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Discussion in 'Break Room' started by NewsBot, Apr 6, 2008.

  1. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    21 June 1957Ellen Fairclough is sworn in as Canada's first female Cabinet Minister.

    Ellen Fairclough

    Ellen Louks Fairclough PC CC OOnt (née Cook;[1] January 28, 1905 – November 13, 2004) was a Canadian politician. A Progressive Conservative member of the House of Commons of Canada from 1950 to 1963, she was the first woman ever to serve in the Canadian Cabinet.[2]

    1. ^ "The Appointment of Ellen Fairclough as Canada's First Female Cabinet Minister". Diefenbaker Canada Centre. University of Saskatchewan. Archived from the original on November 27, 2020. Retrieved April 20, 2012.
    2. ^ "Ellen Louks Fairclough: Canada's First Female Federal Cabinet Minister". Electoral Insight. March 2003. Archived from the original on April 2, 2015.
     
  2. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    22 June 1942 – The Pledge of Allegiance is formally adopted by US Congress.

    Pledge of Allegiance (United States)

    • From a page move: This is a redirect from a page that has been moved (renamed). This page was kept as a redirect to avoid breaking links, both internal and external, that may have been made to the old page name.
     
  3. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    23 June 1913Second Balkan War: The Greeks defeat the Bulgarians in the Battle of Doiran.

    Battle of Doiran (1913)

    The Battle of Doiran was a battle of the Second Balkan War, fought between the Bulgaria and Greece. The battle took place in June 1913.

    The Hellenic Army, after the victory at Kilkis-Lachanas, continued their advance north and successfully engaged the Bulgarians at Lake Doiran. The Bulgarian army had retreated to the lake, after having destroyed the bridges of Strymon River and burned the town of Serres.[5] As a result of their subsequent defeat, the Bulgarian forces retreated further north.

    1. ^ "Μάχη της Δοϊράνης: Η συντριπτική και θριαμβευτική ελληνική νίκη κατά των Βουλγάρων". 23 June 2021.
    2. ^ Hellenic Army 1998, Table 6.
    3. ^ Hellenic Army 1998, paragraph 290.
    4. ^ Hellenic Army 1998, paragraph 291.
    5. ^ "Η μάχη της Δοιράνης". Archived from the original on 16 December 2019. Retrieved 16 December 2019.


    Cite error: There are <ref group=n> tags on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=n}} template (see the help page).

     
  4. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    24 June 1813Battle of Beaver Dams: A British and Indian combined force defeats the United States Army.

    Battle of Beaver Dams

    The Battle of Beaver Dams took place on 24 June 1813, during the War of 1812. A column of troops from the United States Army marched from Fort George and attempted to surprise a British outpost at Beaver Dams, billeting themselves overnight in the village of Queenston, Ontario. Laura Secord, a resident of Queenston, had earlier learned of the American plans from several Americans billeted at her house and had struck out on a long and difficult trek to warn the British at Decou's stone house near present-day Brock University. When the Americans resumed their march, they were ambushed by Kahnawake and other native warriors and eventually surrendered to a small British detachment led by Lieutenant James FitzGibbon. About 500 U.S. troops, including their wounded commander, were taken prisoner.

    1. ^ Benn, p.115
    2. ^ Stanley, George F.G. The Indians in the War of 1812, in Zaslow (ed) p. 182
    3. ^ Elting, p.134
    4. ^ Eaton, p. 10
    5. ^ Cruikshank, p. 141
     
  5. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    25 June 1940World War II: The French armistice with Germany comes into effect.

    Armistice of 22 June 1940

    Adolf Hitler (hand on hip) looking at the statue of Ferdinand Foch before starting the negotiations for the armistice at Compiègne, France (21 June 1940)
    Ferdinand Foch's railway car, at the same location as after World War I, prepared by the Germans for the second armistice at Compiègne, June 1940

    The Armistice of 22 June 1940, sometimes referred to as the Second Armistice at Compiègne, was an agreement signed at 18:36 on 22 June 1940[1] near Compiègne, France by officials of Nazi Germany and the Third French Republic. It became effective at midnight on 25 June.

    Signatories for Germany included Wilhelm Keitel, a senior military officer of the Wehrmacht (the German armed forces), while those on the French side held lower ranks, including general Charles Huntziger.[1] Following the decisive German victory in the Battle of France (10 May – 25 June 1940) during World War II, this armistice established a German occupation zone in Northern and Western France that encompassed about three-fifths of France's European territory, including all English Channel and Atlantic Ocean ports. The remainder of the country was to be left unoccupied, although the new regime that replaced the Third Republic was mutually recognised as the legitimate government of all of Metropolitan France except Alsace–Lorraine. The French were also permitted to retain control of all of their non-European territories. Adolf Hitler deliberately chose Compiègne Forest as the site to sign the armistice because of its symbolic role as the site of the Armistice of 11 November 1918 that signaled the end of World War I with Germany's surrender.

    1. ^ a b Maury, Jean-Pierre. ""Convention d'armistice" – Text of the armistice signed in Rethondes on 22 June 1940". mjp.univ-perp.fr. University of Perpignan. Retrieved 11 June 2015.
     
  6. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    26 June 1927The Cyclone roller coaster opens on Coney Island.

    Coney Island Cyclone

    The Cyclone, also called the Coney Island Cyclone, is a wooden roller coaster at Luna Park in Coney Island, Brooklyn, New York City. Designed by Vernon Keenan, it opened to the public on June 26, 1927. The roller coaster is on a plot of land at the intersection of Surf Avenue and West 10th Street. The Cyclone reaches a maximum speed of 60 miles per hour (97 km/h) and has a total track length of 2,640 feet (800 m), with a maximum height of 85 feet (26 m).

    The roller coaster operated for more than four decades before it began to deteriorate, and by the early 1970s the city planned to scrap the ride. On June 18, 1975, Dewey and Jerome Albert, owners of the adjacent Astroland amusement park, entered an agreement with New York City to operate the ride. The roller coaster was refurbished in the 1974 off-season and reopened on July 3, 1975. Astroland Park continued to invest millions of dollars in the Cyclone's upkeep. The roller coaster was declared a New York City designated landmark in 1988 and was placed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1991. After Astroland closed in 2008, Cyclone Coasters president Carol Hill Albert continued to operate it under a lease agreement with the city. In 2011, Luna Park took over the Cyclone.

    1. ^ Denson, Charles (2002). Coney Island: Lost and Found. Berkeley, Calif.: Ten Speed Press. ISBN 9781580084550.
    2. ^ "National Register Information System". National Register of Historic Places. National Park Service. April 15, 2008.
    3. ^ Cite error: The named reference NYCL was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
     
  7. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    27 June 1977 – France grants independence to Djibouti.

    Djibouti

    Djibouti,[a] officially the Republic of Djibouti,[b] is a country in the Horn of Africa, bordered by Somalia[c] to the south, Ethiopia to the southwest, Eritrea in the north, and the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden to the east. The country has an area of 23,200 km2 (8,958 sq mi).[1]

    In antiquity, the territory, together with Ethiopia, Eritrea and Somaliland, was part of the Land of Punt. Nearby Zeila, now in Somaliland, was the seat of the medieval Adal and Ifat Sultanates. In the late 19th century, the colony of French Somaliland was established after the ruling Dir Somali sultans signed treaties with the French,[11][12][13] and its railroad to Dire Dawa (and later Addis Ababa) allowed it to quickly supersede Zeila as the port for southern Ethiopia and the Ogaden.[14] It was renamed the French Territory of the Afars and the Issas in 1967. A decade later, the Djiboutian people voted for independence. This officially marked the establishment of the Republic of Djibouti, named after its capital city. The new state joined the United Nations in its first year.[15][16] In the early 1990s, tensions over government representation led to armed conflict, which ended in a power-sharing agreement in 2000 between the ruling party and the opposition.[1]

    Djibouti is a multi-ethnic nation with a population of over 920,000 (the smallest in mainland Africa). French and Arabic are its two official languages, Afar and Somali are national languages. About 94% of Djiboutians adhere to Islam,[1] which is the official religion and has been predominant in the region for more than 1,000 years. The Somalis and Afar make up the two largest ethnic groups, with the former comprising the majority of the population. Both speak a language of the Cushitic branch of the Afroasiatic languages.[1]

