Axis powers against the Soviet city of Leningrad (present-day Saint Petersburg) on the Eastern Front of World War II. Germany's Army Group North advanced from the south, while the German-allied Finnish army invaded from the north and completed the ring around the city.

    The siege began on 8 September 1941, when the Wehrmacht severed the last road to the city. Although Soviet forces managed to open a narrow land corridor to the city on 18 January 1943, the Red Army did not lift the siege until 27 January 1944, 872 days after it began. The blockade became one of the longest and most destructive sieges in history, and it was possibly the costliest siege in history due to the number of casualties which were suffered throughout its duration. An estimated 1.5 million people died as a result of the siege. At the time, it was not classified as a war crime,[12] however, in the 21st century, some historians have classified it as a genocide, due to the intentional destruction of the city and the systematic starvation of its civilian population.[13][14][15][16][17]

    1. ^ Cite error: The named reference autogenerated8 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    2. ^ Cite error: The named reference autogenerated3 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    3. ^ Baryshnikov 2003; Juutilainen 2005, p. 670; Ekman, P-O: Tysk-italiensk gästspel på Ladoga 1942, Tidskrift i Sjöväsendet 1973 Jan.–Feb. Archived 4 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine, pp. 5–46.
    4. ^ "Heeresarzt 10-Day Casualty Reports per Army/Army Group, 1941". Archived from the original on 25 October 2012. Retrieved 28 March 2012.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link)
    5. ^ "Heeresarzt 10-Day Casualty Reports per Army/Army Group, 1942". Archived from the original on 28 December 2015. Retrieved 24 March 2015.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link)
    6. ^ "Heeresarzt 10-Day Casualty Reports per Army/Army Group, 1943". Archived from the original on 25 May 2013. Retrieved 25 May 2013.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link)
    7. ^ "Heeresarzt 10-Day Casualty Reports per Army/Army Group, 1944". Archived from the original on 29 October 2012. Retrieved 3 May 2012.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link)
    8. ^ a b c Glantz 2001, p. 179
    9. ^ "The Siege of Leningrad: Hell on Earth During WWII". TheCollector. 24 August 2021. Retrieved 14 July 2023.
    10. ^ Krivosheev, G. F. (1997). Soviet Casualties and Combat Losses in the Twentieth Century. Greenhill Books. ISBN 978-1853672804. Archived from the original on 18 January 2023. Retrieved 3 October 2020.
    11. ^ Salisbury 1969, pp. 590f
    12. ^ "Siege Warfare and the Starvation of Civilians as a Weapon of War and War Crime". justsecurity.org. 4 February 2016. Archived from the original on 18 January 2023. Retrieved 3 August 2022.
    13. ^ Bidlack, Richard; Lomagin, Nikita (2012). The Leningrad Blockade, 1941–1944: A New Documentary History from the Soviet Archives. Translated by Schwartz, Marian. Yale University Press. pp. 1, 36. ISBN 978-0300110296. JSTOR j.ctt5vm646. Next to the Holocaust, the Leningrad siege was the greatest act of genocide in Europe during the Second World War, because Germany, and to a lesser extent Finland, tried to bombard and starve Leningrad into submission. [...] The number of civilians who died from hunger, cold, and enemy bombardment within the blockaded territory or during and immediately following evacuation from it is reasonably estimated to be around 900,000.
    14. ^ Ganzenmüller 2005 p. 334
    15. ^ Hund, Wulf Dietmar; Koller, Christian; Zimmermann, Moshe (2011). Racisms Made in Germany. Münster: LIT Verlag. p. 25. ISBN 978-3-643-90125-5. Archived from the original on 18 January 2023. Retrieved 23 June 2020.
    16. ^ Vihavainen, Timo; Schrey-Vasara, Gabriele (2011). "Opfer, Täter, Betrachter: Finnland und die Leningrader Blockade". Osteuropa. 61 (8/9): 48–63. JSTOR 44936431.
    17. ^ Siegl, Elfie (2011). "Die doppelte Tragödie: Anna Reid über die Leningrader Blockade". Osteuropa. 61 (8/9): 358–363. JSTOR 44936455.
     
  9. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    28 January 1958 – The Lego company patents the design of its Lego bricks, still compatible with bricks produced today.

    Lego

    Lego (/ˈlɛɡ/ LEG-oh, Danish: [ˈle̝ːko];[1] stylized as LEGO) is a line of plastic construction toys manufactured by the Lego Group, a privately held company based in Billund, Denmark. Lego consists of variously coloured interlocking plastic bricks made of acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) that accompany an array of gears, figurines called minifigures, and various other parts. Its pieces can be assembled and connected in many ways to construct objects, including vehicles, buildings, and working robots. Assembled Lego models can be taken apart, and their pieces can be reused to create new constructions.[2][3]

    The Lego Group began manufacturing the interlocking toy bricks in 1949. Moulding is done in Denmark, Hungary, Mexico, and China. Brick decorations and packaging are done at plants in the former three countries and in the Czech Republic. Annual production of the bricks averages approximately 36 billion, or about 1140 elements per second. One of Europe's biggest companies, Lego is the largest toy manufacturer in the world by sales.[4][5] As of July 2015, 600 billion Lego parts had been produced.[6] Films, games competitions, and eight Legoland amusement parks have been developed under the brand.

    1. ^ Brink, Lars; Lund, Jørn; Heger, Steffen; Jørgensen, J. Normann (1991). Den Store Danske Udtaleordbog. Copenhagen: Munksgaard. p. 845. ISBN 87-16-06649-9.
    2. ^ "Lego History-About Us". Lego. Archived from the original on 5 September 2015. Retrieved 6 September 2015.
    3. ^ "How a Lego Works". How Stuff Works. 28 June 2006. Archived from the original on 10 January 2021. Retrieved 6 September 2015.
    4. ^ "Lego Builds on Its Position as World's No. 1 Toy Maker". The Wall Street Journal. 28 September 2021. Retrieved 16 October 2023.
    5. ^ "Lego: the brick behemoth that wants to be as big as Disney". Financial Times. Retrieved 16 October 2023. Such innovations have propelled the family-owned toymaker to become one of Europe's biggest corporate success stories.. Lego, with essentially just one product in endless iterations, has become by far the biggest toymaker in the world by sales, and on a different level altogether in terms of profits.
    6. ^ "The message is the medium". Intellectual Property Office blog. Gov.uk. Archived from the original on 20 August 2022. Retrieved 20 August 2022.
     
  10. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    29 January 1959 – The first Melodifestivalen is held in Stockholm, Sweden.

    Melodifestivalen

    Melodifestivalen (Swedish pronunciation: [mɛlʊˈdîːfɛstɪˌvɑːlɛn]; lit.'the Melody Festival')[a] is an annual song competition organised by Swedish public broadcasters Sveriges Television (SVT) and Sveriges Radio (SR). It determines the country's representative for the Eurovision Song Contest, and has been staged almost every year since 1959. In the early 2000s, the competition was the most popular television program in Sweden;[1] it is also broadcast on radio and the Internet. In 2012, the heats averaged 3.3 million viewers, and over an estimated four million people in Sweden watched the final, almost half of the Swedish population.[2][3]

    The festival has produced seven Eurovision winners and 26 top-five placings for Sweden in the contest. The winner of Melodifestivalen has been chosen by panels of jurors since its inception. Since 1999, the juries have been joined by a public telephone vote which has an equal influence over the outcome. The competition makes a considerable impact on the music charts in Sweden.

    The introduction of heats in 2002 raised the potential number of contestants from around twelve to thirty-two. A children's version of the competition, Lilla Melodifestivalen, also began that year. Light orchestrated pop songs, known locally as schlager music, used to be so prevalent that the festival was sometimes referred to as schlagerfestivalen ("the schlager festival") or schlager-sm ("schlager Swedish championship") by the Swedish media.[4][5] However, other styles of music, such as rap, reggae, and glam rock, have made an appearance since the event's expansion. The introduction of a final in Stockholm has attracted substantial tourism to the city.[6]


    Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

    1. ^ Television in Sweden. Sweden.se (30 September 2005). Retrieved on 20 October 2006.
    2. ^ "Månadsrapport Februari 2012" (PDF). MMS – Mediamätning i Skandinavien. Retrieved 12 March 2012.
    3. ^ Lindström, Therese (12 March 2012). "Över fyra miljoner såg finalen". Aftonbladet. Retrieved 12 March 2012.
    4. ^ "Jag koncentrerar mig på schlagerfestivalen" Archived 17 October 2006 at the Wayback Machine (in Swedish) ["I am concentrating on schlagerfestivalen"]. Aftonbladet.se (27 February 2002). Retrieved on 20 October 2006.
    5. ^ Anders Foghagen (13 October 2006) Agnes diskad från Schlagerfestivalen Archived 26 September 2007 at the Wayback Machine (in Swedish) ["Agnes disqualified from schlagerfestivalen"]. TV4.se. Retrieved on 20 October 2006.
    6. ^ The Swedish Research Institute of Tourism (17–18 March 2006). Melodifestivalen 2006 Archived 29 February 2008 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved on 23 January 2008.
     
  11. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    29 January 1959 – The first Melodifestivalen is held in Stockholm, Sweden.

    Melodifestivalen

    Melodifestivalen (Swedish pronunciation: [mɛlʊˈdîːfɛstɪˌvɑːlɛn]; lit.'the Melody Festival')[a] is an annual song competition organised by Swedish public broadcasters Sveriges Television (SVT) and Sveriges Radio (SR). It determines the country's representative for the Eurovision Song Contest, and has been staged almost every year since 1959. In the early 2000s, the competition was the most popular television program in Sweden;[1] it is also broadcast on radio and the Internet. In 2012, the heats averaged 3.3 million viewers, and over an estimated four million people in Sweden watched the final, almost half of the Swedish population.[2][3]

    The festival has produced seven Eurovision winners and 26 top-five placings for Sweden in the contest. The winner of Melodifestivalen has been chosen by panels of jurors since its inception. Since 1999, the juries have been joined by a public telephone vote which has an equal influence over the outcome. The competition makes a considerable impact on the music charts in Sweden.

    The introduction of heats in 2002 raised the potential number of contestants from around twelve to thirty-two. A children's version of the competition, Lilla Melodifestivalen, also began that year. Light orchestrated pop songs, known locally as schlager music, used to be so prevalent that the festival was sometimes referred to as schlagerfestivalen ("the schlager festival") or schlager-sm ("schlager Swedish championship") by the Swedish media.[4][5] However, other styles of music, such as rap, reggae, and glam rock, have made an appearance since the event's expansion. The introduction of a final in Stockholm has attracted substantial tourism to the city.[6]


    Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

    1. ^ Television in Sweden. Sweden.se (30 September 2005). Retrieved on 20 October 2006.
    2. ^ "Månadsrapport Februari 2012" (PDF). MMS – Mediamätning i Skandinavien. Retrieved 12 March 2012.
    3. ^ Lindström, Therese (12 March 2012). "Över fyra miljoner såg finalen". Aftonbladet. Retrieved 12 March 2012.
    4. ^ "Jag koncentrerar mig på schlagerfestivalen" Archived 17 October 2006 at the Wayback Machine (in Swedish) ["I am concentrating on schlagerfestivalen"]. Aftonbladet.se (27 February 2002). Retrieved on 20 October 2006.
    5. ^ Anders Foghagen (13 October 2006) Agnes diskad från Schlagerfestivalen Archived 26 September 2007 at the Wayback Machine (in Swedish) ["Agnes disqualified from schlagerfestivalen"]. TV4.se. Retrieved on 20 October 2006.
    6. ^ The Swedish Research Institute of Tourism (17–18 March 2006). Melodifestivalen 2006 Archived 29 February 2008 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved on 23 January 2008.
     
  12. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    30 January 1933Adolf Hitler is sworn in as Chancellor of Germany.

    Adolf Hitler

    Adolf Hitler[a] (20 April 1889 – 30 April 1945) was an Austrian-born German politician who was the dictator of Germany from 1933 until his suicide in 1945. He rose to power as the leader of the Nazi Party,[c] becoming the chancellor in 1933 and then taking the title of Führer und Reichskanzler in 1934.[d] During his dictatorship, he initiated World War II in Europe by invading Poland on 1 September 1939. He was closely involved in military operations throughout the war and was central to the perpetration of the genocide of about six million Jews and millions of other victims.

    Hitler was born in Braunau am Inn in Austria-Hungary and was raised near Linz. He lived in Vienna later in the first decade of the 1900s before moving to Germany in 1913. He was decorated during his service in the German Army in World War I. In 1919, he joined the German Workers' Party (DAP), the precursor of the Nazi Party, and in 1921 was appointed leader of the Nazi Party. In 1923, he attempted to seize governmental power in a failed coup in Munich and was sentenced to five years in prison, serving just over a year of his sentence. While there, he dictated the first volume of his autobiography and political manifesto Mein Kampf ("My Struggle"). After his early release in 1924, Hitler gained popular support by attacking the Treaty of Versailles and promoting pan-Germanism, anti-Semitism and anti-communism with charismatic oratory and Nazi propaganda. He frequently denounced capitalism and communism as part of an international Jewish conspiracy.

    By November 1932, the Nazi Party held the most seats in the Reichstag but did not have a majority. No political parties were able to form a majority coalition in support of a candidate for chancellor. Former chancellor Franz von Papen and other conservative leaders convinced President Paul von Hindenburg to appoint Hitler as chancellor on 30 January 1933. Shortly thereafter, the Reichstag passed the Enabling Act of 1933 which began the process of transforming the Weimar Republic into Nazi Germany, a one-party dictatorship based on the totalitarian and autocratic ideology of Nazism. Upon Hindenburg's death on 2 August 1934, Hitler succeeded him, becoming simultaneously the head of state and government with absolute power. Domestically, Hitler implemented numerous racist policies and sought to deport or kill German Jews. His first six years in power resulted in rapid economic recovery from the Great Depression, the abrogation of restrictions imposed on Germany after World War I, and the annexation of territories inhabited by millions of ethnic Germans, which initially gave him significant popular support.

