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This day in .....

Discussion in 'Break Room' started by NewsBot, Apr 6, 2008.

  1. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    16 May 1966 – The Communist Party of China issues the "May 16 Notice", marking the beginning of the Cultural Revolution.

    Cultural Revolution

    The Cultural Revolution, formally known as the Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution, was a sociopolitical movement in the People's Republic of China (PRC). It was launched by Mao Zedong in 1966 and lasted until his death in 1976. Its stated goal was to preserve Chinese communism by purging remnants of capitalist and traditional elements from Chinese society. Though it failed to achieve its main objectives, the Cultural Revolution marked the effective return of Mao to the center of power. This came after a period of relative absence for Mao, who had been sidelined by the more moderate Seven Thousand Cadres Conference in the aftermath of the Great Leap Forward and the following Great Chinese Famine.

    In May 1966, with the help of the Cultural Revolution Group, Mao launched the Revolution and said that bourgeois elements had infiltrated the government and society with the aim of restoring capitalism. Mao called on young people to bombard the headquarters, and proclaimed that "to rebel is justified". Mass upheaval began in Beijing with Red August in 1966. Many young people, mainly students, responded by forming cadres of Red Guards throughout the country. A selection of Mao's sayings were compiled into the Little Red Book, which became revered within his cult of personality. In 1967, emboldened radicals began seizing power from local governments and party branches, establishing new revolutionary committees in their place. These committees often split into rival factions, precipitating armed clashes among the radicals. After the fall of Lin Biao in 1971, the Gang of Four became influential in 1972, and the Revolution continued until Mao's death in 1976, soon followed by the arrest of the Gang of Four.

    The Cultural Revolution was characterized by violence and chaos across Chinese society, including a massacre in Guangxi that included acts of cannibalism, as well as massacres in Beijing, Inner Mongolia, Guangdong, Yunnan, and Hunan.[1] Estimates of the death toll vary widely, typically ranging from 1–2 million. Red Guards sought to destroy the Four Olds (old ideas, old culture, old customs, and old habits), which often took the form of destroying historical artifacts, cultural and religious sites, and targeting others deemed to be representative of the Four Olds. Tens of millions were persecuted, including senior officials: most notably, president Liu Shaoqi, as well as Deng Xiaoping, Peng Dehuai, and He Long. Millions were persecuted for being members of the Five Black Categories. Intellectuals and scientists were considered to be the Stinking Old Ninth, and many were persecuted. The country's schools and universities were closed, and the National College Entrance Examination were cancelled. Over 10 million youth from urban areas were relocated under the Down to the Countryside Movement policy.

    In December 1978, Deng Xiaoping became the new paramount leader of China, replacing Mao's successor Hua Guofeng. Deng and his allies introduced the Boluan Fanzheng program and initiated reforms and opening of China, which gradually dismantled the ideology of Cultural Revolution. In 1981, the Communist Party publicly acknowledged numerous failures of the Cultural Revolution, declaring it "responsible for the most severe setback and the heaviest losses suffered by the people, the country, and the party since the founding of the People's Republic." Given its broad scope and social impact, memories and perspectives of the Cultural Revolution are varied and complex in contemporary China. It is often referred to as the "ten years of chaos" (十年动乱; shí nián dòngluàn) or "ten years of havoc" (十年浩劫; shí nián hàojié).[2][3]

    1. ^ Cite error: The named reference Song-2011a was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    2. ^ "Translation Glossary for the CR/10 Project" (PDF). University of Pittsburgh. Retrieved 28 November 2023.
    3. ^ Lu, Xing (2004). Rhetoric of the Chinese Cultural Revolution: The Impact on Chinese Thought. p. 2. Known to the Chinese as the ten years of chaos [...]
     
  2. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    16 May 1966 – The Communist Party of China issues the "May 16 Notice", marking the beginning of the Cultural Revolution.

    Cultural Revolution

    The Cultural Revolution, formally known as the Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution, was a sociopolitical movement in the People's Republic of China (PRC). It was launched by Mao Zedong in 1966 and lasted until his death in 1976. Its stated goal was to preserve Chinese communism by purging remnants of capitalist and traditional elements from Chinese society. Though it failed to achieve its main objectives, the Cultural Revolution marked the effective return of Mao to the center of power. This came after a period of relative absence for Mao, who had been sidelined by the more moderate Seven Thousand Cadres Conference in the aftermath of the Great Leap Forward and the following Great Chinese Famine.

    In May 1966, with the help of the Cultural Revolution Group, Mao launched the Revolution and said that bourgeois elements had infiltrated the government and society with the aim of restoring capitalism. Mao called on young people to bombard the headquarters, and proclaimed that "to rebel is justified". Mass upheaval began in Beijing with Red August in 1966. Many young people, mainly students, responded by forming cadres of Red Guards throughout the country. A selection of Mao's sayings were compiled into the Little Red Book, which became revered within his cult of personality. In 1967, emboldened radicals began seizing power from local governments and party branches, establishing new revolutionary committees in their place. These committees often split into rival factions, precipitating armed clashes among the radicals. After the fall of Lin Biao in 1971, the Gang of Four became influential in 1972, and the Revolution continued until Mao's death in 1976, soon followed by the arrest of the Gang of Four.

    The Cultural Revolution was characterized by violence and chaos across Chinese society, including a massacre in Guangxi that included acts of cannibalism, as well as massacres in Beijing, Inner Mongolia, Guangdong, Yunnan, and Hunan.[1] Estimates of the death toll vary widely, typically ranging from 1–2 million. Red Guards sought to destroy the Four Olds (old ideas, old culture, old customs, and old habits), which often took the form of destroying historical artifacts, cultural and religious sites, and targeting others deemed to be representative of the Four Olds. Tens of millions were persecuted, including senior officials: most notably, president Liu Shaoqi, as well as Deng Xiaoping, Peng Dehuai, and He Long. Millions were persecuted for being members of the Five Black Categories. Intellectuals and scientists were considered to be the Stinking Old Ninth, and many were persecuted. The country's schools and universities were closed, and the National College Entrance Examination were cancelled. Over 10 million youth from urban areas were relocated under the Down to the Countryside Movement policy.

    In December 1978, Deng Xiaoping became the new paramount leader of China, replacing Mao's successor Hua Guofeng. Deng and his allies introduced the Boluan Fanzheng program and initiated reforms and opening of China, which gradually dismantled the ideology of Cultural Revolution. In 1981, the Communist Party publicly acknowledged numerous failures of the Cultural Revolution, declaring it "responsible for the most severe setback and the heaviest losses suffered by the people, the country, and the party since the founding of the People's Republic." Given its broad scope and social impact, memories and perspectives of the Cultural Revolution are varied and complex in contemporary China. It is often referred to as the "ten years of chaos" (十年动乱; shí nián dòngluàn) or "ten years of havoc" (十年浩劫; shí nián hàojié).[2][3]

    1. ^ Cite error: The named reference Song-2011a was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    2. ^ "Translation Glossary for the CR/10 Project" (PDF). University of Pittsburgh. Retrieved 28 November 2023.
    3. ^ Lu, Xing (2004). Rhetoric of the Chinese Cultural Revolution: The Impact on Chinese Thought. p. 2. Known to the Chinese as the ten years of chaos [...]
     
  3. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    17 May 1875Aristides wins the first Kentucky Derby.

    Kentucky Derby

    The Kentucky Derby (/ˈdɜːrbi/) is an American Grade I stakes race run at Churchill Downs in Louisville, Kentucky. The race is run by three-year-old Thoroughbreds at a distance of 1+14 miles (10 furlongs; 2,012 metres), the first time horses in the field race that distance. Colts and geldings carry 126 pounds (57 kilograms) and fillies 121 pounds (55 kilograms).[3]

    Held annually on the first Saturday in May, the race is the first leg of the Triple Crown. The Derby is known as "The Run for the Roses", as the winning horse is draped in a blanket of roses. Lasting approximately two minutes, the race has also been called "The Most Exciting Two Minutes in Sports" or "The Fastest Two Minutes in Sports". It is preceded by the two-week-long Kentucky Derby Festival.[4]

    The race was first run in 1875. Unlike the other races of the Triple Crown, the Preakness Stakes and the Belmont Stakes, the Kentucky Derby, along with its sibling race, the Kentucky Oaks, has been run annually since its first edition. They were twice rescheduled within the same year, the first time due to World War II in 1945, and the second time due to the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020.[5] Further, the Derby and the Oaks are the oldest continuously held major sporting events in the US, as well as the oldest thoroughbred stakes races held in the same location since their beginning.[6]

    The Derby is the most-watched and most-attended horse race in the United States. The 2024 Kentucky Derby marks the 150th running of the race.

    1. ^ Cite error: The named reference Woodford was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    2. ^ Frakes, Jason (January 10, 2024). "2024 Kentucky Derby to feature record $5 million purse. Here are payouts for 150th running". Courier Journal. Archived from the original on January 28, 2024. Retrieved January 19, 2024.
    3. ^ "Tenth Race Churchill May 1, 2004". May 1, 2004. Daily Racing Forum. Accessed on May 9, 2006.
    4. ^ "What is the Derby Festival®? – Our Story". Kentucky Derby Festival. Retrieved January 31, 2024. The Festival blasts off each year with the Opening Ceremonies – Thunder Over Louisville, one of the nation's largest annual fireworks extravaganzas! The ensuing two weeks of excitement and entertainment promise something for everyone.
    5. ^ https://www.tvg.com/promos/kentucky-derby/kentucky-derby-history.html Archived January 27, 2019, at the Wayback Machine Kentucky Derby History
    6. ^ Renau, Lynn S. (2001). "Kentucky Derby". In Kleber, John E. (ed.). The Encyclopedia of Louisville. Lexington, Kentucky: University Press of Kentucky. p. 467. ISBN 0-8131-2100-0. OCLC 247857447. Archived from the original on March 13, 2023. Retrieved January 19, 2024.
     
  4. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    18 May 1756 – The Seven Years' War begins when Great Britain declares war on France.

    Seven Years' War

    The Seven Years' War (1756–1763) was a global conflict involving most of the European great powers, fought primarily in Europe and the Americas. The opposing alliances were led by Great Britain, primarily supported by Prussia, and France, backed by Spain, Saxony, Sweden, and Russia. Related conflicts include the 1754 to 1763 French and Indian War, and 1762 to 1763 Anglo-Spanish War.

    The War of the Austrian Succession ended in 1748, but failed to resolve ongoing tensions between the European powers. Continuing colonial disputes between Britain and France in North America resulted in the outbreak of the French and Indian War in 1754. Following the realignment of traditional alliances in the so-called 1756 Diplomatic Revolution, Prussia allied with Britain, while the long running French–Habsburg rivalry ended when Austria signed a treaty with France.

    Spain entered the war on the French side in 1762, unsuccessfully attempting to invade Britain's ally Portugal in what became known as the Fantastic War. Spain lost Havana in Cuba and Manila in the Philippines to Britain, but they were returned in the 1763 Treaty of Paris.

    In Europe, the large-scale conflict that drew in most of the European powers was centred on the desire of Austria to recover Silesia from Prussia. The Treaty of Hubertusburg ended the war between Saxony, Austria and Prussia, in 1763. France's supremacy in Europe was halted, while Prussia confirmed its status as a great power, challenging Austria for dominance within the Holy Roman Empire, thus altering the European balance of power.

    1. ^ Kohn (2000), p. 417.
    2. ^ https://www.kronoskaf.com/syw/index.php?title=Volga_Kalmyks#:~:text=Service%20during%20the%20War,the%20campaign%20in%20East%20Prussia
    3. ^ "British History in depth: Was the American Revolution Inevitable?". BBC History. Retrieved 21 July 2018. In 1763, Americans joyously celebrated the British victory in the Seven Years' War, revelling in their identity as Britons and jealously guarding their much-celebrated rights which they believed they possessed by virtue of membership in what they saw as the world's greatest empire.
    4. ^ a b c d e f Danley (2012), p. 524.
    5. ^ Speelman (2012), p. 524.


    Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

     
  5. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    18 May 1756 – The Seven Years' War begins when Great Britain declares war on France.

    Seven Years' War

    The Seven Years' War (1756–1763) was a global conflict involving most of the European great powers, fought primarily in Europe and the Americas. The opposing alliances were led by Great Britain, primarily supported by Prussia, and France, backed by Spain, Saxony, Sweden, and Russia. Related conflicts include the 1754 to 1763 French and Indian War, and 1762 to 1763 Anglo-Spanish War.

    The War of the Austrian Succession ended in 1748, but failed to resolve ongoing tensions between the European powers. Continuing colonial disputes between Britain and France in North America resulted in the outbreak of the French and Indian War in 1754. Following the realignment of traditional alliances in the so-called 1756 Diplomatic Revolution, Prussia allied with Britain, while the long running French–Habsburg rivalry ended when Austria signed a treaty with France.

    Spain entered the war on the French side in 1762, unsuccessfully attempting to invade Britain's ally Portugal in what became known as the Fantastic War. Spain lost Havana in Cuba and Manila in the Philippines to Britain, but they were returned in the 1763 Treaty of Paris.

    In Europe, the large-scale conflict that drew in most of the European powers was centred on the desire of Austria to recover Silesia from Prussia. The Treaty of Hubertusburg ended the war between Saxony, Austria and Prussia, in 1763. France's supremacy in Europe was halted, while Prussia confirmed its status as a great power, challenging Austria for dominance within the Holy Roman Empire, thus altering the European balance of power.