    Djibouti is near some of the world's busiest shipping lanes, controlling access to the Red Sea and Indian Ocean. It serves as a key refuelling and transshipment center, and the principal maritime port for imports from and exports to neighboring Ethiopia. A burgeoning commercial hub, the nation is the site of various foreign military bases. The Intergovernmental Authority on Development (IGAD) regional body also has its headquarters in Djibouti City.[1]

    1. ^ a b c d e f g h "Djibouti". The World Factbook. CIA. 5 February 2013. Retrieved 26 February 2013.
    2. ^ "Democracy Index 2020". Economist Intelligence Unit. Retrieved 17 December 2021.
    3. ^ "The world's enduring dictators". CBS News. May 16, 2011.
    4. ^ Mastro, Oriana Skylar (3 March 2020). "All in the Family: North Korea and the Fate of Hereditary Autocratic Regimes". Survival. 62 (2): 103–124. doi:10.1080/00396338.2020.1739951. S2CID 216340612.
    5. ^ "Djibouti". The World Factbook (2024 ed.). Central Intelligence Agency. Retrieved 22 June 2023.
    6. ^ a b c d "World Economic Outlook Database, October 2023 Edition. (Djibouti)". IMF.org. International Monetary Fund. 10 October 2023. Retrieved 20 October 2023.
    7. ^ "Gini Index coefficient". CIA World Factbook. Retrieved 12 August 2021.
    8. ^ "Human Development Report 2021/2022" (PDF). United Nations Development Programme. 8 September 2022. Retrieved 8 September 2022.
    9. ^ Mylonas, Harris. "De Facto States Unbound – PONARS Eurasia". PONARS Eurasia. Retrieved 8 April 2022.
    10. ^ Ker-Lindsay, James (2012). The foreign policy of counter secession: preventing the recognition of contested states (1st ed.). Oxford University Press. pp. 58–59. ISBN 978-0-19-161197-1. OCLC 811620848.
    11. ^ Cite error: The named reference Uwechue was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    12. ^ Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Somalia: History of French Somaliland" . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 25 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 383.
    13. ^ Cite error: The named reference Apcoatf was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    14. ^ Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Zaila" . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 28 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 950.
    15. ^ "Today in Djibouti History". Historyorb.com. Archived from the original on 16 May 2011. Retrieved 27 April 2011.
    16. ^ "United Nations member states". United Nations. Archived from the original on 30 December 2013. Retrieved 27 April 2011.


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  8. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    28 June 1846Adolphe Sax patents the saxophone.

    Adolphe Sax

    Saxophone produced by Sax

    Antoine-Joseph "Adolphe" Sax (French: [ɑ̃twan ʒozɛf adɔlf saks]; 6 November 1814 – 7 February 1894)[a] was a Belgian inventor and musician who invented the saxophone in the early 1840s, patenting it in 1846. He also invented the saxotromba, saxhorn and saxtuba, and redesigned the bass clarinet in a fashion still used to the present day. He played the flute and clarinet.
    Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

     
  9. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    29 June 1987Vincent Van Gogh’s painting, the Le Pont de Trinquetaille, was bought for $20.4 million at an auction in London, England.

    Vincent van Gogh

    Vincent Willem van Gogh (Dutch: [ˈvɪnsɛnt ˈʋɪləɱ‿vɑŋ‿ˈɣɔx] ;[note 1] 30 March 1853 – 29 July 1890) was a Dutch Post-Impressionist painter who is among the most famous and influential figures in the history of Western art. In just over a decade, he created approximately 2100 artworks, including around 860 oil paintings, most of them in the last two years of his life. His oeuvre includes landscapes, still lifes, portraits, and self-portraits, most of which are characterized by bold colors and dramatic brushwork that contributed to the rise of expressionism in modern art. Van Gogh's work was beginning to gain critical attention before he died at age 37, by suicide.[5] During his lifetime, only one of Van Gogh's paintings, The Red Vineyard, was sold.

    Born into an upper-middle-class family, Van Gogh drew as a child and was serious, quiet and thoughtful, but showed signs of mental instability. As a young man, he worked as an art dealer, often travelling, but became depressed after he was transferred to London. He turned to religion and spent time as a missionary in southern Belgium. Later he drifted into ill-health and solitude. He was keenly aware of modernist trends in art and, while back with his parents, took up painting in 1881. His younger brother, Theo, supported him financially, and the two of them maintained a long correspondence.

    Van Gogh's early works consist of mostly still lifes and depictions of peasant laborers. In 1886, he moved to Paris, where he met members of the artistic avant-garde, including Émile Bernard and Paul Gauguin, who were seeking new paths beyond Impressionism. Frustrated in Paris and inspired by a growing spirit of artistic change and collaboration, in February 1888, Van Gogh moved to Arles in southern France to establish an artistic retreat and commune. Once there, Van Gogh's art changed. His paintings grew brighter and he turned his attention to the natural world, depicting local olive groves, wheat fields and sunflowers. Van Gogh invited Gauguin to join him in Arles and eagerly anticipated Gauguin's arrival in the fall of 1888.

    Van Gogh suffered from psychotic episodes and delusions. Though he worried about his mental stability, he often neglected his physical health, did not eat properly and drank heavily. His friendship with Gauguin ended after a confrontation with a razor when, in a rage, he severed his left ear. Van Gogh spent time in psychiatric hospitals, including a period at Saint-Rémy. After he discharged himself and moved to the Auberge Ravoux in Auvers-sur-Oise near Paris, he came under the care of the homeopathic doctor Paul Gachet. His depression persisted, and on 27 July 1890, Van Gogh is believed to have shot himself in the chest with a revolver, dying from his injuries two days later.

    Van Gogh's work began to attract critical artistic attention in the last year of his life. After his death, Van Gogh's art and life story captured public imagination as an emblem of misunderstood genius, due in large part to the efforts of his widowed sister-in-law Johanna van Gogh-Bonger.[6][7] His bold use of color, expressive line and thick application of paint inspired avant-garde artistic groups like the Fauves and German Expressionists in the early 20th century. Van Gogh's work gained widespread critical and commercial success in the following decades, and he has become a lasting icon of the romantic ideal of the tortured artist. Today, Van Gogh's works are among the world's most expensive paintings ever sold. His legacy is honored and celebrated by the Van Gogh Museum in Amsterdam, which holds the world's largest collection of his paintings and drawings.

    1. ^ "BBC – Magazine Monitor: How to Say: Van Gogh". BBC. 22 January 2010. Archived from the original on 26 September 2016. Retrieved 10 September 2016.
    2. ^ Sweetman (1990), 7.
    3. ^ Davies (2007), p. 83.
    4. ^ Veltkamp, Paul. "Pronunciation of the Name 'Van Gogh'". vggallery.com. Archived from the original on 22 September 2015.
    5. ^ Paintings, Authors: Department of European. "Vincent van Gogh (1853–1890) | Essay | The Metropolitan Museum of Art | Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History". The Met’s Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. Retrieved 14 March 2024.
    6. ^ "The Woman Who Made Vincent van Gogh". The New York Times. 14 April 2021. Retrieved 12 September 2023.
    7. ^ McQuillan (1989), 9.


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  10. Admin2

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    30 June 1953 – The first Chevrolet Corvette rolls off the assembly line in Flint, Michigan.

    Chevrolet Corvette

    The Chevrolet Corvette is a line of American two-door, two-seater sports cars, manufactured and marketed by GM, under the Chevrolet marque, since 1953.[1][2]

    Over the course of eight generations, indicated sequentially as C1 to C8, the Corvette is noted for its performance, distinctive styling, lightweight fiberglass or composite bodywork, and competitive pricing. Since the cessation of Ford and Chrysler's competitors,[3] the Corvette is the only two-seat sports car produced by a major United States auto manufacturer and serves as Chevrolet's halo car.[4]

    Since its introduction in 1953, the two-seater has steadily moved upmarket. Originally a relatively modest, lightweight 6‑cylinder convertible, subsequent introductions of V8 engines, competitive chassis innovations, and rear mid-engined layout have positioned the Corvette in the supercar class. The first three Corvette generations (1953–1983) employed body-on-frame construction, and since the C4 generation, introduced in 1983 as an early 1984 model, Corvettes have used GM's unibody Y‑body platform.[5] All Corvettes used front mid-engine configuration for seven generations, through 2019, and transitioned to a rear mid-engined layout with the C8 generation.[6]

    In 1953, GM executives accepted a suggestion by Myron Scott, then the assistant director of the Public Relations department, to name the company's new sports car after the corvette, a small maneuverable warship.[7] The first model, a convertible, was introduced at the 1953 GM Motorama as a concept car; production models went on sale later that year. In 1963, the second generation was introduced in coupe and convertible styles. Originally manufactured in Flint, Michigan, and St. Louis, Missouri, the Corvette has been produced in Bowling Green, Kentucky, since 1981, which is also the location of the National Corvette Museum.

