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This day in .....

Discussion in 'Break Room' started by NewsBot, Apr 6, 2008.

  1. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    6 April 1947 – The first Tony Awards are presented for theatrical achievement.

    Tony Award

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  2. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    7 April 1906Mount Vesuvius erupts and devastates Naples.

    Mount Vesuvius

    Mount Vesuvius (/vɪˈsviəs/ viss-OO-vee-əs)[a] is a somma-stratovolcano located on the Gulf of Naples in Campania, Italy, about 9 km (5.6 mi) east of Naples and a short distance from the shore. It is one of several volcanoes forming the Campanian volcanic arc. Vesuvius consists of a large cone partially encircled by the steep rim of a summit caldera, resulting from the collapse of an earlier, much higher structure.

    The eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 AD destroyed the Roman cities of Pompeii, Herculaneum, Oplontis, Stabiae, and several other settlements. The eruption ejected a cloud of stones, ashes and volcanic gases to a height of 33 km (21 mi), erupting molten rock and pulverized pumice at the rate of 6×105 cubic metres (7.8×105 cu yd) per second.[5] More than 1,000 people are thought to have died in the eruption, though the exact toll is unknown. The only surviving eyewitness account of the event consists of two letters by Pliny the Younger to the historian Tacitus.[6]

    Vesuvius has erupted many times since. It is the only volcano on Europe's mainland to have erupted in the last hundred years. It is regarded as one of the most dangerous volcanoes in the world because 3,000,000 people live near enough to be affected by an eruption, with at least 600,000 in the danger zone. This is the most densely populated volcanic region in the world. Eruptions tend to be violent and explosive; these are known as Plinian eruptions.[7]

    1. ^ "Vesuvio nell'Enciclopedia Treccani". www.treccani.it (in Italian). Retrieved 7 February 2021.
    2. ^ Grasso, Alfonso, ed. (2007). "Il Vesuvio" [Vesuvius]. ilportaledelsud.org (in Italian). Retrieved 8 February 2021.
    3. ^ Castiglioni, Luigi; Mariotti, Scevola (2007). Vocabolario della lingua latina : IL : latino-italiano, italiano-latino / Luigi Castiglioni, Scevola Mariotti ; redatto con la collaborazione di Arturo Brambilla e Gaspare Campagna (in Italian) (4th ed.). Loescher. p. 1505. ISBN 978-8820166601.
    4. ^ "Vesuvio o Vesevius nell'Enciclopedia Treccani". www.treccani.it (in Italian). Retrieved 8 February 2021.
    5. ^ Woods, Andrew W. (2013). "Sustained explosive activity: volcanic eruption columns and hawaiian fountains". In Fagents, Sarah A.; Gregg, Tracy K. P.; Lopes, Rosaly M. C. (eds.). Modeling Volcanic Processes: The Physics and Mathematics of Volcanism. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 158. ISBN 978-0521895439.
    6. ^ Cite error: The named reference epistularum was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    7. ^ McGuire, Bill (16 October 2003). "In the shadow of the volcano". The Guardian. Retrieved 8 May 2010.


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  3. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    8 April 1964 – The Gemini 1 test flight is conducted.

    Gemini 1

    Gemini 1 was the first mission in NASA's Gemini program.[2] An uncrewed test flight of the Gemini spacecraft, its main objectives were to test the structural integrity of the new spacecraft and modified Titan II launch vehicle. It was also the first test of the new tracking and communication systems for the Gemini program and provided training for the ground support crews for the first crewed missions.[3]

    Originally scheduled for launch in December 1963, difficulties in the development of both the spacecraft and its booster caused four months of delay. Gemini 1 was launched from Launch Complex 19 at Cape Kennedy (now Canaveral), Florida on April 8, 1964. The spacecraft stayed attached to the second stage of the rocket. The mission lasted for three orbits while test data were taken, but the spacecraft stayed in space for almost 64 orbits until its orbit decayed due to atmospheric drag. The spacecraft was not intended to be recovered, and holes were drilled through its heat shield to ensure it would not survive re-entry.

    1. ^ McDowell, Jonathan. "SATCAT". Jonathan's Space Pages. Retrieved March 23, 2014.
    2. ^ "Gemini 1". NASA Space Science Data Coordinated Archive. Retrieved June 28, 2018.
    3. ^ "Gemini 1". Gunter's Space Page. December 11, 2017. Retrieved October 15, 2012.
     
  4. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    9 April 2003Iraq War: Baghdad falls to American forces.

    Battle of Baghdad (2003)

    The Battle of Baghdad, also known as the Fall of Baghdad, was a military engagement that took place in Baghdad in early April 2003, as part of the invasion of Iraq.

    Three weeks into the invasion of Iraq, Coalition Forces Land Component Command elements, led by the U.S. Army 3rd Infantry Division, captured Baghdad. Over 2,000 Iraqi soldiers as well as 34 coalition troops were killed in the battle. After the fall of Baghdad, Coalition forces entered the city of Kirkuk on April 10 and Tikrit on April 15, 2003. The United States officially declared victory against the Iraqi regime of Saddam Hussein on April 15, and President George W. Bush gave his Mission Accomplished Speech on May 1.

    Baghdad suffered serious damage to its civilian infrastructure, economy, and cultural inheritance from the battle and following unrest, including looting and arson. During the invasion, the Al-Yarmouk Hospital in south Baghdad saw a steady rate of about 100 new patients an hour.[7]


    Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

    1. ^ Woods, Kevin M. (2009). Iraqi Perspectives Project: A View of Operation Iraqi Freedom from Saddam's Senior Leadership (PDF). p. 145; 210. ISBN 978-0-9762550-1-7. Archived from the original (PDF) on June 9, 2010.
    2. ^ Iraq Coalition Casualties: Military Fatalities Archived March 26, 2010, at the Wayback Machine
    3. ^ "On April 4, 5th RCT ran into several hundred fedayeen from Syria, Jordan, Egypt, and other parts of the Middle East and Africa. The result was wholesale slaughter, but the cost was considerable: two Abrams tanks were destroyed by the attackers, while numerous vehicles sustained damage from RPG fire. The marines killed a senior general from the Republican Guard ... In addition, marine tankers destroyed twelve to fifteen T-72s and T-55s as well as numerous 37mm anti-aircraft guns, which the Iraqis attempted to use against advancing marines." The Iraq War, Wiiliamson Murray, Robert Scales, p.225, Harvard University Press, 2005
    4. ^ Myers, Steven Lee (April 7, 2003). "Iraqi Missile Hits Army Base". The New York Times. Archived from the original on June 27, 2018. Retrieved April 30, 2018.
    5. ^ "Wages of War – Appendix 1. Survey and assessment of reported Iraqi combatant fatalities in the 2003 War". comw.org. Archived from the original on September 2, 2009. Retrieved December 16, 2011.
    6. ^ Iraqi Death Toll, Health Perils Assessed by Medical Group Archived June 18, 2013, at the Wayback Machine
    7. ^ Cite error: The named reference usa was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
     
  5. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    10 April 1970Paul McCartney announces that he is leaving The Beatles for personal and professional reasons.

    Paul McCartney

    Sir James Paul McCartney CH MBE (born 18 June 1942) is an English singer, songwriter and musician who gained worldwide fame with the Beatles, for whom he played bass guitar and shared primary songwriting and lead vocal duties with John Lennon. One of the most successful composers and performers of all time, McCartney is known for his melodic approach to bass-playing, versatile and wide tenor vocal range, and musical eclecticism, exploring genres ranging from pre–rock and roll pop to classical, ballads, and electronica. His songwriting partnership with Lennon is the most successful in modern music history.[3]

    Born in Liverpool, McCartney taught himself piano, guitar, and songwriting as a teenager, having been influenced by his father, a jazz player, and rock and roll performers such as Little Richard and Buddy Holly. He began his career when he joined Lennon's skiffle group, the Quarrymen, in 1957, which eventually evolved into the Beatles in 1960. Sometimes called "the cute Beatle", McCartney later immersed himself in the London avant-garde scene and played a key role in incorporating experimental aesthetics into the Beatles' studio productions. Starting with the 1967 album Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band, he gradually became the band's de facto leader, providing creative impetus for most of their music and film projects. Many of his Beatles songs, including "And I Love Her", "Yesterday", "Eleanor Rigby", and "Blackbird", rank among the most covered songs in history.[4][5] Although primarily a bassist with the Beatles, he played a number of other instruments, including keyboards, guitars, and drums, on various songs.

    After the Beatles disbanded, he debuted as a solo artist with the 1970 album McCartney and went on to form the band Wings with his first wife, Linda, and Denny Laine. Under McCartney's leadership, Wings became one of the most successful bands of the 1970s. He wrote or co-wrote their US or UK number-one hits, such as "My Love", "Band on the Run", "Listen to What the Man Said", "Silly Love Songs", and "Mull of Kintyre". He resumed his solo career in 1980 and has been touring as a solo artist since 1989. Apart from Wings, his UK or US number-one hits include "Uncle Albert/Admiral Halsey" (with Linda), "Coming Up", "Pipes of Peace", "Ebony and Ivory" (with Stevie Wonder), and "Say Say Say" (with Michael Jackson). Beyond music, he has been involved in projects to promote international charities related to animal rights, seal hunting, land mines, vegetarianism, poverty, and music education.

    McCartney has written or co-written a record 32 songs that have topped the Billboard Hot 100 and, as of 2009, he had sales of 25.5 million RIAA-certified units in the US. His honours include two inductions into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame (as a member of the Beatles in 1988 and as a solo artist in 1999), an Academy Award, a Primetime Emmy Award, 18 Grammy Awards, an appointment as a Member of the Order of the British Empire in 1965, and a knighthood in 1997 for services to music. As of 2020, he is one of the wealthiest musicians in the world, with an estimated fortune of £800 million.[6]

    1. ^ a b Doyle, Patrick (13 November 2020). "Musicians on Musicians: Taylor Swift & Paul McCartney". Rolling Stone. Archived from the original on 30 November 2020. Retrieved 13 November 2020.
    2. ^ "Paul McCartney". Front Row. 26 December 2012. BBC Radio 4. Archived from the original on 20 February 2014. Retrieved 18 January 2014.
    3. ^ Newman, Jason (23 August 2011). "It Takes Two: 10 Songwriting Duos That Rocked Music History". billboard.com. Archived from the original on 23 June 2018. Retrieved 5 October 2017. By any measure, no one comes close to matching the success of The Beatles' primary songwriters.
    4. ^ Elmes, John (5 December 2008). "The 10 Most Covered Songs". The Independent. Archived from the original on 25 May 2022. Retrieved 8 January 2020.
    5. ^ Conradt, Stacy (30 November 2017). "10 of the Most Covered Songs in Music History". Mental Floss. Archived from the original on 31 December 2020. Retrieved 17 December 2020.
    6. ^ Savage, Mark (13 May 2020). "Rihanna rockets onto Sunday Times Rich List". BBC News. Archived from the original on 13 May 2020. Retrieved 13 May 2020.
     
  6. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    11 April 1970Apollo 13 is launched.

    Apollo 13

    Apollo 13 (April 11–17, 1970) was the seventh crewed mission in the Apollo space program and the third meant to land on the Moon. The craft was launched from Kennedy Space Center on April 11, 1970, but the lunar landing was aborted after an oxygen tank in the service module (SM) ruptured two days into the mission, disabling its electrical and life-support system. The crew, supported by backup systems on the lunar module (LM), instead looped around the Moon in a circumlunar trajectory and returned safely to Earth on April 17. The mission was commanded by Jim Lovell, with Jack Swigert as command module (CM) pilot and Fred Haise as lunar module (LM) pilot. Swigert was a late replacement for Ken Mattingly, who was grounded after exposure to rubella.

    A routine stir of an oxygen tank ignited damaged wire insulation inside it, causing an explosion that vented the contents of both of the SM's oxygen tanks to space.[note 1] Without oxygen, needed for breathing and for generating electric power, the SM's propulsion and life support systems could not operate. The CM's systems had to be shut down to conserve its remaining resources for reentry, forcing the crew to transfer to the LM as a lifeboat. With the lunar landing canceled, mission controllers worked to bring the crew home alive.