    One of Hitler's key goals was Lebensraum (lit.'living space') for the German people in Eastern Europe, and his aggressive, expansionist foreign policy is considered the primary cause of World War II in Europe. He directed large-scale rearmament and, on 1 September 1939, invaded Poland, resulting in Britain and France declaring war on Germany. In June 1941, Hitler ordered an invasion of the Soviet Union. In December 1941, he declared war on the United States. By the end of 1941, German forces and the European Axis powers occupied most of Europe and North Africa. These gains were gradually reversed after 1941, and in 1945 the Allied armies defeated the German army. On 29 April 1945, he married his long-term partner, Eva Braun, in the Führerbunker in Berlin. On the following day, the couple committed suicide to avoid capture by the Soviet Red Army. In accordance with Hitler's wishes, their corpses were burned.

    The historian and biographer Ian Kershaw describes Hitler as "the embodiment of modern political evil".[3] Under Hitler's leadership and racist ideology, the Nazi regime was responsible for the genocide of an estimated six million Jews and millions of other victims, whom he and his followers deemed Untermenschen (subhumans) or socially undesirable. Hitler and the Nazi regime were also responsible for the deliberate killing of an estimated 19.3 million civilians and prisoners of war. In addition, 28.7 million soldiers and civilians died as a result of military action in the European theatre. The number of civilians killed during World War II was unprecedented in warfare, and the casualties constitute the deadliest conflict in history.


    Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

    1. ^ Shirer 1960, pp. 226–227.
    2. ^ Overy 2005, p. 63.
    3. ^ Kershaw 2000b, p. xvii.
     
  13. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    31 January 1968 – Nauru gains independence from Australia.

    Nauru

    Nauru (/nɑːˈr/ nah-OO-roo[12] or /ˈnr/ NOW-roo;[13] Nauruan: Naoero), officially the Republic of Nauru and formerly known as Pleasant Island, is an island country and microstate in Micronesia, part of Oceania in the Central Pacific. Its nearest neighbour is Banaba of Kiribati, about 300 km (190 mi) to the east.[14]

    It lies northwest of Tuvalu, 1,300 km (810 mi) northeast of the Solomon Islands,[15] east-northeast of Papua New Guinea, southeast of the Federated States of Micronesia and south of the Marshall Islands. With an area of only 21 km2 (8.1 sq mi), Nauru is the third-smallest country in the world, larger than only Vatican City and Monaco, making it the smallest republic and island nation, as well the smallest member state of the Commonwealth of Nations by area. Its population of about 10,800 is the world's third-smallest (not including colonies or overseas territories) larger than only Vatican City and Tuvalu.

    Settled by people from Micronesia circa 1000 BCE, Nauru was annexed and claimed as a colony by the German Empire in the late 19th century. After World War I, Nauru became a League of Nations mandate administered by Australia, New Zealand, and the United Kingdom. During World War II, Nauru was occupied by Japanese troops, and was bypassed by the Allied advance across the Pacific. After the war ended, the country entered into United Nations trusteeship. Nauru gained its independence in 1968.

    Nauru is a phosphate-rock island with rich deposits near the surface, which allowed easy strip mining operations for over a century. However, this has seriously harmed the country's environment, causing the island nation to suffer from what is often referred to as the "resource curse". The phosphate was exhausted in the 1990s, and the remaining reserves are not economically viable for extraction.[16] A trust established to manage the island's accumulated mining wealth, set up for the day the reserves would be exhausted, has diminished in value. To earn income, Nauru briefly became a tax haven and illegal money laundering centre.[17]

    At various points since 2001, it has accepted aid from the Australian Government in exchange for hosting the Nauru Regional Processing Centre, a controversial offshore Australian immigration detention facility. As a result of heavy dependence on Australia, some sources have identified Nauru as a client state of Australia.[18][19][20] The sovereign state is a member of the United Nations, the Commonwealth of Nations, and the Organization of African, Caribbean, and Pacific States.

    1. ^ a b Worldwide Government Directory with Intergovernmental Organizations. CQ Press. 2013. p. 1131.
    2. ^ "REPUBLIC OF NAURU Revenue Administration Act Act No. 15 of 2014" (PDF). Retrieved 28 January 2023. All Bills are to be drafted in English, the official language of Nauru.
    3. ^ Cite error: The named reference CIA was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    4. ^ Cite error: The named reference state was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    5. ^ "Nauru's Constitution of 1968 with Amendments through 2015" (PDF). constituteproject.org. Retrieved 17 March 2023.
    6. ^ "World Population Prospects 2022". United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division. Retrieved 17 July 2022.
    7. ^ "World Population Prospects 2022: Demographic indicators by region, subregion and country, annually for 1950-2100" (XSLX) ("Total Population, as of 1 July (thousands)"). United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division. Retrieved 17 July 2022.
    8. ^ "National Report on Population ad Housing" (PDF). Nauru Bureau of Statistics. Archived from the original (PDF) on 24 September 2015. Retrieved 9 June 2015.
    9. ^ a b c d "Report for Selected Countries and Subjects". www.imf.org.
    10. ^ "Human Development Report 2023/2024" (PDF). United Nations Development Programme. 13 March 2024. Archived (PDF) from the original on 13 March 2024. Retrieved 13 March 2024.
    11. ^ Department of Justice and Border Control (21 December 1978). "Nauru Standard Time Act 1978" (PDF). Retrieved 11 September 2020. Because of the peculiar way the legislation is worded the legal time is not GMT+12.
    12. ^ "Nauru Pronunciation in English". Cambridge English Dictionary. Cambridge University Press. Archived from the original on 17 February 2015. Retrieved 16 February 2015.
    13. ^ "Nauru – Definition, pictures, pronunciation and usage notes". Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary. Oxford University Press. Archived from the original on 2 January 2015. Retrieved 2 January 2015.
    14. ^ "Nauru and Ocean Island". II(8) Pacific Islands Monthly. 15 March 1932. Retrieved 26 September 2021.
    15. ^ "Yaren | district, Nauru". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 2 September 2019.
    16. ^ Hogan, C Michael (2011). "Phosphate". Encyclopedia of Earth. National Council for Science and the Environment. Archived from the original on 25 October 2012. Retrieved 17 June 2012.
    17. ^ Hitt, Jack (10 December 2000). "The Billion-Dollar Shack". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 16 January 2018. Retrieved 29 January 2018.
    18. ^ "Pacific correspondent Mike Field". Radio New Zealand. 18 June 2015. Archived from the original on 10 December 2015. Retrieved 8 December 2015.
    19. ^ "Nauru's former chief justice predicts legal break down". Special Broadcasting Service. Archived from the original on 10 December 2015. Retrieved 8 December 2015.
    20. ^ Ben Doherty (28 October 2015). "This is Abyan's story, and it is Australia's story". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 26 February 2017. Retrieved 12 December 2016.


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  14. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    1 February 2003Space Shuttle Columbia disintegrated during the reentry of mission STS-107 into the Earth's atmosphere, killing all seven astronauts aboard.

    Space Shuttle Columbia disaster

    On Saturday, February 1, 2003, Space Shuttle Columbia disintegrated as it reentered the atmosphere over Texas and Louisiana, killing all seven astronauts on board. It was the second Space Shuttle mission to end in disaster, after the loss of Challenger and crew in 1986.

    The mission, designated STS-107, was the twenty-eighth flight for the orbiter, the 113th flight of the Space Shuttle fleet and the 88th after the Challenger disaster. It was dedicated to research in various fields, mainly on board the SpaceHab module inside the shuttle's payload bay. During launch, a piece of the insulating foam broke off from the Space Shuttle external tank and struck the thermal protection system tiles on the orbiter's left wing. Similar foam shedding had occurred during previous Space Shuttle launches, causing damage that ranged from minor to near-catastrophic, but some engineers suspected that the damage to Columbia was more serious. Before reentry, NASA managers had limited the investigation, reasoning that the crew could not have fixed the problem if it had been confirmed. When Columbia reentered the atmosphere of Earth, the damage allowed hot atmospheric gases to penetrate the heat shield and destroy the internal wing structure, which caused the orbiter to become unstable and break apart.

    After the disaster, Space Shuttle flight operations were suspended for more than two years, as they had been after the Challenger disaster. Construction of the International Space Station (ISS) was paused until flights resumed in July 2005 with STS-114. NASA made several technical and organizational changes to subsequent missions, including adding an on-orbit inspection to determine how well the orbiter's thermal protection system (TPS) had endured the ascent, and keeping designated rescue missions ready in case irreparable damage was found. Except for one mission to repair the Hubble Space Telescope, subsequent Space Shuttle missions were flown only to the ISS to allow the crew to use it as a haven if damage to the orbiter prevented safe reentry; the remaining orbiters were retired after the ISS was finished.

     
  15. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    2 February 1901 – Funeral of Queen Victoria.

    Queen Victoria

    Victoria (Alexandrina Victoria; 24 May 1819 – 22 January 1901) was Queen of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland from 20 June 1837 until her death in 1901. Her reign of 63 years and 216 days, which was longer than those of any of her predecessors, is known as the Victorian era. It was a period of industrial, political, scientific, and military change within the United Kingdom, and was marked by a great expansion of the British Empire. In 1876, the British Parliament voted to grant her the additional title of Empress of India.

    Victoria was the daughter of Prince Edward, Duke of Kent and Strathearn (the fourth son of King George III), and Princess Victoria of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld. After the deaths of her father and grandfather in 1820, she was raised under close supervision by her mother and her comptroller, John Conroy. She inherited the throne aged 18 after her father's three elder brothers died without surviving legitimate issue. Victoria, a constitutional monarch, attempted privately to influence government policy and ministerial appointments; publicly, she became a national icon who was identified with strict standards of personal morality.

    Victoria married her first cousin, Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, in 1840. Their nine children married into royal and noble families across the continent, earning Victoria the sobriquet "grandmother of Europe". After Albert's death in 1861, Victoria plunged into deep mourning and avoided public appearances. As a result of her seclusion, British republicanism temporarily gained strength, but in the latter half of her reign, her popularity recovered. Her Golden and Diamond jubilees were times of public celebration. Victoria died in 1901 at Osborne House on the Isle of Wight, at the age of 81. The last British monarch of the House of Hanover, she was succeeded by her son Edward VII of the House of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha.
    Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

     
  16. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    3 February 1931 – The Hawke's Bay earthquake, New Zealand's worst natural disaster, kills 258.

    1931 Hawke's Bay earthquake

    Damage to the Hawkes Bay Tribune building

    The 1931 Hawke's Bay earthquake, also known as the Napier earthquake, occurred in New Zealand at 10:47 am on 3 February, killing 256,[4] injuring thousands and devastating the Hawke's Bay region. It remains New Zealand's deadliest natural disaster. Centred 15 km north of Napier, it lasted for two and a half minutes and had a magnitude of 7.8 Ms (7.7 Mw).[1] There were 525 aftershocks recorded in the following two weeks, with 597 being recorded by the end of February. The main shock could be felt in much of New Zealand, with reliable reports coming in from as far south as Timaru, on the east coast of the South Island.[5]

    1. ^ a b Webb, T.H.; Anderson, H. (1998). "Focal mechanisms of large earthquakes in the North Island of New Zealand: slip partitioning at an oblique active margin". Geophysical Journal International. 134 (1): 40–86. Bibcode:1998GeoJI.134...40W. doi:10.1046/j.1365-246x.1998.00531.x.
    2. ^ National Geophysical Data Center / World Data Service (NGDC/WDS) (1972). "Significant Earthquake Information". NOAA National Centers for Environmental Information. doi:10.7289/V5TD9V7K.
    3. ^ "Tsunami – Hawke's Bay Emergency Management Group". www.hbemergency.govt.nz. Retrieved 29 January 2019.
    4. ^ Cite error: The named reference deathtoll was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    5. ^ "M 7.4 Hawke's Bay Tue, Feb 3 1931". GeoNet.
     
  17. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    4 February 974 – The Symbionese Liberation Army kidnaps Patty Hearst in Berkeley, California.

    Patty Hearst

    Patricia Campbell Hearst (born February 20, 1954)[1] is the granddaughter of American publishing magnate William Randolph Hearst. She first became known for the events following her 1974 kidnapping by the Symbionese Liberation Army. She was found and arrested 19 months after being abducted, by which time she was a fugitive wanted for serious crimes committed with members of the group. She was held in custody, and there was speculation before trial that her family's resources would enable her to avoid time in prison.

    At her trial, the prosecution suggested that Hearst had joined the Symbionese Liberation Army of her own volition. However, she testified that she had been raped and threatened with death while held captive. In 1976, she was convicted for the crime of bank robbery and sentenced to 35 years in prison, later reduced to seven years. Her sentence was commuted by President Jimmy Carter, and she was later pardoned by President Bill Clinton.

    1. ^ "Radically different: Heiress' life far removed from days of '74 kidnapping". CNN. Archived from the original on June 28, 2012. Retrieved April 15, 2020.
     
  18. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    5 February 1971 – Astronauts land on the moon in the Apollo 14 mission

    Apollo 14

    Apollo 14 (January 31 – February 9, 1971) was the eighth crewed mission in the United States Apollo program, the third to land on the Moon, and the first to land in the lunar highlands. It was the last of the "H missions", landings at specific sites of scientific interest on the Moon for two-day stays with two lunar extravehicular activities (EVAs or moonwalks).