    The Corvette has become widely known as "America's Sports Car."[8] Automotive News wrote that after being featured in the early 1960s television show Route 66, "the Corvette became synonymous with freedom and adventure," ultimately becoming both "the most successful concept car in history and the most popular sports car in history."[9]

    1. ^ "2017 Corvette Stingray: Sports Cars - Chevrolet".
    2. ^ Miller, Ray; Embree, Glenn (1975). The Real Corvette: An Illustrated History of Chevrolet's Sports Car. Evergreen Press. ISBN 978-0913056066.
    3. ^ the Ford GT and Dodge Viper respectively,
    4. ^ Oldham, Scott (July 24, 2018). "25 Corvette facts that every enthusiast should know". Hagerty. Retrieved June 14, 2022.
    5. ^ McNessor, Mike (August 24, 2020). "How the Corvette's chassis evolved over more than 60 years". RK Motors Charlotte.
    6. ^ Capparella, Joey (April 11, 2019). "The Mid-Engined 2020 Chevrolet Corvette C8 Is Real, GM Confesses, and It Will Debut July 18". Car and Driver. Retrieved April 11, 2019.
    7. ^ Falconer, Tom (2003). The Complete Corvette. Crestline. p. 9. ISBN 978-0-7603-1474-6. Retrieved September 30, 2012.
    8. ^ Bryant, Thos L. (November 6, 2012). "America's Sports Car". Road & Track.
    9. ^ Burton, Jerry (October 31, 2011). "Corvette: A pop culture classic". Automotive News. Retrieved May 31, 2022.
     
  11. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    1 July 1903 – Start of first Tour de France bicycle race.

    1903 Tour de France

    The 1903 Tour de France was the first cycling race set up and sponsored by the newspaper L'Auto, ancestor of the current daily, L'Équipe. It ran from 1 to 19 July in six stages over 2,428 km (1,509 mi), and was won by Maurice Garin.[1]

    The race was invented to boost the circulation of L'Auto, after its circulation started to plummet from competition with the long-standing Le Vélo. Originally scheduled to start in June, the race was postponed one month, and the prize money was increased, after a disappointing level of applications from competitors. The 1903 Tour de France was the first stage road race, and compared to modern Grand Tours, it had relatively few stages, but each was much longer than those raced today. The cyclists did not have to compete in all six stages, although this was necessary to qualify for the general classification.

    The pre-race favourite, Maurice Garin, won the first stage, and retained the lead throughout. He also won the last two stages, and had a margin of almost three hours over the next cyclist. The circulation of L'Auto increased more than sixfold during and after the race, so the race was considered successful enough to be rerun in 1904, by which time Le Vélo had been forced out of business.

    1. ^ Augendre 2016, p. 108.
     
  12. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    2 July 1494 – The Treaty of Tordesillas is ratified by Spain.

    Treaty of Tordesillas

    The Treaty of Tordesillas,[a] signed in Tordesillas, Spain, on 7 June 1494, and ratified in Setúbal, Portugal, divided the newly discovered lands outside Europe between Portugal and the Crown of Castile, along a meridian 370 leagues[b] west of the Cape Verde islands, off the west coast of Africa. That line of demarcation was about halfway between Cape Verde (already Portuguese) and the islands visited by Christopher Columbus on his first voyage (claimed for Castile and León), named in the treaty as Cipangu and Antillia (Cuba and Hispaniola).

    The lands to the east would belong to Portugal and the lands to the west to Castile, modifying an earlier bull by Pope Alexander VI. The treaty was signed by Spain on 2 July 1494, and by Portugal on 5 September 1494. The other side of the world was divided a few decades later by the Treaty of Zaragoza, signed on 22 April 1529, which specified the antimeridian to the line of demarcation specified in the Treaty of Tordesillas. Portugal and Spain largely respected the treaties, while the indigenous peoples of the Americas did not acknowledge them.[9]

    The treaty was included by UNESCO in 2007 in its Memory of the World Programme. Originals of both treaties are kept at the General Archive of the Indies in Spain and at the Torre do Tombo National Archive in Portugal.[10]

    1. ^ Horst Pietschmann, Atlantic history : history of the Atlantic System 1580–1830, Göttingen : Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 2002, p. 239
    2. ^ Parise, Agustín (2017). Ownership Paradigms in American Civil Law Jurisdictions: Manifestations of the Shifts in the Legislation of Louisiana, Chile, and Argentina (16th–20th Centuries). Brill. p. 68. ISBN 978-9004338203. Retrieved 21 September 2018.
    3. ^ Blair & Robertson (1903).
    4. ^ Davenport (1917), p. 100.
    5. ^ Chardon (1980), pp. 142, 144, & 151.
    6. ^ Harrisse (1897), pp. 85–97, 176–190.
    7. ^ Newlyn Walkup, "Eratosthenes and the mystery of the stades"
    8. ^ Engels, Donald (1985). "The length of Eratosthenes' stade". American Journal of Philology. 106 (3): 298–311. doi:10.2307/295030. JSTOR 295030.
    9. ^ Miller, Robert; LeSage, Lisa; Escarcena, Sebastián (1 August 2011). "The International Law of Discovery, Indigenous Peoples, and Chile". Nebraska Law Review. 89 (4): 829.
    10. ^ Davenport (1917), pp. 85 & 171.


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  13. Admin2

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    3 July 1844 – The last pair of great auks is killed.

    Great auk

    The great auk (Pinguinus impennis) is a species of flightless alcid that became extinct in the mid-19th century. It was the only modern species in the genus Pinguinus. It is not closely related to the Southern Hemisphere birds now known as penguins, which were discovered later by Europeans and so named by sailors because of their physical resemblance to the great auk, which were called penguins.

    It bred on rocky, remote islands with easy access to the ocean and a plentiful food supply, a rarity in nature that provided only a few breeding sites for the great auks. When not breeding, they spent their time foraging in the waters of the North Atlantic, ranging as far south as northern Spain and along the coastlines of Canada, Greenland, Iceland, the Faroe Islands, Norway, Ireland, and Great Britain.

    The bird was 75 to 85 centimetres (30 to 33 inches) tall and weighed about 5 kilograms (11 pounds), making it the largest alcid to survive into the modern era, and the second-largest member of the alcid family overall (the prehistoric Miomancalla was larger).[6] It had a black back and a white belly. The black beak was heavy and hooked, with grooves on its surface. During summer, great auk plumage showed a white patch over each eye. During winter, the great auk lost these patches, instead developing a white band stretching between the eyes. The wings were only 15 cm (6 in) long, rendering the bird flightless. Instead, the great auk was a powerful swimmer, a trait that it used in hunting. Its favourite prey were fish, including Atlantic menhaden and capelin, and crustaceans. Although agile in the water, it was clumsy on land. Great auk pairs mated for life. They nested in extremely dense and social colonies, laying one egg on bare rock. The egg was white with variable brown marbling. Both parents participated in the incubation of the egg for around six weeks before the young hatched. The young left the nest site after two to three weeks, although the parents continued to care for it.

    The great auk was an important part of many Native American cultures, both as a food source and as a symbolic item. Many Maritime Archaic people were buried with great auk bones. One burial discovered included someone covered by more than 200 great auk beaks, which are presumed to be the remnants of a cloak made of great auks' skins. Early European explorers to the Americas used the great auk as a convenient food source or as fishing bait, reducing its numbers. The bird's down was in high demand in Europe, a factor that largely eliminated the European populations by the mid-16th century. Scientists soon began to realize that the great auk was disappearing and it became the beneficiary of many early environmental laws, but these proved ineffectual.

    Its growing rarity increased interest from European museums and private collectors in obtaining skins and eggs of the bird. On 3 June 1844, the last two confirmed specimens were killed on Eldey, off the coast of Iceland, ending the last known breeding attempt. Later reports of roaming individuals being seen or caught are unconfirmed. A report of one great auk in 1852 is considered by some to be the last sighting of a member of the species. The great auk is mentioned in several novels, and the scientific journal of the American Ornithological Society was named The Auk (now Ornithology) in honour of the bird until 2021.