    Although the LM was designed to support two men on the lunar surface for two days, Mission Control in Houston improvised new procedures so it could support three men for four days. The crew experienced great hardship, caused by limited power, a chilly and wet cabin and a shortage of potable water. There was a critical need to adapt the CM's cartridges for the carbon dioxide scrubber system to work in the LM; the crew and mission controllers were successful in improvising a solution. The astronauts' peril briefly renewed public interest in the Apollo program; tens of millions watched the splashdown in the South Pacific Ocean on television.

    An investigative review board found fault with preflight testing of the oxygen tank and Teflon being placed inside it. The board recommended changes, including minimizing the use of potentially combustible items inside the tank; this was done for Apollo 14. The story of Apollo 13 has been dramatized several times, most notably in the 1995 film Apollo 13 based on Lost Moon, the 1994 memoir co-authored by Lovell – and an episode of the 1998 miniseries From the Earth to the Moon.

    1. ^ "Apollo 13 CM". N2YO.com. Retrieved August 18, 2019.
    2. ^ Orloff 2000, p. 309.
    3. ^ "Apollo 13 Command and Service Module (CSM)". NASA Space Science Data Coordinated Archive. Retrieved January 9, 2023.
    4. ^ "Apollo 13 Lunar Module / EASEP". NASA Space Science Data Coordinated Archive. Retrieved January 9, 2023.
    5. ^ Orloff 2000, p. 307.
    6. ^ "Apollo 13". NASA Space Science Data Coordinated Archive. Retrieved January 9, 2023.
    7. ^ Williams, David. "The Apollo 13 accident". NASA. The Apollo 13 malfunction was caused by an explosion and rupture of oxygen tank no. 2 in the service module.
    8. ^ Cortright 1975, p. 248-249: "I did, of course, occasionally think of the possibility that the spacecraft explosion might maroon us... Thirteen minutes after the explosion, I happened to look out of the left-hand window, and saw the final evidence pointing toward potential catastrophe. "
    9. ^ Accident report, p. 143.
    10. ^ Cooper 2013, p. 21: "Later, in describing what happened, NASA engineers avoided using the word "explosion;" they preferred the more delicate and less dramatic term "tank failure," and in a sense it was the more accurate expression, inasmuch as the tank did not explode in the way a bomb does but broke open under pressure."


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  7. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    12 April 1831 – Soldiers marching on the Broughton Suspension Bridge in Manchester, England cause it to collapse.

    Broughton Suspension Bridge

    Broughton Suspension Bridge was an iron chain suspension bridge built in 1826 to span the River Irwell between Broughton and Pendleton, now in Salford, Greater Manchester, England. One of Europe's first suspension bridges, it has been attributed to Samuel Brown, although some suggest it was built by Thomas Cheek Hewes, a Manchester millwright and textile machinery manufacturer.[1][2]

    On 12 April 1831, the bridge collapsed, reportedly due to mechanical resonance induced by troops marching in step.[3] As a result of the incident, the British Army issued an order that troops should "break step" when crossing a bridge. Although rebuilt and strengthened, the bridge was subsequently propped with temporary piles whenever crowds were expected. In 1924 it was replaced by a Pratt truss footbridge, still in use.

    1. ^ "Broughton Suspension Bridge". Dictionary of Scottish Architects. Retrieved 9 October 2008.
    2. ^ Skempton, A. W.; Chrimes (2002). A biographical dictionary of civil engineers in Great Britain and Ireland. M (Illustrated ed.). Thomas Telford. ISBN 978-0-7277-2939-2.
    3. ^ Bishop, R.E.D. (1979). Vibration (Second ed.). Cambridge University Press, London.
     
  8. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    13 April 1870 – The New York City Metropolitan Museum of Art is founded.

    Metropolitan Museum of Art

    The Metropolitan Museum of Art, colloquially referred to as the Met,[a] is an art museum in New York City. It is the largest art museum in the Americas and fourth-largest in the world.

    In 2022, the museum welcomed 3,208,832 visitors, making it the third-most visited museum in the United States and the eighth-most visited art museum in the world.[5] In 2000, its permanent collection was said to have over two million works;[1] it currently lists a total of 1.5 million objects.[6] The collection is divided into 17 curatorial departments. The main building at 1000 Fifth Avenue, along the Museum Mile on the eastern edge of Central Park on Manhattan's Upper East Side, is by area one of the world's largest art museums. The first portion of the approximately 2-million-square-foot (190,000 m2) building was built in 1880. A much smaller second location, The Cloisters at Fort Tryon Park in Upper Manhattan, contains an extensive collection of art, architecture, and artifacts from medieval Europe.

    The Metropolitan Museum of Art was founded in 1870 with its mission to bring art and art education to the American people. The museum's permanent collection consists of works of art ranging from the ancient Near East and ancient Egypt, through classical antiquity to the contemporary world. It includes paintings, sculptures, and graphic works from many European Old Masters, as well as an extensive collection of American, modern, and contemporary art. The Met also maintains extensive holdings of African, Asian, Oceanian, Byzantine, and Islamic art. The museum is home to encyclopedic collections of musical instruments, costumes, and decorative arts and textiles, as well as antique weapons and armor from around the world. Several notable interiors, ranging from 1st-century Rome through modern American design, are installed in its galleries.

    1. ^ a b "Metropolitan Museum Launches New and Expanded Web Site" Archived November 28, 2016, at the Wayback Machine, press release, The Met, January 25, 2000.
    2. ^ "Today in Met History: April 13". The Metropolitan Museum of Art. Archived from the original on January 17, 2015. Retrieved January 16, 2015.
    3. ^ "The Metropolitan Museum of Art | About". www.artinfo.com. 2008. Archived from the original on September 26, 2011. Retrieved February 18, 2013.
    4. ^ Cite error: The named reference Met History was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    5. ^ a b The Art Newspaper, "Visitors Survey 2022", March 27, 2023
    6. ^ "General Information - The Metropolitan Museum of Art". www.metmuseum.org. Retrieved March 6, 2024.


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  9. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    14 April 1881 – The Four Dead in Five Seconds Gunfight is fought in El Paso, Texas.

    Four Dead in Five Seconds Gunfight

    The Four Dead in Five Seconds Gunfight was a famous gun fight that occurred on April 14, 1881, on El Paso Street, in El Paso, Texas. Witnesses generally agreed that the incident lasted no more than five seconds after the first gunshot, though a few would insist it was at least ten seconds. Marshal Dallas Stoudenmire accounted for three of the four fatalities with his twin .44 caliber Smith & Wesson revolvers.

     
  10. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    15 April 1945Bergen-Belsen concentration camp is liberated.

    Bergen-Belsen concentration camp

    Bergen-Belsen (pronounced [ˈbɛʁɡn̩ˌbɛlsn̩]), or Belsen, was a Nazi concentration camp in what is today Lower Saxony in northern Germany, southwest of the town of Bergen near Celle. Originally established as a prisoner of war camp,[1] in 1943, parts of it became a concentration camp. Initially this was an "exchange camp", where Jewish hostages were held with the intention of exchanging them for German prisoners of war held overseas.[2] The camp was later expanded to hold Jews from other concentration camps.

    After 1945, the name was applied to the displaced persons camp established nearby, but it is most commonly associated with the concentration camp. From 1941 to 1945, almost 20,000 Soviet prisoners of war and a further 50,000 inmates died there.[3] Overcrowding, lack of food and poor sanitary conditions caused outbreaks of typhus, tuberculosis, typhoid fever and dysentery, leading to the deaths of more than 35,000 people in the first few months of 1945, shortly before and after the liberation.

    The camp was liberated on April 15, 1945, by the British 11th Armoured Division.[4] The soldiers discovered approximately 60,000 prisoners inside, most of them half-starved and seriously ill,[5] and another 13,000 corpses lying around the camp unburied.[4] A memorial with an exhibition hall currently stands at the site.

    1. ^ "Belsen Military Camp". Archived from the original on March 29, 2013. Retrieved April 3, 2012.
    2. ^ Shephard, Ben (2006). After daybreak: the liberation of Belsen, 1945. London: Pimlico. ISBN 978-1844135400.
    3. ^ Oppenheimer, Paul (1996). From Belsen to Buckingham Palace. Nottingham: Quill Press. ISBN 978-0-9536280-3-2.
    4. ^ a b "The 11th Armoured Division (Great Britain)". United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. Washington. Retrieved April 7, 2023.
    5. ^ "Bergen-Belsen". www.ushmm.org.
     
  11. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    16 April 1941World War II: The Italian-German Tarigo convoy is attacked and destroyed by British ships.

    Battle of the Tarigo Convoy

    The Battle of the Tarigo Convoy (sometimes called the Action off Sfax) was a naval battle of the Second World War, part of the Battle of the Mediterranean. It was fought on 16 April 1941, between four Royal Navy destroyers and three Italian destroyers of the Regia Marina which were escorting a convoy near the Kerkennah Islands off Sfax, on the Tunisian coast.

    Control of the sea between Italy and Libya was important to both sides to protect their convoys and attack those of their opponent. Axis convoys to North Africa supplied Italian colonists and German and Italian military forces. British attacks came from Malta, also dependent upon convoys for supplies.

    The five ships in convoy were sunk or run aground, along with their three destroyer escorts, one being refloated later in the year, for the loss of a British destroyer. The British success alleviated the pressure from Winston Churchill and the Admiralty in London on Admiral Andrew Cunningham to do more about Italian supply convoys.

     
  12. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    17 April 1961Bay of Pigs Invasion: A group of Cuban exiles financed and trained by the CIA lands at the Bay of Pigs in Cuba with the aim of ousting Fidel Castro.

    Bay of Pigs Invasion

    The Bay of Pigs Invasion (Spanish: Invasión de Bahía de Cochinos, sometimes called Invasión de Playa Girón or Batalla de Playa Girón after the Playa Girón) was a failed military landing operation on the southwestern coast of Cuba in 1961 by Cuban Democratic Revolutionary Front (DRF), consisting of Cuban exiles who opposed Fidel Castro's Cuban Revolution, covertly financed and directed by the U.S. government. The operation took place at the height of the Cold War, and its failure influenced relations between Cuba, the United States, and the Soviet Union.

    In 1952, the American-allied dictator General Fulgencio Batista led a coup against President Carlos Prío and forced Prío into exile in Miami, Florida. Prío's exile inspired Castro's 26th of July Movement against Batista. The movement succeeded in overthrowing Batista during the Cuban Revolution in January 1959. Castro nationalized American businesses, including banks, oil refineries, and sugar and coffee plantations. The Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) began planning the overthrow of Castro, which U.S. President Dwight D. Eisenhower approved in March 1960, and the U.S. began its embargo of the island. This led Castro to reach out to its Cold War rival, the Soviet Union, after which the US severed diplomatic relations. Cuban exiles who had moved to the U.S. following Castro's takeover had formed the counter-revolutionary military unit, Brigade 2506, which was the armed wing of the DRF. The CIA funded the brigade, which also included approximately 60 members of the Alabama Air National Guard,[6] and trained the unit in Guatemala.

    Over 1,400 paramilitaries, divided into five infantry battalions and one paratrooper battalion, assembled and launched from Guatemala and Nicaragua by boat on 17 April 1961. Two days earlier, eight CIA-supplied B-26 bombers had attacked Cuban airfields and then returned to the U.S. On the night of 17 April, the main invasion force landed on the beach at Playa Girón in the Bay of Pigs, where it overwhelmed a local revolutionary militia. Initially, José Ramón Fernández led the Cuban Revolutionary Army counter-offensive; later, Castro took personal control. As the invasion force lost the strategic initiative, the international community found out about the invasion, and U.S. President John F. Kennedy decided to withhold further air support.[7] The plan, devised during Eisenhower's presidency, had required the involvement of U.S. air and naval forces. Without further air support, the invasion was being conducted with fewer forces than the CIA had deemed necessary. The American force, Brigade 2506 invading force were defeated within three days by the Cuban Revolutionary Armed Forces (Spanish: Fuerzas Armadas Revolucionarias – FAR) and surrendered on 20 April. Most of the surrendered counter-revolutionary troops were publicly interrogated and put into Cuban prisons.