    The mission was originally scheduled for 1970, but was postponed because of the investigation following the failure of Apollo 13 to reach the Moon's surface, and the need for modifications to the spacecraft as a result. Commander Alan Shepard, Command Module Pilot Stuart Roosa, and Lunar Module Pilot Edgar Mitchell launched on their nine-day mission on Sunday, January 31, 1971, at 4:03:02 p.m. EST. En route to the lunar landing, the crew overcame malfunctions that might have resulted in a second consecutive aborted mission, and possibly, the premature end of the Apollo program.

    Shepard and Mitchell made their lunar landing on February 5 in the Fra Mauro formation – originally the target of Apollo 13. During the two walks on the surface, they collected 94.35 pounds (42.80 kg) of Moon rocks and deployed several scientific experiments. To the dismay of some geologists, Shepard and Mitchell did not reach the rim of Cone crater as had been planned, though they came close. In Apollo 14's most famous event, Shepard hit two golf balls he had brought with him with a makeshift club.

    While Shepard and Mitchell were on the surface, Roosa remained in lunar orbit aboard the Command and Service Module, performing scientific experiments and photographing the Moon, including the landing site of the future Apollo 16 mission. He took several hundred seeds on the mission, many of which were germinated on return, resulting in the so-called Moon trees, that were widely distributed in the following years. After liftoff from the lunar surface and a successful docking, the spacecraft was flown back to Earth where the three astronauts splashed down safely in the Pacific Ocean on February 9.

    1. ^ Orloff, Richard W. (September 2004) [First published 2000]. "Table of Contents". Apollo by the Numbers: A Statistical Reference. NASA History Series. Washington, D.C.: NASA. ISBN 0-16-050631-X. LCCN 00061677. NASA SP-2000-4029. Archived from the original on September 6, 2007. Retrieved July 17, 2013.
    2. ^ a b Orloff & Harland 2006, p. 396.
    3. ^ "Apollo 14 Command and Service Module (CSM)". NASA Space Science Data Coordinated Archive. Retrieved November 20, 2019.
    4. ^ "Apollo 14 Lunar Module /ALSEP". NASA Space Science Data Coordinated Archive. Retrieved November 20, 2019.
     
  19. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    6 February 1951 – The Canadian Army enters combat in the Korean War.

    Canadian Army

    The Canadian Army (French: Armée canadienne) is the command responsible for the operational readiness of the conventional ground forces of the Canadian Armed Forces. It maintains regular forces units at bases across Canada, and is also responsible for the Army Reserve, the largest component of the Primary Reserve. The Army is headed by the Commander of the Canadian Army and Chief of the Army Staff, who is subordinate to the Chief of the Defence Staff. The Army is also supported by 3,000 civilian employees from the public service.

    Formed in 1855, as the Active Militia, in response to the threat of the United States to the Province of Canada after the British garrison left for the Crimean War. This Militia was later subdivided into the Permanent Active Militia and the Non-Permanent Active Militia. Finally, in 1940, an order in council changed the name of the Active Militia to the Canadian Army.

    On 1 April 1966, prior to the unification of the Canadian Armed Forces, the land forces were placed under a new command called Mobile Command (French: Commandement des forces mobiles).[9] For two years following, the Army existed as a distinct legal entity before its amalgamation with the Royal Canadian Navy and the Royal Canadian Air Force to form the Canadian Armed Forces. In the 1990s, the command was renamed Land Force Command (French: Commandement des Forces terrestres), until it reverted to its original name in August 2011.[10]

    During its history, the Canadian Army has fought in a variety of conflicts, including in the North-West Rebellion, the Second Boer War, the First and Second World Wars, Korean War, and more recently with the Gulf War, and in the War in Afghanistan.

    1. ^ An Act to regulate the militia of this province and to repeal the acts now in force for that purpose [microform]: assented to 19th of May, 1855. S. Derbyshire and G. Desbarats. ISBN 9780665504136. Retrieved 26 March 2020 – via Archive.org.
    2. ^ "War Of 1812 Battle Honours". www.forces.gc.ca. Ministry of National Defence. 14 September 2012. Archived from the original on 20 September 2020. Retrieved 9 March 2020.
    3. ^ Morton, Desmond (2009). A Military History of Canada. McClelland & Stewart. p. 91. ISBN 978-1-5519-9140-5.
    4. ^ Cite error: The named reference rename was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    5. ^ "Canadian Army collection" (PDF). University of Victoria Special Collections: Introduction. 1899–1984. Retrieved 24 March 2020. The Canadian Army was established in 1855 when the government passed the Militia Act, which provided for a paid, regular army consisting of active volunteer militia. Its forerunner was the militia dating back to 1651.
    6. ^ "About the Canadian Armed Forces". www.forces.gc.ca. Government of Canada. 25 February 2013. Retrieved 20 September 2023.
    7. ^ "Canadian Army". Ottawa: Her Majesty the Queen in Right of Canada. 2013. Archived from the original on 2 May 2017. Retrieved 14 February 2017.
    8. ^ "Juno the Canadian Army Mascot". www.canada.ca. Government of Canada. 4 June 2021. Retrieved 9 December 2022.
    9. ^ https://scholars.wlu.ca/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2145&context=cmh[bare URL]
    10. ^ "Navy and air force to be royal once again". CBC News. 16 August 2011. Archived from the original on 10 November 2012. Retrieved 15 August 2011.


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  20. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    7 February 2009Bushfires in Victoria leave 173 dead in the worst natural disaster in Australia's history.

    Black Saturday bushfires

    The Black Saturday bushfires were a series of bushfires that either ignited or were already burning across the Australian state of Victoria on and around Saturday, 7 February 2009, and were one of Australia's all-time worst bushfire disasters. The fires occurred during extreme bushfire weather conditions and resulted in Australia's highest-ever loss of human life from a bushfire,[10] with 173 fatalities.[11] Many people were left homeless as a result.

    As many as 400 individual fires were recorded on Saturday 7 February; the day has become widely referred to in Australia as Black Saturday

    Deputy Prime Minister Julia Gillard described Black Saturday as "a tragedy beyond belief, beyond precedent and beyond words … one of the darkest days in Australia’s peacetime history."[1]

    The 2009 Victorian Bushfires Royal Commission, headed by Justice Bernard Teague, was held in response to the bushfires.

    1. ^ Collins, Pádraig (12 February 2009). "Rudd criticised over bush fire compensation". Irish Times. Ireland. Archived from the original on 9 October 2012. Retrieved 19 February 2009.
    2. ^ "About Black Saturday - Country Fire Authority". 27 September 2019. Archived from the original on 27 September 2019. Retrieved 31 December 2019.
    3. ^ "What has Australia learned from Black Saturday?". 16 April 2019. Archived from the original on 16 April 2019. Retrieved 31 December 2019.
    4. ^ "2009 Victorian Bushfires". 20 May 2019. Archived from the original on 20 May 2019. Retrieved 31 December 2019.
    5. ^ Cite error: The named reference Australian Medical Journal was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    6. ^ Cite error: The named reference VBRC-Vol.01-ch.5-p.075 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    7. ^ Rennie, Reko (1 April 2009). "Marysville fire deliberately lit: police". The Age. Melbourne: Fairfax Media. Archived from the original on 7 September 2017. Retrieved 5 June 2010.
    8. ^ "Lightning starts new bushfires in Grampians". ABC News. 8 February 2009. Archived from the original on 7 August 2020. Retrieved 9 February 2009.
    9. ^ "Police track arsonists responsible for Victoria bushfires". News Limited. The Australian. 10 February 2009. Archived from the original on 13 February 2009. Retrieved 14 February 2009.
    10. ^ Huxley, John (11 February 2009). "Horrific, but not the worst we've suffered". The Sydney Morning Herald. Fairfax Media. Archived from the original on 13 February 2009. Retrieved 16 July 2020.
    11. ^ 2009 Victorian Bushfires Royal Commission - Final Report (PDF) (Report). Government Printer for the State of Victoria. July 2010. Archived (PDF) from the original on 27 February 2019. Retrieved 16 July 2020.
     
  21. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    8 February 1879 – The England cricket team led by Lord Harris is attacked during a riot during a match in Sydney.

    Sydney Riot of 1879

    An 1887 cricket match in progress at Sydney's Association Ground, the site of the riot

    The Sydney Riot of 1879 was an instance of civil disorder that occurred at an early international cricket match. It took place on 8 February 1879 at what is now the Sydney Cricket Ground (at the time known as the Association Ground), during a match between New South Wales, captained by Dave Gregory, and a touring English team, captained by Lord Harris.

    The riot was sparked by a controversial umpiring decision, when star Australian batsman Billy Murdoch was given out by George Coulthard, a Victorian employed by the Englishmen. The dismissal caused an uproar among the spectators, many of whom surged onto the pitch and assaulted Coulthard and some English players. It was alleged that illegal gamblers in the New South Wales pavilion, who had bet heavily on the home side, encouraged the riot because the tourists were in a dominant position and looked set to win. Another theory given to explain the anger was that of intercolonial rivalry, that the New South Wales crowd objected to what they perceived to be a slight from a Victorian umpire.

    The pitch invasion occurred while Gregory halted the match by not sending out a replacement for Murdoch. The New South Wales skipper called on Lord Harris to remove umpire Coulthard, whom he considered to be inept or biased, but his English counterpart declined. The other umpire, future prime minister Edmund Barton, defended Coulthard and Lord Harris, saying that the decision against Murdoch was correct and that the English had conducted themselves appropriately. Eventually, Gregory agreed to resume the match without the removal of Coulthard. However, the crowd continued to disrupt proceedings, and play was abandoned for the day. Upon resumption after the Sunday rest day, Lord Harris's men won convincingly by an innings.

    In the immediate aftermath of the riot, the England team cancelled the remaining games they were scheduled to play in Sydney. The incident also caused much press comment in England and Australia. In Australia, the newspapers were united in condemning the unrest, viewing the chaos as a national humiliation and a public relations disaster. An open letter by Lord Harris about the incident was later published in English newspapers, and caused fresh outrage in New South Wales when it was reprinted by the Australian newspapers. A defensive letter written in response by the New South Wales Cricket Association further damaged relations. The affair led to a breakdown of goodwill that threatened the future of Anglo-Australian cricket relations. However, friction between the cricketing authorities finally eased when Lord Harris agreed to lead an England representative side at The Oval in London against the touring Australians in 1880; this match became the fourth-ever Test and cemented the tradition of Anglo-Australian Test matches.

     
  22. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    9 February 1900 – The Davis Cup competition is established

    Davis Cup

    The 2018 Davis Cup Final – opening ceremony.

    The Davis Cup is the premier international team event in men's tennis. It is run by the International Tennis Federation (ITF) and is contested annually between teams from over 150 competiting countries, making it the world's largest annual team sporting competition.[1] It is described by the organisers as the "World Cup of Tennis", and the winners are referred to as the World Champions.[2] The competition began in 1900 as a challenge between Great Britain and the United States. By 2023, 155 nations entered teams into the competition.[3]

    The most successful countries over the history of the competition are the United States (winning 32 titles and finishing as runners-up 29 times) and Australia (winning 28 titles, including six with New Zealand as Australasia, and finishing as runners-up 21 times). The current champions are Italy, who beat Australia to win their second title in 2023.

    The women's equivalent of the Davis Cup is the Billie Jean King Cup, formerly known as the Federation Cup (1963–1995) and Fed Cup (1995–2020). Australia, Canada, Russia, the Czech Republic, and the United States are the only countries to have won both Davis Cup and Fed Cup titles in the same year.

    The Davis Cup allowed only amateurs and national registered professional players (from 1968) to compete until 1973, five years after the start of the Open Era.[4]

    As of September 2022, Russia and Belarus are suspended due to the Russian invasion of Ukraine.[5]

    1. ^ "Davis Cup History". ITF. Retrieved 4 February 2024.
    2. ^ "Andy Murray wins Davis Cup for Great Britain". BBC Sport. 23 November 2015. Archived from the original on 28 November 2018. Retrieved 13 February 2018.
    3. ^ "Davis Cup Format". www.daviscup.com. Archived from the original on 5 January 2016. Retrieved 20 January 2016. In 2023, 155 nations entered Davis Cup by Rakuten
    4. ^ "40 Years Ago: Look Out, Cleveland". www.tennis.com. Archived from the original on 31 October 2020. Retrieved 5 December 2019.
    5. ^ "Davis Cup – Rankings". www.daviscup.com. Archived from the original on 1 May 2011. Retrieved 22 March 2022.
     
  23. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    10 February 1996IBM supercomputer Deep Blue defeats Garry Kasparov in chess for the first time.

    Deep Blue (chess computer)

    Deep Blue was a chess-playing expert system run on a unique purpose-built IBM supercomputer. It was the first computer to win a game, and the first to win a match, against a reigning world champion under regular time controls. Development began in 1985 at Carnegie Mellon University under the name ChipTest. It then moved to IBM, where it was first renamed Deep Thought, then again in 1989 to Deep Blue. It first played world champion Garry Kasparov in a six-game match in 1996, where it lost four games to two. It was upgraded in 1997 and in a six-game re-match, it defeated Kasparov by winning two games and drawing three. Deep Blue's victory is considered a milestone in the history of artificial intelligence and has been the subject of several books and films.

    1. ^ "Deep Thought (Chess)". ICGA Tournaments. Archived from the original on 6 November 2020. Retrieved 11 January 2022.
     