    1. ^ Finlayson, Clive (2011). Avian survivors: The History and Biogeography of Palearctic Birds. Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 157. ISBN 978-1408137314.
    2. ^ BirdLife International (2021). "Pinguinus impennis". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2021: e.T22694856A205919631. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2021-3.RLTS.T22694856A205919631.en. Retrieved 19 November 2021.
    3. ^ "NatureServe Explorer 2.0". explorer.natureserve.org. Retrieved 31 March 2022.
    4. ^ Grieve, Symington (1885). The Great Auk, or Garefowl: Its history, archaeology, and remains. Thomas C. Jack, London. ISBN 978-0665066245.
    5. ^ Parkin, Thomas (1894). The Great Auk, or Garefowl. J.E. Budd, Printer. Retrieved 14 May 2010.
    6. ^ Smith, N (2015). "Evolution of body mass in the Pan-Alcidae (Aves, Charadriiformes): the effects of combining neontological and paleontological data". Paleobiology. 42 (1): 8–26. Bibcode:2016Pbio...42....8S. doi:10.1017/pab.2015.24. S2CID 83934750.
     
  14. Admin2

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    4 July 1976 – The U.S. celebrates its Bicentennial.

    United States Bicentennial

    The United States Bicentennial was a series of celebrations and observances during the mid-1970s that paid tribute to historical events leading up to the creation of the United States of America as an independent republic. It was a central event in the memory of the American Revolution. The Bicentennial culminated on Sunday, July 4, 1976, with the 200th anniversary of the adoption of the Declaration of Independence by the Founding Fathers in the Second Continental Congress.

     
  15. Admin2

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    5 July 1946 – The bikini goes on sale after debuting during an outdoor fashion show at the Molitor Pool in Paris, France.

    Bikini

    Mexican actress Dolores del Río posing in a publicity photograph for the film In Caliente (1935). Del Río was a pioneer in wearing a two piece swimsuit.[1]
    A woman wearing a black bikini at a beach in 2009

    A bikini is a two-piece swimsuit primarily worn by girls and women that features one piece on top that covers the breasts, and a second piece on the bottom: the front covering the pelvis but usually exposing the navel, and the back generally covering the intergluteal cleft and a little, some, or all of the buttocks. The size of the top and bottom can vary, from bikinis that offer full coverage of the breasts, pelvis, and buttocks, to more revealing designs with a thong or G-string bottom that covers only the mons pubis, but exposes the buttocks, and a top that covers only the areolae. Bikini bottoms covering about half the buttocks may be described as "Brazilian-cut".

    The modern bikini swimsuit was introduced by French clothing designer Louis Réard in July 1946, and was named after the Bikini Atoll, where the first public test of a nuclear bomb had taken place four days before.[2]

    Due to its revealing design, the bikini was once considered controversial, facing opposition from a number of groups and being accepted only very slowly by the general public. In many countries, the design was banned from beaches and other public places: in 1949, France banned the bikini from being worn on its coastlines; Germany banned the bikini from public swimming pools until the 1970s, and some communist groups condemned the bikini as a "capitalist decadence".[3] The bikini also faced criticism from some feminists, who reviled it as a garment designed to suit men's tastes, and not those of women.[citation needed] [4] Despite this backlash, however, the bikini still sold well throughout the mid to late 20th century.[citation needed]

    The bikini gained increased exposure and acceptance as film stars like Brigitte Bardot, Raquel Welch, and Ursula Andress wore it and were photographed on public beaches and seen in film.[3] The minimalist bikini design became common in most Western countries by the mid-1960s as both swimwear and underwear. By the late 20th century, it was widely used as sportswear in beach volleyball and bodybuilding. There are a number of modern stylistic variations of the design used for marketing purposes and as industry classifications, including monokini, microkini, tankini, trikini, pubikini, skirtini, thong, and g-string. A man's single piece brief swimsuit may also be called a bikini or "bikini brief", particularly if it has slimmer sides.[5] Similarly, a variety of men's and women's underwear types are described as bikini underwear. The bikini has gradually gained wide acceptance in Western society. By the early 2000s, bikinis had become a US$811 million business annually, and boosted spin off services such as bikini waxing and sun tanning.[6]

    1. ^ López, Alberto (August 3, 2017). "Dolores del Río, la primera actriz hispanoamericana que conquistó Hollywood". El País (in Spanish). Retrieved March 5, 2022.
    2. ^ Weisgall, Jonathan M. (1994). Operation Crossroads: The atomic tests at Bikini Atoll. Naval Institute Press. pp. 263–264.
    3. ^ a b Alac, Patrik (2012). Bikini Story (first ed.). Parkstone International. p. 52. ISBN 978-1-78042-951-9.
    4. ^ Van Steenberghe, Julia (2022). "Miss USA Meets Feminism: A Qualitative Study Exploring Contestants' Thoughts on Feminism". Electronic Theses and Dissertations: 3616.
    5. ^ "Bikini". Merriam-Webster. February 13, 2014.
    6. ^ Edwards, Lorna (June 3, 2006). "You've still got it, babe". The Age. Archived from the original on March 6, 2016. Retrieved April 14, 2023.
     
  16. Admin2

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    5 July 1946 – The bikini goes on sale after debuting during an outdoor fashion show at the Molitor Pool in Paris, France.

    Bikini

    Mexican actress Dolores del Río posing in a publicity photograph for the film In Caliente (1935). Del Río was a pioneer in wearing a two piece swimsuit.[1]
    A woman wearing a black bikini at a beach in 2009

    A bikini is a two-piece swimsuit primarily worn by girls and women that features one piece on top that covers the breasts, and a second piece on the bottom: the front covering the pelvis but usually exposing the navel, and the back generally covering the intergluteal cleft and a little, some, or all of the buttocks. The size of the top and bottom can vary, from bikinis that offer full coverage of the breasts, pelvis, and buttocks, to more revealing designs with a thong or G-string bottom that covers only the mons pubis, but exposes the buttocks, and a top that covers only the areolae. Bikini bottoms covering about half the buttocks may be described as "Brazilian-cut".

    The modern bikini swimsuit was introduced by French clothing designer Louis Réard in July 1946, and was named after the Bikini Atoll, where the first public test of a nuclear bomb had taken place four days before.[2]

    Due to its revealing design, the bikini was once considered controversial, facing opposition from a number of groups and being accepted only very slowly by the general public. In many countries, the design was banned from beaches and other public places: in 1949, France banned the bikini from being worn on its coastlines; Germany banned the bikini from public swimming pools until the 1970s, and some communist groups condemned the bikini as a "capitalist decadence".[3] The bikini also faced criticism from some feminists, who reviled it as a garment designed to suit men's tastes, and not those of women.[citation needed] [4] Despite this backlash, however, the bikini still sold well throughout the mid to late 20th century.[citation needed]

    The bikini gained increased exposure and acceptance as film stars like Brigitte Bardot, Raquel Welch, and Ursula Andress wore it and were photographed on public beaches and seen in film.[3] The minimalist bikini design became common in most Western countries by the mid-1960s as both swimwear and underwear. By the late 20th century, it was widely used as sportswear in beach volleyball and bodybuilding. There are a number of modern stylistic variations of the design used for marketing purposes and as industry classifications, including monokini, microkini, tankini, trikini, pubikini, skirtini, thong, and g-string. A man's single piece brief swimsuit may also be called a bikini or "bikini brief", particularly if it has slimmer sides.[5] Similarly, a variety of men's and women's underwear types are described as bikini underwear. The bikini has gradually gained wide acceptance in Western society. By the early 2000s, bikinis had become a US$811 million business annually, and boosted spin off services such as bikini waxing and sun tanning.[6]

    1. ^ López, Alberto (August 3, 2017). "Dolores del Río, la primera actriz hispanoamericana que conquistó Hollywood". El País (in Spanish). Retrieved March 5, 2022.
    2. ^ Weisgall, Jonathan M. (1994). Operation Crossroads: The atomic tests at Bikini Atoll. Naval Institute Press. pp. 263–264.
    3. ^ a b Alac, Patrik (2012). Bikini Story (first ed.). Parkstone International. p. 52. ISBN 978-1-78042-951-9.
    4. ^ Van Steenberghe, Julia (2022). "Miss USA Meets Feminism: A Qualitative Study Exploring Contestants' Thoughts on Feminism". Electronic Theses and Dissertations: 3616.
    5. ^ "Bikini". Merriam-Webster. February 13, 2014.
    6. ^ Edwards, Lorna (June 3, 2006). "You've still got it, babe". The Age. Archived from the original on March 6, 2016. Retrieved April 14, 2023.
     