    1. ^ Kohn (2000), p. 417.
    2. ^ https://www.kronoskaf.com/syw/index.php?title=Volga_Kalmyks#:~:text=Service%20during%20the%20War,the%20campaign%20in%20East%20Prussia
    3. ^ "British History in depth: Was the American Revolution Inevitable?". BBC History. Retrieved 21 July 2018. In 1763, Americans joyously celebrated the British victory in the Seven Years' War, revelling in their identity as Britons and jealously guarding their much-celebrated rights which they believed they possessed by virtue of membership in what they saw as the world's greatest empire.
    4. ^ a b c d e f Danley (2012), p. 524.
    5. ^ Speelman (2012), p. 524.


    Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

     
  6. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    19 May 1802Napoleon Bonaparte founds the Legion of Honour.

    Legion of Honour

    The National Order of the Legion of Honour (French: Ordre national de la Légion d'honneur [ɔʁdʁ nɑsjɔnal la leʒjɔ̃ dɔnœʁ]), formerly the Royal Order of the Legion of Honour (Ordre royal de la Légion d'honneur), is the highest French order of merit, both military and civil. Established in 1802 by Napoleon Bonaparte, it has been retained (with occasional slight alterations) by all later French governments and regimes.

    The order's motto is Honneur et Patrie ("Honour and Fatherland"); its seat is the Palais de la Légion d'Honneur next to the Musée d'Orsay, on the left bank of the Seine in Paris.[a] Since 1 February 2023, the Order's grand chancellor has been retired General François Lecointre, who succeeded fellow retired General Benoît Puga in office.

    The order is divided into five degrees of increasing distinction: Chevalier (Knight), Officier (Officer), Commandeur (Commander), Grand officier (Grand Officer) and Grand-croix (Grand Cross).

    1. ^ Le petit Larousse 2013, p.1567.


    Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

     
  7. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    20 May 1969 – The Battle of Hamburger Hill in Vietnam ends.

    Battle of Hamburger Hill

    The Battle of Hamburger Hill (13–20 May 1969) was fought by US Army and Army of the Republic of Vietnam (ARVN) forces against People's Army of Vietnam (PAVN) forces during Operation Apache Snow of the Vietnam War. Though the heavily-fortified Hill 937, a ridge of the mountain Dong Ap Bia in central Vietnam near its western border with Laos, had little strategic value, US command ordered its capture by a frontal assault, only to abandon it soon thereafter. The action caused a controversy among both the US armed services and the public back home.

    The battle was primarily an infantry engagement, with the US Airborne troops moving up the steeply sloped hill against well-entrenched troops. Attacks were repeatedly repelled by the PAVN defenses. Bad weather also hindered operations. Nevertheless, the Airborne troops took the hill through direct assault, causing extensive casualties to the PAVN forces.

    1. ^ a b Smedberg, M(2008) (2008). Vietnamkrigen: 1880-1980. Historiska Media. p. 211.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
    2. ^ "Battle of Dong Ap Bia - Hill 937 10-21 May 1969" (PDF). Headquarters 101st Airborne Division. 24 May 1969. Archived from the original (PDF) on 15 May 2019. Retrieved 26 May 2019.Public Domain This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.
    3. ^ "Người phụ nữ chỉ huy trận đánh trên 'Đồi thịt băm'". Báo điện tử Tiền Phong. 4 May 2015.
    4. ^ "Battle of Dong Ap Bia - Hill 937 10–21 May 1969" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 3 March 2016. Retrieved 4 June 2019.
    5. ^ "Battles of the Vietnam War".
     
  8. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    21 May 1904 – The Fédération Internationale de Football Association (FIFA) is founded in Paris.

    FIFA

    The Fédération internationale de football association (French for 'International Association Football Federation';[3] abbreviated as FIFA and pronounced in English as /ˈffə/ FEE-fə) is the international governing body of association football, beach soccer, and futsal. It was founded in 1904[4] to oversee international competition among the national associations of Belgium, Denmark, France, Germany, the Netherlands, Spain (represented by the Madrid Football Club), Sweden, and Switzerland. Headquartered in Zürich, Switzerland, its membership now comprises 211 national associations. These national associations must also be members of one of the six regional confederations into which the world is divided: CAF (Africa), AFC (Asia and Australia), UEFA (Europe), CONCACAF (North & Central America and the Caribbean), OFC (Oceania), and CONMEBOL (South America).

    FIFA outlines several objectives in its organizational statutes, including growing association football internationally, providing efforts to ensure it is accessible to everyone, and advocating for integrity and fair play.[5] It is responsible for the organization and promotion of association football's major international tournaments, notably the World Cup which commenced in 1930, and the Women's World Cup which began in 1991. Although FIFA does not solely set the laws of the game, that being the responsibility of the International Football Association Board of which FIFA is a member, it applies and enforces the rules across all FIFA competitions.[6] All FIFA tournaments generate revenue from sponsorships; in 2022, FIFA had revenues of over US $5.8 billion, ending the 2019–2022 cycle with a net positive of US$1.2 billion, and cash reserves of over US$3.9 billion.[7]

    Reports by investigative journalists have linked FIFA leadership with corruption, bribery, and vote-rigging related to the election of FIFA president Sepp Blatter and the organization's decision to award the 2018 and 2022 World Cups to Russia and Qatar, respectively. These allegations led to the indictments of nine high-ranking FIFA officials and five corporate executives by the U.S. Department of Justice on charges including racketeering, wire fraud, and money laundering. On 27 May 2015, several of these officials were arrested by Swiss authorities, who launched a simultaneous but separate criminal investigation into how the organization awarded the 2018 and 2022 World Cups. Those among these officials who were also indicted in the U.S. are expected to be extradited to face charges there as well.[8][9][10]

    Many officials were suspended by FIFA's ethics committee including Sepp Blatter[11] and Michel Platini.[12] In early 2017, reports became public about FIFA president Gianni Infantino attempting to prevent the re-elections[13] of both chairmen of the ethics committee, Cornel Borbély and Hans-Joachim Eckert, during the FIFA congress in May 2017.[14][15] On 9 May 2017, following Infantino's proposal,[16] FIFA Council decided not to renew the mandates of Borbély and Eckert.[16] Together with the chairmen, 11 of 13 committee members were removed. FIFA has been suspected of corruption regarding the Qatar 2022 FIFA World Cup.[17]

    1. ^ "Fédération Internationale de Football Association". Filmcircle.com. 11 June 2014. Archived from the original on 8 October 2014. Retrieved 11 June 2014.
    2. ^ "FIFA Committees – FIFA Council". FIFA. Archived from the original on 28 April 2015. Retrieved 19 December 2016.
    3. ^ "International Association Football Federation". International Olympic Committee. Retrieved 5 December 2022.
    4. ^ "History of FIFA - Foundation". FIFA. Archived from the original on 16 May 2015. Retrieved 15 June 2018.
    5. ^ "FIFA Statutes". FIFA. Archived from the original on 23 April 2015. Retrieved 10 July 2019.
    6. ^ "About FIFA: Organisation". FIFA. Archived from the original on 5 September 2015. Retrieved 10 July 2019.
    7. ^ "2022 Financial Highlights". FIFA. Retrieved 7 April 2023.
    8. ^ Clifford, Stephanie; Apuzzo, Matt (27 May 2015). "FIFA officials arrested on corruption charges; Sepp Blatter isn't among them". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 27 May 2015. Retrieved 1 March 2017.
    9. ^ "Nine FIFA Officials and Five Corporate Executives Indicted for Racketeering Conspiracy and Corruption". U.S. DOJ Office of Public Affairs. 27 May 2015. Archived from the original on 27 May 2015. Retrieved 27 May 2015.
    10. ^ Collett, Mike; Homewood, Brian (27 May 2015). "World soccer rocked as top officials held in U.S., Swiss graft cases". Reuters. Archived from the original on 24 September 2015. Retrieved 27 May 2015.
    11. ^ "Sepp Blatter and Michel Platini banned for eight years by Fifa". The Daily Telegraph. Archived from the original on 10 January 2022. Retrieved 24 March 2017.
    12. ^ "Rise and fall of Michel Platini – the self-proclaimed 'football man' who forgot the meaning of integrity". The Daily Telegraph. Archived from the original on 10 January 2022. Retrieved 24 March 2017.
    13. ^ Conn, David (2 March 2017). "Trust in Fifa has improved only slightly under Gianni Infantino, survey finds". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Archived from the original on 24 March 2017. Retrieved 24 March 2017.
    14. ^ "FIFA Ethics Chiefs Facing Uncertain Future". The New York Times. Reuters. 15 March 2017. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 24 March 2017.
    15. ^ "Infantino at 1. Are the Ethics bigwigs the next stop on his personal 'reform' agenda?". Inside World Football. 27 February 2017. Archived from the original on 25 March 2017. Retrieved 24 March 2017.
    16. ^ a b "FIFA Ethics Committee still investigating 'hundreds' of cases: Borbely". Reuters. 10 May 2017. Archived from the original on 10 May 2017. Retrieved 10 May 2017.
    17. ^ Ellis, Sam (9 December 2022). "How FIFA corrupted the World Cup". Vox. Retrieved 10 January 2023.
     
  9. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    22 May 1906 – The Wright brothers are granted U.S. patent number 821,393 for their "Flying-Machine".

    Wright brothers

    The Wright brothers, Orville Wright (August 19, 1871 – January 30, 1948) and Wilbur Wright (April 16, 1867 – May 30, 1912), were American aviation pioneers generally credited with inventing, building, and flying the world's first successful airplane.[3][4][5] They made the first controlled, sustained flight of an engine-powered, heavier-than-air aircraft with the Wright Flyer on December 17, 1903, four miles (6 km) south of Kitty Hawk, North Carolina, at what is now known as Kill Devil Hills. In 1904 the Wright brothers developed the Wright Flyer II, which made longer-duration flights including the first circle, followed in 1905 by the first truly practical fixed-wing aircraft, the Wright Flyer III.

    The brothers' breakthrough invention was their creation of a three-axis control system, which enabled the pilot to steer the aircraft effectively and to maintain its equilibrium. Their system of aircraft controls made fixed-wing powered flight possible and remains standard on airplanes of all kinds.[6][7][8][9][10][11]: 183  Their first U.S. patent did not claim invention of a flying machine, but rather a system of aerodynamic control that manipulated a flying machine's surfaces.[12] From the beginning of their aeronautical work, Wilbur and Orville focused on developing a reliable method of pilot control as the key to solving "the flying problem". This approach differed significantly from other experimenters of the time who put more emphasis on developing powerful engines.[13] Using a small home-built wind tunnel, the Wrights also collected more accurate data than any before, enabling them to design more efficient wings and propellers.[11]: 156 [14]: 228 

    The brothers gained the mechanical skills essential to their success by working for years in their Dayton, Ohio-based shop with printing presses, bicycles, motors, and other machinery. Their work with bicycles, in particular, influenced their belief that an unstable vehicle such as a flying machine could be controlled and balanced with practice.[14]: 169  This was a trend, as many other aviation pioneers were also dedicated cyclists and involved in the bicycle business in various ways.[15] From 1900 until their first powered flights in late 1903, the brothers conducted extensive glider tests that also developed their skills as pilots. Their shop mechanic Charles Taylor became an important part of the team, building their first airplane engine in close collaboration with the brothers.[16]

    The Wright brothers' status as inventors of the airplane has been subject to numerous counter-claims. Much controversy persists over the many competing claims of early aviators. Edward Roach, historian for the Dayton Aviation Heritage National Historical Park, argues that the Wrights were excellent self-taught engineers who could run a small company, but did not have the business skills or temperament to dominate the growing aviation industry.[17]


    Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

    1. ^ Cite error: The named reference NYTOrville was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    2. ^ Cite error: The named reference NYTWilbur was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    3. ^ "The Wright Brothers and the invention of the aerial age". National Air and Space Museum. Smithsonian Institution. Archived from the original on August 13, 2015. Retrieved September 21, 2010.
    4. ^ Johnson, Mary Ann (September 28, 2001). "Program 3". Following the footsteps of the Wright Brothers: Their sites and stories symposium papers. Following in the Footsteps of the Wright Brothers: Their Sites and Stories. Archived from the original on June 19, 2015. Retrieved August 16, 2015.
    5. ^ "Flying through the ages". BBC News. March 19, 1999. Archived from the original on October 21, 2014. Retrieved July 17, 2009.
    6. ^ "Inventing a flying machine – the breakthrough concept". The Wright Brothers and the invention of the aerial age. The Smithsonian Institution. Archived from the original on January 17, 2015. Retrieved March 5, 2013.
    7. ^ "Wagging Its Tail". The Wright Story – Inventing the Airplane, wright-brothers.org. Archived from the original on October 21, 2014. Retrieved March 5, 2013.
    8. ^ "Aviation: From sand dunes to sonic booms". U.S. National Park Service. Archived from the original on June 10, 2015. Retrieved March 5, 2013.
    9. ^ Padfield, Gareth D.; Lawrence, Ben (December 2003). "The birth of flight control: An engineering analysis of the Wright brothers' 1902 glider" (PDF). Department of Engineering. The Aeronautical Journal. 107 (1078). The University of Liverpool: 697–718. doi:10.1017/S0001924000013464. S2CID 17689037. Archived (PDF) from the original on May 23, 2015. Retrieved January 23, 2008.
    10. ^ Howard 1988, p. 89.
    11. ^ a b Cite error: The named reference Jakab-1997 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    12. ^ "Flying machine". May 22, 1906. US Patent 821393. Retrieved July 17, 2022.
    13. ^ Mortimer 2009, p. 2.
    14. ^ a b Cite error: The named reference Crouch-2003 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    15. ^ Guroff, Margaret (July 8, 2016). "The Untold Story Of How Bicycle Design Led To The Invention Of The Airplane". Fast Company. Retrieved March 9, 2022.
    16. ^ "Taylor, Charles "Charley" : National Aviation Hall of Fame". www.nationalaviation.org. Archived from the original on April 25, 2018. Retrieved December 17, 2021.
    17. ^ Roach, Edward J. The Wright Company: From Invention to Industry. Athens, Ohio: Ohio University Press, 2014. ISBN 978-0-8214-2051-5, page 2.
     