  24. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    11 February 1942World War II: The Battle of Bukit Timah is fought in Singapore.

    Battle of Bukit Timah

    The Battle of Bukit Timah (10–12 February 1942), was part of the final stage of the Empire of Japan's invasion of Singapore during World War II.

     
  25. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    12 February 1961 – The Soviet Union launches Venera 1 towards Venus.

    Venera 1

    Venera 1 (Russian: Венера-1 meaning Venus 1), also known as Venera-1VA No.2 and occasionally in the West as Sputnik 8 was the first spacecraft to perform an interplanetary flight and the first to fly past Venus, as part of the Soviet Union's Venera programme.[1] Launched in February 1961, it flew past Venus on 19 May of the same year; however, radio contact with the probe was lost before the flyby, resulting in it returning no data.

    1. ^ "Venera 1". NASA Space Science Data Coordinated Archive. Retrieved 2019-08-15.
     
  26. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    13 February 1955Israel obtains four of the seven Dead Sea Scrolls.

    Dead Sea Scrolls

    The Dead Sea Scrolls, also called the Qumran Caves Scrolls, are a set of ancient Jewish manuscripts from the Second Temple period. They were discovered over a period of 10 years, between 1946 and 1956, at the Qumran Caves near Ein Feshkha in the West Bank, on the northern shore of the Dead Sea. Dating from the 3rd century BCE to the 1st century CE,[1] the Dead Sea Scrolls are considered to be a keystone in the history of archaeology with great historical, religious, and linguistic significance because they include the oldest surviving manuscripts of entire books later included in the biblical canons, along with extra-biblical and deuterocanonical manuscripts that preserve evidence of the diversity of religious thought in late Second Temple Judaism. At the same time, they cast new light on the emergence of Christianity and of Rabbinic Judaism.[2] Almost all of the 15,000 scrolls and scroll fragments are held in the Shrine of the Book at the Israel Museum, located in the city of Jerusalem. The Israeli government's custody of the Dead Sea Scrolls is disputed by Jordan and the Palestinian Authority on territorial, legal, and humanitarian grounds—they were mostly discovered following the Jordanian annexation of the West Bank and were acquired by Israel after Jordan lost the 1967 Arab–Israeli War[3]—whilst Israel's claims are primarily based on historical and religious grounds, given their significance in Jewish history and in the heritage of Judaism.[4]

    Many thousands of written fragments have been discovered in the Dead Sea area. They represent the remnants of larger manuscripts damaged by natural causes or through human interference, with the vast majority holding only small scraps of text. However, a small number of well-preserved and near-intact manuscripts have survived—fewer than a dozen among those from the Qumran Caves.[1] Researchers have assembled a collection of 981 different manuscripts (discovered in 1946/1947 and in 1956) from 11 caves,[5] which lie in the immediate vicinity of the Hellenistic Jewish settlement at the site of Khirbet Qumran in the eastern Judaean Desert, in the West Bank.[6] The caves are located about 1.5 kilometres (1 mi) west of the northwestern shore of the Dead Sea, whence they derive their name. Archaeologists have long associated the scrolls with the ancient Jewish sect known as the Essenes, although some recent interpretations have challenged this connection and argue that priests in Jerusalem, or Zadokites, or other unknown Jewish groups wrote the scrolls.[7][8]

    Most of the manuscripts are written in Hebrew, with some written in Aramaic (for example the Son of God Text; in different regional dialects, including Nabataean) and a few in Greek.[9] Discoveries from the Judaean Desert add Latin (from Masada) and Arabic (from Khirbet al-Mird).[10] Most of the texts are written on parchment, some on papyrus, and one on copper.[11] Though scholarly consensus dates the Dead Sea Scrolls to between the 3rd century BCE and the 1st century CE,[12] there are manuscripts from associated Judaean Desert sites that are dated to as early as the 8th century BCE and as late as the 11th century CE.[12] Bronze coins found at the same sites form a series beginning with John Hyrcanus, a ruler of the Hasmonean Kingdom (in office 135–104 BCE), and continuing until the period of the First Jewish–Roman War (66–73 CE), supporting the paleography and radiocarbon dating of the scrolls.[13]

    Owing to the poor condition of some of the scrolls, scholars have not identified all of their texts. The identified texts fall into three general groups:

    1. About 40% are copies of texts from Hebrew scriptures.
    2. Approximately another 30% are texts from the Second Temple period that ultimately were not canonized in the Hebrew Bible, like the Book of Enoch, the Book of Jubilees, the Book of Tobit, the Wisdom of Sirach, Psalms 152–155, etc.
    3. The remainder (roughly 30%) are sectarian manuscripts of previously unknown documents that shed light on the rules and beliefs of a particular sect or groups within greater Judaism, like the Community Rule, the War Scroll, the Pesher on Habakkuk, and The Rule of the Blessing.[14]
    1. ^ a b "The Digital Dead Sea Scrolls: Nature and Significance". Israel Museum Jerusalem. Retrieved 4 November 2023.
    2. ^ "Dead Sea Scrolls | Definition, Discovery, History, & Facts | Britannica". www.britannica.com. Retrieved 17 November 2021.
    3. ^ Lash, Mordechay; Goldstein, Yossi; Shai, Itzhaq (2020). "Underground-Archaeological Research in the West Bank, 1947–1968: Management, Complexity, and Israeli Involvement". Bulletin of the History of Archaeology. 30. doi:10.5334/bha-650. S2CID 229403120.
    4. ^ Duhaime, Bernard; Labadie, Camille (18 September 2020). "Intersections and Cultural Exchange: Archaeology, Culture, International Law and the Legal Travels of the Dead Sea Scrolls". Canada's Public Diplomacy. Palgrave Macmillan Series in Global Public Diplomacy. Cham: Springer International Publishing. p. 146. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-62015-2_6. ISBN 978-3-319-62014-5. ISSN 2731-3883. S2CID 236757632. Thus, the Palestinian Authority and Jordan base their claims on territorial aspects (places of discovery of the scrolls), humanitarian (illegal deprivation following the occupation of East Jerusalem by Israel) and legal (they claim to have proof of purchase of several scrolls) while, for its part, Israel's claims are primarily based in religious notions, invoking the sacred history of the Jewish people and recalling that the scrolls discovered in Qumran are, for the majority, the oldest known copies of biblical texts and are therefore of fundamental importance for the historical and religious heritage of Judaism.
    5. ^ "Hebrew University Archaeologists Find 12th Dead Sea Scrolls Cave". The Hebrew University of Jerusalem. Archived from the original on 2 June 2017. Retrieved 7 June 2017.
    6. ^ Donahue, Michelle Z. (10 February 2017). "New Dead Sea Scroll Find May Help Detect Forgeries". nationalgeographic.com. Archived from the original on 15 June 2018. Retrieved 19 November 2017.
    7. ^ Ofri, Ilani (13 March 2009). "Scholar: The Essenes, Dead Sea Scroll 'authors,' never existed". Ha'aretz. Archived from the original on 6 January 2018. Retrieved 26 May 2017.
    8. ^ Golb, Norman (5 June 2009). "On the Jerusalem Origin of the Dead Sea Scrolls" (PDF). University of Chicago Oriental Institute. Archived (PDF) from the original on 10 June 2010. Retrieved 11 May 2010.
    9. ^ Vermes, Geza (1977). The Dead Sea Scrolls. Qumran in Perspective. London: Collins. p. 15. ISBN 978-0002161428.
    10. ^ "Languages and Scripts". Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library. Retrieved 1 November 2023.
    11. ^ McCarthy, Rory (27 August 2008). "From papyrus to cyberspace". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 22 December 2016. Retrieved 17 December 2016.
    12. ^ a b "The Digital Library: Introduction". Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library. Retrieved 1 November 2023.
    13. ^ Leaney, A. R. C. From Judaean Caves: The Story of the Dead Sea Scrolls. p. 27, Religious Education Press, 1961.
    14. ^ Abegg, Jr., Martin; Flint, Peter; Ulrich, Eugene (2002). The Dead Sea Scrolls Bible: The Oldest Known Bible Translated for the First Time into English. San Francisco: Harper. pp. xiv–xvii. ISBN 0060600640. Retrieved 24 November 2023.
     
  27. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    14 February 1929Saint Valentine's Day Massacre: Seven people, six of them gangster rivals of Al Capone's gang, are murdered in Chicago.

    Saint Valentine's Day Massacre

    The Saint Valentine's Day Massacre was the murder of seven members and associates of Chicago's North Side Gang on Saint Valentine's Day 1929. The men were gathered at a Lincoln Park, Chicago garage on the morning of February 14, 1929. They were lined up against a wall and shot by four unknown assailants, two of whom were disguised as police officers.

    The murders resulted from the competition for control of organized crime in the city during Prohibition between the largely Irish North Siders, headed by George "Bugs" Moran, and their largely Italian Chicago Outfit rivals led by Al Capone.[1] The perpetrators have never been conclusively identified, but former members of the Egan's Rats gang working for Capone are suspected of involvement; others have said that members of the Chicago Police Department who allegedly wanted revenge for the killing of a police officer's son played a part.

    1. ^ O'Brien, John (February 14, 2014). "The St. Valentine's Day Massacre". Chicago Tribune. Archived from the original on July 2, 2014. Retrieved June 28, 2017.
     
  28. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    15 February 1971 – The decimalisation of British coinage is completed on Decimal Day.

    Decimal Day

    An introductory pack of the new currency.

    Decimal Day (Irish: Lá Deachúil)[1] in the United Kingdom and in Ireland was Monday 15 February 1971, the day on which each country decimalised its respective £sd currency of pounds, shillings, and pence.

    Before this date, the British pound sterling (symbol "£") was subdivided into 20 shillings, each of 12 (old) pence, a total of 240 pence. With decimalisation, the pound kept its old value and name, but the shilling was abolished, and the penny was revalued, such that the pound was subdivided into 100 of what were originally called "new pence" ("NP"), and later just pence ("p") when confusion was no longer likely. Each new penny was worth 2.4 old pence (abbreviated "d.").

    A coin of half a new penny, a halfpenny, was introduced to maintain the approximate granularity of the old penny, but was dropped in 1984 as inflation reduced its value. An old value of 7 pounds, 10 shillings, and sixpence, abbreviated £7-10-6 or £7:10s:6d. became £7.521/2p. Amounts with a number of old pence which was not 0 or 6 did not convert into a round number of new pence.

    The Irish pound had the same £sd currency structure, and the same decimalisation was carried out.

    1. ^ "Cad é 5 pingin i ndollair SAM? - Irisleabhar ADL ➡". 29 August 2021. Archived from the original on 2 January 2023. Retrieved 2 January 2023.
     
  29. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    16 February 1985Hezbollah is founded.

    Hezbollah

    Hezbollah (/ˌhɛzbəˈlɑː/,[44] /ˌxɛz-/; Arabic: حزب الله, romanizedḤizbu 'llāh, lit.'Party of Allah' or 'Party of God')[45] is a Lebanese Shia Islamist political party and militant group,[46][47] led since 1992 by its Secretary-General Hassan Nasrallah. Hezbollah's paramilitary wing is the Jihad Council,[48] and its political wing is the Loyalty to the Resistance Bloc party in the Lebanese Parliament.

    Hezbollah was established in the wake of the 1982 Lebanon War by Lebanese clerics who studied in the Shia seminaries Hawza Najaf in Najaf. It adopted the model set out by Ayatollah Khomeini after the Iranian Revolution in 1979, and the party's founders adopted the name "Hezbollah" as chosen by Khomeini. Since then, close ties have developed between Iran and Hezbollah.[49] The organization was created with the support of 1,500 Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps (IRGC) instructors,[50] and aggregated a variety of Lebanese Shia groups into a unified organization to resist the former Israeli occupation of Southern Lebanon.[51][52][14][53] During the Lebanese Civil War, Hezbollah's 1985 manifesto listed its objectives as the expulsion of "the Americans, the French and their allies definitely from Lebanon, putting an end to any colonialist entity on our land".[54] From 1985 to 2000, Hezbollah also participated in the 1985–2000 South Lebanon conflict against the South Lebanon Army (SLA) and Israel Defense Forces (IDF), and fought again with the IDF in the 2006 Lebanon War. During the 1990s, Hezbollah also organized volunteers to fight for the Army of the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina during the Bosnian War.[55]

    Since 1990, Hezbollah has participated in Lebanese politics, in a process which is described as the Lebanonisation of Hezbollah, and it later participated in the government of Lebanon and joined political alliances. After the 2006–08 Lebanese protests[56] and clashes,[57] a national unity government was formed in 2008, with Hezbollah and its opposition allies obtaining 11 of 30 cabinet seats, enough to give them veto power.[58] In August 2008, Lebanon's new cabinet unanimously approved a draft policy statement that recognizes Hezbollah's existence as an armed organization and guarantees its right to "liberate or recover occupied lands" (such as the Shebaa Farms). Hezbollah is part of Lebanon's March 8 Alliance, in opposition to the March 14 Alliance. It maintains strong support among Lebanese Shia Muslims,[59] while Sunnis have disagreed with its agenda.[60][61] Hezbollah also has support in some Christian areas of Lebanon.[62] Since 2012, Hezbollah involvement in the Syrian civil war has seen it join the Syrian government in its fight against the Syrian opposition, which Hezbollah has described as a Zionist plot and a "Wahhabi-Zionist conspiracy" to destroy its alliance with Bashar al-Assad against Israel.[63][64] Between 2013 and 2015, the organisation deployed its militia in both Syria and Iraq to fight or train local militias to fight against the Islamic State.[65][66] In the 2018 Lebanese general election, Hezbollah held 12 seats and its alliance won the election by gaining 70 out of 128 seats in the Parliament of Lebanon.[67][68]