  17. Admin2

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    6 July 1415Jan Hus is condemned as a heretic and then burned at the stake.

    Jan Hus

    Preview warning: Page using Template:Infobox philosopher with unknown parameter "influences"
    Preview warning: Page using Template:Infobox philosopher with unknown parameter "influenced"
    A gold-colored medal, struck in silver, about four and a half centimeters across, showing the image of Jan Hus tied to a band of stakes. Inscriptions in capital letters read: (around the circumference), CENTVM REVOLVTIS ANNIS DEO RESPONDEBITIS ETMIHI / ANNO A CHRIST[o] NATO 1415 IO[annes] HVS; (and across the center), CONDEM / NATVR
    German or Austrian 16th Century. John Huss Centenary Medal [reverse] . Silver, 4.33 cm. National Gallery of Art, Washington. Samuel H. Kress Collection

    Jan Hus (/hʊs/; Czech: [ˈjan ˈɦus] ; c. 1370 – 6 July 1415), sometimes anglicized as John Hus or John Huss, and referred to in historical texts as Iohannes Hus or Johannes Huss, was a Czech theologian and philosopher who became a Church reformer and the inspiration of Hussitism, a key predecessor to Protestantism, and a seminal figure in the Bohemian Reformation. Hus is considered to be the first Church reformer, even though some designate the theorist John Wycliffe.[a][2][3][4][5] His teachings had a strong influence, most immediately in the approval of a reformed Bohemian religious denomination and, over a century later, on Martin Luther.

    After being ordained as a Catholic priest, Hus began to preach in Prague. He opposed many aspects of the Catholic Church in Bohemia, such as its views on ecclesiology, simony, the Eucharist, and other theological topics. Hus was a master, dean and rector at the Charles University in Prague between 1409 and 1410.

    Alexander V issued a Papal bull that excommunicated Hus; however, it was not enforced, and Hus continued to preach. Hus then spoke out against Alexander V's successor, Antipope John XXIII, for his selling of indulgences. Hus's excommunication was then enforced, and he spent the next two years living in exile.

    When the Council of Constance assembled, Hus was asked to be there and present his views on the dissension within the Church. When he arrived, with a promise of safe-conduct,[6] he was arrested and put in prison. He was eventually taken in front of the council and asked to recant his views. He refused. On 6 July 1415, he was burned at the stake for heresy against the teachings of the Catholic Church.

    After Hus was executed, the followers of his religious teachings (known as Hussites) refused to elect another Catholic monarch and defeated five consecutive papal crusades between 1420 and 1431 in what became known as the Hussite Wars. Both the Bohemian and the Moravian populations remained majority Hussite until the 1620s, when a Protestant defeat in the Battle of the White Mountain resulted in the Lands of the Bohemian Crown coming under Habsburg dominion for the next 300 years and being subject to immediate and forced conversion in an intense campaign of return to Catholicism.

    1. ^ Lamport, Forrest & Whaley 2019, p. 227.
    2. ^ Demy, Timothy J.; Larson, Mark J.; Charles, J. Daryl (2019). The Reformers on War, Peace, and Justice. Wipf and Stock Publishers. p. 5. ISBN 978-1-4982-0698-3. Retrieved 21 January 2022.
    3. ^ Lamport, Mark A.; Forrest, Benjamin K.; Whaley, Vernon M. (2019). Hymns and Hymnody: Historical and Theological Introductions, Volume 2: From Catholic Europe to Protestant Europe. Wipf and Stock Publishers. p. 227. ISBN 978-1-5326-5125-0. Retrieved 21 January 2022.
    4. ^ Walker, Williston (2014). A History of the Christian Church. Ravenio Books. p. 56. Retrieved 21 January 2022.
    5. ^ Verhoeven, Ludo; Perfetti, Charles (2017). Learning to Read across Languages and Writing Systems. Cambridge University Press. p. 372. ISBN 978-1-107-09588-5. Retrieved 21 January 2022.
    6. ^ Gillett 1863, pp. 464–466.


    Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

     
  18. Admin2

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    7 July 1915 – The First Battle of the Isonzo comes to an end.

    First Battle of the Isonzo

    The First Battle of the Isonzo was fought between the armies of Italy and Austria-Hungary on the northeastern Italian Front in World War I, between 23 June and 7 July 1915.

    The aim of the Italian Army was to drive the Austrians away from its defensive positions along the Isonzo ( Soča) river and on the nearby mountains and hopefully capture the port of Trieste.

    Although the Italians enjoyed a 2:1 numeric superiority, their offensive failed because the Italian commander, Luigi Cadorna, employed frontal assaults after impressive (but short) artillery barrages. The Austro-Hungarians had the advantage of fighting from uphill positions barricaded with barbed wire which were able to easily resist the Italian assault.

    The Italians had some early successes. They partially took Monte Nero (Monte Krn), took Monte Colowrat, and captured the heights around Plezzo. However, they were unable to dislodge the Austro-Hungarian troops from the high ground between Tolmino and the Isonzo, which would later form a launching off point for the Caporetto Offensive. The heaviest fighting occurred around Gorizia. In addition to the natural defenses of the river and mountains, bastions were created at Oslavia and Podgora. The fighting at Gorizia consisted of street-by-street urban combat interspersed with artillery fire. Italian troops, such as the Italian Re and Casale Brigades, were able to advance as far as the suburbs but could get no further and were driven back. They made small footholds at Sagrado and Redipuglia on the Karst Plateau south of Gorizia but were unable to do much else.

    On the Austrian-Hungarian side two commanders distinguished themselves: Major General Géza Lukachich von Somorja, commander of the 5th Mountain Brigade, who retook Redipuglia, and Major General Novak von Arienti who retook Hill 383 (overlooking Plave) with his 1st Mountain Brigade.

    Early in July the commander of the Austro-Hungarian Fifth Army, General Svetozar Boroević, received two reinforcement divisions, which put an end to the Italian efforts at breaking through the Austro-Hungarian lines.

    The final Italian gains were minimal: in the northern sector, they conquered the heights over Bovec (Mount Kanin); in the southern sector, they conquered the westernmost ridges of the Karst Plateau near Fogliano Redipuglia and Monfalcone.

    1. ^ a b "Le dodici Battaglie dell'Isonzo".
     
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    8 July 1716 – The Battle of Dynekilen forces Sweden to abandon its invasion of Norway.

    Battle of Dynekilen

    The naval Battle of Dynekilen (Danish: Slaget ved Dynekilen) took place on 8 July 1716 during the Great Northern War between a Dano-Norwegian fleet under Peter Tordenskjold and a Swedish fleet under Olof Strömstierna. The battle resulted in a Dano-Norwegian victory.

    1. ^ Dan H. Andersen. Mandsmod og kongegunst: en biografi om Peter Wessel Tordenskiold. Aschehoug, 2004. p. 207
    2. ^ a b c d e Nils Modig. Strömstad: Gränsstad i ofred och krig. Warne förlag, 2013. pp. 74–86
    3. ^ a b Olav Bergersen. Tordenskiolds brev. Facsimile, 1963. pp. 229–230
    4. ^ Knut Lundblad. Georg Friedrich Jenssen-Tusch: Geschichte Karl des Zwölften, Königs von Schweden, Band 2. Hamburg (1835). p. 491
    5. ^ William Coucheron–Aamot. Det norske folk paa land og sjø. Det norske aktieforlag, 1901. p. 233
    6. ^ a b Lars Ericson Wolke. Sjöslag och rysshärjningar : kampen om Östersjön under stora nordiska kriget 1700-1721. Norstedts, 2012. pp. 229–234
    7. ^ Cite error: The named reference Feldborg was invoked but never defined (see the help page).


    Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

     
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    10 July 1553Lady Jane Grey takes the throne of England.

    Lady Jane Grey

    Lady Jane Grey (c. 1537 – 12 February 1554), also known as Lady Jane Dudley after her marriage[3] and as the "Nine Days' Queen",[6] was an English noblewoman who claimed the throne of England and Ireland from 10 to 19 July 1553.