    The invasion was a U.S. foreign policy failure. The Cuban government's victory solidified Castro's role as a national hero and widened the political division between the two formerly allied countries, as well as embolden other Latin American groups to undermine US influence in the region. It also pushed Cuba closer to the Soviet Union, setting the stage for the Cuban Missile Crisis in 1962.

    1. ^ a b Cite error: The named reference fernandez was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    2. ^ a b c Cite error: The named reference szulc1986 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    3. ^ a b FRUS X, documents 19, 24, 35, 245, 271.
    4. ^ Cite error: The named reference triay was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    5. ^ a b Quesada 2009, p. 46.
    6. ^ "Bay of Pigs Invasion and the Alabama Air National Guard". Encyclopedia of Alabama. Retrieved 20 November 2017.
    7. ^ Voss, Michael (14 April 2011). "The 'perfect failure' of Cuba invasion". BBC News. Archived from the original on 13 February 2016. Retrieved 17 May 2016.


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  13. Admin2

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    18 April 1909Joan of Arc is beatified in Rome.

    Joan of Arc

    Joan of Arc (French: Jeanne d'Arc [ʒan daʁk]; Middle French: Jehanne Darc [ʒəˈãnə ˈdark]; c. 1412 – 30 May 1431) is a patron saint of France, honored as a defender of the French nation for her role in the siege of Orléans and her insistence on the coronation of Charles VII of France during the Hundred Years' War. Claiming to be acting under divine guidance, she became a military leader who transcended gender roles and gained recognition as a savior of France.

    Joan was born to a propertied peasant family at Domrémy in northeast France. In 1428, she requested to be taken to Charles, later testifying that she was guided by visions from the archangel Michael, Saint Margaret, and Saint Catherine to help him save France from English domination. Convinced of her devotion and purity, Charles sent Joan, who was about seventeen years old, to the siege of Orléans as part of a relief army. She arrived at the city in April 1429, wielding her banner and bringing hope to the demoralized French army. Nine days after her arrival, the English abandoned the siege. Joan encouraged the French to aggressively pursue the English during the Loire Campaign, which culminated in another decisive victory at Patay, opening the way for the French army to advance on Reims unopposed, where Charles was crowned as the King of France with Joan at his side. These victories boosted French morale, paving the way for their final triumph in the Hundred Years' War several decades later.

    After Charles's coronation, Joan participated in the unsuccessful siege of Paris in September 1429 and the failed siege of La Charité in November. Her role in these defeats reduced the court's faith in her. In early 1430, Joan organized a company of volunteers to relieve Compiègne, which had been besieged by the Burgundians—French allies of the English. She was captured by Burgundian troops on 23 May. After trying unsuccessfully to escape, she was handed to the English in November. She was put on trial by Bishop Pierre Cauchon on accusations of heresy, which included blaspheming by wearing men's clothes, acting upon visions that were demonic, and refusing to submit her words and deeds to the judgment of the church. She was declared guilty and burned at the stake on 30 May 1431, aged about nineteen.

    In 1456, an inquisitorial court reinvestigated Joan's trial and overturned the verdict, declaring that it was tainted by deceit and procedural errors. Joan has been revered as a martyr, and viewed as an obedient daughter of the Roman Catholic Church, an early feminist, and a symbol of freedom and independence. After the French Revolution, she became a national symbol of France. In 1920, Joan of Arc was canonized by the Roman Catholic Church and, two years later, was declared one of the patron saints of France. She is portrayed in numerous cultural works, including literature, music, paintings, sculptures, and theater.

    1. ^ Contamine 2007, p. 199: Cette miniature du XVe siècle, très soignée (l'étendard correspond exactement à la description que Jeanne d'Arc elle-même en donnera lors de son procès) ... Mais c'est précisément cette exactitude, et cette coïncidence, trop belle pour être vraie, qui éveillent—ou plutôt auraient dû éveiller—les soupçons ... [This miniature from the 15th century, very neat (the banner corresponds exactly to the description that Joan of Arc herself will give during her trial) ... But it is precisely this exactitude, and this coincidence, too good to be true, which arouses—or rather should have aroused—suspicion ...]
    2. ^ The Calendar 2021.


    Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

     
  14. Admin2

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    19 April 1971 – Launch of Salyut 1, the first space station.

    Salyut 1

    Salyut 1 (DOS-1) (Russian: Салют-1) was the world's first space station launched into low Earth orbit by the Soviet Union on April 19, 1971. The Salyut program followed this with five more successful launches of seven more stations. The final module of the program, Zvezda (DOS-8), became the core of the Russian segment of the International Space Station and remains in orbit.

    Salyut 1 was modified from one of the Almaz airframes, and was made out of five components: a transfer compartment, a main compartment, two auxiliary compartments, and the Orion 1 Space Observatory.

    Salyut 1 was visited by Soyuz 10 and Soyuz 11. The hard-docking of Soyuz 10 failed and the crew had to abort this mission. The Soyuz 11 crew achieved successful hard docking and performed experiments in Salyut 1 for 23 days. However, they were killed by asphyxia caused by failure of a valve just prior to Earth reentry, and are the only people to have died above the Kármán line. Salyut 1's mission was later terminated, and it burned up on reentry into Earth's atmosphere on October 11, 1971.

    1. ^ Cite error: The named reference Nasa 1971-032A was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
     
  15. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    20 April 1946 – The League of Nations officially dissolves, giving most of its power to the United Nations.

    League of Nations

    The League of Nations (French: Société des Nations [sɔsjete de nɑsjɔ̃]) was the first worldwide intergovernmental organisation whose principal mission was to maintain world peace.[1] It was founded on 10 January 1920 by the Paris Peace Conference that ended the First World War. The main organization ceased operations on 20 April 1946 when many of its components were relocated into the new United Nations. As the template for modern global governance, the League profoundly shaped the modern world.

    The League's primary goals were stated in its Covenant. They included preventing wars through collective security and disarmament and settling international disputes through negotiation and arbitration.[2] Its other concerns included labour conditions, just treatment of native inhabitants, human and drug trafficking, the arms trade, global health, prisoners of war, and protection of minorities in Europe.[3] The Covenant of the League of Nations was signed on 28 June 1919 as Part I of the Treaty of Versailles, and it became effective with the rest of the Treaty on 10 January 1920. Australia was granted the right to participate as an autonomous member nation, marking the start of Australian independence on the global stage.[4] The first meeting of the Council of the League took place on 16 January 1920, and the first meeting of the Assembly of the League took place on 15 November 1920. In 1919, U.S. president Woodrow Wilson won the Nobel Peace Prize for his role as the leading architect of the League.

    The diplomatic philosophy behind the League represented a fundamental shift from the preceding hundred years. The League lacked its own armed force and depended on the victorious Allies of World War I (Britain, France, Italy and Japan were the initial permanent members of the Executive Council) to enforce its resolutions, keep to its economic sanctions, or provide an army when needed. The Great Powers were often reluctant to do so. Sanctions could hurt League members, so they were reluctant to comply with them. During the Second Italo-Ethiopian War, when the League accused Italian soldiers of targeting International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement medical tents, Benito Mussolini responded that "the League is very well when sparrows shout, but no good at all when eagles fall out."[5]

    At its greatest extent from 28 September 1934 to 23 February 1935, it had 58 members. After some notable successes and some early failures in the 1920s, the League ultimately proved incapable of preventing aggression by the Axis powers in the 1930s. The credibility of the organization was weakened by the fact that the United States never joined, and Japan and Germany quit in 1933–1934. Italy quit in 1937. The Soviet Union only joined in 1934 and was expelled in 1939 after invading Finland.[6][7][8][9] Furthermore, the League demonstrated an irresolute approach to sanction enforcement for fear it might only spark further conflict, further decreasing its credibility. One example of this hesitancy was the Abyssinia Crisis, in which Italy's sanctions were only limited from the outset (coal and oil were not restricted), and later altogether abandoned despite Italy being declared the aggressors in the conflict. The onset of the Second World War in 1939 showed that the League had failed its primary purpose; it was largely inactive until its abolition. The League lasted for 26 years; the United Nations (UN) replaced it in 1946 and inherited several agencies and organisations founded by the League.

    Current scholarly consensus views that, even though the League failed to achieve its main goal of world peace, it did manage to build new roads towards expanding the rule of law across the globe; strengthened the concept of collective security, giving a voice to smaller nations; fostered economic stabilization and financial stability, especially in Central Europe in the 1920s; helped to raise awareness of problems like epidemics, slavery, child labour, colonial tyranny, refugee crises and general working conditions through its numerous commissions and committees; and paved the way for new forms of statehood, as the mandate system put the colonial powers under international observation.[10] Professor David Kennedy portrays the League as a unique moment when international affairs were "institutionalised", as opposed to the pre-First World War methods of law and politics.[11]

    1. ^ Christian, Tomuschat (1995). The United Nations at Age Fifty: A Legal Perspective. Martinus Nijhoff Publishers. p. 77. ISBN 978-90-411-0145-7.
    2. ^ "Covenant of the League of Nations". The Avalon Project. Archived from the original on 26 July 2011. Retrieved 30 August 2011.
    3. ^ See Article 23, "Covenant of the League of Nations". Archived from the original on 26 July 2011. Retrieved 20 April 2009., Treaty of Versailles. Archived from the original on 19 January 2010. Retrieved 23 January 2010. and Minority Treaties.
    4. ^ Rees, Dr Yves (2020). "The women of the League of Nations". www.latrobe.edu.au. Retrieved 28 October 2023.
    5. ^ Jahanpour, Farhang. "The Elusiveness of Trust: the experience of Security Council and Iran" (PDF). Transnational Foundation of Peace and Future Research. p. 2. Archived (PDF) from the original on 27 July 2014. Retrieved 27 June 2008.
    6. ^ Osakwe, C O (1972). The participation of the Soviet Union in universal international organizations.: A political and legal analysis of Soviet strategies and aspirations inside ILO, UNESCO and WHO. Springer. p. 5. ISBN 978-90-286-0002-7.
    7. ^ Pericles, Lewis (2000). Modernism, Nationalism, and the Novel. Cambridge University Press. p. 52. ISBN 978-1-139-42658-9.
    8. ^ Ginneken, Anique H. M. van (2006). Historical Dictionary of the League of Nations. Scarecrow Press. p. 174. ISBN 978-0-8108-6513-6.
    9. ^ Ellis, Charles Howard (2003). The Origin, Structure & Working of the League of Nations. Lawbook Exchange Ltd. p. 169. ISBN 978-1-58477-320-7.
    10. ^ Cite error: The named reference Pedersen2007 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    11. ^ Kennedy 1987.
     
  16. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    21 April 1977Annie opens on Broadway.

    Annie (musical)

    Annie is a musical with music by Charles Strouse, lyrics by Martin Charnin, and a book by Thomas Meehan. It is based on the 1924 comic strip Little Orphan Annie by Harold Gray (which in turn was inspired from the poem Little Orphant Annie by James Whitcomb Riley). The original Broadway production opened in 1977 and ran for nearly six years, setting a record for the Alvin Theatre (now the Neil Simon Theatre).[1] It spawned numerous productions in many countries, as well as national tours, and won seven Tony Awards, including for Best Musical. The musical's songs "Tomorrow" and "It's the Hard Knock Life" are among its most popular musical numbers.

    1. ^ Cite error: The named reference Morrison was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
     
  17. Admin2

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  18. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    23 April 1985Coca-Cola changes its formula and releases New Coke. The response is overwhelmingly negative, and the original formula is back on the market in less than three months.