    Hezbollah did not disarm after the Israeli withdrawal from South Lebanon, in violation of the UN Security Council resolution 1701.[69] From 2006, the group's military strength grew significantly,[70][71] to the extent that its paramilitary wing became more powerful than the Lebanese Army.[72][73] Hezbollah has been described as a "state within a state",[74] and has grown into an organization with seats in the Lebanese government, a radio and a satellite TV station, social services and large-scale military deployment of fighters beyond Lebanon's borders.[75][76][77] The group currently receives military training, weapons, and financial support from Iran and political support from Syria,[78] although the sectarian nature of the Syrian war has damaged the group's legitimacy.[75][79][80] In 2021, Nasrallah said the group had 100,000 fighters.[81] Either the entire organization or only its military wing has been designated a terrorist organization by several countries, including by the European Union[82] and, since 2017, also by most member states of the Arab League, with two exceptions – Lebanon, where Hezbollah is one of the country's most influential political parties, and Iraq.[83] Russia does not view Hezbollah as a "terrorist organization" but as a "legitimate socio-political force".[84]

    1. ^ "Fadlallah Hits Back at March 14 over Karam Release, Marouni Slams 'Treason Accusations'". Naharnet. 18 April 2013.
    2. ^ a b c Dalacoura, Katerina (2012). "Islamist Terrorism and National Liberation: Hamas and Hizbullah". Islamist Terrorism and Democracy in the Middle East. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 66–96. doi:10.1017/CBO9780511977367.004. ISBN 978-0-511-97736-7. LCCN 2010047275. S2CID 150958046.
    3. ^ Stepanova, Ekaterina (2008). Terrorism in Asymmetrical Conflict: Ideological and Structural Aspects (PDF). Oxford University Press. p. 113. Archived from the original (PDF) on 10 March 2016.
    4. ^ a b Philip Smyth (February 2015). The Shiite Jihad in Syria and Its Regional Effects (PDF) (Report). The Washington Institute for Near East Studies. pp. 7–8. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2 April 2015. Retrieved 13 March 2015.
    5. ^ "Hezbollah, the Lebanese Sectarian State, and Sectarianism". Middle East Institute. Retrieved 13 April 2017.
    6. ^ Bassel F, Salloukh (2015). "The Sectarian Image Reversed: The Role of Geopolitics in Hezbollah's Domestic Politics". Middle East political science.
    7. ^ "Hezbollah and the Lebanese Popular Movement".
    8. ^ Salamey, Imad; Pearson, Frederic (2007). "Hezbollah: A Proletarian Party with an Islamic Manifesto – A Sociopolitical Analysis of Islamist Populism in Lebanon and the Middle East". Small Wars & Insurgencies. 18 (3): 416–438. doi:10.1080/09592310701674358. S2CID 143896155.
    9. ^ Elie Alagha, Joseph (2011). Hizbullah's Documents: From the 1985 Open Letter to the 2009 Manifesto. Amsterdam University Press. pp. 15, 20. ISBN 978-90-8555-037-2.
      Shehata, Samer (2012). Islamist Politics in the Middle East: Movements and Change. Routledge. p. 176. ISBN 978-0-415-78361-3.
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    11. ^ Levitt, Matthew (2013). Hezbollah: The Global Footprint of Lebanon's Party of God. Hurst Publishers. p. 356. ISBN 978-1-84904-333-5. 'Hezbollah's anti-Western militancy began with attacks against Western targets in Lebanon, then expanded to attacks abroad intended to exact revenge for actions threatening its or Iran's interests, or to press foreign governments to release captured operatives.'
    12. ^ Hanhimäki, Jussi M.; Blumenau, Bernhard (2013). An International History of Terrorism: Western and Non-Western Experiences. Routledge. p. 267. ISBN 978-0-415-63540-0. Based upon these beliefs, Hezbollah became vehemently anti-West and anti-Israel.
    13. ^ Siegel, Larry J. (2012). Criminology: Theories, Patterns & Typology. Cengage Learning. p. 396. ISBN 978-1-133-04964-7. Hezbollah is anti-West and anti-Israel and has engaged in a series of terrorist actions including kidnappings, car bombings, and airline hijackings.
    14. ^ a b "Who Are Hezbollah?". BBC News. 21 May 2008. Retrieved 15 August 2008.
    15. ^ Julius, Anthony (2015). Trials of the Diaspora: A History of Anti-Semitism in England. OUP Oxford. ISBN 978-0-19-929705-4 – via Google Books.
    16. ^ Michael, Robert; Rosen, Philip (2015). Dictionary of Antisemitism from the Earliest Times to the Present. Scarecrow Press. ISBN 978-0-8108-5868-8 – via Google Books.
    17. ^ Perry, Mark (2015). Talking to Terrorists: Why America Must Engage with Its Enemies. Basic Books. p. 158. ISBN 978-0-465-01117-9.
    18. ^ "Analysis: Hezbollah's lethal anti-Semitism". The Jerusalem Post. 12 November 2012.
    19. ^ Joshua L. Gleis; Benedetta Berti (2012). Hezbollah and Hamas: A Comparative Study. JHU Press. ISBN 978-1-4214-0671-8.
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    21. ^ "Hezbollah chief in new attack on same-sex relations". France 24. 29 July 2023.
    22. ^ Revolutions: A Worldwide Introduction to Political and Social Change. Routledge. 2015. ISBN 978-1-317-26457-6.
    23. ^ "Interior Ministry releases numbers of votes for new MPs". The Daily Star. 9 May 2018. Archived from the original on 8 March 2021. Retrieved 24 October 2019.
    24. ^ a b "Hezbollah fighters train Iraqi Shiite militants near Mosul". longwarjournal.org – FDD's Long War Journal. 5 November 2016.
    25. ^ "Lebanon's Hezbollah chief Nasrallah says group has never been stronger". Reuters. 18 October 2021.
    26. ^ Agencies, The New Arab Staff & (18 October 2021). "Hassan Nasrallah says Hezbollah has 100,000 fighters". english.alaraby.co.uk/.
    27. ^ "Lebanon Hezbollah chief says movement has 100,000 fighters". France 24. 18 October 2021.
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    29. ^ "Why Assad's alliance with Iran and Hezbollah will endure". 8 February 2019. Retrieved 8 February 2023.
    30. ^ Pardo, Ramon Pacheco (February 2011). "Beyond Iran" (PDF). The Majalla. 1561: 12–14. Archived from the original (PDF) on 15 July 2012. Retrieved 5 April 2013.
    31. ^ a b "Iraq admits Lebanese Hezbollah and Iranian RG fight alongside Iraqi security forces". 9 November 2014. Archived from the original on 15 June 2018. Retrieved 28 July 2018.
    32. ^ "Hezbollah Fights Alongside LAF Demonstrating its Continuing Control over Lebanon". The Tower. 21 August 2017. Archived from the original on 2 February 2020. Retrieved 28 July 2018.
    33. ^ "New Experience of Hezbollah with Russian Military". 2 February 2016. Archived from the original on 28 July 2018.
    34. ^ Rosenfeld, Jesse (11 January 2016). "Russia is Arming Hezbollah, Say Two of the Group's Field Commanders". The Daily Beast.
    35. ^ "Yemeni FM slams Hezbollah's Houthi support: report". The Daily Star. Archived from the original on 28 July 2018. Retrieved 28 July 2018.
    36. ^ "Lebanon's Hezbollah denies sending weapons to Yemen". Reuters. 20 November 2017.
    37. ^ "Wagner Group 'tasked to deliver Russian weapons to Hezbollah' – US intelligence". 4 November 2023.
    38. ^ "Hezbollah – International terrorist organization". Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs. 22 July 2013.
    39. ^ Francis, Xavier (21 May 2020). "Israel Impressed How Turkish Army Crushed Hezbollah In Idlib, Syria". Latest Asian, Middle-East, EurAsian, Indian News.
    40. ^ "Israel learned from Hezbollah's defeat at the hands of Turkey". The Jerusalem Post.
    41. ^ "Turkish strike in Syria kills nine Hezbollah members, according to source". Haaretz.
    42. ^ "Beware Iran's 'Axis of Resistance' | People's Mojahedin Organization of Iran (PMOI/MEK)". Archived from the original on 31 October 2021. Retrieved 16 January 2020.
    43. ^ Nimrod Raphaeli (11 February 2009). "The Iranian Roots of Hizbullah". MEMRI. Archived from the original on 11 February 2009.
    44. ^
      • "Hezbollah". The Collins English Dictionary. Glasgow: HarperCollins. 2013. Retrieved 7 May 2013.
      • "Hezbollah". Webster's New World College Dictionary. Cleveland: Wiley Publishing, Inc. 2012. Retrieved 7 May 2013.
    45. ^ Other transliterations include Hizbullah, Hizballah, Hizbollah, Hezbolla, Hezballah, Hisbollah, Hizbu'llah and Hizb Allah.
    46. ^ "Hezbollah | Meaning, History, & Ideology | Britannica". www.britannica.com. 15 December 2023. Retrieved 17 December 2023.
    47. ^ "What Is Hezbollah?". Council on Foreign Relations. Retrieved 17 December 2023.
    48. ^ Levitt, Matthew (2013). Hezbollah: The Global Footprint of Lebanon's Party of God. Hurst Publishers. p. 15. ISBN 978-1-84904-333-5. ... the Jihad Council coordinates 'resistance activity'.
      Ghattas Saab, Antoine (15 May 2014). "Hezbollah cutting costs as Iranian aid dries up". The Daily Star. Retrieved 1 June 2014. ... Hezbollah's military wing ... Known as the 'Jihad Council'
    49. ^ Hirst, David (2010) Beware of Small States. Lebanon, battleground of the Middle East. Faber and Faber. ISBN 978-0-571-23741-8 p. 189
    50. ^ Adam Shatz (29 April 2004). "In Search of Hezbollah". The New York Review of Books. Archived from the original on 22 August 2006. Retrieved 14 August 2006.
    51. ^ Dominique Avon, Anaïs-Trissa Khatchadourian, Hezbollah: A History of the "Party of God", Harvard University Press, 2012 ISBN 978-0-674-07031-8 pp. 21ff.
    52. ^ E. Azani, Hezbollah: The Story of the Party of God: From Revolution to Institutionalization, Springer, 2011 ISBN 978-0-230-11629-0 pp. 59–63
    53. ^ Mariam Farida, Religion and Hezbollah: Political Ideology and Legitimacy, Routledge, 2019 ISBN 978-1-000-45857-2 pp. 1–3.
    54. ^ Itamar Rabinovich (2008). Israel in the Middle East. UPNE. ISBN 978-0-87451-962-4. Retrieved 18 November 2010.
    55. ^ Fisk, Robert (7 September 2014). "After the atrocities committed against Muslims in Bosnia, it is no wonder today's jihadis have set out on the path to war in Syria". The Independent. Archived from the original on 17 July 2018. Retrieved 25 March 2016.
    56. ^ Ghattas, Kim (1 December 2006). "Political ferment in Lebanon". BBC News. Retrieved 15 August 2008.
    57. ^ Stern, Yoav; Issacharoff, Avi (10 May 2008). "Hezbollah fighters retreat from Beirut after 37 die in clashes". Haaretz. Archived from the original on 12 May 2008. Retrieved 20 October 2012.
    58. ^ "Hezbollah (a.k.a. Hizbollah, Hizbu'llah)". Council on Foreign Relations. 13 September 2008. Archived from the original on 13 September 2008. Retrieved 15 September 2008.
    59. ^ "Huge Beirut protest backs Syria". BBC News. 8 March 2005. Retrieved 7 February 2007.
    60. ^ "Hariri: Sunnis 'refuse' to join Hezbollah-Al Qaida war". AFP, 25 January 2014.
    61. ^ Blanford & Salim 2013.
    62. ^ Zirulnick 2012.
    63. ^ Barnard, Anne (3 January 2014). "Mystery in Hezbollah Operatives Life and Death". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 3 January 2022.
    64. ^ Barnard, Anne (9 July 2013). "Car Bombing Injures Dozens in Hezbollah Section of Beirut". The New York Times. Retrieved 30 August 2013. Hezbollah has portrayed the Syrian uprising as an Israeli-backed plot to destroy its alliance with Mr. Assad against Israel.
    65. ^ Liz Sly and Suzan Haidamous 'Lebanon's Hezbollah acknowledges battling the Islamic State in Iraq,' Washington Post 16 February 2015.
    66. ^ Ali Hashem, arrives in Iraq Archived 7 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine. Al Monitor 25 November 2014
    67. ^ "Factbox: Hezbollah and allies gain sway in Lebanon parliament". Reuters. 22 May 2018.
    68. ^ Ajroudi, Asma. "Hezbollah and allies biggest winners in Lebanon polls". Al Jazeera.
    69. ^ "Fears grow of all-out Israel-Hezbollah war as fighting escalates". The Guardian. 17 December 2023. Retrieved 27 December 2023.
    70. ^ "UN: Hezbollah has increased military strength since 2006 war". Haaretz. 25 October 2007. Retrieved 5 September 2013.
    71. ^ Frykberg, Mel (29 August 2008). "Mideast Powers, Proxies and Paymasters Bluster and Rearm". Middle East Times. Retrieved 31 May 2011. And if there is one thing that ideologically and diametrically opposed Hezbollah and Israel agree on, it is Hezbollah's growing military strength.
    72. ^ Barnard, Anne (20 May 2013). "Hezbollah's Role in Syria War Shakes the Lebanese". The New York Times. Retrieved 20 June 2013. Hezbollah, stronger than the Lebanese Army, has the power to drag the country into war without a government decision, as in 2006, when it set off the war by capturing two Israeli soldiers
    73. ^ Morris, Loveday (12 June 2013). "For Lebanon's Sunnis, growing rage at Hezbollah over role in Syria". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on 5 November 2013. Retrieved 20 June 2013. ... Hezbollah, which has a fighting force generally considered more powerful than the Lebanese army.
    74. ^ "Iran-Syria vs. Israel, Round 1: Assessments & Lessons Learned". Defense Industry Daily. 13 September 2013. Retrieved 19 February 2013.
    75. ^ a b Hubbard, Ben (20 March 2014). "Syrian Fighting Gives Hezbollah New but Diffuse Purpose". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 3 January 2022. Retrieved 30 May 2014. ... the fighting has also diluted the resources that used to go exclusively to facing Israel, exacerbated sectarian divisions in the region, and alienated large segments of the majority Sunni population who once embraced Hezbollah as a liberation force... Never before have Hezbollah guerrillas fought alongside a formal army, waged war outside Lebanon or initiated broad offensives aimed at seizing territory.
    76. ^ Deeb, Lara (31 July 2006). "Hizballah: A Primer". Middle East Report. Archived from the original on 19 October 2011. Retrieved 31 May 2011.
    77. ^ Goldman, Adam (28 May 2014). "Hezbollah operative wanted by FBI dies in fighting in Syria". The Washington Post. Retrieved 30 May 2014. ... Hasan Nasrallah has called the deployment of his fighters to Syria a 'new phase' for the movement, and it marks the first time the group has sent significant numbers of men outside Lebanon's borders.
    78. ^ Filkins, Dexter (30 September 2013). "The Shadow Commander". The New Yorker. Retrieved 4 October 2013. From 2000 to 2006, Iran contributed a hundred million dollars a year to Hezbollah. Its fighters are attractive proxies: unlike the Iranians, they speak Arabic, making them better equipped to operate in Syria and elsewhere in the Arab world.
    79. ^ "Hezbollah's Syrian Quagmires" (PDF). The Washington Institute for Near East Policy. Archived from the original (PDF) on 6 October 2014. Retrieved 17 September 2014. By siding with the Assad regime, the regime's Alawite supporters, and Iran, and taking up arms against Sunni rebels, Hezbollah has placed itself at the epicenter of a sectarian conflict that has nothing to do with the group's purported raison d'être: 'resistance' to Israeli occupation.
    80. ^ Kershner, Isabel (10 March 2014). "Israel Watches Warily as Hezbollah Gains Battle Skills in Syria". The New York Times. Retrieved 30 May 2014. ... the Lebanese group's image at home and in the broader Arab world has been severely damaged because it is fighting Sunni rebels in Syria while its legitimacy rested on its role in fighting Israel.
    81. ^ El Deeb, Sarah (18 October 2021). "Hezbollah leader declares his group has 100,000 fighters". Associated Press. Retrieved 21 October 2021.
    82. ^ Cite error: The named reference auto4 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    83. ^ Cite error: The named reference Wedeman was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    84. ^ Maria Kiselyova. Greg Mahlich (ed.). "Russia says Hezbollah not a terrorist group: Ifax". Reuters. Retrieved 19 February 2021.
     