    Jane was the great-granddaughter of King Henry VII through his daughter, Mary Tudor, and was therefore a grandniece of King Henry VIII, and a first cousin once removed of Edward VI, Mary I and Elizabeth I. She had an excellent humanist education, and a reputation as one of the most learned young women of her day.[7] In May 1553, she married Lord Guildford Dudley, a younger son of Edward VI's chief minister John Dudley, Duke of Northumberland. In June 1553, the dying Edward VI wrote his will, nominating Jane and her male heirs as successors to the Crown, in part because his half-sister Mary was Catholic, while Jane was a committed Protestant and would support the reformed Church of England, whose foundation Edward laid. The will removed his half-sisters, Mary and Elizabeth, from the line of succession on account of their illegitimacy, subverting their claims under the Third Succession Act.

    After Edward's death, Jane was proclaimed queen on 10 July 1553, and awaited coronation in the Tower of London. Support for Mary grew quickly, and most of Jane's supporters abandoned her. The Privy Council of England suddenly changed sides, and proclaimed Mary as queen on 19 July 1553, deposing Jane. Her primary supporter, her father-in-law, the Duke of Northumberland, was accused of treason, and executed less than a month later. Jane was held prisoner in the Tower, and in November 1553 was also convicted of treason, which carried a sentence of death.

    Mary initially spared her life; however, Jane soon became viewed as a threat to the Crown when her father, Henry Grey, 1st Duke of Suffolk, became involved with Wyatt's rebellion against Queen Mary's intention to marry Philip of Spain. Jane and her husband were executed on 12 February 1554. At the time of her execution, Jane was either 16 or 17 years old.

    1. ^ Williamson, David (2010). Kings & Queens. National Portrait Gallery Publications. p. 95. ISBN 978-1-85514-432-3
    2. ^ Ives 2009, p. 36; Florio 1607, p. 68
    3. ^ a b Cite error: The named reference ODNB was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    4. ^ "Lady Jane Grey | Biography, Facts, & Execution". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 10 July 2021.
    5. ^ Cite error: The named reference potter was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    6. ^ Ives 2009, p. 2
    7. ^ Ascham 1863, p. 213
     
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    11 July 1576Martin Frobisher sights Greenland.

    Martin Frobisher

    Sir Martin Frobisher (/ˈfrbɪʃər/; c. 1535/1539 – 22 November 1594[1]) was an English sailor and privateer who made three voyages to the New World looking for the North-west Passage. He probably sighted Resolution Island near Labrador in north-eastern Canada, before entering Frobisher Bay and landing on present-day Baffin Island.[2] On his second voyage, Frobisher found what he thought was gold ore and carried 200 tons of it home on three ships, where initial assaying determined it to be worth a profit of £5.20 per ton. Encouraged, Frobisher returned to Canada with an even larger fleet and dug several mines around Frobisher Bay. He carried 1,350 tons of the ore back to England, where, after years of smelting, it was realized that the ore was a worthless rock containing the mineral hornblende. As an English privateer, he plundered riches from French ships. He was later knighted for his service in repelling the Spanish Armada in 1588.

    1. ^ McDermott (2001a), pp. 7, 478.
    2. ^ Marsh, James H.; Panneton, Daniel (18 December 2015). "Sir Martin Frobisher". The Canadian Encyclopedia. Historica Canada.
     
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    12 July 1967Riots begin in Newark, New Jersey.

    1967 Newark riots

    The 1967 Newark riots were an episode of violent, armed conflict in the streets of Newark, New Jersey. Taking place over a four-day period (between July 12 and July 17, 1967), the Newark riots resulted in at least 26 deaths and hundreds more serious injuries. Serious property damage, including shattered storefronts and fires caused by arson, left much of the city's buildings damaged or destroyed. At the height of the conflict, the National Guard was called upon to occupy the city with tanks and other military equipment, leading to iconic media depictions that were considered particularly shocking when shared in the national press. In the aftermath of the riots, Newark was quite rapidly abandoned by many of its remaining middle-class and affluent residents, as well as much of its white working-class population. This accelerated flight led to a decades-long period of disinvestment and urban blight, including soaring crime rates and gang activity.

    The Newark riots represented a flashpoint in a long-simmering conflict between elements of the city's then-growing African-American population, which had recently become a numerical majority, and its old political establishment, which remained dominated by members of non-African ethnic groups (especially Italian, Jewish, and Irish Americans) who had gained a political foothold in Newark during earlier generations. Endemic corruption in local government, combined with widespread racial prejudice, likely contributed to the city's failure, during the leadup to 1967, to include a more representative cross-section of the city's black population in its political power structure. Additionally, the Newark Riots were part of a larger national phenomenon, being among more than 150 race riots that occurred in the United States in the "Long Hot Summer of 1967". Some historians, focusing on the protest element of the conflict, have termed it the 1967 Newark Rebellion.

     
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    13 July 1814 – The Carabinieri, the national gendarmerie of Italy, is established.

    Carabinieri

    The Carabinieri (/ˌkærəbɪnˈjɛəri/, also US: /ˌkɑːr-/,[1][2] Italian: [karabiˈnjɛːri]; formally Arma dei Carabinieri, "Arm of Carabineers"; previously Corpo dei Carabinieri Reali, "Royal Carabineers Corps")[3][4][5][6] are the national gendarmerie of Italy who primarily carry out domestic and foreign policing duties. It is one of Italy's main law enforcement agencies, alongside the Polizia di Stato and the Guardia di Finanza. As with the Guardia di Finanza but in contrast to the Polizia di Stato, the Carabinieri are a military force. As the fourth branch of the Italian Armed Forces, they come under the authority of the Ministry of Defence; for activities related to inland public order and security, they functionally depend on the Ministry of the Interior. In practice, there is a significant overlap between the jurisdiction of the Polizia di Stato and Carabinieri, although both of them are contactable through 112, the European Union's Single Emergency number.[7] Unlike the Polizia di Stato, the Carabinieri have responsibility for policing the military, and a number of members regularly participate in military missions abroad.

    They were originally founded as the police force of the Kingdom of Sardinia, the forerunner of the Kingdom of Italy. During the process of Italian unification, the Carabinieri were appointed as the "First Force" of the new national military organization. Although the Carabinieri assisted in the suppression of opposition during the rule of Benito Mussolini, they were also responsible for his downfall and many units were disbanded during World War II by Nazi Germany, which resulted in large numbers of Carabinieri joining the Italian resistance movement.

    In 2000, they were separated from the Army to become a separate branch of the Italian Armed Forces. Carabinieri have policing powers that can be exercised at any time and in any part of the country, and they are always permitted to carry their assigned weapon as personal equipment (Beretta 92FS pistols).

    The Carabinieri are often referred to as "La Benemerita" (The Reputable or The Meritorious) as they are a trusted and prestigious law enforcement institution in Italy. The first official account of the use of this term to refer to the Carabinieri dates back to June 24, 1864.[8]

    1. ^ "carabiniere" (US) and "carabiniere". Lexico UK English Dictionary. Oxford University Press. Archived from the original on 2020-03-22.
    2. ^ "carabiniere". Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary. Retrieved 25 March 2019.
    3. ^ Paoletti, Ciro (2008). A Military History of Italy. Greenwood Publishing Group. ISBN 978-0-275-98505-9.
    4. ^ Stone, Peter G; Bajjaly, Joanne Farchakh (2008). The Destruction of Cultural Heritage in Iraq. Boydell & Brewer Ltd. p. 235. ISBN 978-1-84383-384-0.
    5. ^ Richard Heber Wrightson, A History of Modern Italy, from the First French Revolution to the Year 1850. Elibron.com, 2005
    6. ^ A new survey of universal knowledge. Vol. 4. Encyclopædia Britannica. 1952.
    7. ^ "The Service". NUE 112 Numero di emergenza Unico Europeo. Retrieved 2021-07-26.
    8. ^ "Benemerita". www.carabinieri.it.
     
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    14 July 1881Billy the Kid is shot and killed by Pat Garrett outside Fort Sumner.

    Billy the Kid

    Henry McCarty (September 17 or November 23, 1859 – July 14, 1881), alias William H. Bonney, better known as Billy the Kid, was an American outlaw and gunfighter of the Old West who is alleged to have killed 21 men before he was shot and killed at the age of 21.[2][3] He is also known for his involvement in New Mexico's Lincoln County War, during which he allegedly committed three murders.