  10. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    22 May 1906 – The Wright brothers are granted U.S. patent number 821,393 for their "Flying-Machine".

    Wright brothers

    The Wright brothers, Orville Wright (August 19, 1871 – January 30, 1948) and Wilbur Wright (April 16, 1867 – May 30, 1912), were American aviation pioneers generally credited with inventing, building, and flying the world's first successful airplane.[3][4][5] They made the first controlled, sustained flight of an engine-powered, heavier-than-air aircraft with the Wright Flyer on December 17, 1903, four miles (6 km) south of Kitty Hawk, North Carolina, at what is now known as Kill Devil Hills. In 1904 the Wright brothers developed the Wright Flyer II, which made longer-duration flights including the first circle, followed in 1905 by the first truly practical fixed-wing aircraft, the Wright Flyer III.

    The brothers' breakthrough invention was their creation of a three-axis control system, which enabled the pilot to steer the aircraft effectively and to maintain its equilibrium. Their system of aircraft controls made fixed-wing powered flight possible and remains standard on airplanes of all kinds.[6][7][8][9][10][11]: 183  Their first U.S. patent did not claim invention of a flying machine, but rather a system of aerodynamic control that manipulated a flying machine's surfaces.[12] From the beginning of their aeronautical work, Wilbur and Orville focused on developing a reliable method of pilot control as the key to solving "the flying problem". This approach differed significantly from other experimenters of the time who put more emphasis on developing powerful engines.[13] Using a small home-built wind tunnel, the Wrights also collected more accurate data than any before, enabling them to design more efficient wings and propellers.[11]: 156 [14]: 228 

    The brothers gained the mechanical skills essential to their success by working for years in their Dayton, Ohio-based shop with printing presses, bicycles, motors, and other machinery. Their work with bicycles, in particular, influenced their belief that an unstable vehicle such as a flying machine could be controlled and balanced with practice.[14]: 169  This was a trend, as many other aviation pioneers were also dedicated cyclists and involved in the bicycle business in various ways.[15] From 1900 until their first powered flights in late 1903, the brothers conducted extensive glider tests that also developed their skills as pilots. Their shop mechanic Charles Taylor became an important part of the team, building their first airplane engine in close collaboration with the brothers.[16]

    The Wright brothers' status as inventors of the airplane has been subject to numerous counter-claims. Much controversy persists over the many competing claims of early aviators. Edward Roach, historian for the Dayton Aviation Heritage National Historical Park, argues that the Wrights were excellent self-taught engineers who could run a small company, but did not have the business skills or temperament to dominate the growing aviation industry.[17]


    Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

    1. ^ Cite error: The named reference NYTOrville was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    2. ^ Cite error: The named reference NYTWilbur was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    3. ^ "The Wright Brothers and the invention of the aerial age". National Air and Space Museum. Smithsonian Institution. Archived from the original on August 13, 2015. Retrieved September 21, 2010.
    4. ^ Johnson, Mary Ann (September 28, 2001). "Program 3". Following the footsteps of the Wright Brothers: Their sites and stories symposium papers. Following in the Footsteps of the Wright Brothers: Their Sites and Stories. Archived from the original on June 19, 2015. Retrieved August 16, 2015.
    5. ^ "Flying through the ages". BBC News. March 19, 1999. Archived from the original on October 21, 2014. Retrieved July 17, 2009.
    6. ^ "Inventing a flying machine – the breakthrough concept". The Wright Brothers and the invention of the aerial age. The Smithsonian Institution. Archived from the original on January 17, 2015. Retrieved March 5, 2013.
    7. ^ "Wagging Its Tail". The Wright Story – Inventing the Airplane, wright-brothers.org. Archived from the original on October 21, 2014. Retrieved March 5, 2013.
    8. ^ "Aviation: From sand dunes to sonic booms". U.S. National Park Service. Archived from the original on June 10, 2015. Retrieved March 5, 2013.
    9. ^ Padfield, Gareth D.; Lawrence, Ben (December 2003). "The birth of flight control: An engineering analysis of the Wright brothers' 1902 glider" (PDF). Department of Engineering. The Aeronautical Journal. 107 (1078). The University of Liverpool: 697–718. doi:10.1017/S0001924000013464. S2CID 17689037. Archived (PDF) from the original on May 23, 2015. Retrieved January 23, 2008.
    10. ^ Howard 1988, p. 89.
    11. ^ a b Cite error: The named reference Jakab-1997 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    12. ^ "Flying machine". May 22, 1906. US Patent 821393. Retrieved July 17, 2022.
    13. ^ Mortimer 2009, p. 2.
    14. ^ a b Cite error: The named reference Crouch-2003 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    15. ^ Guroff, Margaret (July 8, 2016). "The Untold Story Of How Bicycle Design Led To The Invention Of The Airplane". Fast Company. Retrieved March 9, 2022.
    16. ^ "Taylor, Charles "Charley" : National Aviation Hall of Fame". www.nationalaviation.org. Archived from the original on April 25, 2018. Retrieved December 17, 2021.
    17. ^ Roach, Edward J. The Wright Company: From Invention to Industry. Athens, Ohio: Ohio University Press, 2014. ISBN 978-0-8214-2051-5, page 2.
     
  11. Admin2

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    23 May 2006 – Alaskan stratovolcano Mount Cleveland erupts.

    Mount Cleveland (Alaska)

    Mount Cleveland (also known as Cleveland Volcano) is a nearly symmetrical stratovolcano on the western end of Chuginadak Island, which is part of the Islands of Four Mountains just west of Umnak Island in the Fox Islands of the Aleutian Islands of Alaska. Mt. Cleveland is 5,675 ft (1,730 m) high, and one of the most active of the 75 or more volcanoes in the larger Aleutian Arc. Aleutian natives named the island after their fire goddess, Chuginadak, who they believed inhabited the volcano. In 1894 a team from the United States Coast and Geodetic Survey visited the island and gave Mount Cleveland its current name, after then-president Grover Cleveland.

    One of the most active volcanoes in the Aleutian Arc, Cleveland has erupted at least 22 times in the last 230 years[when?]. A VEI 3 eruption in 1944 produced the arc's only known volcanic fatality. Most recently Mount Cleveland has erupted three times in 2009, twice in 2010, once in 2011 and in 2016 and 2017.[1] The volcano's remoteness limits opportunities for its study, and the Alaska Volcano Observatory relies heavily on satellites for monitoring. The volcano is primarily hazardous to aircraft; many of the flights over the north Pacific approach the vicinity of the volcano, and volcanic ash released from eruptions can damage sensitive electronic equipment and sensors.

    1. ^ a b c d "Cleveland description and statistics". Alaska Volcano Observatory. Retrieved 4 September 2010.
    2. ^ "Alaska & Hawaii P1500s - the Ultras". PeakList.org. Retrieved 2013-01-06.
    3. ^ K .L. Wallace; R. G. McGimpsy & T. P. Miller (2000). "Historically Active Volcanoes in Alaska – A Quick Reference" (PDF). Fact Sheet FS 0118-00. United States Geological Survey. p. 2. Retrieved 9 September 2010.
     
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    24 May 1956 – The first Eurovision Song Contest is held in Lugano, Switzerland.

    Eurovision Song Contest

    The Eurovision Song Contest (French: Concours Eurovision de la chanson), often known simply as Eurovision or by its initialism ESC, is an international song competition organised annually by the European Broadcasting Union. Each participating country submits an original song to be performed live and transmitted to national broadcasters via the Eurovision and Euroradio networks, with competing countries then casting votes for the other countries' songs to determine a winner.

    The contest was inspired by and based on Italy's national Sanremo Music Festival, held in the Italian Riviera since 1951. Eurovision has been held annually since 1956 (apart from 2020 due to the COVID-19 pandemic), making it the longest-running international music competition on TV and one of the world's longest-running television programmes. Active members of the EBU and invited associate members are eligible to compete; as of 2023, 52 countries have participated at least once. Each participating broadcaster sends one original song of three minutes duration or less to be performed live by a singer or group of up to six people aged 16 or older. Each country awards 1–8, 10 and 12 points to their ten favourite songs, based on the views of an assembled group of music professionals and the country's viewing public, with the song receiving the most points declared the winner. Other performances feature alongside the competition, including a specially-commissioned opening and interval act and guest performances by musicians and other personalities, with past acts including Cirque du Soleil, Madonna, Justin Timberlake, Mika, Rita Ora and the first performance of Riverdance. Originally consisting of a single evening event, the contest has expanded as new countries joined (including countries outside of Europe, such as Israel and Australia), leading to the introduction of relegation procedures in the 1990s, before the creation of semi-finals in the 2000s. As of 2023, Germany has competed more times than any other country, having participated in all but one edition, while Ireland and Sweden both hold the record for the most victories, with seven wins each in total.

    Traditionally held in the country which won the preceding year's event, the contest provides an opportunity to promote the host country and city as a tourist destination. Thousands of spectators attend each year, along with journalists who cover all aspects of the contest, including rehearsals in venue, press conferences with the competing acts, in addition to other related events and performances in the host city. Alongside the generic Eurovision logo, a unique theme is typically developed for each event. The contest has aired in countries across all continents; it has been available online via the official Eurovision website since 2001. Eurovision ranks among the world's most watched non-sporting events every year, with hundreds of millions of viewers globally. Performing at the contest has often provided artists with a local career boost and in some cases long-lasting international success. Several of the best-selling music artists in the world have competed in past editions, including ABBA, Celine Dion, Julio Iglesias, Cliff Richard and Olivia Newton-John; some of the world's best-selling singles have received their first international performance on the Eurovision stage.

    While having gained popularity with the viewing public in both participating and non-participating countries, the contest has also been the subject of criticism for its artistic quality as well as a perceived political aspect to the event. Concerns have been raised regarding political friendships and rivalries between countries potentially having an impact on the results. Controversial moments have included participating countries withdrawing at a late stage, censorship of broadcast segments by broadcasters, as well as political events impacting participation. Likewise, the contest has also been criticised for an over-abundance of elaborate stage shows at the cost of artistic merit. Eurovision has, however, gained popularity for its kitsch appeal, its musical span of ethnic and international styles, as well as emergence as part of LGBT culture, resulting in a large, active fanbase and an influence on popular culture. The popularity of the contest has led to the creation of several similar events, either organised by the EBU or created by external organisations; several special events have been organised by the EBU to celebrate select anniversaries or as a replacement due to cancellation.

     
  13. Admin2

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    25 May 1833 – The Chilean Constitution of 1833 is promulgated.

    Chilean Constitution of 1833

    Painting of Diego Portales. The Constitution of 1833 has been seen as the embodiement of the "Portalian thought".

    The Constitution of 1833 was the constitution used in Chile from 1833 to 1925 when it was replaced by the Constitution of 1925. One of the most long-lived constitutions of Latin America, it was used to endorse both an authoritarian, presidential system and from 1891 onwards an oligarchic, parliamentary system.

    The constitution emerged after the Chilean Civil War of 1829 in which the conservative Pelucones (Whigs) defeated the Pipiolos (liberals). Its main ideologues where Mariano Egaña, Manuel José Gandarillas and Diego Portales all of whom saw from a conservative point of view the necessity of a unitarian state under a strong leadership. The constitution made Catholicism the state religion and forbade the practise of other religions, both in public and private life.[1] The first president to be elected under the constitution was the general José Joaquín Prieto. The constitution allowed for 5 year terms with the possibility of one reelection which resulted in 3 consecutive conservative presidents ruling Chile each for 10 years. Mariano Egaña had initially aimed at not putting any restriction on reelection.

    Chilean liberals considered the constitution authoritarian and made attempts to overthrow the government. During the failed Revolution of 1851 liberals in La Serena declared the constitution abolished. After the first liberal 10-year-long government the constitution was amended in 1871 to eliminate reelections.

    After the 1891 Chilean Civil War the constitution was amended in 1891, 1892 and 1893, and was interpreted to endorse a parliamentary system. Chilean historiography refers to this period as the "pseudo-parliamentary epoch".

    It was not until the turmoils of the 1920s that the constitution was replaced by the Constitution of 1925.

    1. ^ Lagos Schuffeneger, Humberto and Chacón Herrera, Arturo. 1987. Los Evangélicos en Chile: Una lectura sociológica. Ediciones Literatura Americana Reunida. p. 17.
     
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    26 May 1966British Guiana gains independence, becoming Guyana.