    New Coke

    New Coke was the unofficial name of a reformulation of the soft drink Coca-Cola, introduced by The Coca-Cola Company in April, 1985. It was renamed Coke II in 1990,[1] and discontinued in July 2002.

    By 1985, Coca-Cola had been losing market share to diet soft drinks and non-cola beverages for several years. Blind taste tests suggested that consumers preferred the sweeter taste of the competing product Pepsi-Cola, and so the Coca-Cola recipe was reformulated. The American public reacted negatively, and New Coke was considered a major failure.

    The company reintroduced the original formula within three months, rebranded "Coca-Cola Classic", resulting in a significant sales boost. This led to speculation that the New Coke formula had been a ploy to stimulate sales of the original Coca-Cola, which the company has vehemently denied.[2] The story of New Coke remains influential as a cautionary tale against tampering with an established successful brand.

    1. ^ Jamieson, Sean (April 5, 1990). "Coke II makes its Spokane debut". Spokesman-Review. (Spokane, Washington). p. A8.
    2. ^ Cite error: The named reference Snopes was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
     
  19. Admin2

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    24 April 1993 – An IRA bomb devastates the Bishopsgate area of London.

    1993 Bishopsgate bombing

    The Bishopsgate bombing occurred on 24 April 1993, when the Provisional Irish Republican Army (IRA) detonated a powerful truck bomb on Bishopsgate, a major thoroughfare in London's financial district, the City of London. Telephoned warnings were sent about an hour beforehand, but a news photographer was killed in the blast and 44 people were injured, with fatalities minimised due to it occurring on a Saturday. The blast destroyed the nearby St Ethelburga's church and wrecked Liverpool Street station and the NatWest Tower.[2][3]

    As a result of the bombing, which happened just over a year after the bombing of the nearby Baltic Exchange, a "ring of steel" was implemented to protect the City, and many firms introduced disaster recovery plans in case of further attacks or similar disasters. £350 million (equivalent to £590 million in 2019) was spent on repairing damage. In 1994 detectives believed they knew the identities of the IRA bombers, but lacked sufficient evidence to arrest them.[4]

    1. ^ "Bishopsgate bomb: Photos issued on 25th anniversary". BBC News. 24 April 2018. Retrieved 14 April 2023.
    2. ^ "BBC ON THIS DAY | 24 | 1993: IRA bomb devastates City of London". BBC News. 24 April 1993. Archived from the original on 27 April 2009. Retrieved 18 May 2018.
    3. ^ "Bomb disposal hero breaks silence on anniversary of Bishopsgate blast | London Evening Standard". Standard.co.uk. 25 April 2013. Archived from the original on 18 April 2018. Retrieved 18 May 2018.
    4. ^ Kirby, Terry (5 April 1994). "Police 'know who planted Bishopsgate bomb': Men seen on video may be in Irish Republic. Terry Kirby reports". The Independent. Archived from the original on 18 April 2018. Retrieved 18 May 2018.
     
  20. Admin2

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    25 April 1916Anzac Day is commemorated for the first time on the first anniversary of the landing at ANZAC Cove.

    Anzac Day

    The remembrance poppy is an artificial flower that has been used since 1921 to commemorate war dead.
    Flags on the cenotaph in Wellington for the 2007 Dawn March. From left to right, the flags of New Zealand, the United Kingdom and Australia.

    Anzac Day (/ˈænzæk/; Māori: Rā Whakamahara ki ngā Hōia o Ahitereiria me Aotearoa[2] or Rā o ngā Hōia)[1] is a national day of remembrance in Australia and New Zealand that broadly commemorates all Australians and New Zealanders "who served and died in all wars, conflicts, and peacekeeping operations" and "the contribution and suffering of all those who have served".[3][4] Observed on 25 April each year, Anzac Day was originally devised to honour the members of the Australian and New Zealand Army Corps (ANZAC) who served in the Gallipoli campaign, their first engagement in the First World War (1914–1918).

    1. ^ a b "Rā o Ngā Hōia". Te Aka Māori Dictionary. Retrieved 18 April 2022.
    2. ^ "Rā Whakamahara ki ngā Hōia o Ahitereiria me Aotearoa – te Aka Māori Dictionary".
    3. ^ "ANZAC Day". Australian War Memorial. Archived from the original on 1 May 2013. Retrieved 24 April 2013.
    4. ^ "Anzac Day Today". Anzac.govt.nz. New Zealand Ministry for Culture and Heritage. Archived from the original on 27 April 2011. Retrieved 22 April 2011.
     
  21. Admin2

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    26 April 1964Tanganyika and Zanzibar merge to form Tanzania.

    Tanzania

    Tanzania,[c] officially the United Republic of Tanzania,[d] is a country in East Africa within the African Great Lakes region. It borders Uganda to the north; Kenya to the northeast; the Indian Ocean to the east; Mozambique and Malawi to the south; Zambia to the southwest; and Rwanda, Burundi, and the Democratic Republic of the Congo to the west. Mount Kilimanjaro, Africa's highest mountain, is in northeastern Tanzania. According to the 2022 national census, Tanzania has a population of nearly 62 million,[11] making it the most populous country located entirely south of the equator.[12]

    Many important hominid fossils have been found in Tanzania, such as 6-million-year-old Pliocene hominid fossils. In the Stone and Bronze Age, prehistoric migrations into Tanzania included Southern Cushitic speakers who moved south from present-day Ethiopia;[13] Eastern Cushitic people who moved into Tanzania from north of Lake Turkana about 2,000 and 4,000 years ago;[13] and the Southern Nilotes, including the Datoog, who originated from the present-day South Sudan–Ethiopia border region between 2,900 and 2,400 years ago.[13]: page 18  These movements took place at about the same time as the settlement of the Mashariki Bantu from West Africa in the Lake Victoria and Lake Tanganyika areas.[13][14] In the late 19th century, the mainland came under German rule as German East Africa, and this was followed by British rule after World War I when it was governed as Tanganyika, with the Zanzibar Archipelago remaining a separate colonial jurisdiction. Following their respective independence in 1961 and 1963, the two entities merged in 1964 to form the United Republic of Tanzania.[15] Tanganyika joined the British Commonwealth and Tanzania remains a member of the Commonwealth as a unified republic.[16]

    Today the country is a presidential constitutional republic with the federal capital located in Dodoma;[17] the former capital, Dar es Salaam, retains most government offices and is the country's largest city, principal port, and leading commercial centre.[15][18][19] Tanzania is a de facto one-party state with the democratic socialist Chama Cha Mapinduzi party in power. The country has not experienced major internal strife since independence and is seen as one of the safest and most politically stable on the continent.[20][unreliable source?] Tanzania's population comprises about 120 ethnic,[21] linguistic, and religious groups. Christianity is the largest religion in Tanzania, with substantial Muslim and Animist minorities.[22] Over 100 languages are spoken in Tanzania, making it the most linguistically diverse country in East Africa;[23] the country does not have a de jure official language,[24][25] although the national language is Swahili.[26] English is used in foreign trade, in diplomacy, in higher courts, and as a medium of instruction in secondary and higher education,[23][27] while Arabic is spoken in Zanzibar.

    Tanzania is mountainous and densely forested in the north-east, where Mount Kilimanjaro, the highest mountain in Africa and the highest single free-standing mountain above sea level in the world, is located. Three of Africa's Great Lakes are partly within Tanzania. To the north and west lie Lake Victoria, Africa's largest lake, and Lake Tanganyika, the continent's deepest lake, known for its unique species of fish. To the south lies Lake Malawi. The eastern shore is hot and humid, with the Zanzibar Archipelago just offshore. The Menai Bay Conservation Area is Zanzibar's largest marine protected area. The Kalambo Falls, located on the Kalambo River at the Zambian border, is the second-highest uninterrupted waterfall in Africa.[28] Tanzania is one of the most visited tourist destinations for safaris.[29]

    1. ^ a b "Tanzania". Ethnologue. SIL International.
    2. ^ "Religions in Tanzania | PEW-GRF". www.globalreligiousfutures.org. Archived from the original on 4 March 2021. Retrieved 8 November 2021.
    3. ^ "Tanzania (United Republic of) 1977 (rev. 2005)". Constitute Project. Retrieved 7 December 2023.
    4. ^ a b Cite error: The named reference BFF was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    5. ^ "Population Size in Tanzania". Tanzania Sensa. Retrieved 14 July 2023.
    6. ^ a b c d "World Economic Outlook Database, October 2023 Edition. (Tanzania)". IMF.org. International Monetary Fund. 10 October 2023. Retrieved 14 October 2023.
    7. ^ "Gini Index coefficient". CIA Factbook. Retrieved 16 July 2021.
    8. ^ "Human Development Report 2021/2022" (PDF). United Nations Development Programme. 8 September 2022. Retrieved 8 September 2022.
    9. ^ "Tanzania | Define Tanzania at Dictionary.com". Dictionary.reference.com. Retrieved 19 February 2014.
    10. ^ "Tanzania". Oxford Dictionaries Online. Archived from the original on 28 October 2018. Retrieved 28 October 2018.
    11. ^ Matokeo ya Mwanzo ya Sensa ya Watu na Makazi (Report). Government of Tanzania. Retrieved 2 February 2023.
    12. ^ "Population, total - Africa | Data".
    13. ^ a b c d Cite error: The named reference Genetics was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    14. ^ Ehret, Christopher (2001). An African Classical Age: Eastern and Southern Africa in World History, 1000 B.C. to A.D. 400. University Press of Virginia. ISBN 978-0-8139-2057-3.
    15. ^ a b "Tanzania". The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency. 29 September 2021.
    16. ^ "United Republic of Tanzania | The Commonwealth". thecommonwealth.org. 15 August 2013.
    17. ^ Mosha, Aloysius C. "The planning of the new capital of Tanzania: Dodoma, an unfulfilled dream" (PDF). University of Botswana. Archived from the original (PDF) on 12 July 2013. Retrieved 13 March 2013.
    18. ^ "The Tanzania National Website: Country Profile". Tanzania.go.tz. Archived from the original on 25 November 2013. Retrieved 1 May 2010.
    19. ^ "Dar es Salaam Port". Tanzaniaports.com. Archived from the original on 22 February 2014. Retrieved 19 February 2014.
    20. ^ "TIC | Peace and Political Stability".
    21. ^ African Studies Center University of Pennsylvania. "Tanzania – Ethnic Groups". East Africa Living Encyclopedia.
    22. ^ Religion in Tanzania Archived 4 March 2021 at the Wayback Machine, Pew Research Center
    23. ^ a b Ammon, Ulrich; Dittmar, Norbert; Mattheier, Klaus J. (2006). Sociolinguistics: An International Handbook of the Science of Language and Society. Walter de Gruyter. p. 1967. ISBN 978-3-11-018418-1.
    24. ^ Godfrey Mugoti (12 June 2009). Africa (a-z). Godfrey books. p. 152. ISBN 9781435728905.
    25. ^ "Tanzania Country Information – All about Tanzania". expogr.com. Retrieved 26 April 2020.
    26. ^ "Tanzania Profile". Tanzania.go.tz. Tanzanian Government. Archived from the original on 2 August 2017. Retrieved 23 July 2017.
    27. ^ "Tanzania Ditches English In Education Overhaul Plan". AFK Insider. 17 February 2015. Retrieved 23 February 2015.
    28. ^ "Kalambo Falls". Encyclopædia Britannica.
    29. ^ "Why millions chose Africa as their safari destination". 12 January 2016.


    Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

     
  22. Admin2

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    27 April 1941World War II: German troops enter Athens.

    Axis occupation of Greece

    The occupation of Greece by the Axis Powers (Greek: Η Κατοχή, romanizedI Katochi, lit.'the occupation') began in April 1941 after Nazi Germany invaded the Kingdom of Greece to assist its ally, Italy, in their ongoing war that had started in October 1940. Following the conquest of Crete, the entirety of Greece was occupied starting in June 1941. The occupation of the mainland lasted until Germany and its ally Bulgaria withdrew under Allied pressure in early October 1944, with Crete and some other Aegean islands being surrendered to the Allies by German garrisons in May and June 1945, after the end of World War II in Europe.