  30. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    17 February 1979 – The Sino-Vietnamese War begins.

    Sino-Vietnamese War

    The Sino-Vietnamese War (also known by other names) was a brief conflict that occurred in early 1979 between China and Vietnam. China launched an offensive in response to Vietnam's invasion and occupation of Cambodia in 1978, which ended the rule of the Chinese-backed Khmer Rouge. The conflict lasted for about a month, with China withdrawing its troops in March 1979.

    In February 1979, Chinese forces launched a surprise invasion of northern Vietnam and quickly captured several cities near the border. On 6 March of that year, China declared that the "gate to Hanoi" had been opened and that its punitive mission had been accomplished. Chinese troops then withdrew from Vietnam. However, Vietnam continued to occupy Cambodia until 1989, which means that China did not achieve its goal of dissuading Vietnam from involvement in Cambodia. However, China's operation at least successfully forced Vietnam to withdraw some units, namely the 2nd Corps, from the invasion forces of Cambodia to reinforce the defense of Hanoi.[18] The conflict had a lasting impact on the relationship between China and Vietnam, and diplomatic relations between the two countries were not fully restored until 1991. Following the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991, the Sino-Vietnamese border was finalized. Although unable to deter Vietnam from ousting Pol Pot from Cambodia, China demonstrated that the Soviet Union, its Cold War communist adversary, was unable to protect its Vietnamese ally.[19]

    1. ^ Nayan Chanda, "End of the Battle but Not of the War", p. 10. Khu vực có giá trị tượng trưng tinh thần nhất là khoảng 300m đường xe lửa giữa Hữu Nghị Quan và trạm kiểm soát biên giới Việt Nam.
    2. ^ Nguyen, Can Van. "Sino-Vietnamese Border Issues". NGO Realm. Archived from the original on 31 August 2014. Retrieved 6 October 2014.
    3. ^ Nguyen, Can Van. "INTERVIEW ON TERRITORY AND TERRITORIAL WATERS". vlink.com. Archived from the original on 12 January 2015. Retrieved 6 October 2014.
    4. ^ Gompert, David C.; Binnendijk, Hans; Lin, Bonny. Blinders, Blunders, and Wars: What America and China Can Learn (PDF) (Report). RAND Corporation. Archived (PDF) from the original on 16 November 2016. Retrieved 1 August 2020.
    5. ^ Tretiak 1979, p. 753.
    6. ^ a b c Zhang Xiaoming, "China's 1979 War with Vietnam: A Reassessment" Archived October 31, 2007, at the Wayback Machine, China Quarterly, Issue no. 184 (December 2005), pp. 851–874. Actually thought to have been 200,000 with 400–550 tanks. Zhang writes that: "Existing scholarship tends towards an estimate of as many as 25,000 PLA killed in action and another 37,000 wounded. Recently available Chinese sources categorize the PLA's losses as 6,594 dead and approximately 31,000 injured, giving a total of 24,000 casualties from an invasion force of 200,000."
    7. ^ a b Nga, Đỗ Thu. "Trung Quốc – đi hùng hổ, về ê chê ở CT biên giới 1979: Nhìn số lượng và thiệt hại về xe tăng là biết". songdep.com.vn (in Vietnamese). Sống Đẹp. Archived from the original on 22 February 2022. Retrieved 9 March 2022.
    8. ^ Copper 2009, p. 71.
    9. ^ King V. Chen (1987): China's War With Việt Nam, 1979. Hoover Institution Press, Stanford University, page 103
    10. ^ a b Cite error: The named reference mil.chinaiiss.org was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    11. ^ a b China at War: An Encyclopedia, p. 413, at Google Books
    12. ^ Howard, Russell D. (September 1999). "USAF Institute for National Security Studies, USAF Academy" (PDF). Regional Security Series. INSS Occasional Paper. 28. Archived (PDF) from the original on 3 October 2021. Retrieved 3 October 2021.
    13. ^ a b Tonnesson, Bởi Stein (2010). Vietnam 1946: How the War Began. University of California Press. p. 2. ISBN 9780520256026.
    14. ^ a b Chan, Gerald (1989). China and international organizations: participation in non-governmental organizations since 1971 (illustrated ed.). Oxford University Press. p. 80. ISBN 0195827384. Archived from the original on 12 October 2022. Retrieved 19 May 2018.
    15. ^ a b Military Law Review, Volumes 119–122. Vol. 119. Contributors United States. Dept. of the Army, Judge Advocate General's School (United States. Army). Headquarters, Department of the Army. 1988. p. 72. Archived from the original on 12 October 2022. Retrieved 19 May 2018.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: others (link)
    16. ^ a b c d e King C. Chen (1983). "China's war against Vietnam, 1979: a military analysis". Journal of East Asian Affairs. 3 (1). Archived from the original on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 1 August 2020.
    17. ^ Chen, King C. (1987). China's War with Vietnam, 1979: Issues, Decisions, and Implications. Hoover Press. p. 114. ISBN 9780817985738. Archived from the original on 16 October 2017. Retrieved 16 October 2017.
    18. ^ "Nghệ thuật chỉ đạo đấu tranh trong Cuộc chiến đấu bảo vệ biên giới phía Bắc". baotintuc.vn (in Vietnamese). 18 February 2019. Retrieved 8 August 2023.
    19. ^ Elleman, Bruce A. (2001). Modern Chinese Warfare, 1795–1989. Routledge. p. 297. ISBN 0415214742.
     
  31. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    18 February 1930 – While studying photographs taken in January, Clyde Tombaugh discovers Pluto.

    Pluto

    Pluto (minor-planet designation: 134340 Pluto) is a dwarf planet in the Kuiper belt, a ring of bodies beyond the orbit of Neptune. It is the ninth-largest and tenth-most-massive known object to directly orbit the Sun. It is the largest known trans-Neptunian object by volume, by a small margin, but is less massive than Eris. Like other Kuiper belt objects, Pluto is made primarily of ice and rock and is much smaller than the inner planets. Pluto has only one sixth the mass of Earth's moon, and one third its volume.

    Pluto has a moderately eccentric and inclined orbit, ranging from 30 to 49 astronomical units (4.5 to 7.3 billion kilometers; 2.8 to 4.6 billion miles) from the Sun. Light from the Sun takes 5.5 hours to reach Pluto at its orbital distance of 39.5 AU (5.91 billion km; 3.67 billion mi). Pluto's eccentric orbit periodically brings it closer to the Sun than Neptune, but a stable orbital resonance prevents them from colliding.

    Pluto has five known moons: Charon, the largest, whose diameter is just over half that of Pluto; Styx; Nix; Kerberos; and Hydra. Pluto and Charon are sometimes considered a binary system because the barycenter of their orbits does not lie within either body, and they are tidally locked. The New Horizons mission was the first spacecraft to visit Pluto and its moons, making a flyby on July 14, 2015, and taking detailed measurements and observations.

    Pluto was discovered in 1930 by Clyde W. Tombaugh, making it by far the first known object in the Kuiper belt. It was immediately hailed as the ninth planet, but it was always the odd object out,[14]: 27  and its planetary status was questioned when it was found to be much smaller than expected. These doubts increased following the discovery of additional objects in the Kuiper belt starting in the 1990s, and particularly the more massive scattered disk object Eris in 2005. In 2006, the International Astronomical Union (IAU) formally redefined the term planet to exclude dwarf planets such as Pluto. Many planetary astronomers, however, continue to consider Pluto and other dwarf planets to be planets.


    Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

    1. ^ "Plutonian". Oxford English Dictionary (Online ed.). Oxford University Press. (Subscription or participating institution membership required.)
    2. ^ Cite error: The named reference TOP2013 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    3. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k Cite error: The named reference Pluto Fact Sheet was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    4. ^ Cite error: The named reference jpl-ssd-horizons was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    5. ^ a b Nimmo, Francis; et al. (2017). "Mean radius and shape of Pluto and Charon from New Horizons images". Icarus. 287: 12–29. arXiv:1603.00821. Bibcode:2017Icar..287...12N. doi:10.1016/j.icarus.2016.06.027. S2CID 44935431.
    6. ^ a b Stern, S.A.; Grundy, W.; McKinnon, W.B.; Weaver, H.A.; Young, L.A. (2017). "The Pluto System After New Horizons". Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics. 2018: 357–392. arXiv:1712.05669. Bibcode:2018ARA&A..56..357S. doi:10.1146/annurev-astro-081817-051935. S2CID 119072504.
    7. ^ a b c d Stern, S.A.; et al. (2015). "The Pluto system: Initial results from its exploration by New Horizons". Science. 350 (6258): 249–352. arXiv:1510.07704. Bibcode:2015Sci...350.1815S. doi:10.1126/science.aad1815. PMID 26472913. S2CID 1220226.
    8. ^ Seligman, Courtney. "Rotation Period and Day Length". Archived from the original on September 29, 2018. Retrieved June 12, 2021.
    9. ^ a b Cite error: The named reference Archinal was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    10. ^ Cite error: The named reference AstDys-Pluto was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    11. ^ Cite error: The named reference jpldata was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    12. ^ Amos, Jonathan (July 23, 2015). "New Horizons: Pluto may have 'nitrogen glaciers'". BBC News. Archived from the original on October 27, 2017. Retrieved July 26, 2015. It could tell from the passage of sunlight and radiowaves through the Plutonian "air" that the pressure was only about 10 microbars at the surface
    13. ^ Cite error: The named reference Physorg April 19, 2011 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    14. ^ Cite error: The named reference T&M was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
     
  32. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    18 February 1930 – While studying photographs taken in January, Clyde Tombaugh discovers Pluto.

    Pluto

    Pluto (minor-planet designation: 134340 Pluto) is a dwarf planet in the Kuiper belt, a ring of bodies beyond the orbit of Neptune. It is the ninth-largest and tenth-most-massive known object to directly orbit the Sun. It is the largest known trans-Neptunian object by volume, by a small margin, but is less massive than Eris. Like other Kuiper belt objects, Pluto is made primarily of ice and rock and is much smaller than the inner planets. Pluto has only one sixth the mass of Earth's moon, and one third its volume.

    Pluto has a moderately eccentric and inclined orbit, ranging from 30 to 49 astronomical units (4.5 to 7.3 billion kilometers; 2.8 to 4.6 billion miles) from the Sun. Light from the Sun takes 5.5 hours to reach Pluto at its orbital distance of 39.5 AU (5.91 billion km; 3.67 billion mi). Pluto's eccentric orbit periodically brings it closer to the Sun than Neptune, but a stable orbital resonance prevents them from colliding.