    British Guiana

    British Guiana was a British colony, part of the mainland British West Indies, which resides on the northern coast of South America. Since 1966 it has been known as the independent nation of Guyana.[2][page needed]

    The first known European to encounter Guiana was Sir Walter Raleigh, an English explorer and his crew. The Dutch were the first Europeans to settle there, starting in the early 17th century, when they founded the colonies of Essequibo and Berbice, adding Demerara in the mid-18th century. In 1796, Great Britain took over these three colonies during hostilities with the French, who had occupied the Netherlands. Britain returned control to the Batavian Republic in 1802 but captured the colonies a year later during the Napoleonic Wars. The colonies were officially ceded to the United Kingdom in 1815 and consolidated into a single colony in 1831. The colony's capital was at Georgetown (known as Stabroek prior to 1812). The economy has become more diversified since the late 19th century but has relied on resource exploitation. Guyana became independent of the United Kingdom on 26 May 1966.

    1. ^ a b "The British Empire in 1924". The British Empire. Archived from the original on 25 December 2018. Retrieved 7 November 2017.
    2. ^ Thomas J. Spinner, A political and social history of Guyana, 1945-1983 (1984).
     
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    27 May 1199John is crowned King of England.

    John, King of England

    John (24 December 1166 – 19 October 1216) was the King of England from 1199 until his death in 1216. He lost the Duchy of Normandy and most of his other French lands to King Philip II of France, resulting in the collapse of the Angevin Empire and contributing to the subsequent growth in power of the French Capetian dynasty during the 13th century. The baronial revolt at the end of John's reign led to the sealing of Magna Carta, a document considered an early step in the evolution of the constitution of the United Kingdom.

    John was the youngest son of King Henry II of England and Duchess Eleanor of Aquitaine. He was nicknamed John Lackland (Norman French: Jean sans Terre lit.'John without land')[1] because he was not expected to inherit significant lands.[2] He became Henry's favourite child following the failed revolt of 1173–1174 by his brothers Henry the Young King, Richard, and Geoffrey against the King. John was appointed Lord of Ireland in 1177 and given lands in England and on the continent. He unsuccessfully attempted a rebellion against the royal administrators of his brother, King Richard, while Richard was participating in the Third Crusade, but he was proclaimed king after Richard died in 1199. He came to an agreement with Philip II of France to recognise John's possession of the continental Angevin lands at the peace treaty of Le Goulet in 1200.

    When war with France broke out again in 1202, John achieved early victories, but shortages of military resources and his treatment of Norman, Breton, and Anjou nobles resulted in the collapse of his empire in northern France in 1204. He spent much of the next decade attempting to regain these lands, raising huge revenues, reforming his armed forces and rebuilding continental alliances. His judicial reforms had a lasting effect on the English common law system, as well as providing an additional source of revenue. An argument with Pope Innocent III led to John's excommunication in 1209, a dispute he finally settled in 1213. John's attempt to defeat Philip in 1214 failed because of the French victory over John's allies at the Battle of Bouvines. When he returned to England, John faced a rebellion by many of his barons, who were unhappy with his fiscal policies and his treatment of many of England's most powerful nobles. Magna Carta was drafted as a peace treaty between John and the barons, and agreed in 1215. However, neither side complied with its conditions and civil war broke out shortly afterwards, with the barons aided by Louis VIII of France. It soon descended into a stalemate. John died of dysentery contracted while on campaign in eastern England during late 1216; supporters of his son Henry III went on to achieve victory over Louis and the rebel barons the following year.

    Contemporary chroniclers were mostly critical of John's performance as king, and his reign has since been the subject of significant debate and periodic revision by historians from the 16th century onwards. Historian Jim Bradbury has summarised the current historical opinion of John's positive qualities, observing that John is today usually considered a "hard-working administrator, an able man, an able general".[3] Nonetheless, modern historians agree that he also had many faults as king, including what historian Ralph Turner describes as "distasteful, even dangerous personality traits", such as pettiness, spitefulness, and cruelty.[4] These negative qualities provided extensive material for fiction writers in the Victorian era, and John remains a recurring character within Western popular culture, primarily as a villain in Robin Hood folklore.


    Cite error: There are <ref group=nb> tags on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=nb}} template (see the help page).

    1. ^ "- Jean sans Terre". www.rct.uk. Retrieved 1 January 2023.
    2. ^ Norgate (1902), pp. 1–2.
    3. ^ Bradbury (2007), p. 353.
    4. ^ Turner, p. 23.
     
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    28 May 1871 – Fall of the Paris Commune.

    Paris Commune

    The Paris Commune (French: Commune de Paris, pronounced [kɔ.myn pa.ʁi]) was a French revolutionary government that seized power in Paris from 18 March to 28 May 1871.

    During the Franco-Prussian War of 1870–71, the French National Guard had defended Paris, and working-class radicalism grew among its soldiers. Following the establishment of the Third Republic in September 1870 (under French chief executive Adolphe Thiers from February 1871) and the complete defeat of the French Army by the Germans by March 1871, soldiers of the National Guard seized control of the city on March 18. They killed two French army generals and refused to accept the authority of the Third Republic, instead attempting to establish an independent government.

    The Commune governed Paris for two months, establishing policies that tended toward a progressive, anti-religious system of their own self-styled socialism, which was an eclectic mix of many 19th-century schools. These policies included the separation of church and state, self-policing, the remission of rent, the abolition of child labor, and the right of employees to take over an enterprise deserted by its owner. All Roman Catholic churches and schools were closed. Feminist, socialist, communist, old style social democracy (which was a mix of reformism and revolutionism) and anarchist currents played important roles in the Commune.

    However, the various Communards had little more than two months to achieve their respective goals before the national French Army suppressed the Commune at the end of May during La semaine sanglante ("The Bloody Week") beginning on 21 May 1871. The national forces killed in battle or quickly executed an estimated 10,000 to 15,000 Communards, though one unconfirmed estimate from 1876 put the toll as high as 20,000.[9] In its final days, the Commune executed the Archbishop of Paris, Georges Darboy, and about one hundred hostages, mostly gendarmes and priests. 43,522 Communards were taken prisoner, including 1,054 women. More than half were quickly released. Fifteen thousand were tried, 13,500 of whom were found guilty. Ninety-five were sentenced to death, 251 to forced labor, and 1,169 to deportation (mostly to New Caledonia). Thousands of other Commune members, including several of the leaders, fled abroad, mostly to England, Belgium and Switzerland. All the prisoners and exiles received pardons in 1880 and could return home, where some resumed political careers.[8]

    Debates over the policies and outcome of the Commune had significant influence on the ideas of Karl Marx (1818–1883) and Friedrich Engels (1820–1895), who described it as the first example of the dictatorship of the proletariat. Engels wrote: "Of late, the Social-Democratic philistine has once more been filled with wholesome terror at the words: Dictatorship of the Proletariat. Well and good, gentlemen, do you want to know what this dictatorship looks like? Look at the Paris Commune. That was the Dictatorship of the Proletariat."[10]

    1. ^ "Les aspects militaires de la Commune par le colonel Rol-Tanguy" [The military aspects of the Commune by Colonel Rol-Tanguy] (in French). Association des Amies et Amis de la Commune de Paris 1871. Archived from the original on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 16 September 2014.
    2. ^ Milza 2009a, p. 319.
    3. ^ Cite error: The named reference Versailles1875 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    4. ^ Tombs, Robert, "How Bloody was la Semaine sanglante of 1871? A Revision". The Historical Journal, September 2012, vol. 55, issue 03, pp. 619–704.
    5. ^ Audin, Michele, "La Semaine Sanglante" (2021)
    6. ^ Rougerie 2014, p. 118.
    7. ^ Lissagaray 2000, p. 383.
    8. ^ a b Milza 2009a, pp. 431–432.
    9. ^ Audin, Michele, La Semaine Sanglante, Mai 1871, Legendes et Conmptes (in French), Libertalia Publishers (2021).
    10. ^ Rougerie 2004, pp. 264–270, citing remarks by Frederick Engels, London, on the 20th anniversary of the Paris Commune, March 18, 1891.
     
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    29 May 1945 – First combat mission of the Consolidated B-32 Dominator heavy bomber.

    Consolidated B-32 Dominator

    The Consolidated B-32 Dominator (Consolidated Model 34) was an American heavy strategic bomber built for United States Army Air Forces during World War II, which had the distinction of being the last Allied aircraft to be engaged in combat during World War II; that engagement also resulted in the last American to die in air combat in World War II. It was developed by Consolidated Aircraft in parallel with the Boeing B-29 Superfortress as a fallback design should the B-29 prove unsuccessful.[1] The B-32 reached units in the Pacific only in mid-May 1945, and subsequently saw only limited combat operations against Japanese targets before the formal end of the war on 2 September 1945. Most of the extant orders of the B-32 were canceled shortly thereafter and only 118 B-32 airframes of all types were built.

    1. ^ Jones 1974, p. 106.
     
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    30 May 1975European Space Agency is established.

    European Space Agency

    The European Space Agency (ESA)[a] is a 22-member intergovernmental body devoted to space exploration.[7] With its headquarters in Paris and a staff of around 2,200 people globally as of 2022, ESA was founded in 1975. Its 2024 annual budget was €7.8 billion.[8][4]

    ESA's space flight programme includes human spaceflight (mainly through participation in the International Space Station program); the launch and operation of crewless exploration missions to other planets (such as Mars) and the Moon; Earth observation, science and telecommunication; designing launch vehicles; and maintaining a major spaceport, the Guiana Space Centre at Kourou (French Guiana), France. The main European launch vehicle Ariane 6 will be operated through Arianespace with ESA sharing in the costs of launching and further developing this launch vehicle. The agency is also working with NASA to manufacture the Orion spacecraft service module that flies on the Space Launch System.[9][10]

    1. ^ "Languages". Archived from the original on 18 November 2017. Retrieved 5 November 2017.
    2. ^ esa. "Frequently asked questions". Archived from the original on 27 August 2017. Retrieved 20 August 2017.
    3. ^ "ESA facts". European Space Agency. Archived from the original on 28 October 2021. Retrieved 13 February 2022.
    4. ^ a b "ESA budget 2024". www.esa.int.
    5. ^ "Annex 1 Resolution 8". ESA Convention and Council Rules of Procedure (PDF) (5th ed.). European Space Agency. March 2010. p. 116. ISBN 978-92-9092-965-9. Archived from the original on 6 June 2019. Retrieved 16 November 2014.
    6. ^ "Agence spatiale européenne (ASE)" [European Space Agency (ESA)]. 23 February 2017. Archived from the original on 10 October 2017. Retrieved 23 February 2017.
    7. ^ "Welcome to ESA: New Member States". ESA. Archived from the original on 8 November 2019. Retrieved 26 July 2017.
    8. ^ esa. "What is ESA?". European Space Agency. Archived from the original on 21 September 2019. Retrieved 8 January 2019.
    9. ^ "Orion". European Space Agency. Archived from the original on 26 June 2018. Retrieved 26 June 2018.
    10. ^ "European Service Module". European Space Agency. Archived from the original on 26 June 2018. Retrieved 26 June 2018.


    Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

     
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    31 May 1859 – The clock tower at the Houses of Parliament, which houses Big Ben, starts keeping time.

    Big Ben

    The Elizabeth Tower is the clock tower of the Palace of Westminster in London, England.[1] It contains the Great Clock of Westminster, a striking clock with five bells.[2] The tower is nicknamed "Big Ben", which was originally a nickname for the largest bell (named the Great Bell).[3] The tower was officially called the Clock Tower until 2012, when it was renamed to mark the Diamond Jubilee of Elizabeth II.

    The tower was designed by Augustus Pugin in a Perpendicular Gothic Revival style and was completed in 1859. It is elaborately decorated and includes symbols related to the four nations of the United Kingdom, the Tudor dynasty, and a Latin inscription to Queen Victoria.[4] The tower stands 316 feet (96 m) tall, and the climb from ground level to the belfry is 334 steps. Its base is square, measuring 40 feet (12 m) on each side. The dials of the clock are 22.5 feet (6.9 m) in diameter.

    The clock uses its original mechanism and was the largest and most accurate four-faced striking and chiming clock in the world upon its completion.[5] It was designed by Edmund Beckett Denison and George Airy, the Astronomer Royal, and constructed by Edward John Dent and Frederick Dent. It is known for its reliability, and can be adjusted by adding or removing pre-decimal pennies from the pendulum. The Great Bell was cast by the Whitechapel Bell Foundry and weighs 13.5 long tons (13.7 tonnes; 15.1 short tons).[1] Its nickname may be derived from Sir Benjamin Hall, who oversaw its installation, or heavyweight boxing champion Benjamin Caunt. There are four quarter bells, which chime on the quarter hours.

    The Elizabeth Tower is a British cultural icon. It is one of the most prominent symbols of the United Kingdom and parliamentary democracy,[6] and it is often used in the establishing shot of films set in London.[7] The clock tower has been part of a Grade I listed building since 1970 and a UNESCO World Heritage Site since 1987.[8] The fabric was repaired and renovated between 2017 and 2021, during which the bells remained silent with few exceptions.[9]

    1. ^ a b "The Story of Big Ben". Whitechapel Bell Foundry. Archived from the original on 17 February 2018. Retrieved 4 May 2022.
    2. ^ "West Dial re-connected to the Great Clock". UK Parliament. 28 April 2022. Retrieved 30 October 2022.
    3. ^ Fowler, p. 95.
    4. ^ Hartland, Nicole (15 March 2021). "Leek, Thistle, Shamrock and Rose: Symbols of the UK and the Elizabeth Tower". www.parliament.uk. Retrieved 25 October 2023.
    5. ^ Excell, Jon (5 July 2016). "Why is Big Ben falling silent?". BBC News.
    6. ^ "Palace of Westminster and Westminster Abbey including Saint Margaret's Church". UNESCO.
    7. ^ "Big Ben in films and popular culture". The Daily Telegraph. 8 November 2016. Archived from the original on 11 January 2022.
    8. ^ Centre, UNESCO World Heritage. "UNESCO World Heritage Centre - World Heritage List". UNESCO World Heritage Centre. Retrieved 8 November 2022.
    9. ^ Fowler, Susanne (12 April 2021). "What Does It Take to Hear Big Ben Again? 500 Workers and a Hiding Place". The New York Times. Retrieved 15 April 2021.
     