    Fascist Italy had initially declared war and invaded Greece in October 1940, but had been pushed back by the Hellenic Army into neighboring Albania, which at the time was an Italian protectorate. Nazi Germany intervened on its ally's behalf in southern Europe. While most of the Hellenic Army was located on the Albanian front lines to defend against Italian counter-attacks, a rapid German Blitzkrieg campaign took place from April to June 1941, resulting in Greece being defeated and occupied. The Greek government went into exile, and an Axis collaborationist government was established in its place. Greece's territory was divided into occupation zones run by the Axis powers, with the Germans administering the most important regions of the country themselves, including Athens, Thessaloniki and strategic Aegean Islands. Other regions of the country were run by Germany's partners, Italy and Bulgaria.

    The occupation reduced the Greek economy and brought hardships to the Greek civilian population.[1] Much of Greece's economic capacity was destroyed, including 80% of industry, 28% of infrastructure (ports, roads and railways), 90% of its bridges, and 25% of its forests and other natural resources.[2][3][4] Along with the loss of economic capacity, an estimated 7-11% of Greece's civilian population died as a result of the occupation.[5][6] In Athens, 40,000 civilians died from starvation and tens of thousands more died from reprisals by Nazis and their collaborators.[7]

    The Jewish population of Greece was nearly eradicated. Of its pre-war population of 75–77,000, around 11–12,000 survived, often by joining the resistance or being hidden.[8] Most of those who died were deported to Auschwitz, while those under Bulgarian occupation in Thrace were sent to Treblinka. The Italians did not deport Jews living in territory they controlled, but when the Germans took it over from them, Jews living there were also deported.

    The Greek Resistance was formed during this occupation. These resistance groups launched guerrilla attacks against the occupying powers, fought against collaborationist Security Battalions, and set up espionage networks. By late 1943 the resistance groups began to fight amongst themselves. At the end of occupation of the mainland in October 1944, Greece was in a state of political polarization, which soon led to the outbreak of the Greek Civil War. The subsequent civil war gave an opportunity to many prominent Nazi collaborators to escape punishment because of their anti-communism, and to eventually rule postwar Greece after the communist defeat.[9][10]

    The Greek Resistance killed 21,087 Axis soldiers (17,536 Germans, 2,739 Italians, 1,532 Bulgarians) and captured 6,463 (2,102 Germans, 2,109 Italians, 2,252 Bulgarians), compared to the death of 20,650 Greek partisans and an unknown number captured.[11]

    1. ^ Martin Seckendorf; Günter Keber; u.a.; Bundesarchiv (Hrsg.): Die Okkupationspolitik des deutschen Faschismus in Jugoslawien, Griechenland, Albanien, Italien und Ungarn (1941–1945) Hüthig, Berlin 1992; Decker/ Müller, Heidelberg 2000. Reihe: Europa unterm Hakenkreuz Band 6, ISBN 3822618926
    2. ^ "The Math of Mass Starvation and Murder: Germany in Greece During World War II". Archived from the original on 21 November 2015. Retrieved 21 October 2015.
    3. ^ "Τα ερείπια της γερμανικής κατοχής στην Ελλάδα (μέρος 2ο)". news247.gr. 26 October 2011.
    4. ^ "Οι μεγάλες καταστροφές και το γερμανικό χρέος στην Ελλάδα μέσα από ντοκουμέντα". Newsbeast.gr. 5 March 2015.
    5. ^ "Council for Reparations from Germany, Black Book of the Occupation (In Greek and German) Athens 2006 pp. 1018–1019" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 21 July 2011. Retrieved 15 June 2011.
    6. ^ Gregory, Frumkin. Population Changes in Europe Since 1939, Geneva 1951. pp. 89–91
    7. ^ Mazower (2001), p. 155
    8. ^ Munoz, Antonio J. The German Secret Field Police in Greece, 1941–44, Jefferson: MacFarland & Company, Inc., 2018, p. 95. ISBN 9781476631042
    9. ^ Giannis Katris, The Birth of Neofascism in Greece, 1971 ISBN 9789600200980 pp. 40–42
    10. ^ Andreas Papandreou, Democracy at Gunpoint (Η Δημοκρατία στο απόσπασμα)
    11. ^ "Council for Reparations from Germany, Black Book of the Occupation (in Greek and German), Athens 2006, pp. 125–126" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 31 March 2014. Retrieved 4 March 2016.
     
  23. Admin2

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    28 April 1923 – Wembley Stadium is opened, named initially as the Empire Stadium.

    Wembley Stadium (1923)

    The original Wembley Stadium (/ˈwɛmbli/; originally known as the Empire Stadium) was a football stadium in Wembley, London, best known for hosting important football matches. It stood on the same site now occupied by its successor and by its predecessor, Watkin's Tower

    Wembley hosted the FA Cup final annually, the first in 1923, which was the stadium's inaugural event, the League Cup final annually, five European Cup finals, the 1966 World Cup final, and the final of Euro 1996. Brazilian footballer Pelé once said of the stadium: "Wembley is the cathedral of football. It is the capital of football and it is the heart of football",[3] in recognition of its status as the world's most famous football stadium.

    The stadium also hosted many other sports events, including the 1948 Summer Olympics, rugby league's Challenge Cup final, and the 1992 and 1995 Rugby League World Cup finals. It was also the venue for numerous music events, including the 1985 Live Aid charity concert. In what was the first major WWF (now WWE) pay-per-view to take place outside North America, it hosted the 1992 SummerSlam.

    1. ^ United Kingdom Gross Domestic Product deflator figures follow the Measuring Worth "consistent series" supplied in Thomas, Ryland; Williamson, Samuel H. (2018). "What Was the U.K. GDP Then?". MeasuringWorth. Retrieved 2 February 2020.
    2. ^ Twydell, Dave (5 November 2001). Denied F.C.: The Football League Election Struggles. Harefield: Yore Publications. pp. 30–31. ISBN 1-85983-512-0.
    3. ^ "Mayor of London – Case for Wembley Stadium". Archived from the original on 30 March 2006.
     
  24. Admin2

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    29 April 1945 – World War II: The German army in Italy surrenders to the Allies.

    Operation Sunrise (World War II)

    SS General Karl Wolff's Proxy of Surrender for northern Italy, 2 May 1945

    Operation Sunrise (sometimes called the Berne incident) was a series of World War II secret negotiations from February to May 1945 between representatives of Nazi Germany and the United States to arrange a local surrender of German forces in northern Italy.[1] Most of the meetings took place in the vicinity of Bern, Switzerland, and the lead negotiators were Waffen-SS General Karl Wolff and American OSS agent Allen Dulles. The meetings provoked Soviet suspicion that the Americans were seeking to sign a separate peace with the Germans and led to heated correspondence between Joseph Stalin and Franklin Roosevelt, an early episode of the emerging Cold War.[2]

    1. ^ Donahue, Stephen (2015). "Dulles, Allen Welsh". In Zabecki, David T. (ed.). World War II in Europe: An Encyclopedia. Routledge. p. 287. ISBN 9781135812423.
    2. ^ Delgadillo, Charles Edward (2013). "Dulles, Allen". In van Dijk, Ruud; Gray, William Glenn; Savranskaya, Svetlana; Suri, Jeremi; Zhai, Qiang (eds.). Encyclopedia of the Cold War. Routledge. p. 271. ISBN 978-1135923112.
     
  25. Admin2

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    30 April 1905Albert Einstein completes his doctoral thesis at the University of Zurich.

    Albert Einstein

    Albert Einstein (/ˈnstn/ EYEN-styne;[4] German: [ˈalbɛɐt ˈʔaɪnʃtaɪn] ; 14 March 1879 – 18 April 1955) was a German-born theoretical physicist who is widely held to be one of the greatest and most influential scientists of all time. Best known for developing the theory of relativity, Einstein also made important contributions to quantum mechanics, and was thus a central figure in the revolutionary reshaping of the scientific understanding of nature that modern physics accomplished in the first decades of the twentieth century.[1][5] His mass–energy equivalence formula E = mc2, which arises from relativity theory, has been called "the world's most famous equation".[6] He received the 1921 Nobel Prize in Physics "for his services to theoretical physics, and especially for his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect",[7] a pivotal step in the development of quantum theory. His work is also known for its influence on the philosophy of science.[8][9] In a 1999 poll of 130 leading physicists worldwide by the British journal Physics World, Einstein was ranked the greatest physicist of all time.[10] His intellectual achievements and originality have made the word Einstein broadly synonymous with genius.[11]

    Born in the German Empire, Einstein moved to Switzerland in 1895, forsaking his German citizenship (as a subject of the Kingdom of Württemberg)[note 1] the following year. In 1897, at the age of seventeen, he enrolled in the mathematics and physics teaching diploma program at the Swiss federal polytechnic school in Zürich, graduating in 1900. In 1901, he acquired Swiss citizenship, which he kept for the rest of his life. In 1903, he secured a permanent position at the Swiss Patent Office in Bern. In 1905, he submitted a successful PhD dissertation to the University of Zurich. In 1914, he moved to Berlin in order to join the Prussian Academy of Sciences and the Humboldt University of Berlin. In 1917, he became director of the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Physics; he also became a German citizen again, this time as a subject of the Kingdom of Prussia.[note 1]

    In 1933, while he was visiting the United States, Adolf Hitler came to power in Germany. Horrified by the Nazi "war of extermination" against his fellow Jews,[12] Einstein decided to remain in the US, and was granted American citizenship in 1940.[13] On the eve of World War II, he endorsed a letter to President Franklin D. Roosevelt alerting him to the potential German nuclear weapons program and recommending that the US begin similar research. Einstein supported the Allies but generally viewed the idea of nuclear weapons with great dismay.[14]

    In 1905, sometimes described as his annus mirabilis (miracle year), Einstein published four groundbreaking papers.[15] These outlined a theory of the photoelectric effect, explained Brownian motion, introduced his special theory of relativity—a theory which addressed the inability of classical mechanics to account satisfactorily for the behavior of the electromagnetic field—and demonstrated that if the special theory is correct, mass and energy are equivalent to each other. In 1915, he proposed a general theory of relativity that extended his system of mechanics to incorporate gravitation. A cosmological paper that he published the following year laid out the implications of general relativity for the modeling of the structure and evolution of the universe as a whole.[16][17] The middle part of his career also saw him making important contributions to statistical mechanics and quantum theory. Especially notable was his work on the quantum physics of radiation, in which light consists of particles, subsequently called photons. For much of the last phase of his academic life, Einstein worked on two endeavors that proved ultimately unsuccessful. Firstly, he advocated against quantum theory's introduction of fundamental randomness into science's picture of the world, objecting that "God does not play dice".[18] Secondly, he attempted to devise a unified field theory by generalizing his geometric theory of gravitation to include electromagnetism too. As a result, he became increasingly isolated from the mainstream of modern physics.

    1. ^ a b c Cite error: The named reference frs was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    2. ^ "The Gold Medal" (PDF). Royal Astronomical Society. Archived (PDF) from the original on 20 December 2021. Retrieved 20 December 2021.
    3. ^ "Membership directory". National Academy of Sciences. Archived from the original on 20 December 2021. Retrieved 20 December 2021.
    4. ^ Cite error: The named reference NDxay was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    5. ^ Cite error: The named reference YangHamilton2010 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    6. ^ Cite error: The named reference LnLVo was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    7. ^ Cite error: The named reference Nobel Prize was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    8. ^ Cite error: The named reference xZQWt was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    9. ^ Cite error: The named reference 3UiiT was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    10. ^ "Physics: past, present, future". Physics World. 6 December 1999. Retrieved 1 August 2023.
    11. ^ Cite error: The named reference wordnetweb.princeton.edu was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    12. ^ Cite error: The named reference zE9Bz was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    13. ^ Cite error: The named reference BoyerDubofsky2001 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    14. ^ "Albert Einstein on nuclear weapons | Wise International". wiseinternational.org. Retrieved 23 October 2022.
    15. ^ Galison (2000), p. 377.
    16. ^ Cite error: The named reference Nobel was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    17. ^ Cite error: The named reference NYT-20151124 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    18. ^ Robinson, Andrew (30 April 2018). "Did Einstein really say that?". Nature. 557 (30): 30. Bibcode:2018Natur.557...30R. doi:10.1038/d41586-018-05004-4. S2CID 14013938. Archived from the original on 9 November 2020. Retrieved 21 February 2021.