    Pluto has five known moons: Charon, the largest, whose diameter is just over half that of Pluto; Styx; Nix; Kerberos; and Hydra. Pluto and Charon are sometimes considered a binary system because the barycenter of their orbits does not lie within either body, and they are tidally locked. The New Horizons mission was the first spacecraft to visit Pluto and its moons, making a flyby on July 14, 2015, and taking detailed measurements and observations.

    Pluto was discovered in 1930 by Clyde W. Tombaugh, making it by far the first known object in the Kuiper belt. It was immediately hailed as the ninth planet, but it was always the odd object out,[14]: 27  and its planetary status was questioned when it was found to be much smaller than expected. These doubts increased following the discovery of additional objects in the Kuiper belt starting in the 1990s, and particularly the more massive scattered disk object Eris in 2005. In 2006, the International Astronomical Union (IAU) formally redefined the term planet to exclude dwarf planets such as Pluto. Many planetary astronomers, however, continue to consider Pluto and other dwarf planets to be planets.


    Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

    1. ^ "Plutonian". Oxford English Dictionary (Online ed.). Oxford University Press. (Subscription or participating institution membership required.)
    2. ^ Cite error: The named reference TOP2013 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    3. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k Cite error: The named reference Pluto Fact Sheet was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    4. ^ Cite error: The named reference jpl-ssd-horizons was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    5. ^ a b Nimmo, Francis; et al. (2017). "Mean radius and shape of Pluto and Charon from New Horizons images". Icarus. 287: 12–29. arXiv:1603.00821. Bibcode:2017Icar..287...12N. doi:10.1016/j.icarus.2016.06.027. S2CID 44935431.
    6. ^ a b Stern, S.A.; Grundy, W.; McKinnon, W.B.; Weaver, H.A.; Young, L.A. (2017). "The Pluto System After New Horizons". Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics. 2018: 357–392. arXiv:1712.05669. Bibcode:2018ARA&A..56..357S. doi:10.1146/annurev-astro-081817-051935. S2CID 119072504.
    7. ^ a b c d Stern, S.A.; et al. (2015). "The Pluto system: Initial results from its exploration by New Horizons". Science. 350 (6258): 249–352. arXiv:1510.07704. Bibcode:2015Sci...350.1815S. doi:10.1126/science.aad1815. PMID 26472913. S2CID 1220226.
    8. ^ Seligman, Courtney. "Rotation Period and Day Length". Archived from the original on September 29, 2018. Retrieved June 12, 2021.
    9. ^ a b Cite error: The named reference Archinal was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    10. ^ Cite error: The named reference AstDys-Pluto was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    11. ^ Cite error: The named reference jpldata was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    12. ^ Amos, Jonathan (July 23, 2015). "New Horizons: Pluto may have 'nitrogen glaciers'". BBC News. Archived from the original on October 27, 2017. Retrieved July 26, 2015. It could tell from the passage of sunlight and radiowaves through the Plutonian "air" that the pressure was only about 10 microbars at the surface
    13. ^ Cite error: The named reference Physorg April 19, 2011 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    14. ^ Cite error: The named reference T&M was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
     
  33. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    19 February 2006 – A methane explosion in a coal mine near Nueva Rosita, Mexico, kills 65 miners.

    Pasta de Conchos mine disaster

    The Pasta de Conchos mine disaster occurred at approximately 2:30 a.m. CST on February 19, 2006, after a methane explosion within a coal mine near Nueva Rosita, San Juan de Sabinas Municipality, in the Mexican state of Coahuila. The mines were run by Grupo México, the largest mining company in the country. It was estimated that 65 miners, who were working the 10 p.m. to 6 a.m. shift that morning, were trapped underground by the explosion. Only 2 of the 65 bodies have been recovered.

     
  34. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    20 February 1872 – The Metropolitan Museum of Art opens in New York City.

    Metropolitan Museum of Art

    The Metropolitan Museum of Art, colloquially referred to as the Met,[a] is an art museum in New York City. It is the largest art museum in the Americas and fourth-largest in the world.

    In 2022, the museum welcomed 3,208,832 visitors, making it the third-most visited museum in the United States and the eighth-most visited art museum in the world.[5] In 2000, its permanent collection was said to have over two million works;[1] it currently lists a total of 1.5 million objects.[6] The collection is divided into 17 curatorial departments. The main building at 1000 Fifth Avenue, along the Museum Mile on the eastern edge of Central Park on Manhattan's Upper East Side, is by area one of the world's largest art museums. The first portion of the approximately 2-million-square-foot (190,000 m2) building was built in 1880. A much smaller second location, The Cloisters at Fort Tryon Park in Upper Manhattan, contains an extensive collection of art, architecture, and artifacts from medieval Europe.

    The Metropolitan Museum of Art was founded in 1870 with its mission to bring art and art education to the American people. The museum's permanent collection consists of works of art ranging from the ancient Near East and ancient Egypt, through classical antiquity to the contemporary world. It includes paintings, sculptures, and graphic works from many European Old Masters, as well as an extensive collection of American, modern, and contemporary art. The Met also maintains extensive holdings of African, Asian, Oceanian, Byzantine, and Islamic art. The museum is home to encyclopedic collections of musical instruments, costumes, and decorative arts and textiles, as well as antique weapons and armor from around the world. Several notable interiors, ranging from 1st-century Rome through modern American design, are installed in its galleries.

    1. ^ a b "Metropolitan Museum Launches New and Expanded Web Site" Archived November 28, 2016, at the Wayback Machine, press release, The Met, January 25, 2000.
    2. ^ "Today in Met History: April 13". The Metropolitan Museum of Art. Archived from the original on January 17, 2015. Retrieved January 16, 2015.
    3. ^ "The Metropolitan Museum of Art | About". www.artinfo.com. 2008. Archived from the original on September 26, 2011. Retrieved February 18, 2013.
    4. ^ Cite error: The named reference Met History was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    5. ^ a b The Art Newspaper, "Visitors Survey 2022", March 27, 2023
    6. ^ "General Information - The Metropolitan Museum of Art". www.metmuseum.org. Retrieved March 6, 2024.


    Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

     
  35. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    21 February 1885 – The newly completed Washington Monument is dedicated.

    Washington Monument

    The Washington Monument is an obelisk on the National Mall in Washington, D.C., built to commemorate George Washington, a Founding Father of the United States, victorious commander-in-chief of the Continental Army from 1775 to 1783 in the American Revolutionary War, and the first President of the United States from 1789 to 1797. Standing east of the Reflecting Pool and the Lincoln Memorial,[2] the monument is made of bluestone gneiss for the foundation and of granite for the construction.[3] The outside facing consists, due to the interrupted building process, of three different kinds of white marble:[4] in the lower third, marble from Baltimore County, Maryland, followed by a narrow zone of marble from Sheffield, Berkshire County, Massachusetts, and, in the upper part, the so-called Cockeysville Marble. Both "Maryland Marbles" came from the "lost” Irish Quarry Town of "New Texas".[5] It is both the world's tallest predominantly stone structure and the world's tallest obelisk,[A] standing 554 feet 7+1132 inches (169.046 m) tall, according to U.S. National Geodetic Survey measurements in 2013–2014.[B] It is the tallest monumental column in the world if all are measured above their pedestrian entrances.[A] It was the world's tallest structure between 1884 and 1889, after which it was overtaken by the Eiffel Tower, in Paris. Previously, the tallest structure was the Cologne Cathedral.

    Construction of the presidential memorial began in 1848. The construction was suspended from 1854 to 1877 due to funding challenges, a struggle for control over the Washington National Monument Society, and the American Civil War. The stone structure was completed in 1884, and the internal ironwork, the knoll, and installation of memorial stones was completed in 1888. A difference in shading of the marble, visible about 150 feet (46 m) or 27% up, shows where construction was halted and later resumed with marble from a different source. The original design was by Robert Mills from South Carolina, but construction omitted his proposed colonnade for lack of funds, and construction proceeded instead with a bare obelisk. The cornerstone was laid on July 4, 1848; the first stone was laid atop the unfinished stump on August 7, 1880; the capstone was set on December 6, 1884; the completed monument was dedicated on February 21, 1885;[16] and it was opened October 9, 1888.

    The Washington Monument is a hollow Egyptian-style stone obelisk with a 500-foot-tall (152.4 m) column surmounted by a 55-foot-tall (16.8 m) pyramidion. Its walls are 15 feet (4.6 m) thick at its base and 1+12 feet (0.46 m) thick at their top. The marble pyramidion's walls are 7 inches (18 cm) thick, supported by six arches: two between opposite walls, which cross at the center of the pyramidion, and four smaller arches in the corners. The top of the pyramidion is a large, marble capstone with a small aluminum pyramid at its apex, with inscriptions on all four sides. The bottom 150 feet (45.7 m) of the walls, built during the first phase from 1848 to 1854, are composed of a pile of bluestone gneiss rubble stones (not finished stones) held together by a large amount of mortar with a facade of semi-finished marble stones about 1+14 feet (0.4 m) thick. The upper 350 feet (106.7 m) of the walls, built in the second phase, 1880–1884, are of finished marble surface stones, half of which project into the walls, partly backed by finished granite stones.[17]

    The interior is occupied by iron stairs that spiral up the walls, with an elevator in the center, each supported by four iron columns, which do not support the stone structure. The stairs are in fifty sections, most on the north and south walls, with many long landings stretching between them along the east and west walls. These landings allowed many inscribed memorial stones of various materials and sizes to be easily viewed while the stairs were accessible (until 1976), plus one memorial stone between stairs that is difficult to view. The pyramidion has eight observation windows, two per side, and eight red aircraft warning lights, two per side. Two aluminum lightning rods, connected by the elevator support columns to groundwater, protect the monument. The monument's present foundation is 37 feet (11.3 m) thick, consisting of half of its original bluestone gneiss rubble encased in concrete. At the northeast corner of the foundation, 21 feet (6.4 m) below ground, is the marble cornerstone, including a zinc case filled with memorabilia.[17] Fifty American flags fly on a large circle of poles centered on the monument.[18] In 2001, a temporary screening facility was added to the entrance to prevent a terrorist attack.[19] An earthquake in 2011 slightly damaged the monument, and it was closed until 2014.[20] The monument was closed for elevator repairs, security upgrades, and mitigation of soil contamination in August 2016 before reopening again fully in September 2019.

    1. ^ a b c d National Geodetic Survey, "2013–2014 Survey of the Washington Monument" Archived March 3, 2016, at the Wayback Machine, 2015. Horizontal coordinates converted from NAD83(2011) to WGS84(G1674), the required coordinate system for Wikipedia coordinates, via NGS Horizontal Time-Dependent Positioning, epoch 2010.0 including ellipsoidal height.
    2. ^ "Foundation Statement for the National Mall and Pennsylvania Avenue National Historic Park" (PDF), National Park Service, retrieved May 20, 2010
    3. ^ a b Wunsch, Aaron V. (1994). Historic American Buildings Survey, Washington Monument, HABS DC-428 (text) (PDF). National Park Service.
    4. ^ Washington's Geologic Setting., Website U.S. Geological Survey, retrieved on February 13, 2024.
    5. ^ Ron Cassie: Recalling the “Lost” Irish Quarry Town of Texas in Baltimore County., "Baltimore magazine", November 2022, retrieved February 13, 2024.
    6. ^ a b "CTBUH Criteria for Defining and Measuring Tall Buildings". ctbuh.org.
    7. ^ National Geodetic Survey, "Why does the value obtained in 2014 ... disagree with the 1884 value ...?" Archived March 4, 2016, at the Wayback Machine, 2015, picture of precise spot used.
    8. ^ Cite error: The named reference HSR was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    9. ^ a b Arzola, Robert R.; Lockett, Dana L.; Schara, Mark; Vazquez, Jose Raul (1994). Historic American Buildings Survey, Washington Monument, HABS DC-428 (drawings). National Park Service.
    10. ^ "Frequently Asked Questions about the Washington Monument by the National Park Service". Nps.gov. Retrieved January 31, 2013.
    11. ^ Thos. Lincoln Casey, "report of operations upon the Washington Monument for the year [1884]" in Letter from William W. Corcoran, Chairman of the Joint Commission for the Completion of the Washington Monument, transmitting the annual report of the Commission, December 19, 1884, U.S. Congressional Serial Set, Vol. 2310, 48th Congress, 2nd Session, House of Representatives Misc. Doc. 8, p. 5. Available for free in most large United States libraries in government documents or online. Establish a connection to Readex collections before clicking on link.
    12. ^ Cite error: The named reference Binczewski was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    13. ^ "Aerial America: Washington D.C.". Aerial America. Smithsonian channel.
    14. ^ Kelly, John (June 19, 2013). "Local: The Washington Monument is tall, but is it the tallest?". Washington Post. Retrieved December 26, 2016.
    15. ^ Paul Gervais Bell Jr., "Monumental Myths" Archived March 4, 2016, at the Wayback Machine, Southwestern Historical Quarterly, vol. 103, 2000, frontispiece–14, pp. 13–14
    16. ^ Marking a people's love, an article from The New York Times published February 22, 1885.
    17. ^ a b Cite error: The named reference Torres was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    18. ^ Cite error: The named reference flags was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    19. ^ Cite error: The named reference screening was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    20. ^ Cite error: The named reference Earthquake was invoked but never defined (see the help page).


    Cite error: There are <ref group=upper-alpha> tags or {{efn-ua}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=upper-alpha}} template or {{notelist-ua}} template (see the help page).