    McCarty was orphaned at the age of 15. His first arrest was for stealing food at the age of 16 in 1875. Ten days later, he robbed a Chinese laundry and was arrested again but escaped shortly afterwards. He fled from New Mexico Territory into neighboring Arizona Territory, making himself both an outlaw and a federal fugitive. In 1877, he began to call himself "William H. Bonney".[4]

    After killing a blacksmith during an altercation in August 1877, Bonney became a wanted man in Arizona and returned to New Mexico, where he joined a group of cattle rustlers. He became well known in the region when he joined the Regulators and took part in the Lincoln County War of 1878. He and two other Regulators were later charged with killing three men, including Lincoln County Sheriff William J. Brady and one of his deputies.

    Bonney's notoriety grew in December 1880 when the Las Vegas Gazette, in Las Vegas, New Mexico, and The Sun, in New York City, carried stories about his crimes.[5] Sheriff Pat Garrett captured Bonney later that month. In April 1881, Bonney was tried for and convicted of Brady's murder, and was sentenced to hang in May of that year. He escaped from jail on April 28, killing two sheriff's deputies in the process, and evaded capture for more than two months. Garrett shot and killed Bonney, by then aged 21, in Fort Sumner on July 14, 1881.

    During the decades following his death, legends grew that Bonney had survived, and a number of men claimed to be him.[6] Billy the Kid remains one of the most notorious figures from the era, whose life and likeness have been frequently dramatized in Western popular culture. He has been a feature of more than 50 movies and several television series.

    1. ^ Nolan, Frederick (2015). The West of Billy the Kid. University of Oklahoma Press. p. 29. ISBN 978-0-8061-4887-8. Archived from the original on September 2, 2021. Retrieved July 1, 2019.
    2. ^ Rasch 1995, pp. 23–35.
    3. ^ Wallis 2007, pp. 244–245.
    4. ^ Wallis 2007, p. 144.
    5. ^ Utley 1989, pp. 145–146.
    6. ^ "The Old Man Who Claimed to Be Billy the Kid". Atlas Obscura. March 30, 2017. Archived from the original on July 8, 2017. Retrieved July 19, 2017.
     
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    15 July 1823 – A fire destroys the ancient Basilica of Saint Paul Outside the Walls in Rome, Italy.

    Basilica of Saint Paul Outside the Walls

    The Papal Basilica of Saint Paul Outside the Walls (Italian: Basilica Papale di San Paolo fuori le Mura) is one of Rome's four major papal basilicas,[a] along with the basilicas of Saint John in the Lateran, Saint Peter's, and Saint Mary Major, as well as one of the Seven Pilgrim Churches of Rome.

    The Basilica is within Italian territory, but the Holy See owns the Basilica in a regime of extraterritoriality, with Italy recognizing its full ownership and conceding it "the immunity granted by international law to the headquarters of the diplomatic agents of foreign States".[1][2][3]

    Plaque on an external wall of the building indicating its extraterritorial status.

    James Michael Cardinal Harvey was named Archpriest of the basilica in 2012.


    Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

    1. ^ Lateran Treaty of 1929, Article 15 (The Treaty of the Lateran by Benedict Williamson (London: Burns, Oates, and Washbourne Limited, 1929), pp. 42–66 Archived 2018-05-23 at the Wayback Machine).
    2. ^ Lateran Treaty of 1929, Article 13 (Ibidem Archived 2018-05-23 at the Wayback Machine).
    3. ^ Lateran Treaty of 1929, Article 15 (Ibidem Archived 2018-05-23 at the Wayback Machine).
     
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    16 July 1965 – The Mont Blanc Tunnel linking France and Italy opens.

    Mont Blanc Tunnel

    Mont Blanc Tunnel in Italy
    Mont Blanc Tunnel in France
    Mont Blanc Tunnel in 2008

    The Mont Blanc Tunnel is a highway tunnel between France and Italy, under Mont Blanc in the Alps. It links Chamonix, Haute-Savoie, France with Courmayeur, Aosta Valley, Italy, via the French Route Nationale 205 and the Italian Traforo T1 (forming the European route E25), in particular the motorways serving Geneva (A40 of France) and Turin (A5 of Italy). The passageway is one of the major trans-Alpine transport routes, particularly for Italy, which relies on this tunnel for transporting as much as one-third of its freight to northern Europe. It reduces the route from France to Turin by 50 kilometres (30 miles) and to Milan by 100 km (60 mi). Northeast of Mont Blanc's summit, the tunnel is about 15 km (10 mi) southwest of the tripoint with Switzerland, near Mont Dolent.

    The agreement between France and Italy on building a tunnel was signed in 1949. Two operating companies were founded, each responsible for one half of the tunnel: the French Autoroutes et tunnel du Mont-Blanc (ATMB), founded on 30 April 1958, and the Italian Società italiana per azioni per il Traforo del Monte Bianco (SITMB), founded on 1 September 1957.[1] Drilling began in 1959 and was completed in 1962; the tunnel was opened to traffic on 19 July 1965.

    The tunnel is 11.611 km (7.215 mi) in length, 8.6 m (28 ft) in width, and 4.35 m (14.3 ft) in height. The passageway is not horizontal, but in a slightly inverted "V", which assists ventilation. The tunnel consists of a single gallery with a two-lane dual direction road. At the time of its construction, it was twice as long as any existing highway tunnel.[2]

    The tunnel passes almost exactly under the summit of the Aiguille du Midi. At this spot, it lies 2,480 metres (8,140 ft) beneath the surface, making it the world's second deepest operational tunnel[3] after the Gotthard Base Tunnel.

    The Mont Blanc Tunnel was originally managed by the two building companies. Following a fire in 1999 in which 39 people died, which showed how lack of coordination could hamper the safety of the tunnel, all the operations are managed by a single entity: MBT-EEIG, controlled by both ATMB and SITMB together, through a 50–50 shares distribution.[4]

    An alternative route for road traffic between France to Italy is the Fréjus Road Tunnel. Road traffic grew steadily until 1994, even with the opening of the Fréjus tunnel. Since then, the combined traffic volume of the former has remained roughly constant.

    1. ^ Barry, Keith (15 July 2010). "July 16, 1965: Mont Blanc Tunnel Opens". Wired. Retrieved 16 July 2010.
    2. ^ Soule, Gardner (December 1959). "World's longest auto tunnel to pierce the Alps". Popular Science. pp. 121–123/236–238.
    3. ^ "Today in Science History". Retrieved 22 November 2014.
    4. ^ "A French-Italian Operator - Autoroutes et Tunnel du Mont Blanc". Archived from the original on 29 July 2012. Retrieved 27 September 2011.
     
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    17 July 1902Willis Carrier creates the first air conditioner in Buffalo, New York.

    Willis Carrier

    Willis Haviland Carrier (November 26, 1876 – October 7, 1950) was an American engineer, best known for inventing modern air conditioning. Carrier invented the first electrical air conditioning unit in 1902. In 1915, he founded Carrier Corporation, a company specializing in the manufacture and distribution of heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC) systems.

     
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    18 July 1870 – The First Vatican Council decrees the dogma of papal infallibility.

    Papal infallibility

    Pope Pius IX (1846–1878), during whose papacy the doctrine of papal infallibility was dogmatically defined by the First Vatican Council

    Papal infallibility is a dogma of the Catholic Church which states that, in virtue of the promise of Jesus to Peter, the Pope when he speaks ex cathedra is preserved from the possibility of error on doctrine "initially given to the apostolic Church and handed down in Scripture and tradition".[1] It does not mean that the pope cannot sin or otherwise err in some capacity, though he is prevented by the assistance of the Holy Spirit from issuing heretical teaching even in his non-infallible Magisterium, as a corollary of indefectibility.[2] This doctrine, defined dogmatically at the First Vatican Council of 1869–1870 in the document Pastor aeternus, is claimed to have existed in medieval theology and to have been the majority opinion at the time of the Counter-Reformation.[3]

    The doctrine of infallibility relies on one of the cornerstones of Catholic dogma, that of papal supremacy, whereby the authority of the pope is the ruling agent as to what are accepted as formal beliefs in the Catholic Church.[4] The use of this power is referred to as speaking ex cathedra.[5] "Any doctrine 'of faith or morals' issued by the pope in his capacity as successor to St. Peter, speaking as pastor and teacher of the Church Universal [Ecclesia Catholica], from the seat of his episcopal authority in Rome, and meant to be believed 'by the universal church,' has the special status of an ex cathedra statement. Vatican Council I in 1870 declared that any such ex cathedra doctrines have the character of infallibility (session 4, Constitution on the Church 4)."[6]

    1. ^ "Theological Studies – A journal of academic theology" (PDF). Ts.mu.edu. 30 November 2016. Retrieved 22 December 2016.
    2. ^ Engber, Daniel (18 September 2006). "How infallible is the pope?". Slate Magazine. Retrieved 15 September 2022.
    3. ^ Brian Gogan (1982). The Common Corps of Christendom: Ecclesiological Themes in the Writings of Sir Thomas More. BRILL. p. 33. ISBN 9004065083. Retrieved 22 December 2016.
    4. ^ Erwin Fahlbusch et al. The encyclopedia of Christianity Eradman Books ISBN 0-8028-2416-1
    5. ^ Wilhelm, Joseph and Thomas Scannell. Manual of Catholic Theology. Volume 1, Part 1. London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trübner & Co. Ltd. 1906. pp. 94–100
    6. ^ Encyclopedia of Catholicism by Frank K. Flinn, J. Gordon Melton 207 ISBN 0-8160-5455-X p. 267
     
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    19 July 1903Maurice Garin wins the first Tour de France.