  20. Admin2

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    1 June 1980Cable News Network (CNN) begins broadcasting.

    CNN

    Cable News Network (CNN) is a multinational news channel and website headquartered in Atlanta, Georgia, U.S.[2][3][4] Founded in 1980 by American media proprietor Ted Turner and Reese Schonfeld as a 24-hour cable news channel, and presently owned by the Manhattan-based media conglomerate Warner Bros. Discovery (WBD),[5] CNN was the first television channel to provide 24-hour news coverage and the first all-news television channel in the United States.[6][7][8][9][10]

    As of February 2023, CNN had 80 million television households as subscribers in the US.[11] According to Nielsen, in June 2021 CNN ranked third in viewership among cable news networks, behind Fox News and MSNBC, averaging 580,000 viewers throughout the day, down 49% from a year earlier, amid sharp declines in viewers across all cable news networks.[12] While CNN ranked 14th among all basic cable networks in 2019,[13][14] then jumped to 7th during a major surge for the three largest cable news networks (completing a rankings streak of Fox News at number 5 and MSNBC at number 6 for that year),[15] it settled back to number 11 in 2021[16] and had further declined to number 21 in 2022.[17]

    Globally, CNN programming has aired through CNN International, seen by viewers in over 212 countries and territories;[18] since May 2019, however, the US domestic version has absorbed international news coverage in order to reduce programming costs. The American version, sometimes referred to as CNN (US), is also available in Canada, and some islands in the Caribbean. CNN also broadcasts in India where it is called CNN-News18, and in Japan, where it was first broadcast on CNNj in 2003, with simultaneous translation in Japanese.[19]

    1. ^ a b c Barr, Jeremy; Izadi, Elahe; Ellison, Sarah; Farhi, Paul (February 2, 2022). "CNN president Jeff Zucker resigns, citing undisclosed relationship with colleague". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on February 2, 2022. Retrieved February 2, 2022.
    2. ^ Alfonso, Fernando (May 30, 2020). "CNN Center in Atlanta damaged during protests". CNN. Archived from the original on May 30, 2020. Retrieved January 16, 2021.
    3. ^ "CNN Center". CNN. Archived from the original on January 21, 2021. Retrieved January 16, 2021.
    4. ^ "About Us". CNN. Archived from the original on January 15, 2021. Retrieved January 16, 2021.
    5. ^ "Time Warner: Turner Broadcasting". Archived from the original on January 22, 2011.
    6. ^ Kiesewetter, John (May 28, 2000). "In 20 years, CNN has changed the way we view the news". Cincinnati Enquirer. Archived from the original on October 11, 2017. Retrieved January 24, 2009.
    7. ^ "Charles Bierbauer, CNN senior Washington correspondent, discusses his 19-year career at CNN. (May 8, 2000)". CNN. Archived from the original on September 29, 2012. Retrieved October 12, 2013.
    8. ^ "Reese's Pieces: Mr. Schonfeld, Forgotten Founder of CNN, Is a Man of Many Projects". Observer. January 29, 2001. Archived from the original on September 26, 2020. Retrieved March 1, 2022.
    9. ^ Stelter, Brian (July 28, 2020). "Reese Schonfeld, CNN's founding president, has died at 88". CNN. Archived from the original on July 29, 2020. Retrieved July 31, 2020.
    10. ^ "CNN changed news – for better and worse". Taipei Times. May 31, 2005. Archived from the original on June 3, 2015. Retrieved January 24, 2009.
    11. ^ "CNN Worldwide Fact Sheet". Archived from the original on March 25, 2021. Retrieved March 15, 2023.
    12. ^ Johnson, Ted (June 29, 2021). "Fox News Tops June And Q2 Viewership, But Plunge In Ratings Continues Across All Major Cable News Networks". Deadline. Archived from the original on July 7, 2021. Retrieved July 6, 2021.
    13. ^ Andreeva, Nellie; Johnson, Ted (December 27, 2019). "Cable Ratings 2019: Fox News Tops Total Viewers, ESPN Wins 18–49 Demo As Entertainment Networks Slide". Deadline. Archived from the original on January 14, 2020. Retrieved January 16, 2020.
    14. ^ Schneider, Michael (December 26, 2019). "Most-Watched Television Networks: Ranking 2019's Winners and Losers". Variety. Archived from the original on January 6, 2020. Retrieved January 16, 2020.
    15. ^ Schneider, Michael (December 28, 2020). "Most-Watched Television Networks: Ranking 2020's Winners and Losers". Variety. Archived from the original on December 28, 2020. Retrieved May 2, 2022.
    16. ^ Schneider, Michael (December 30, 2021). "Most-Watched Television Networks: Ranking 2021's Winners and Losers". Variety. Archived from the original on January 12, 2022.
    17. ^ Schneider, Michael (December 29, 2022). "Most-Watched Television Networks: Ranking 2022's Winners and Losers". Variety. Archived from the original on January 18, 2023. Retrieved January 19, 2023.
    18. ^ "CNN is Viewers Cable Network of Choice for Democratic and Republican National Convention Coverage" (Press release). Time Warner. August 18, 2000. Retrieved February 20, 2010.[permanent dead link]
    19. ^ "CNN Partners". CNN Asia Pacific. Archived from the original on July 29, 2012. Retrieved May 4, 2020.
     
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    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    2 June 1964 – The Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) is formed.

    Palestine Liberation Organization

    The Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO; Arabic: منظمة التحرير الفلسطينية Munaẓẓamat at-Taḥrīr al-Filasṭīniyyah) is a Palestinian nationalist coalition that is internationally recognized as the official representative of the Palestinian people.[14][15] Founded in 1964, it initially sought to establish an Arab state over the entire territory of the former Mandatory Palestine, advocating the elimination of the State of Israel. However, in 1993, the PLO recognized Israeli sovereignty with the Oslo I Accord, and now only seeks Arab statehood in the Palestinian territories (the West Bank and the Gaza Strip) that have been militarily occupied by Israel since the 1967 Arab–Israeli War.

    It is headquartered in Al-Bireh, a city in the West Bank. As the officially recognized government of the de jure State of Palestine, it has enjoyed United Nations observer status since 1974.[16][17][18] Prior to the Oslo Accords, the PLO's militant wings openly engaged in acts of violence against Israeli civilians, both within Israel and outside of Israel.[19][20][21] Consequently, the United States designated it as a terrorist group in 1987, though a presidential waiver has permitted American–PLO contact since 1988.[22][23] Mediated talks between the Israeli government and the PLO in 1993 (the Oslo I Accord) resulted in the PLO recognizing Israel's right to exist in peace and accepting United Nations Security Council Resolution 242, while Israel recognized the PLO as a legitimate authority representing the Palestinian people.[24] Despite the Israel–PLO Letters of Mutual Recognition, in which PLO leader Yasser Arafat renounced "terrorism and other acts of violence" against Israel, the PLO continued to engage in militant activities, particularly during the Second Intifada (2000–2005). On 29 October 2018, the PLO Central Council suspended the Palestinian recognition of Israel, and subsequently halted all forms of security and economic cooperation with Israeli authorities until Israel recognizes a Palestinian state on the pre-1967 borders.[25][26]

    1. ^ "Arabs Create Organization For Recovery of Palestine". The New York Times. Reuters. 29 May 1964. The creation of Palestine liberation organization was announced today...
    2. ^ Sawafta, Ali (30 November 2010). "In West Bank, Ramallah looks ever more like capital". Reuters.
    3. ^ Toameh, Khaled Abu (24 November 2010). "Abbas: Referendum law is 'obstacle to peace'". Jerusalem Post. Retrieved 27 October 2023.
    4. ^ Szekely, Ora (26 November 2016). The Politics of Militant Group Survival in the Middle East: Resources, Relationships, and Resistance. Springer. p. 51. ISBN 978-3-319-40141-6.
    5. ^ Spyer, Jonathan (1 January 2011). The Transforming Fire: The Rise of the Israel-Islamist Conflict. A&C Black. p. 23. ISBN 978-1-4411-6663-0.
    6. ^ "Quién fue Yasser Arafat?". 17 March 2019.
    7. ^ Grafton, David D. (16 March 2009). Piety, Politics, and Power: Lutherans Encountering Islam in the Middle East. Wipf and Stock Publishers. p. 222. ISBN 978-1-63087-718-7.
    8. ^ "Rewriting history, Abbas calls Israel a 'colonial project' unrelated to Judaism". The Times of Israel.
    9. ^ "Jailed PFLP Leader: Only a One-state Solution Is Possible". Haaretz. Retrieved 8 November 2023.
    10. ^ "Jailed PFLP Leader: Only a One-state Solution Is Possible". Haaretz. Retrieved 8 November 2023.
    11. ^ Rubenberg, Cheryl (2003). The Palestinians: In Search of a Just Peace. Lynne Rienner Publishers. p. 41. ISBN 978-1-58826-225-7.
    12. ^ Rubenberg, Cheryl (2003). The Palestinians: In Search of a Just Peace. Lynne Rienner Publishers. p. 41. ISBN 978-1-58826-225-7.
    13. ^ "Palestine". National Anthems.
    14. ^ Al-Madfai, Madiha Rashid (1993). Jordan, the United States and the Middle East Peace Process, 1974–1991. Cambridge Middle East Library, Cambridge University Press. p. 21. ISBN 978-0-521-41523-1. On 28 October 1974, the seventh Arab summit conference held in Rabat designated the PLO as the sole legitimate representative of the Palestinian people and reaffirmed their right to establish an independent state of urgency.
    15. ^ Geldenhuys, Deon (1990). Isolated states: a comparative analysis. Cambridge University Press. p. 155. ISBN 978-0-521-40268-2. The organisation has also been recognized as the sole legitimate representative of the Palestinian people by well over 100 states ...
    16. ^ United Nations General Assembly Resolution 3210. "Invites the Palestine Liberation Organization, the representative of the Palestinian people, to participate in the deliberations of the General Assembly on the question of Palestine in plenary meetings."
    17. ^ United Nations General Assembly Resolution 3236. "Having heard the statement of the Palestine Liberation Organization, the representative of the Palestinian people, ..."
    18. ^ United Nations General Assembly Resolution 3237
    19. ^ Beyer, Lisa (12 November 2004). "Arafat: A Life in Retrospect". Time. Retrieved 8 March 2017.
    20. ^ "PLO to Limit Attacks, Arafat Says". The Los Angeles Times. 17 October 2000. Retrieved 8 March 2017.
    21. ^ "Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) | Palestinian political organization". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 8 March 2017.
    22. ^ 22 U.S.C. § 5201: Findings; determinations
    23. ^ Ehrenfeld, Rachel (2003). "The Palestinians". Funding Evil, How Terrorism Is Financed – and How to Stop It (PDF) (preview chapter). Bonus Books. Archived from the original (PDF) on 26 April 2011. Retrieved 27 October 2023 – via Funding for Peace Coalition.
    24. ^ Murphy, Kim (10 September 1993). "Israel and PLO, in Historic Bid for Peace, Agree to Mutual Recognition". The Los Angeles Times.
    25. ^ Mustafa, Rami (29 October 2018). المجلس المركزي الفلسطيني يعلن تعليق الاعتراف بدولة إسرائيل [The Palestinian Central Council announces the suspension of recognition of the State of Israel]. El Watan.
    26. ^ "Palestinian Central Council suspends recognition of Israel". www.aa.com.tr. Retrieved 2 November 2023.
     
  22. Admin2

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    3 June 1940World War II: The Luftwaffe bombs Paris.

    Luftwaffe

    Hermann Göring, the first Supreme Commander of the Luftwaffe (in office: 1935–1945)
    Robert Ritter von Greim, the second and last Supreme Commander of the Luftwaffe (in office: April–May 1945)

    The Luftwaffe[N 2] (German pronunciation: [ˈlʊftvafə] ) was the aerial-warfare branch of the Wehrmacht before and during World War II. Germany's military air arms during World War I, the Luftstreitkräfte of the Imperial Army and the Marine-Fliegerabteilung of the Imperial Navy, had been disbanded in May 1920 in accordance with the terms of the 1919 Treaty of Versailles which banned Germany from having any air force.

    During the interwar period, German pilots were trained secretly in violation of the treaty at Lipetsk Air Base in the Soviet Union. With the rise of the Nazi Party and the repudiation of the Versailles Treaty, the Luftwaffe's existence was publicly acknowledged on 26 February 1935, just over two weeks before open defiance of the Versailles Treaty through German rearmament and conscription would be announced on 16 March.[6] The Condor Legion, a Luftwaffe detachment sent to aid Nationalist forces in the Spanish Civil War, provided the force with a valuable testing ground for new tactics and aircraft. Partially as a result of this combat experience, the Luftwaffe had become one of the most sophisticated, technologically advanced, and battle-experienced air forces in the world when World War II broke out in September 1939.[7] By the summer of 1939, the Luftwaffe had twenty-eight Geschwader (wings). The Luftwaffe also operated a paratrooper force known as the Fallschirmjäger.