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  26. NewsBot

    NewsBot The Admin that posts the news.

    Articles:
    1
    1 May 1931 – The Empire State Building is dedicated in New York City.

    Empire State Building

    The Empire State Building is a 102-story[c] Art Deco skyscraper in the Midtown South neighborhood of Manhattan in New York City. The building was designed by Shreve, Lamb & Harmon and built from 1930 to 1931. Its name is derived from "Empire State", the nickname of the state of New York. The building has a roof height of 1,250 feet (380 m) and stands a total of 1,454 feet (443.2 m) tall, including its antenna. The Empire State Building was the world's tallest building until the first tower of the World Trade Center was topped out in 1970; following the September 11 attacks in 2001, the Empire State Building was New York City's tallest building until it was surpassed in 2012 by One World Trade Center. As of 2022, the building is the seventh-tallest building in New York City, the ninth-tallest completed skyscraper in the United States, and the 54th-tallest in the world.

    The site of the Empire State Building, on the west side of Fifth Avenue between West 33rd and 34th Streets, was developed in 1893 as the Waldorf–Astoria Hotel. In 1929, Empire State Inc. acquired the site and devised plans for a skyscraper there. The design for the Empire State Building was changed fifteen times until it was ensured to be the world's tallest building. Construction started on March 17, 1930, and the building opened thirteen and a half months afterward on May 1, 1931. Despite favorable publicity related to the building's construction, because of the Great Depression and World War II, its owners did not make a profit until the early 1950s.

    The building's Art Deco architecture, height, and observation decks have made it a popular attraction. Around four million tourists from around the world annually visit the building's 86th- and 102nd-floor observatories; an additional indoor observatory on the 80th floor opened in 2019. The Empire State Building is an international cultural icon: it has been featured in more than 250 television series and films since the film King Kong was released in 1933. The building's size has become the global standard of reference to describe the height and length of other structures. A symbol of New York City, the building has been named as one of the Seven Wonders of the Modern World by the American Society of Civil Engineers. It was ranked first on the American Institute of Architects' List of America's Favorite Architecture in 2007. Additionally, the Empire State Building and its ground-floor interior were designated city landmarks by the New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission in 1980, and were added to the National Register of Historic Places as a National Historic Landmark in 1986.

    1. ^ Cite error: The named reference AMNY-NewLobby-2018 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    2. ^ Jackson 2010, p. 413.
    3. ^ Langmead 2009, p. 86.
    4. ^ Cite error: The named reference NYTimes-Open-1931 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    5. ^ a b c d e f g h i j "Empire State Building". The Skyscraper Center. Retrieved March 27, 2023.
    6. ^ a b c Emporis GmbH. "Empire State Building, New York City". emporis.com. Archived from the original on January 28, 2012.
    7. ^ a b "Empire State Building, New York City". SkyscraperPage.com. Retrieved March 27, 2023.
    8. ^ Cite error: The named reference cost was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    9. ^ Johnston, Louis; Williamson, Samuel H. (2023). "What Was the U.S. GDP Then?". MeasuringWorth. Retrieved November 30, 2023. United States Gross Domestic Product deflator figures follow the Measuring Worth series.
    10. ^ "Empire State Building". National Historic Landmark summary listing. National Park Service. September 11, 2007. Archived from the original on August 5, 2011.
    11. ^ "National Register Information System". National Register of Historic Places. National Park Service. January 23, 2007.
    12. ^ "Cultural Resource Information System (CRIS)". New York State Office of Parks, Recreation and Historic Preservation. November 7, 2014. Retrieved July 20, 2023.
    13. ^ a b Landmarks Preservation Commission 1981, p. 1.
    14. ^ a b Landmarks Preservation Commission Interior 1981, p. 1.
    15. ^ Branigin, William (August 24, 2012). "Gunman shoots former co-worker near Empire State Building, is shot by police". Washington Post. Retrieved October 30, 2013. The 103-floor Empire State Building draws
    16. ^ Cite error: The named reference NYTimes-Perch-2011 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).


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  27. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    2 May 1986Chernobyl disaster: The City of Chernobyl is evacuated six days after the disaster.

    Chernobyl disaster

    The Chernobyl disaster[a] began on 26 April 1986 with the explosion of the No. 4 reactor of the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant, near the city of Pripyat in the north of the Ukrainian SSR, close to the border with the Byelorussian SSR, in the Soviet Union.[1] It is one of only two nuclear energy accidents rated at seven—the maximum severity—on the International Nuclear Event Scale, the other being the 2011 Fukushima nuclear accident in Japan. The initial emergency response and subsequent mitigation efforts involved more than 500,000 personnel and cost an estimated 18 billion roubles—roughly US$68 billion in 2019, adjusted for inflation.[2] It is considered the worst nuclear disaster in history.[3][4][5]

    The accident occurred during a test of the steam turbine's ability to power the emergency feedwater pumps in the event of a simultaneous loss of external power and coolant pipe rupture. Following an accidental drop in reactor power to near-zero, the operators restarted the reactor in preparation for the turbine test with a prohibited control rod configuration. Upon successful completion of the test, the reactor was then shut down for maintenance. Due to a variety of factors, this action resulted in a power surge at the base of the reactor which brought about the rupture of reactor components and the loss of coolant. This process led to steam explosions and a meltdown, which destroyed the containment building. This was followed by a reactor core fire which lasted until 4 May 1986, during which airborne radioactive contaminants were spread throughout the USSR and Europe.[6][7] In response to the initial accident, a 10-kilometre (6.2 mi) radius exclusion zone was created 36 hours after the accident, from which approximately 49,000 people were evacuated, primarily from Pripyat. The exclusion zone was later increased to a radius of 30 kilometres (19 mi), from which an additional ~68,000 people were evacuated.[8]

    Following the reactor explosion, which killed two engineers and severely burned two more, an emergency operation to put out the fires and stabilize the surviving reactor began, during which 237 workers were hospitalized, of whom 134 exhibited symptoms of acute radiation syndrome (ARS). Among those hospitalized, 28 died within the following three months. In the following 10 years, 14 more workers (9 of whom had been hospitalized with ARS) died of various causes mostly unrelated to radiation exposure.[9] 15 childhood thyroid cancer deaths were attributed to the disaster as of 2011.[10][11] A United Nations committee found that to date fewer than 100 deaths have resulted from the fallout.[12] Model predictions of the eventual total death toll in the coming decades vary. The most widely cited study conducted by the World Health Organization in 2006 predicted 9,000 cancer-related fatalities in Ukraine, Belarus and Russia.[13]

    Following the disaster, Pripyat was abandoned and eventually replaced by the new purpose-built city of Slavutych. The Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant sarcophagus was built by December 1986. It reduced the spread of radioactive contamination from the wreckage and protected it from weathering. The confinement shelter also provided radiological protection for the crews of the undamaged reactors at the site, which were restarted in late 1986 and 1987. However, this containment structure was only intended to last for 30 years, and required considerable reinforcement in the early 2000s. The Shelter was heavily supplemented in 2017 by the Chernobyl New Safe Confinement, which was constructed around the old structure. This larger enclosure aims to enable the removal of both the sarcophagus and the reactor debris while containing the radioactive materials inside. Clean-up is scheduled for completion by 2065.[14]


    Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

    1. ^ "Accident of 1986". Chornobyl NPP. Retrieved 14 July 2022.
    2. ^ "Chernobyl: Assessment of Radiological and Health Impact, 2002 update; Chapter II – The release, dispersion and deposition of radionuclides" (PDF). OECD-NEA. 2002. Archived (PDF) from the original on 22 June 2015. Retrieved 3 June 2015.
    3. ^ "The Chornobyl Accident". United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation. Retrieved 19 September 2023.
    4. ^ "A Brief History of Nuclear Accidents Worldwide". www.ucsusa.org. 1 October 2013. Retrieved 19 September 2023.
    5. ^ Lallanilla, Marc; Geggel, Laura (18 April 2023). "Chernobyl: The world's worst nuclear disaster". livescience.com. Retrieved 19 September 2023.
    6. ^ McCall, Chris (April 2016). "Chernobyl disaster 30 years on: lessons not learned". The Lancet. 387 (10029): 1707–1708. doi:10.1016/s0140-6736(16)30304-x. ISSN 0140-6736. PMID 27116266. S2CID 39494685.
    7. ^ "Chernobyl-Born Radionuclides in Geological Environment". Groundwater Vulnerability. Special Publications. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 2014. pp. 25–38. doi:10.1002/9781118962220.ch2. ISBN 978-1-118-96222-0.
    8. ^ Steadman, Philip; Hodgkinson, Simon (1990). Nuclear Disasters & The Built Environment: A Report to the Royal Institute. Butterworth Architecture. p. 55. ISBN 978-0-40850-061-6.
    9. ^ Wagemaker, G.; Guskova, A.K.; Bebeshko, V.G.; Griffiths, N.M.; Krishenko, N.A. (1996). "Clinically Observed Effects in Individuals Exposed to Radiation as a Result of the Chernobyl Accident". One Decade After Chernobyl: Summing up the Consequences of the Accident, Proceedings of an International Conference, Vienna.: 173–198.
    10. ^ "Chernobyl 25th anniversary – Frequently Asked Questions" (PDF). World Health Organization. 23 April 2011. Archived (PDF) from the original on 17 April 2012. Retrieved 14 April 2012.
    11. ^ "Chernobyl: the true scale of the accident". World Health Organization. 5 September 2005. Archived from the original on 25 February 2018. Retrieved 8 November 2018.
    12. ^ "UNSCEAR assessments of the Chernobyl accident". www.unscear.org. Archived from the original on 13 May 2011. Retrieved 13 September 2007.
    13. ^ "World Health Organization report explains the health impacts of the world's worst-ever civil nuclear accident". World Health Organization. 26 April 2006. Archived from the original on 4 April 2011. Retrieved 4 April 2011.
    14. ^ "Chernobyl nuclear power plant site to be cleared by 2065". Kyiv Post. 3 January 2010. Archived from the original on 5 October 2012.
     
  28. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    3 May 1937Gone with the Wind, a novel by Margaret Mitchell, wins the Pulitzer Prize for Fiction.

    Gone with the Wind (novel)

    Gone with the Wind is a novel by American writer Margaret Mitchell, first published in 1936. The story is set in Clayton County and Atlanta, both in Georgia, during the American Civil War and Reconstruction Era. It depicts the struggles of young Scarlett O'Hara, the spoiled daughter of a well-to-do plantation owner, who must use every means at her disposal to claw her way out of poverty following Sherman's destructive "March to the Sea". This historical novel features a coming-of-age story, with the title taken from the poem "Non Sum Qualis eram Bonae Sub Regno Cynarae", written by Ernest Dowson.[2]

    Gone with the Wind was popular with American readers from the outset and was the top American fiction bestseller in 1936 and 1937. As of 2014, a Harris poll found it to be the second favorite book of American readers, just behind the Bible. More than 30 million copies have been printed worldwide.

    Gone with the Wind is a controversial reference point for subsequent writers of the South, both black and white. Scholars at American universities refer to, interpret, and study it in their writings. The novel has been absorbed into American popular culture.