     
  36. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    22 February 1986 – Start of the People Power Revolution in the Philippines.

    People Power Revolution

    The People Power Revolution, also known as the EDSA Revolution[a] or the February Revolution,[4][5][6][7] was a series of popular demonstrations in the Philippines, mostly in Metro Manila, from February 22 to 25, 1986. There was a sustained campaign of civil resistance against regime violence and electoral fraud. The nonviolent revolution led to the departure of Ferdinand Marcos, the end of his 20-year dictatorship and the restoration of democracy in the Philippines.

    It is also referred to as the Yellow Revolution[8] due to the presence of yellow ribbons during demonstrations (in reference to the Tony Orlando and Dawn song "Tie a Yellow Ribbon Round the Ole Oak Tree") as a symbol of protest following the assassination of Filipino senator Benigno "Ninoy" Aquino, Jr.[9] in August 1983 upon his return to the Philippines from exile. It was widely seen as a victory of the people against two decades of presidential rule by President Marcos, and made news headlines as "the revolution that surprised the world".[10]

    The majority of the demonstrations took place on a long stretch of Epifanio de los Santos Avenue, more commonly known by its acronym EDSA, in Metro Manila from February 22 to 25, 1986. They involved over two million Filipino civilians, as well as several political and military groups, and religious groups led by Cardinal Jaime Sin, the Archbishop of Manila, along with Catholic Bishops' Conference of the Philippines President Cardinal Ricardo Vidal, the Archbishop of Cebu.

    The protests, fueled by the resistance and opposition after years of governance by President Marcos and his cronies, ended with the ruler, his family, and some of their supporters fleeing to exile in Hawaii; and Ninoy Aquino's widow, Corazon Aquino, inaugurated as the eleventh President of the Philippines.[11]

    1. ^ a b Sison, Jose Maria (February 24, 2006). "It was a convergence of various forces". Philippine Daily Inquirer. Retrieved August 4, 2014.
    2. ^ Araullo, Carolina (March 2, 2000). "Left was at Edsa and long before". Philippine Daily Inquirer. Retrieved August 4, 2014.
    3. ^ Suarez, Miguel (February 26, 1986). "Marcos' last days filled with errors and humiliation". The Evening Independent. Associated Press. Retrieved August 4, 2014. She (Imelda) did not tell the crowd by that time all but a few thousand soldiers and officers, mostly those in the presidential guard, had by then turn against Marcos to join Mrs. Aquino's "people power" revolution
    4. ^ "G.R. No. 88211". www.lawphil.net. Archived from the original on August 3, 2022. Retrieved February 26, 2021.
    5. ^ Ileto, Reynold C. (June 1993). "The 'Unfinished Revolution' in Philippine Political Discourse". 東南アジア研究. 31 (1): 62–82. hdl:2433/56488. ISSN 0563-8682. Retrieved September 29, 2022.
    6. ^ "G.R. No. L-82380 April 29, 1988 - AYER PRODUCTIONS PTY. LTD., ET AL. v. IGNACIO M. CAPULONG, ET AL.: April 1988 - Philippine Supreme Court Decisions". www.chanrobles.com.
    7. ^ "Speech of President Corazon Aquino on the EDSA Flag Raising, February 25, 1987 | GOVPH". February 25, 1987. Archived from the original on December 2, 2022. Retrieved February 26, 2021.
    8. ^ FRIEND, THEODORE (1988). "The "Yellow Revolution": Its Mixed Historical Legacy". Philippine Studies. 36 (2): 166–182. JSTOR 42633078 – via JSTOR.
    9. ^ "The Original People Power Revolution". QUARTET p. 77. Archived from the original on February 15, 2008. Retrieved February 28, 2008.
    10. ^ Kumar, Ravindra (2004), Mahatma Gandhi at the Close of Twentieth Century, Anmol Publications PVT. LTD., p. 168, ISBN 978-81-261-1736-9, retrieved December 2, 2007.
    11. ^ "Edsa people Power 1 Philippines". Angela Stuart-Santiago. Archived from the original on December 13, 2007. Retrieved December 3, 2007.


    Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

     
  37. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    23 February 1903Cuba leases Guantánamo Bay to the United States "in perpetuity".

    Guantanamo Bay Naval Base

    Guantanamo Bay Naval Base (Spanish: Base Naval de la Bahía de Guantánamo), officially known as Naval Station Guantanamo Bay or NSGB, (also called GTMO, pronounced Gitmo /ˈɡɪtm/ GIT-moh as jargon by members of the U.S. military[1]) is a United States military base located on 45 square miles (117 km2) of land and water[2] on the shore of Guantánamo Bay at the southeastern end of Cuba. It has been leased to the United States with no end date since 1903 as a coaling station and naval base, making it the oldest overseas U.S. naval base.[3] The lease was $2,000 in gold per year until 1934, when the payment was set to match the value of gold in dollars;[4] in 1974, the yearly lease was set to $4,085.[5]

    Since taking power in 1959, the Cuban communist government has consistently protested against the U.S. presence on Cuban soil, arguing that the base "was imposed on Cuba by force" and is "illegal under international law." Since 2002, the naval base has contained a military prison, for alleged unlawful combatants captured in Afghanistan, Iraq, and other places during the War on Terror. Cases of alleged torture of prisoners[6] by the U.S. military, and their denial of protection under the Geneva Conventions, have been criticized.[7][8]

    The 1903 lease has no fixed expiration date;[9] as such, it can only be ended if the US Navy decided to abandon the area or both countries agreed mutually to end the lease.

    1. ^ "File:US Navy 040813-N-6939M-002 Commissions building courtroom at Guantanamo Bay, Cuba.jpg". 13 August 2004.
    2. ^ Rosenberg, Carol (25 October 2018). "Guantánamo By the Numbers". Miami Herald. Retrieved 15 April 2021. Size of Navy base: 45 square miles, straddling Guantánamo Bay, from prison camp to air strip.
    3. ^ "Why the U.S. base at Cuba's Guantanamo Bay is probably doomed". Washington Post. Retrieved 31 May 2018.
    4. ^ Sweeney, Joseph C. (2006). "Guantanamo and U.S. Law". Fordham International Law Journal. 30 (3): 22.
    5. ^ Elsea, Jennifer K.; Else, Daniel H. (17 November 2016). Naval Station Guantanamo Bay: History and Legal Issues Regarding Its Lease Agreements (PDF). Washington, D.C.: Congressional Research Service. Archived (PDF) from the original on 5 September 2015. Retrieved 9 December 2016.
    6. ^ "GTMO CTD Inspection Special Inquiry" (PDF). Federal Bureau of Investigation. Archived from the original (PDF) on 21 July 2011. Retrieved 26 January 2011.
    7. ^ "Article 10: Right to fair public hearing by independent tribunal". BBC World Service. Retrieved 3 September 2012.
    8. ^ "Agenda Item 17 base naval". cubaminrex.cu. Archived from the original on 4 June 2004.
    9. ^ Suellentrop, Chris (18 January 2002). "How Did the U.S. Get a Naval Base in Cuba?". Slate. Retrieved 5 June 2018.
     
  38. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    24 February 1854 – A Penny Red with perforations was the first perforated postage stamp to be officially issued for distribution.

    Penny Red

    A perforated Penny Red with letters in four corners and plate 148, therefore printed 1871 or later
    The plate number, 148 in this case, may be found in the margin of the stamp.

    The Penny Red was a British postage stamp, issued in 1841. It succeeded the Penny Black and continued as the main type of postage stamp in the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland until 1879, with only minor changes to the design during that time. The colour was changed from black to red because of difficulty in seeing a cancellation mark on the Penny Black; a black cancellation mark was readily visible on a Penny Red.[1]

    1. ^ "1840 2d and 1841 2d a plating aid". Steven Allen British and Colonial Stamps. Archived from the original on 29 June 2014. Retrieved 5 May 2013.
     
  39. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    25 February 1991 – The Warsaw Pact is abolished.

    Warsaw Pact

    The Warsaw Pact (WP),[d] formally the Treaty of Friendship, Cooperation and Mutual Assistance (TFCMA),[e] was a collective defense treaty signed in Warsaw, Poland, between the Soviet Union and seven other Eastern Bloc socialist republics of Central and Eastern Europe in May 1955, during the Cold War. The term "Warsaw Pact" commonly refers to both the treaty itself and its resultant defensive alliance, the Warsaw Treaty Organization[5] (WTO).[f] The Warsaw Pact was the military and economic complement to the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (Comecon), the regional economic organization for the Eastern Bloc states of Central and Eastern Europe.[6][7][8][9][10][11][12][13][14][15][16]

    Dominated by the Soviet Union, the Warsaw Pact was established as a balance of power or counterweight to the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) and the Western Bloc.[17][18] There was no direct military confrontation between the two organizations; instead, the conflict was fought on an ideological basis and through proxy wars. Both NATO and the Warsaw Pact led to the expansion of military forces and their integration into the respective blocs.[18] The Warsaw Pact's largest military engagement was the Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia, its own member state, in August 1968 (with the participation of all pact nations except Albania and Romania),[17] which, in part, resulted in Albania withdrawing from the pact less than one month later. The pact began to unravel with the spread of the Revolutions of 1989 through the Eastern Bloc, beginning with the Solidarity movement in Poland,[19] its electoral success in June 1989 and the Pan-European Picnic in August 1989.[20]

    East Germany withdrew from the pact following German reunification in 1990. On 25 February 1991, at a meeting in Hungary, the pact was declared at an end by the defense and foreign ministers of the six remaining member states. The USSR itself was dissolved in December 1991, although most of the former Soviet republics formed the Collective Security Treaty Organization shortly thereafter. In the following 20 years, the Warsaw Pact countries outside the USSR each joined NATO (East Germany through its reunification with West Germany; and the Czech Republic and Slovakia as separate countries), as did the Baltic states.


    Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

    1. ^ Tismaneanu, Vladimir; Stan, Marius (2018). Romania Confronts Its Communist Past: Democracy, Memory, and Moral Justice. Cambridge University Press. p. 132. ISBN 978-1107025929.
    2. ^ Cook, Bernard A.; Cook, Bernard Anthony (2001). Europe Since 1945: An Encyclopedia, Volume 2. Taylor & Francis. p. 1075. ISBN 978-0815340584.
    3. ^ "Протокольная запись заседания Президиума ЦК КПCC (к пункту I протокола № 49)".
    4. ^ "Slovenské pohl'ady". Matica slovenská. 1997 – via Google Books.
    5. ^ "Milestones: 1953–1960 – Office of the Historian". history.state.gov.
    6. ^ Cite error: The named reference NATO Transformed: The Alliance's New Roles in International Security was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    7. ^ Cite error: The named reference History Channel 1 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    8. ^ Cite error: The named reference History Channel 2 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    9. ^ "In reaction to West Germany's NATO accession, the Soviet Union and its Eastern European client states formed the Warsaw Pact in 1955." Citation from: NATO website. "A short history of NATO". nato.int. Archived from the original on 26 March 2017. Retrieved 24 December 2015.
    10. ^ Cite error: The named reference The Future of European Alliance Systems was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    11. ^ Cite error: The named reference christopher was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    12. ^ Cite error: The named reference enclopedia was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    13. ^ Laurien Crump (2015). The Warsaw Pact Reconsidered: International Relations in Eastern Europe, 1955–1969. Routledge, pp. 21–22.
    14. ^ Debra J. Allen. The Oder-Neisse Line: The United States, Poland, and Germany in the Cold War. p. 158. "Treaties approving Bonn's participation in NATO were ratified in May 1955...shortly thereafter Soviet Union...created the Warsaw Pact to counter the perceived threat of NATO"
    15. ^ "Introduction". www.php.isn.ethz.ch.
    16. ^ "Text of Warsaw Pact" (PDF). United Nations Treaty Collection. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2 October 2013. Retrieved 22 August 2013.
    17. ^ a b Amos Yoder (1993). Communism in Transition: The End of the Soviet Empires. Taylor & Francis. p. 58. ISBN 978-0-8448-1738-5. Retrieved 1 January 2016.
    18. ^ a b Bob Reinalda (2009). Routledge History of International Organizations: From 1815 to the Present Day. Routledge. p. 369. ISBN 978-1-134-02405-6. Archived from the original on 1 January 2016. Retrieved 1 January 2016.
    19. ^ [1] Archived 23 December 2015 at the Wayback Machine Cover Story: The Holy Alliance By Carl Bernstein Sunday, 24 June 2001
    20. ^ Roser, Thomas (16 August 2018). "DDR-Massenflucht: Ein Picknick hebt die Welt aus den Angeln" [Mass Exodus of the GDR: A Picnic Clears the World]. Die Presse (in German).
     
  40. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    26 February 2013 – A hot air balloon crashes near Luxor, Egypt, killing 19 people.

    2013 Luxor hot air balloon crash

    On 26 February 2013, a hot air balloon crashed near Luxor, Egypt, killing 19 out of the 21 people on board. A fire developed in the basket due to a leak in the balloon's gas fuel system, causing the balloon to deflate mid-air and crash to the ground.[1]

    It was the deadliest ballooning accident in history and the deadliest aerostat disaster since the Hindenburg disaster in 1937, which killed 36 people.[2][3]

    1. ^ Cite error: The named reference Guardian was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    2. ^ Cline, Seth. "7 of the Worst Hot Air Balloons Accidents in Recent Memory". US News. Retrieved 2 August 2016.
    3. ^ Bell, Matthew (3 March 2013). "'The tip of the iceberg': Egyptian hot air balloon crash was 'inevitable,' says British pilot". The Independent. Archived from the original on 1 May 2022. Retrieved 2 August 2016.
     

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