    The Luftwaffe proved instrumental in the German victories across Poland and Western Europe in 1939 and 1940. During the Battle of Britain, however, despite inflicting severe damage to the RAF's infrastructure and, during the subsequent Blitz, devastating many British cities, the German Air Force failed to batter the beleaguered British into submission. From 1942, Allied bombing campaigns gradually destroyed the Luftwaffe's fighter arm. From late 1942, the Luftwaffe used its surplus ground support and other personnel to raise Luftwaffe Field Divisions. In addition to its service in the West, the Luftwaffe operated over the Soviet Union, North Africa, and Southern Europe. Despite its belated use of advanced turbojet and rocket-propelled aircraft for the destruction of Allied bombers, the Luftwaffe was overwhelmed by the Allies' superior numbers and improved tactics, and a lack of trained pilots and aviation fuel. In January 1945, during the closing stages of the Battle of the Bulge, the Luftwaffe made a last-ditch effort to win air superiority, and met with failure. With rapidly dwindling supplies of petroleum, oil, and lubricants after this campaign, and as part of the entire combined Wehrmacht military forces as a whole, the Luftwaffe ceased to be an effective fighting force.

    After the defeat of Nazi Germany, the Luftwaffe was disbanded in 1946. During World War II, German pilots claimed roughly 70,000 aerial victories, while over 75,000 Luftwaffe aircraft were destroyed or significantly damaged. Of these, nearly 40,000 were lost entirely. The Luftwaffe had only two commanders-in-chief throughout its history: Reichsmarschall Hermann Göring and later Generalfeldmarschall Robert Ritter von Greim for the last two weeks of the war.

    The Luftwaffe was deeply involved in Nazi war crimes. By the end of the war, a significant percentage of aircraft production originated in concentration camps, an industry employing tens of thousands of prisoners.[N 3] The Luftwaffe's demand for labour was one of the factors that led to the deportation and murder of hundreds of thousands of Hungarian Jews in 1944. The Luftwaffe frequently bombed non-military targets, the Oberkommando der Luftwaffe organised Nazi human experimentation, and Luftwaffe ground troops committed massacres in Italy, Greece, and Poland.

    1. ^ "Control Council Law No. 34, Resolution of the Wehrmacht of 20 August 1946" (in German). Archived 30 June 2020 at the Wayback Machine Official Gazette of the Control Council for Germany, 1 May 2004 – 7 June 2004, p. 172.
    2. ^ Tom Philo. "WWII production figures". Taphilo.com. Archived from the original on 26 March 2017. Retrieved 26 April 2014.
    3. ^ Jason Pipes (2008). "Statistics and Numbers". Feldgrau.com. Retrieved 26 April 2014.
    4. ^ "Entry in German dictionary Duden". Archived from the original on 24 February 2016. Retrieved 16 February 2016.
    5. ^ Stedman 2012, p. 3
    6. ^ Fischer 1995, p. 408
    7. ^ Killen 2003, p. 93


    Cite error: There are <ref group=N> tags on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=N}} template (see the help page).

     
  23. Admin2

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    3 June 1940World War II: The Luftwaffe bombs Paris.

    Luftwaffe

    Hermann Göring, the first Supreme Commander of the Luftwaffe (in office: 1935–1945)
    Robert Ritter von Greim, the second and last Supreme Commander of the Luftwaffe (in office: April–May 1945)

    The Luftwaffe[N 2] (German pronunciation: [ˈlʊftvafə] ) was the aerial-warfare branch of the Wehrmacht before and during World War II. Germany's military air arms during World War I, the Luftstreitkräfte of the Imperial Army and the Marine-Fliegerabteilung of the Imperial Navy, had been disbanded in May 1920 in accordance with the terms of the 1919 Treaty of Versailles which banned Germany from having any air force.

    During the interwar period, German pilots were trained secretly in violation of the treaty at Lipetsk Air Base in the Soviet Union. With the rise of the Nazi Party and the repudiation of the Versailles Treaty, the Luftwaffe's existence was publicly acknowledged on 26 February 1935, just over two weeks before open defiance of the Versailles Treaty through German rearmament and conscription would be announced on 16 March.[6] The Condor Legion, a Luftwaffe detachment sent to aid Nationalist forces in the Spanish Civil War, provided the force with a valuable testing ground for new tactics and aircraft. Partially as a result of this combat experience, the Luftwaffe had become one of the most sophisticated, technologically advanced, and battle-experienced air forces in the world when World War II broke out in September 1939.[7] By the summer of 1939, the Luftwaffe had twenty-eight Geschwader (wings). The Luftwaffe also operated a paratrooper force known as the Fallschirmjäger.

    The Luftwaffe proved instrumental in the German victories across Poland and Western Europe in 1939 and 1940. During the Battle of Britain, however, despite inflicting severe damage to the RAF's infrastructure and, during the subsequent Blitz, devastating many British cities, the German Air Force failed to batter the beleaguered British into submission. From 1942, Allied bombing campaigns gradually destroyed the Luftwaffe's fighter arm. From late 1942, the Luftwaffe used its surplus ground support and other personnel to raise Luftwaffe Field Divisions. In addition to its service in the West, the Luftwaffe operated over the Soviet Union, North Africa, and Southern Europe. Despite its belated use of advanced turbojet and rocket-propelled aircraft for the destruction of Allied bombers, the Luftwaffe was overwhelmed by the Allies' superior numbers and improved tactics, and a lack of trained pilots and aviation fuel. In January 1945, during the closing stages of the Battle of the Bulge, the Luftwaffe made a last-ditch effort to win air superiority, and met with failure. With rapidly dwindling supplies of petroleum, oil, and lubricants after this campaign, and as part of the entire combined Wehrmacht military forces as a whole, the Luftwaffe ceased to be an effective fighting force.

    After the defeat of Nazi Germany, the Luftwaffe was disbanded in 1946. During World War II, German pilots claimed roughly 70,000 aerial victories, while over 75,000 Luftwaffe aircraft were destroyed or significantly damaged. Of these, nearly 40,000 were lost entirely. The Luftwaffe had only two commanders-in-chief throughout its history: Reichsmarschall Hermann Göring and later Generalfeldmarschall Robert Ritter von Greim for the last two weeks of the war.

    The Luftwaffe was deeply involved in Nazi war crimes. By the end of the war, a significant percentage of aircraft production originated in concentration camps, an industry employing tens of thousands of prisoners.[N 3] The Luftwaffe's demand for labour was one of the factors that led to the deportation and murder of hundreds of thousands of Hungarian Jews in 1944. The Luftwaffe frequently bombed non-military targets, the Oberkommando der Luftwaffe organised Nazi human experimentation, and Luftwaffe ground troops committed massacres in Italy, Greece, and Poland.

    1. ^ "Control Council Law No. 34, Resolution of the Wehrmacht of 20 August 1946" (in German). Archived 30 June 2020 at the Wayback Machine Official Gazette of the Control Council for Germany, 1 May 2004 – 7 June 2004, p. 172.
    2. ^ Tom Philo. "WWII production figures". Taphilo.com. Archived from the original on 26 March 2017. Retrieved 26 April 2014.
    3. ^ Jason Pipes (2008). "Statistics and Numbers". Feldgrau.com. Retrieved 26 April 2014.
    4. ^ "Entry in German dictionary Duden". Archived from the original on 24 February 2016. Retrieved 16 February 2016.
    5. ^ Stedman 2012, p. 3
    6. ^ Fischer 1995, p. 408
    7. ^ Killen 2003, p. 93


    Cite error: There are <ref group=N> tags on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=N}} template (see the help page).

     
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  25. Admin2

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    5 June 1963 – The British Secretary of State for War, John Profumo, resigns in a sex scandal known as the "Profumo affair".

    Profumo affair

    John Profumo in 1938

    The Profumo affair was a major scandal in twentieth-century British politics. John Profumo, the 46-year-old Secretary of State for War in Harold Macmillan's Conservative government, had an extramarital affair with the 19-year-old model Christine Keeler beginning in 1961. Profumo denied the affair in a statement to the House of Commons in 1963; weeks later, a police investigation proved that he had lied. The scandal severely damaged the credibility of Macmillan's government, and Macmillan resigned as Prime Minister in October 1963, citing ill health. The fallout contributed to the Conservative government's defeat by the Labour Party in the 1964 general election.

    When the Profumo affair was revealed, public interest was heightened by reports that Keeler may have been simultaneously involved with Captain Yevgeny Ivanov, a Soviet naval attaché, thereby creating a possible national security risk. Keeler knew both Profumo and Ivanov through her friendship with Stephen Ward, an osteopath and socialite who had taken her under his wing. The exposure of the affair generated rumours of other sex scandals and drew official attention to the activities of Ward, who was charged with a series of immorality offences. Perceiving himself as a scapegoat for the misdeeds of others, Ward took a fatal overdose during the final stages of his trial, which found him guilty of living off the immoral earnings of Keeler and her friend Mandy Rice-Davies.

    An inquiry into the Profumo affair by a senior judge, Lord Denning, assisted by a senior civil servant, T. A. Critchley, concluded that there had been no breaches of security arising from the Ivanov connection. Denning's report was later described as superficial and unsatisfactory. Profumo subsequently worked as a volunteer at Toynbee Hall, an East London charitable trust. By 1975 he had been officially rehabilitated, although he did not return to public life. He died, honoured and respected, in 2006. By contrast, Keeler found it difficult to escape the negative image attached to her by press, law, and parliament throughout the scandal. In various, sometimes contradictory, accounts, she challenged Denning's conclusions relating to security issues. Ward's conviction has been described by analysts as an act of establishment revenge, rather than serving justice. In the 2010s the Criminal Cases Review Commission reviewed his case but decided against referring it to the Court of Appeal. Dramatisations of the Profumo affair have been shown on stage and screen.

     
  26. Admin2

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    6 June 1889 – The Great Seattle Fire destroys all of downtown Seattle.

    Great Seattle Fire

    The Great Seattle Fire was a fire that destroyed the entire central business district of Seattle, Washington, on June 6, 1889. The conflagration lasted for less than a day, burning through the afternoon and into the night, during the same summer as the Great Spokane Fire and the Great Ellensburg Fire. Seattle quickly rebuilt using brick buildings that sat 20 feet (6.1 m) above the original street level. Its population swelled during reconstruction, becoming the largest city in the newly admitted state of Washington.

     
  27. Admin2

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    7 June 1942 1942 – World War II: The Battle of Midway ends in American victory.

    Battle of Midway

    The Battle of Midway was a major naval battle in the Pacific Theater of World War II that took place 4–7 June 1942, six months after the Empire of Japan's attack on Pearl Harbor and one month after the Battle of the Coral Sea.[7][8][9] The U.S. Navy under Admirals Chester W. Nimitz, Frank J. Fletcher, and Raymond A. Spruance defeated an attacking fleet of the Imperial Japanese Navy under Admirals Isoroku Yamamoto, Chūichi Nagumo, and Nobutake Kondō north of Midway Atoll, inflicting devastating damage on the Japanese fleet. Military historian John Keegan called it "the most stunning and decisive blow in the history of naval warfare",[10] while naval historian Craig Symonds called it "one of the most consequential naval engagements in world history, ranking alongside Salamis, Trafalgar, and Tsushima Strait, as both tactically decisive and strategically influential."[11]

    In response to the Doolittle air raid on Tokyo, the Japanese leadership planned a "barrier" strategy to extend Japan's defensive perimeter. They hoped to lure the American aircraft carriers into a trap, clearing the seas for Japanese attacks on Midway, Fiji, Samoa, and Hawaii. The plan was undermined by faulty Japanese anticipations of the American reaction and poor initial dispositions. Crucially, U.S. cryptographers were able to determine the date and location of the planned attack, enabling the forewarned United States Navy to prepare its own ambush.

    Four Japanese and three American aircraft carriers participated in the battle. The Japanese fleet carriersAkagi, Kaga, Sōryū, and Hiryū, part of the six-carrier force that had attacked Pearl Harbor six months earlier—were sunk, as was the heavy cruiser Mikuma. The United States lost the carrier Yorktown and the destroyer Hammann, while the carriers USS Enterprise and USS Hornet survived the battle fully intact.

    After Midway and the exhausting attrition of the Solomon Islands campaign, Japan's capacity to replace its losses in materiel (particularly aircraft carriers) and men (especially well-trained pilots and maintenance crewmen) rapidly became insufficient to cope with mounting casualties, while the United States' massive industrial and training capabilities made losses far easier to replace. The Battle of Midway, along with the Guadalcanal campaign, is widely considered a turning point in the Pacific War.

    1. ^ Blair 1975, p. 240 map
    2. ^ Parshall & Tully 2005, pp. 90–91
    3. ^ "The Battle of Midway". Office of Naval Intelligence. Archived from the original on 27 October 2019. Retrieved 21 April 2009.
    4. ^ "The Battle of Midway".
    5. ^ Parshall & Tully 2005, p. 524
    6. ^ Cite error: The named reference ParTulcas was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    7. ^ a b "Battle of Midway: June 4–7, 1942". Naval History & Heritage Command. 26 March 2015. Archived from the original on 20 May 2016. Retrieved 15 June 2016.
    8. ^ Dull 1978, p. 166
    9. ^ "A Brief History of Aircraft Carriers: Battle of Midway". U.S. Navy. 2007. Archived from the original on 12 June 2007. Retrieved 12 June 2007.
    10. ^ Keegan 2005, p. 275
    11. ^ Symonds 2018, p. 293
     
  28. Admin2

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    8 June 1949 – George Orwell's Nineteen Eighty-Four is published.