    Mitchell received the Pulitzer Prize for Fiction for the book in 1937. It was adapted into the 1939 film of the same name, which is considered to be one of the greatest movies ever made and also received the Academy Award for Best Picture during the 12th annual Academy Awards ceremony. Gone with the Wind is the only novel by Mitchell published during her lifetime.[3]

    1. ^ About the Author[full citation needed]
    2. ^ Margaret Mitchell, touched by the "far away, faintly sad sound I wanted" of the third stanza's first line, chose that line as the title of her novel Gone with the Wind. https://www.awesomestories.com/asset/view/SOURCE-of-the-TITLE-GWTW-Margaret-Mitchell-Gone-with-the-Wind
    3. ^ "Obituary: Miss Mitchell, 49, Dead of Injuries". The New York Times. August 17, 1949. Retrieved May 14, 2011.
     
  29. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    4 May 1836 – Formation of Ancient Order of Hibernians

    Ancient Order of Hibernians

    The Ancient Order of Hibernians (AOH; Irish: Ord Ársa na nÉireannach[1][2]) is an Irish Catholic fraternal organization. Members must be male, Catholic, and either born in Ireland or of Irish descent. Its largest membership is in the United States, where it was founded in New York City in 1836.

    The name was adopted by groups of Irish immigrants in the United States,[3] its purpose to act as guards to shield Catholic churches from anti-Catholic forces in the mid-19th century, and to assist Irish Catholic immigrants, especially those who faced discrimination or harsh coal mining working conditions.[citation needed] Many members in the coal mining area of Pennsylvania allegedly had a background with the Molly Maguires. It became an important focus of Irish American political activity.[3]

    1. ^ Hurley, John W. (12 December 2018). Shillelagh: The Irish Fighting Stick. Lulu.com. ISBN 9781430325703 – via Google Books.
    2. ^ "Libel, Slander, Drinking". Archived from the original on 15 December 2018. Retrieved 12 December 2018.
    3. ^ a b Miller 1973, pp. 209–215.
     
  30. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    5 May 1964 – The Council of Europe declares May 5 as Europe Day.

    Europe Day

    Europe Day is a day celebrating "peace and unity in Europe"[1][2] celebrated on 5 May by the Council of Europe and on 9 May by the European Union.

    The first recognition of Europe Day was by the Council of Europe, introduced in 1964.[3] The European Union later started to celebrate its own European Day[4] in commemoration of the 1950 Schuman Declaration which first proposed the European Coal and Steel Community, leading it to be referred to by some as "Schuman Day" or "Day of the united Europe".[5] Both days are celebrated by displaying the Flag of Europe.[6]

    1. ^ "Europe Day". European Union. 16 June 2016. Archived from the original on 1 July 2019. Retrieved 8 May 2020.
    2. ^ "Día de Europa: ¿Cuándo y por qué se celebra?" [Europe Day: When and why is it celebrated?]. okdiario.com (in Spanish). 5 June 2018. Retrieved 8 May 2020.
    3. ^ "5 May: Europe Day". www.coe.int.
    4. ^ Nicole Scicluna, European Union Constitutionalism in Crisis, Routledge (2014), p. 56
    5. ^ Does the EU have a "National" Day? Archived 4 May 2009 at the Wayback Machine, European Commission Delegation to Ukraine.
    6. ^ Due to the objection against adopting symbols of statehood, the 1985 adoption of the "European flag" had only been possible by avoiding the official use of the term "flag", so that the "European flag" is still officially "a logo or emblem eligible to be reproduced on rectangular pieces of fabric". (Scicluna, 2014, p. 56) The proposal to officially adopt it as the flag of the EU was made in the Treaty establishing a Constitution for Europe (2004) which however failed to be ratified. Instead, the Treaty of Lisbon (2007) includes an annex signed by sixteen members which declares that the European flag, anthem, motto, currency, and Europe Day "will for them continue as symbols to express the sense of community of the people in the European Union and their allegiance to it."
     
  31. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    6 May 1983 – The Hitler Diaries are revealed as a hoax after being examined by experts.

    Hitler Diaries

    The front cover of Stern magazine. The image is of three black notebooks; on the top book are the gold letters FH in gothic script. The Stern logo—an irregular six-pointed white star on a red background is in the top left of the cover, next to the word "stern". At the bottom are the words in German "Hitlers Tagebücher endeckt" ("Hitler's diaries discovered").
    "Hitler's diaries discovered". Stern's front page on 28 April 1983

    The Hitler Diaries (German: Hitler-Tagebücher) were a series of sixty volumes of journals purportedly written by Adolf Hitler, but forged by Konrad Kujau between 1981 and 1983. The diaries were purchased in 1983 for 9.3 million Deutsche Marks (£2.3 million or $3.7 million) by the West German news magazine Stern, which sold serialisation rights to several news organisations. One of the publications involved was The Sunday Times, who asked their independent director, the historian Hugh Trevor-Roper, to authenticate the diaries; he did so, pronouncing them genuine. At the press conference to announce the publication, Trevor-Roper announced that on reflection he had changed his mind, and other historians also raised questions concerning their validity. Rigorous forensic analysis, which had not been performed previously, quickly confirmed that the diaries were fakes.

    Kujau, born and raised in East Germany, had a history of petty crime and deception. In the mid-1970s he began selling Nazi memorabilia which he had smuggled from the East, but found he could raise the prices by forging additional authentication details to associate ordinary souvenirs to the Nazi leaders. He began forging paintings by Hitler and an increasing number of notes, poems and letters, until he produced his first diary in the mid-to-late 1970s. The West German journalist with Stern who "discovered" the diaries and was involved in their purchase was Gerd Heidemann, who had an obsession with the Nazis. When Stern started buying the diaries, Heidemann stole a significant proportion of the money.

    Kujau and Heidemann spent time in prison for their parts in the fraud, and several newspaper editors lost their jobs. The story of the scandal was the basis for the films Selling Hitler (1991) for the British channel ITV, the German film Schtonk! (1992), and the television series Faking Hitler (2021).

     
  32. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    7 May 1976Honda Accord officially launched.

    Honda Accord

    The Honda Accord (Japanese: ホンダ・アコード, Hepburn: Honda Akōdo, /əˈkɔːrd/), also known as the Honda Inspire (Japanese: ホンダ・インスパイア, Hepburn: Honda Insupaia) in Japan and China for certain generations, is a series of automobiles manufactured by Honda since 1976, best known for its four-door sedan variant, which has been one of the best-selling cars in the United States since 1989. The Accord nameplate has been applied to a variety of vehicles worldwide, including coupes, station wagons, hatchbacks and a Honda Crosstour crossover.

    Since its initiation, Honda has offered several different car body styles and versions of the Accord, and often vehicles marketed under the Accord nameplate concurrently in different regions differ quite substantially. It debuted in 1976, as a compact hatchback, though this style only lasted through 1989, as the lineup was expanded to include a sedan, coupe, and wagon. By the sixth-generation Accord at the end of the 1990s, it evolved into an intermediate vehicle, with one basic platform but with different bodies and proportions to increase its competitiveness against its rivals in different international markets. For the eighth-generation Accord released for the North American market in 2007, Honda had again chosen to move the model further upscale and increase its size.[1] This pushed the Accord sedan from the upper limit of what the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) defines as a mid-size car to just above the lower limit of a full-size car,[2] with the coupe still rated as a mid-size car. In 2012, the ninth-generation Accord sedan, with smaller exterior dimensions, was once again classified as a mid-size car at 119 cubic feet (3.4 m3), falling just shy of the "Large Car" classification. However, the tenth-generation Accord sedan, with similar exterior dimensions, returned to full-size car status with its combined interior space of 123 cubic feet (3.5 m3); the coupe was discontinued in 2017.

    In 1982, the Accord became the first car from a Japanese manufacturer to be produced in the United States when production commenced in Marysville, Ohio at Honda's Marysville Auto Plant. The Accord has achieved considerable success, especially in the United States, where it was the best-selling Japanese car for sixteen years (1982–97), topping its class in sales in 1991 and 2001, with around ten million vehicles sold.[3] Numerous road tests, past and present, rate the Accord as one of the world's most reliable vehicles.[4] The Accord has been on the Car and Driver 10Best list a record 38 times.[5]

    In 1989, the Accord was the first vehicle sold under an import brand to become the best-selling car in the United States.[6] As of 2020, the Accord has sold more than 18 million units.[7]

    1. ^ "2008 Honda Accord Review". JB car pages. Retrieved 3 April 2011.
    2. ^ "2008 Honda Accord - Introduction". American Honda Motor Company (Press release). 21 August 2007. Archived from the original on 17 October 2007. Retrieved 12 December 2010.
    3. ^ "2008 Honda Accord vs. 2007 Toyota Camry – Head to Head". Motor Trend. Archived from the original on 29 June 2011. Retrieved 12 December 2010.
    4. ^ "The 100 most reliable cars of the last decade (in order)". Gizmag.com. 21 May 2006. Retrieved 28 April 2009.
    5. ^ Siler, Steve. "2016 Honda Accord Sedan". Car and Driver. Retrieved 17 August 2015.
    6. ^ "Honda Accord Beats Ford Taurus as Top Selling Car of 1989 in U.S." Deseret News. 26 January 1990. Retrieved 30 August 2014.
    7. ^ "History's 10 Best Selling Cars of All Time".
     
  33. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    8 May 1912Paramount Pictures is founded.

    Paramount Pictures

    Paramount Pictures Corporation, doing business as Paramount Pictures (also known simply as Paramount) is an American film and television production and distribution company and the namesake subsidiary of Paramount Global (Previously known as ViacomCBS). It is the sixth-oldest film studio in the world, the second-oldest film studio in the United States (behind Universal Pictures), and the sole member of the "Big Five" film studios located within the city limits of Los Angeles.[1]

    In 1916, film producer Adolph Zukor put 24 actors and actresses under contract and honored each with a star on the logo.[2] In 1967, the number of stars was reduced to 22 and their hidden meaning was dropped. In 2014, Paramount Pictures became the first major Hollywood studio to distribute all of its films in digital form only.[3] The company's headquarters and studios are located at 5555 Melrose Avenue, Hollywood, California.[4]

    Paramount Pictures is a member of the Motion Picture Association (MPA).[5]

    1. ^ Bingen, Steven (2016). Paramount: City of Dreams. Guilford, Connecticut: Taylor Trade Publishing. p. 8. ISBN 9781630762018. Archived from the original on July 16, 2022. Retrieved January 10, 2022.
    2. ^ "Star System". ocgirl 玩樂筆記 -. Archived from the original on February 2, 2017. Retrieved January 25, 2017.
    3. ^ Fingas, Jon (January 19, 2014). "Paramount now releases movies only in digital form". Engadget. Archived from the original on July 9, 2019. Retrieved September 7, 2017.
    4. ^ "Directions". The Studios at Paramount. Archived from the original on March 12, 2018. Retrieved August 26, 2017.
    5. ^ "Motion Picture Association of America – Who We Are – Our Story". MPAA. Archived from the original on August 30, 2017. Retrieved January 17, 2018.
     
  34. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    9 May 1901 – Australia opens its first parliament in Melbourne.

    Parliament of Australia

    The Parliament of Australia (officially the Parliament of the Commonwealth,[3] also called Federal Parliament) is the legislative body of the federal level of government of Australia. It consists of three elements: the monarch (represented by the governor-general), the Senate and the House of Representatives.[3] It combines elements from the UK Parliament (the Westminster system in which the party with a majority in the lower house is entitled to form a government) and the US Congress (equal representation of each state in a powerful upper house).[4]

    The upper house, the Senate, consists of 76 members: twelve for each state, and two for each of the self-governing territories. Senators are elected using the proportional system and as a result, the chamber features a multitude of parties vying for power.[5] The governing party or coalition has not held a majority in the Senate since 1981 (except between 2005 and 2007) and usually needs to negotiate with other parties and independents to get legislation passed.[6]

    The lower house, the House of Representatives, currently consists of 151 members, each elected using full preferential voting from single-member electorates (also known as electoral divisions or seats).[7][8] This tends to lead to the chamber being dominated by two major political groups, the centre‑right Coalition (consisting of the Liberal and National parties) and the centre‑left Labor Party. The government of the day must achieve the confidence of this House in order to gain and remain in power.