    Nineteen Eighty-Four

    Nineteen Eighty-Four (also published as 1984) is a dystopian novel and cautionary tale by English writer George Orwell. It was published on 8 June 1949 by Secker & Warburg as Orwell's ninth and final book completed in his lifetime. Thematically, it centres on the consequences of totalitarianism, mass surveillance, and repressive regimentation of people and behaviours within society.[3][4] Orwell, a democratic socialist, modelled the authoritarian state in the novel on the Soviet Union in the era of Stalinism and Nazi Germany.[5] More broadly, the novel examines the role of truth and facts within societies and the ways in which they can be manipulated.

    The story takes place in an imagined future in an unspecified year believed to be 1984, when much of the world is in perpetual war. Great Britain, now known as Airstrip One, has become a province of the totalitarian superstate Oceania, which is led by Big Brother, a dictatorial leader supported by an intense cult of personality manufactured by the Party's Thought Police. The Party engages in omnipresent government surveillance and, through the Ministry of Truth, historical negationism and constant propaganda to persecute individuality and independent thinking.[6]

    The protagonist, Winston Smith, is a diligent mid-level worker at the Ministry of Truth who secretly hates the Party and dreams of rebellion. Smith keeps a forbidden diary. He begins a relationship with a colleague, Julia, and they learn about a shadowy resistance group called the Brotherhood. However, their contact within the Brotherhood turns out to be a Party agent, and Smith and Julia are arrested. He is subjected to months of psychological manipulation and torture by the Ministry of Love and is released once he has come to love Big Brother.

    Nineteen Eighty-Four has become a classic literary example of political and dystopian fiction. It also popularised the term "Orwellian" as an adjective, with many terms used in the novel entering common usage, including "Big Brother", "doublethink", "Thought Police", "thoughtcrime", "Newspeak", and "2 + 2 = 5". Parallels have been drawn between the novel's subject matter and real life instances of totalitarianism, mass surveillance, and violations of freedom of expression among other themes.[7][8][9] Orwell described his book as a "satire",[10] and a display of the "perversions to which a centralised economy is liable," while also stating he believed "that something resembling it could arrive."[10] Time included the novel on its list of the 100 best English-language novels published from 1923 to 2005,[11] and it was placed on the Modern Library's 100 Best Novels list, reaching number 13 on the editors' list and number 6 on the readers' list.[12] In 2003, it was listed at number eight on The Big Read survey by the BBC.[13]

    1. ^ "Nineteen Eighty-Four". knowthyshelf.com. 13 August 2015. Retrieved 11 February 2024.
    2. ^ "Classify". OCLC. Archived from the original on 2 February 2019. Retrieved 22 May 2017.
    3. ^ Murphy, Bruce (1996). Benét's reader's encyclopedia. New York: Harper Collins. p. 734. ISBN 978-0-06-181088-6. OCLC 35572906.
    4. ^ Aaronovitch, David (8 February 2013). "1984: George Orwell's road to dystopia". BBC News. Archived from the original on 24 January 2018. Retrieved 8 February 2013.
    5. ^ Lynskey, Dorian. "George Orwell's 1984: Why it still matters". BBC News. Archived from the original on 12 October 2023. Retrieved 7 October 2023 – via YouTube.
    6. ^ Chernow, Barbara; Vallasi, George (1993). The Columbia Encyclopedia (5th ed.). Boston: Houghton Mifflin. p. 2030. OCLC 334011745.
    7. ^ Crouch, Ian (11 June 2013). "So Are We Living in 1984?". The New Yorker. Archived from the original on 10 September 2023. Retrieved 3 December 2019.
    8. ^ Seaton, Jean. "Why Orwell's 1984 could be about now". BBC. Archived from the original on 10 May 2020. Retrieved 3 December 2019.
    9. ^ Leetaru, Kalev. "As Orwell's 1984 Turns 70 It Predicted Much of Today's Surveillance Society". Forbes. Archived from the original on 27 March 2023. Retrieved 3 December 2019.
    10. ^ a b "The savage satire of '1984' still speaks to us today". The Independent. 7 June 1999. Archived from the original on 7 January 2023. Retrieved 7 January 2023. Orwell said that his book was a satire – a warning certainly, but in the form of satire.
    11. ^ Grossman, Lev (8 January 2010). "Is 1984 one of the All-TIME 100 Best Novels?". Time. Archived from the original on 20 August 2017. Retrieved 29 December 2022.
    12. ^ "100 Best Novels « Modern Library". www.modernlibrary.com. Archived from the original on 2 October 2010. Retrieved 29 December 2022.
    13. ^ "BBC – The Big Read – Top 100 Books". BBC. Archived from the original on 31 October 2012. Retrieved 29 December 2022.
     
  29. Admin2

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    9 June 1923Bulgaria's military takes over the government in a coup.

    Bulgarian coup d'état of 1923

    • From a page move: This is a redirect from a page that has been moved (renamed). This page was kept as a redirect to avoid breaking links, both internal and external, that may have been made to the old page name.
     
  30. Admin2

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    10 June 1838Myall Creek massacre: Twenty-eight Aboriginal Australians are murdered.

    Myall Creek massacre

    The Myall Creek massacre was the killing of not less than thirty[1] unarmed Indigenous Australians by twelve colonists on 10 June 1838 at the Myall Creek near the Gwydir River, in northern New South Wales.[2][3] After two trials, seven of the twelve colonists were found guilty of murder and hanged,[3] a verdict which sparked extreme controversy within New South Wales settler society.[4] The leader of the perpetrators, a free settler, John Henry Fleming, evaded arrest and was never tried. Four were never retried following the not guilty verdict of the first trial.[2][5]

    The prosecutions, the only successful one ever conducted against Australian settlers accused of massacring Aboriginals, have been described more as akin to war crimes trials than a standard murder prosecution.[6] An editorial in one newspaper argued at length that "the murders... are, to a serious extent, chargeable upon us as a nation."[7]

    1. ^ The Sydney Monitor 7 Dec 1838 & Danny Day by Terry Smyth - Penguin & Random Books 2016 p170
    2. ^ a b "Myall Creek massacre". National Museum of Australia. Archived from the original on 5 March 2019. Retrieved 10 February 2019.
    3. ^ a b "Myall Creek Massacre and Memorial Site". Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts. 25 June 2008. Archived from the original on 5 June 2013.
    4. ^ Rogers, Thomas James; Bain, Stephen (3 February 2016). "Genocide and frontier violence in Australia". Journal of Genocide Research. 18 (1): 83–100. doi:10.1080/14623528.2016.1120466. S2CID 147512803.
    5. ^ Tedeschi, Mark (9 June 2023). "True heroes exposed the Myall Creek massacre. To our shame, we don't know their names". The Sydney Morning Herald. Retrieved 12 July 2023.
    6. ^ georgina.sinclair (20 June 2017). "Myall Creek murders 'state-sanctioned genocide'". Bingara. Retrieved 12 July 2023.
    7. ^ Cite error: The named reference :1 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
     
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    11 June 1509Henry VIII of England marries Catherine of Aragon.

    Henry VIII of England

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    12 June 1939 – The Baseball Hall of Fame opens in Cooperstown, New York.

    National Baseball Hall of Fame and Museum

    The National Baseball Hall of Fame and Museum is a history museum and hall of fame in Cooperstown, New York, operated by private interests. It serves as the central point of the history of baseball in the United States and displays baseball-related artifacts and exhibits, honoring those who have excelled in playing, managing, and serving the sport. The Hall's motto is "Preserving History, Honoring Excellence, Connecting Generations". Cooperstown is often used as shorthand (or a metonym) for the National Baseball Hall of Fame and Museum.

    The Hall of Fame was established in 1939 by Stephen Carlton Clark, an heir to the Singer Sewing Machine fortune. Clark sought to bring tourists to a city hurt by the Great Depression, which reduced the local tourist trade, and Prohibition, which devastated the local hops industry. Clark constructed the Hall of Fame's building, which was dedicated on June 12, 1939. (His granddaughter, Jane Forbes Clark, is the current chairman of the board of directors.) The erroneous claim that Civil War hero Abner Doubleday invented baseball in Cooperstown was instrumental in the early marketing of the Hall.

    An expanded library and research facility opened in 1994.[4] Dale Petroskey became the organization's president in 1999.[5] In 2002, the Hall launched Baseball as America, a traveling exhibit that toured ten American museums over six years. The Hall of Fame has since also sponsored educational programming on the Internet to bring the Hall of Fame to schoolchildren who might not visit. The Hall and Museum completed a series of renovations in spring 2005. The Hall of Fame also presents an annual exhibit at FanFest at the Major League Baseball All-Star Game.

    1. ^ a b c "Archive and Collection". Baseball Hall of Fame. Archived from the original on March 27, 2019. Retrieved January 23, 2019.
    2. ^ "Hall of Fame Welcomes 17 Millionth Visitor". Baseball Hall of Fame. Archived from the original on June 12, 2022. Retrieved February 18, 2019.
    3. ^ a b c "President and Senior Staff". Baseball Hall of Fame. Archived from the original on June 24, 2021. Retrieved June 1, 2021.
    4. ^ "Museum History". National Baseball Hall of Fame. Archived from the original on July 4, 2017. Retrieved October 21, 2017.
    5. ^ The Official Site of Major League Baseball: News: HOF president Petroskey resigns Archived March 27, 2008, at the Wayback Machine from the Major League Baseball website
     
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    13 June 2002 – The United States withdraws from the Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty.

    Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty

    The Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty, also known as the ABM Treaty or ABMT, was an arms control treaty between the United States and the Soviet Union on the limitation of the anti-ballistic missile (ABM) systems used in defending areas against ballistic missile-delivered nuclear weapons. It was intended to reduce pressures to build more nuclear weapons to maintain deterrence.[1] Under the terms of the treaty, each party was limited to two ABM complexes, each of which was to be limited to 100 anti-ballistic missiles.[2]: 115

    Signed in 1972, it was in force for the next 30 years.[3] In 1997, five years after the dissolution of the Soviet Union, four former Soviet republics agreed with the United States to succeed the USSR's role in the treaty. Citing risks of nuclear blackmail, the United States withdrew from the treaty in June 2002, leading to its termination.

    1. ^ Acton, James M. (13 December 2021). "The U.S. Exit From the Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty Has Fueled a New Arms Race". Carnegie Endowment for International Peace. Archived from the original on 20 June 2022. Retrieved 12 September 2022.
    2. ^ Nash, Henry T. (1 May 1975). Nuclear Weapons and International Behaviour. Kluwer Academic Publishers. ISBN 978-9028602656 – via Internet Archive. p. 115: Each site would consist of 100 ABMs, or a total of 200 ABMs for each country
    3. ^ "Treaty Between the United States of America and the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics on the Limitation of Anti-Ballistic Missile Systems". Bureau of Arms Control. United States Department of State. 26 May 1972. Archived from the original on 9 March 2022. Retrieved 13 September 2022.
     
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    14 June 1907 – Norway grants women the right to vote.

    Women's suffrage

    Women's suffrage is the right of women to vote in elections. At the beginning of the 18th century, some people sought to change voting laws to allow women to vote. Liberal political parties would go on to grant women the right to vote, increasing the number of those parties' potential constituencies. National and international organizations formed to coordinate efforts towards women voting, especially the International Woman Suffrage Alliance (founded in 1904 in Berlin, Germany).[1]

    Several instances occurred in recent centuries where women were selectively given, then stripped of, the right to vote. In Sweden, conditional women's suffrage was in effect during the Age of Liberty (1718–1772), as well as in Revolutionary and early-independence New Jersey (1776–1807).[2][3]

    The first territory to continuously allow women to vote to this present day is the Pitcairn Islands since 1838. The Kingdom of Hawai'i, which originally had universal suffrage in 1840, rescinded this in 1852 and was subsequently annexed by the United States in 1898. In the years after 1869, a number of provinces held by the British and Russian empires conferred women's suffrage, and some of these became sovereign nations at a later point, like New Zealand, Australia, and Finland. Several states and territories of the United States, such as Wyoming (1869) and Utah (1870), also granted women the right to vote. Women who owned property gained the right to vote in the Isle of Man in 1881, and in 1893, women in the then self-governing[4] British colony of New Zealand were granted the right to vote. In Australia, the colony of South Australia conferred voter rights on all women from 1894, and the right to stand for Parliament from 1895, while the Australian Federal Parliament conferred the right to vote and stand for election in 1902 (although it allowed for the exclusion of "aboriginal natives").[5][6] Prior to independence, in the Russian Grand Duchy of Finland, women gained equal suffrage, with both the right to vote and to stand as candidates in 1906.[7][8][9] Most major Western powers extended voting rights to women in the interwar period, including Canada (1917), Germany (1918), the United Kingdom (1918 for some women, 1928 for all women), Austria, the Netherlands (1919) and the United States (1920).[10] Notable exceptions in Europe were France, where women could not vote until 1944, Greece (equal voting rights for women did not exist there until 1952, although, since 1930, literate women were able to vote in local elections), and Switzerland (where, since 1971, women could vote at the federal level, and between 1959 and 1990, women got the right to vote at the local canton level). The last European jurisdictions to give women the right to vote were Liechtenstein in 1984 and the Swiss canton of Appenzell Innerrhoden at the local level in 1990,[11] with the Vatican City being an absolute elective monarchy (the electorate of the Holy See, the conclave, is composed of male cardinals, rather than Vatican citizens). In some cases of direct democracy, such as Swiss cantons governed by Landsgemeinden, objections to expanding the suffrage claimed that logistical limitations, and the absence of secret ballot, made it impractical as well as unnecessary; others, such as Appenzell Ausserrhoden, instead abolished the system altogether for both women and men.[12][13][14]

    Leslie Hume argues that the First World War changed the popular mood:

    The women's contribution to the war effort challenged the notion of women's physical and mental inferiority and made it more difficult to maintain that women were, both by constitution and temperament, unfit to vote. If women could work in munitions factories, it seemed both ungrateful and illogical to deny them a place in the voting booth. But the vote was much more than simply a reward for war work; the point was that women's participation in the war helped to dispel the fears that surrounded women's entry into the public arena.[15]

    Pre-WWI opponents of women's suffrage such as the Women's National Anti-Suffrage League cited women's relative inexperience in military affairs. They claimed that since women were the majority of the population, women should vote in local elections, but due to a lack of experience in military affairs, they asserted that it would be dangerous to allow them to vote in national elections.[16]

    Extended political campaigns by women and their supporters were necessary to gain legislation or constitutional amendments for women's suffrage. In many countries, limited suffrage for women was granted before universal suffrage for men; for instance, literate women or property owners were granted suffrage before all men received it. The United Nations encouraged women's suffrage in the years following World War II, and the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (1979) identifies it as a basic right with 189 countries currently being parties to this convention.