    The House of Representatives has a maximum term of three years, although it can be dissolved early. The Senate has fixed terms, with half of the state senators' terms expiring every three years (the terms of the four territory senators are linked to House elections). As a result, House and Senate elections almost always coincide. A deadlock-breaking mechanism known as a double dissolution can be used to dissolve the full Senate as well as the House if the Senate refuses to pass a piece of legislation passed by the House.[9]

    The two houses of Parliament meet in separate chambers of Parliament House (except in rare joint sittings) on Capital Hill in Canberra, Australian Capital Territory.

    1. ^ "The First Commonwealth Parliament 1901". Australian Electoral Commission. Archived from the original on 2 December 2023. Retrieved 28 November 2023.
    2. ^ a b "Federal elections". Parliamentary Education Office. 10 November 2023. Archived from the original on 17 December 2023. Retrieved 17 December 2023.
    3. ^ a b Australian Constitution s 1 Archived 17 January 2024 at the Wayback Machine – via Austlii.
    4. ^ Beck, Luke (2020). Australian Constitutional Law: Concepts and Cases. Cambridge University Press. pp. 16–25. ISBN 978-1-108-70103-7. OCLC 1086607149.
    5. ^ "Odgers' Australian Senate Practice Fourteenth Edition Chapter 4 – Elections for the Senate". Parliament of Australia. 2017. Archived from the original on 9 May 2019. Retrieved 25 March 2017.
    6. ^ Williams, George; Brennan, Sean; Lynch, Andrew (2014). Blackshield and Williams Australian constitutional law and theory : commentary and materials (6th ed.). Annandale, NSW: Federation Press. p. 415. ISBN 9781862879188.
    7. ^ "House of Representatives Practice, 6th Ed – Chapter 3 – Elections and the electoral system". Parliament of Australia. 2015. Archived from the original on 27 March 2022. Retrieved 25 March 2017.
    8. ^ "A Short History of Federal Election Reform in Australia". Australian Electoral Commission. 8 June 2007. Archived from the original on 4 March 2022. Retrieved 1 July 2007.
    9. ^ "Odgers' Australian Senate Practice Fourteenth Edition Chapter 21 – Relations with the House of Representatives". Parliament of Australia. 2017. Archived from the original on 16 March 2022. Retrieved 22 March 2017.


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    10 May 1824 – The National Gallery in London opens to the public.

    National Gallery

    The National Gallery is an art museum in Trafalgar Square in the City of Westminster, in Central London, England. Founded in 1824, in it houses a collection of more than 2,300 paintings dating from the mid-13th century to 1900.[note 1] The current Director of the National Gallery is Gabriele Finaldi.

    The National Gallery is an exempt charity, and a non-departmental public body of the Department for Culture, Media and Sport.[2] Its collection belongs to the government on behalf of the British public, and entry to the main collection is free of charge.

    Unlike comparable museums in continental Europe, the National Gallery was not formed by nationalising an existing royal or princely art collection. It came into being when the British government bought 38 paintings from the heirs of John Julius Angerstein in 1824. After that initial purchase, the Gallery was shaped mainly by its early directors, especially Charles Lock Eastlake, and by private donations, which now account for two-thirds of the collection.[3] The collection is smaller than many European national galleries, but encyclopaedic in scope; most major developments in Western painting "from Giotto to Cézanne"[4] are represented with important works. It used to be claimed that this was one of the few national galleries that had all its works on permanent exhibition,[5] but this is no longer the case.

    The present building, the third site to house the National Gallery, was designed by William Wilkins. Building began in 1832 and it opened to the public in 1838. Only the façade onto Trafalgar Square remains essentially unchanged from this time, as the building has been expanded piecemeal throughout its history. Wilkins's building was often criticised for the perceived weaknesses of its design and for its lack of space; the latter problem led to the establishment of the Tate Gallery for British art in 1897. The Sainsbury Wing, a 1991 extension to the west by Robert Venturi and Denise Scott Brown, is a significant example of Postmodernist architecture in Britain.

    1. ^ "British Museum is the most-visited UK attraction again". BBC News. Retrieved 18 March 2024.
    2. ^ "Constitution". The National Gallery. Archived from the original on 6 April 2010.
    3. ^ Gentili, Barcham & Whiteley 2000, p. 7.
    4. ^ Chilvers, Ian (2003). The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Art and Artists. Oxford Oxford University Press, p. 413. The formula was used by Michael Levey, later the Gallery's eleventh director, for the title of a popular survey of European painting: Levey, Michael (1972). From Giotto to Cézanne: A Concise History of Painting. London: Thames and Hudson
    5. ^ Potterton 1977, p. 8.


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    12 May 1965 – The Soviet spacecraft Luna 5 crashes on the Moon.

    Luna 5

    Luna 5, or E-6 No.10 (Ye-6 series), was an uncrewed Soviet spacecraft intended to land on the Moon as part of the Luna programme. It was intended to become the first spacecraft to achieve a soft landing on the Moon, however its retrorockets failed, and the spacecraft impacted the lunar surface.

    1. ^ a b c d Cite error: The named reference NSSDC was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
     
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    13 May 1971 – Over 900 unarmed Bengali Hindus are murdered in the Demra massacre.

    Demra massacre

    Demra massacre (Bengali: ডেমরা গণহত্যা) in Bangladesh was the massacre of unarmed Hindu residents of the villages under Demra Union in present-day Faridpur Upazila in Pabna District by the Pakistan Army aided by local collaborators on 13 May 1971. It is estimated that 800–900 people were killed in a single day.[1][2] Rape and plunder were also carried out, and mosques, temples, schools and houses were set on fire.[1]

    1. ^ a b Md. Habibullah (2012). "Faridpur Upazila". In Sirajul Islam and Ahmed A. Jamal (ed.). Banglapedia: National Encyclopedia of Bangladesh (Second ed.). Asiatic Society of Bangladesh.
    2. ^ Cite error: The named reference tds07112010 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
     
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    14 May 1836 – The Treaties of Velasco are signed in Velasco, Texas.

    Treaties of Velasco

    The Treaties of Velasco were two documents, one private and the other public, signed in Fort Velasco on May 14, 1836 between General Antonio López de Santa Anna and the Republic of Texas in the aftermath of the Battle of San Jacinto on April 21, 1836. The part of the former Velasco, Texas, in which the fort was located is now part of the present-day location of Surfside Beach. The signatories were Interim President David G. Burnet for Texas and Santa Anna for Mexico. Texas intended the agreements to conclude hostilities between the two armies and offer the first steps toward the official recognition of Texas's independence from Mexico. At their drafting, the documents were called a "Public Agreement" and a "Secret Treaty."[1][full citation needed]

    Santa Anna had been captured by Texans. Many wanted him hanged as just vengeance for the murder of comrades and family during the battles at Alamo and Goliad, but Sam Houston spared his life and extracted a promise from Santa Anna that Mexican troops would be removed from Texas.[2] Santa Anna persuaded Burnet that if he were allowed to return to Mexico City, he would argue for the independence of Texas. Santa Anna signed both the public agreement and the secret treaty, but neither was ratified as a treaty by the Mexican government because he had signed them under duress while being held captive. Santa Anna later said, "I did promise to try to get a hearing for the Texas Commissioners, but this in itself did not bind the government to receive them."

    The Mexican Congress considered Santa Anna's actions scandalous and nullified both. Mexican conservatives removed Santa Anna as president and installed Anastasio Bustamante, and there was an agreement with the Mexican Congress that Santa Anna had "offered nothing in the name of the nation."[3]

    A biographer of Santa Anna, Will Fowler, considered that the "general of tricks was at his most ingenious" with the negotiations with Texas since he did not commit himself to do anything other than to permit Texas commissioners to present their case to the Mexican government. He was "no longer in a position to act freely, and anything he said or signed would not be validated by Congress" since as a captive, he was no longer president. A draft of the agreement, which Santa Anna refused to sign until it was amended, stated that he recognized as "Head of the Mexican Nation" Texas's independence, text that was later dropped. Santa Anna sent a message to General Vicente Filisola to retreat below the Rio Grande, but his message made it clear that Filisola was in charge. Fowler argues that Filisola should have known that Santa Anna was in no position to be issuing orders since he had been captured. Both Filisola and Santa Anna were blamed for the defeat, but signing the Velasco documents did not commit either Santa Anna or Mexico to Texas independence.[4]

    Mexico still claimed Texas but was too weak to attempt to reconquer it; thus, Texas was de facto independent.[5] The documents were not even called "treaties" until they were so characterized by U.S. President James K. Polk in his justifications for war some ten years later, as U.S. Representative Abraham Lincoln pointed out in 1848.[6] Lincoln's efforts earned the freshman Whig U.S. Representative the derisive sobriquet "Spotty" Lincoln because of his Spot Resolutions, which demanded to know that the "spot" at which American troops were killed was on American soil, which Polk argued to justify war with Mexico.

    1. ^ Treaties of Velasco
    2. ^ Hanighen, Frank Cleary (1934). Santa Anna, the Napoleon of the West. Coward-McCann, Inc. OCLC 651195464.
    3. ^ Christiansen, Carol, and Christiansen, Thomas. The U.S.–Mexican War. Companion to the PBS series The U.S.–Mexican War, 1846–1848. San Francisco: Bay Books 1998, pp. 26–28.
    4. ^ Fowler, Will (2007). Santa Anna of Mexico. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, pp. 176–77.
    5. ^ de la Teja, Jesús. "Texas Secession". In Encyclopedia of Mexico. Chicago: Fitzroy Dearborn, 1997, pp. 1495–96.
    6. ^ "A Century of Lawmaking for a New Nation: U.S. Congressional Documents and Debates, 1774 - 1875". memory.loc.gov.
     
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    15 May 1929 – A fire at the Cleveland Clinic in Cleveland, Ohio kills 123.

    Cleveland Clinic fire of 1929

    A major structure fire occurred at the Cleveland Clinic in Cleveland, Ohio, United States, on May 15, 1929. Flammable nitrocellulose X-ray film ignited in a basement storage room, emitting a poisonous yellowish-brown gas which spread throughout much of the Clinic and subsequently exploded several times.[1] The fire claimed 123 lives including that of one of the Clinic's founders, Dr. John Phillips.[2][3] Most of the deaths from the fire were due to toxic inhalation. Many were immediate; some were delayed by hours or even days. A policeman, Ernest Staab, rescued 21 victims from the fire, and left the scene, seemingly in good health. He later collapsed while working on his lawn, was hospitalized, but contrary to many contemporaneous newspaper articles[a] survived and worked for the police department for another 25 years.[7][6]

    1. ^ "Cleveland Clinic Fire". Retrieved 2009-06-16.
    2. ^ "Cleveland, OH Clinic Explosion and Fire, May 1929". Archived from the original on 2021-10-17. Retrieved 2021-08-03.
    3. ^ "Encyclopedia of Cleveland History: Cleveland Clinic Disaster". Retrieved 2011-05-07.
    4. ^ "Policeman Dies After Taking 21 Out of Gas-Filled Clinic". New York Times. New York, NY. AP. May 16, 1929. p. 2. Retrieved August 8, 2022.
    5. ^ "Life Given Moving 21 Living and Dead". Washington Post. Washington, D.C. AP. May 16, 1929. p. 2. Retrieved August 8, 2022 – via ProQuest Historical Newspapers.
    6. ^ a b Teed, Dexter (May 18, 1931). ""Creeping Death" Still Pursues Policeman-Hero of Great Cleveland Clinic Disaster of 1929". Grand Island Daily Independent. Grand Island, Nebraska. NEA. p. 13. Retrieved August 8, 2022 – via Newspapers.com.
    7. ^ "Policeman Ernest Staab's Heroic Effort". Cleveland Historical. (Source: Cleveland Memory Project, Cleveland State University Library Special Collections / Corbis photo). Center for Public History + Digital Humanities. Archived from the original on October 16, 2021. Retrieved August 8, 2022.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: others (link)


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