    1. ^ Sneider, Allison (2010). "The New Suffrage History: Voting Rights in International Perspective". History Compass. 8 (7): 692–703. doi:10.1111/j.1478-0542.2010.00689.x.
    2. ^ Karlsson Sjögren, Åsa, Männen, kvinnorna och rösträtten: medborgarskap och representation 1723–1866 [Men, women, and suffrage: citizenship and representation 1723–1866], Carlsson, Stockholm, 2006 (in Swedish).
    3. ^ https://www.amrevmuseum.org/virtualexhibits/when-women-lost-the-vote-a-revolutionary-story/pages/how-did-the-vote-expand-new-jersey-s-revolutionary-decade#:~:text=New%20Jersey%20became%20the%20first,that%20propertied%20women%20could%20vote.
    4. ^ "New Zealand women and the vote – Women and the vote | NZHistory, New Zealand history online".
    5. ^ Documenting Democracy: Constitution (Female Suffrage) Act 1895 (SA); National Archives of Australia.
    6. ^ Christine, Lindop (2008). Australia and New Zealand. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 27. ISBN 978-0-19-423390-3. OCLC 361237847.
    7. ^ Brief history of the Finnish Parliament. eduskunta.fi.
    8. ^ "Centenary of women's full political rights in Finland". July 20, 2011. Archived from the original on July 20, 2011.
    9. ^ Korpela, Salla (December 31, 2018). "Finland's parliament: pioneer of gender equality". Finland.fi. Retrieved October 7, 2021.
    10. ^ Temkin, Moshik (January 22, 2024). "Essential Elements for Turning a Cause into a Movement : Lessons from the Suffrage Struggle for Today's Activists". The Commons Social Change Library. Retrieved February 24, 2024.
    11. ^ "Naked Swiss hikers must cover up". April 27, 2009.
    12. ^ https://www.parlament.ch/en/%C3%BCber-das-parlament/political-women/conquest-of-equal-rights/women-suffrage#:~:text=After%20100%20years%20of%20feminist,elected%20to%20the%20Federal%20Assembly.
    13. ^ "Appenzell Inner Rhodes: The last Swiss canton to give women the vote". February 2, 2021.
    14. ^ "The Landsgemeinde and Direct Democracy – the Swiss Spectator".
    15. ^ Hume, Leslie (2016). The National Union of Women's Suffrage Societies 1897–1914. Routledge. p. 281. ISBN 978-1-317-21326-0.
    16. ^ "Women's National Anti-Suffrage League Manifesto" in Phelps, Edith M. (2013), Selected Articles on Woman Suffrage, London: Forgotten Books, pp. 257–9.
     
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    15 June 1864American Civil War: The Second Battle of Petersburg begins.

    Second Battle of Petersburg

    The Second Battle of Petersburg, also known as the Assault on Petersburg, was fought June 15–18, 1864, at the beginning of the Richmond–Petersburg Campaign (popularly known as the Siege of Petersburg). Union forces under Lieutenant General Ulysses S. Grant and Major General George G. Meade attempted to capture Petersburg, Virginia, before General Robert E. Lee's Confederate Army of Northern Virginia could reinforce the city.

    The four days included repeated Union assaults against substantially smaller forces commanded by General P. G. T. Beauregard. Beauregard's strong defensive positions and poorly coordinated actions by the Union generals (notably Major General William F. "Baldy" Smith, who squandered the best opportunity for success on June 15) made up for the disparity in the sizes of the armies. By June 18, the arrival of significant reinforcements from Lee's army made further assaults impractical. The failure of the Union to defeat the Confederates in these actions resulted in the start of the ten-month Siege of Petersburg.

    1. ^ a b c Further information: Official Records, Series I, Volume XL, Part 1, pages 218-238.
    2. ^ a b Eicher, pp. 689–90; Esposito, text for map 138.
    3. ^ a b Bonekemper, p. 313. The author presents casualty figures from a wide variety of sources and provides his best estimate. Trudeau, p. 55, agrees with the 4,000 Confederate losses, but cites Union killed and wounded at 8,150, with an additional 1,814 missing. Kennedy, p. 353, cites 9,964–10,600 for the Union, 2,974–4,700 for the Confederates; Salmon, p. 406, cites 8,150 Federal and 3,236 Confederate casualties.
     
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    16 June 1961Rudolf Nureyev defects from the Soviet Union.

    Rudolf Nureyev

    Rudolf Khametovich Nureyev[a] (17 March 1938 – 6 January 1993) was a Soviet-born ballet dancer and choreographer. Nureyev is regarded by some as the greatest male ballet dancer of his generation.[1][2][3][4]

    Nureyev was born on a Trans-Siberian train near Irkutsk, Siberia, Soviet Union, to a Tatar family. He began his early career with the company that in the Soviet era was called the Kirov Ballet (now called by its original name, the Mariinsky Ballet) in Leningrad. He defected from the Soviet Union to the West in 1961, despite KGB efforts to stop him.[5] This was the first defection of a Soviet artist during the Cold War, and it created an international sensation. He went on to dance with The Royal Ballet in London and from 1983 to 1989 served as director of the Paris Opera Ballet. Nureyev was also a choreographer serving as the chief choreographer of the Paris Opera Ballet. He produced his own interpretations of numerous classical works,[6] including Swan Lake, Giselle and La Bayadère.[7]


    Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

    1. ^ Lord of the dance – Rudolf Nureyev at the National Film Theatre, London, 1–31 January 2003 Archived 1 December 2017 at the Wayback Machine, by John Percival, The Independent, 26 December 2002.
    2. ^ Rudolf Nureyev, Charismatic Dancer Who Gave Fire to Ballet's Image, Dies at 54 Archived 10 June 2021 at the Wayback Machine, by Jack Anderson, The Independent, 7 January 1993.
    3. ^ (in French) Rudolf Noureev exercising at the barre Archived 7 August 2017 at the Wayback Machine, 21 December 1970, site INA (4 min 13).
    4. ^ Philippe Noisette, (in French) « Que reste-t-il de Noureev ? » Archived 17 August 2016 at the Wayback Machine, Les Échos, 1 March 2013.
    5. ^ Bridcut, John (17 September 2007). "The KGB's long war against Rudolf Nureyev". The Telegraph. London. Archived from the original on 22 March 2016. Retrieved 22 May 2010.
    6. ^ "Rudolf Nureyev's Choreographies – The Rudolf Nureyev Foundation". Nureyev.org. 10 December 2018. Archived from the original on 5 August 2020. Retrieved 15 March 2020.
    7. ^ Noisette, Philippe (26 January 2013). "Benjamin Millepied, le pari de Stéphane Lissner". Paris Match (in French). Archived from the original on 18 February 2017.
     
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    17 June 1987 – With the death of the last individual of the species, the dusky seaside sparrow becomes extinct.

    Dusky seaside sparrow

    The dusky seaside sparrow (Ammospiza maritima nigrescens) was a non-migratory subspecies of the seaside sparrow, found in Florida in the natural salt marshes of Merritt Island and along the St. Johns River. The last definite known individual died on Walt Disney World's Discovery Island in 1987,[3] and the subspecies was officially declared extinct in December 1990.[2]

    1. ^ NatureServe (6 January 2023). "Ammospiza maritima nigrescens". NatureServe Network Biodiversity Location Data accessed through NatureServe Explorer. Arlington, Virginia: NatureServe. Retrieved 23 January 2023.
    2. ^ a b Bentzien, Michael M.; Fish and Wildlife Service, Interior (12 December 1990). "Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and Plants; Final Rule to Delist the Dusky Seaside Sparrow and Remove its Critical Habitat Designation". Federal Register. 55 (239): 51112–51114. Retrieved 23 January 2023.
    3. ^ Newsweek, June 9, 2008 page 45
     
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    18 June 1979SALT II is signed by the United States and the Soviet Union.

    Strategic Arms Limitation Talks

    The Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT) were two rounds of bilateral conferences and corresponding international treaties involving the United States and the Soviet Union. The Cold War superpowers dealt with arms control in two rounds of talks and agreements: SALT I and SALT II.

    Negotiations commenced in Helsinki, in November 1969.[1] SALT I led to the Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty and an interim agreement between the two countries.

    Although SALT II resulted in an agreement in 1979 in Vienna, the US Senate chose not to ratify the treaty in response to the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan, which took place later that year. The Supreme Soviet did not ratify it either. The agreement expired on December 31, 1985, and was not renewed, although both sides continued to respect it.

    The talks led to the STARTs, or Strategic Arms Reduction Treaties, which consisted of START I, a 1991 completed agreement between the United States and the Soviet Union, and START II, a 1993 agreement between the United States and Russia which never entered into effect, both of which proposed limits on multiple-warhead capacities and other restrictions on each side's number of nuclear weapons. A successor to START I, New START, was proposed and was eventually ratified in February 2011.

    1. ^ Paterson, Thomas G. (2009). American foreign relations: a history. Vol. 2 (7th ed.). Wadsworth. p. 376. ISBN 9780547225692. OCLC 553762544.
     
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    19 June 1913Natives Land Act, 1913 in South Africa implemented.

    Natives Land Act, 1913

    The Natives Land Act, 1913 (subsequently renamed Bantu Land Act, 1913 and Black Land Act, 1913; Act No. 27 of 1913) was an Act of the Parliament of South Africa that was aimed at regulating the acquisition of land. It largely prohibited the sale of land from whites to blacks and vice-versa.

    Economic interests, political influence and racial prejudices were main contributors to the introduction of the Native's Lands Act. According to the Encyclopædia Britannica:[1] "The Natives’ Land Act of 1913 defined less than one-tenth of South Africa as Black “reserves” and prohibited any purchase or lease of land by Blacks outside the reserves. The law also restricted the terms of tenure under which Blacks could live on white-owned farms."

    1. ^ "[1], www.britannica.com, accessed 29 March 2021
     
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    20 June 1631 – The sack of Baltimore: The Irish village of Baltimore is attacked by Algerian pirates.

    Sack of Baltimore

    Entrance to Baltimore bay

    The sack of Baltimore took place on 20 June 1631, when the village of Baltimore in West Cork, Ireland, was attacked by pirates from the Barbary Coast of North Africa — the raiders included Dutchmen, Algerians, and Ottoman Turks. The attack was the largest by Barbary slave traders on Ireland.[1][2]

    The attack was led by an expatriate Dutch captain, Murad Reis the Younger (formerly Jan Janszoon van Haarlem), who had been enslaved by Algerians but released when he renounced his faith and converted to Islam. Murad's force was led to the village by a man called Hackett — the captain of a fishing boat that was captured earlier — in exchange for his freedom. Hackett was subsequently hanged from the clifftop outside the village for conspiracy.[3][4]

    1. ^ Domhnaill, Rónán Gearóid Ó (28 April 2015). Fadó Fadó: More Tales of Lesser-Known Irish History. Troubador Publishing Ltd. p. 33. ISBN 978-1-78462-230-5.
    2. ^ Wilson, Peter Lamborn (2003). Pirate Utopias: Moorish Corsairs & European Renegadoes. Autonomedia. pp. 119, 121. ISBN 978-1-57027-158-8.
    3. ^ Ó Domhnaill, Rónán Gearóid (2015). Fadó Fadó: More Tales of Lesser-Known Irish History. Troubador Publishing Ltd. p. 34. ISBN 978-1784622305. Retrieved 15 June 2015. The truth soon emerged and he was hanged from the cliff top outside the village for his conspiracy
    4. ^ Corporation, Kinsale, Ireland (1879). The Council Book of the Corporation of Kinsale, from 1652 to 1800. J. Billing and sons. pp. xxxiii–xxxv.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
     

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