    Maurice Garin

    Maurice Garin

    Maurice-François Garin[2] (pronounced [mɔʁis fʁɑ̃swa ɡaʁɛ̃, moʁ-]; 3 March 1871[citation needed] – 19 February 1957)[3] was an Italian-French road bicycle racer best known for winning the inaugural Tour de France in 1903, and for being stripped of his title in the second Tour in 1904 along with eight others, for cheating.[4][5][6] He was of Italian origin but adopted French nationality on 21 December 1901.

    1. ^ Cite error: The named reference Ethno62 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    2. ^ "Wikipedia".[permanent dead link]
    3. ^ "memoire-du-cyclisme.net". Archived from the original on 1 December 2008.
    4. ^ Cite error: The named reference Unknown TdF was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    5. ^ Cite error: The named reference Chany p54 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    6. ^ Cite error: The named reference Chany p60 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
     
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    20 July 1976 – The American Viking 1 lander successfully lands on Mars.

    Viking 1

    Viking 1 was the first of two spacecraft, along with Viking 2, each consisting of an orbiter and a lander, sent to Mars as part of NASA's Viking program.[2] The lander touched down on Mars on July 20, 1976, the first successful Mars lander in history. Viking 1 operated on Mars for 2,307 days (over 614 years)[2] or 2245 Martian solar days, the longest Mars surface mission[2] until the record was broken by the Opportunity rover on May 19, 2010.[6]

    1. ^ "Viking 1 Lander". National Space Science Data Center.
    2. ^ a b c d e f g Williams, David R. Dr. (December 18, 2006). "Viking Mission to Mars". NASA. Retrieved February 2, 2014.
    3. ^ "Viking 1". NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL). NASA. October 19, 2016. Retrieved November 27, 2018.
    4. ^ Shea, Garrett (September 20, 2018). "Beyond Earth: A Chronicle of Deep Space Exploration". NASA.
    5. ^ Nelson, Jon. "Viking 1". NASA. Retrieved February 2, 2014.
    6. ^ mars.nasa.gov. "Mars Exploration Rover". mars.nasa.gov.


    Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

     
  32. Admin2

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    20 July 1976 – The American Viking 1 lander successfully lands on Mars.

    Viking 1

    Viking 1 was the first of two spacecraft, along with Viking 2, each consisting of an orbiter and a lander, sent to Mars as part of NASA's Viking program.[2] The lander touched down on Mars on July 20, 1976, the first successful Mars lander in history. Viking 1 operated on Mars for 2,307 days (over 614 years)[2] or 2245 Martian solar days, the longest Mars surface mission[2] until the record was broken by the Opportunity rover on May 19, 2010.[6]

    1. ^ "Viking 1 Lander". National Space Science Data Center.
    2. ^ a b c d e f g Williams, David R. Dr. (December 18, 2006). "Viking Mission to Mars". NASA. Retrieved February 2, 2014.
    3. ^ "Viking 1". NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL). NASA. October 19, 2016. Retrieved November 27, 2018.
    4. ^ Shea, Garrett (September 20, 2018). "Beyond Earth: A Chronicle of Deep Space Exploration". NASA.
    5. ^ Nelson, Jon. "Viking 1". NASA. Retrieved February 2, 2014.
    6. ^ mars.nasa.gov. "Mars Exploration Rover". mars.nasa.gov.


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  33. Admin2

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    21 July 1969 – At 02:56 UTC, astronaut Neil Armstrong becomes the first person to walk on the Moon.

    Apollo 11

    Apollo 11 (July 16–24, 1969) was the American spaceflight that first landed humans on the Moon. Commander Neil Armstrong and Lunar Module Pilot Buzz Aldrin landed the Apollo Lunar Module Eagle on July 20, 1969, at 20:17 UTC, and Armstrong became the first person to step onto the Moon's surface six hours and 39 minutes later, on July 21 at 02:56 UTC. Aldrin joined him 19 minutes later, and they spent about two and a quarter hours together exploring the site they had named Tranquility Base upon landing. Armstrong and Aldrin collected 47.5 pounds (21.5 kg) of lunar material to bring back to Earth as pilot Michael Collins flew the Command Module Columbia in lunar orbit, and were on the Moon's surface for 21 hours, 36 minutes before lifting off to rejoin Columbia.

    Apollo 11 was launched by a Saturn V rocket from Kennedy Space Center on Merritt Island, Florida, on July 16 at 13:32 UTC, and it was the fifth crewed mission of NASA's Apollo program. The Apollo spacecraft had three parts: a command module (CM) with a cabin for the three astronauts, the only part that returned to Earth; a service module (SM), which supported the command module with propulsion, electrical power, oxygen, and water; and a lunar module (LM) that had two stages—a descent stage for landing on the Moon and an ascent stage to place the astronauts back into lunar orbit.

    After being sent to the Moon by the Saturn V's third stage, the astronauts separated the spacecraft from it and traveled for three days until they entered lunar orbit. Armstrong and Aldrin then moved into Eagle and landed in the Sea of Tranquility on July 20. The astronauts used Eagle's ascent stage to lift off from the lunar surface and rejoin Collins in the command module. They jettisoned Eagle before they performed the maneuvers that propelled Columbia out of the last of its 30 lunar orbits onto a trajectory back to Earth.[9] They returned to Earth and splashed down in the Pacific Ocean on July 24 after more than eight days in space.

    Armstrong's first step onto the lunar surface was broadcast on live TV to a worldwide audience. He described the event as "one small step for [a] man, one giant leap for mankind."[a][15] Apollo 11 effectively proved U.S. victory in the Space Race to demonstrate spaceflight superiority, by fulfilling a national goal proposed in 1961 by President John F. Kennedy, "before this decade is out, of landing a man on the Moon and returning him safely to the Earth."[16]

    1. ^ Byrne., Dave (July 8, 2019). "Apollo 11 Image Library". hq.nasa.gov. Archived from the original on February 24, 2020. Retrieved June 10, 2021.
    2. ^ "Apollo 11 Command and Service Module (CSM)". NASA Space Science Data Coordinated Archive. Archived from the original on February 10, 2021. Retrieved November 20, 2019.
    3. ^ "Apollo 11 Lunar Module / EASEP". NASA Space Science Data Coordinated Archive. Archived from the original on August 3, 2019. Retrieved November 20, 2019.
    4. ^ a b "Apollo 11 Press Kit" (PDF). history.nasa.gov. Archived from the original (PDF) on January 6, 2023. Retrieved December 16, 2022.
    5. ^ "Ground Ignition Weights". history.nasa.gov. Retrieved May 31, 2022.
    6. ^ Cite error: The named reference Mission Overview was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    7. ^ a b c d e "Apollo 11 Mission Summary". Smithsonian Air and Space Museum. Archived from the original on February 9, 2021. Retrieved September 6, 2019.
    8. ^ a b Orloff 2000, p. 106.
    9. ^ a b c d Orloff 2000, p. 109.
    10. ^ Cite error: The named reference ALSJ 1 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    11. ^ Orloff 2000, p. 97.
    12. ^ Williams, David R. (December 11, 2003). "Apollo Landing Site Coordinates". NASA Space Science Data Coordinated Archive. NASA. Archived from the original on December 25, 2018. Retrieved October 18, 2021.
    13. ^ Orloff 2000, p. 107.
    14. ^ Jones, Eric (April 8, 2018). "One Small Step". Apollo 11 Lunar Surface Journal. Archived from the original on September 3, 2019. Retrieved September 6, 2019.
    15. ^ Cite error: The named reference ALSJ 4 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    16. ^ Stenger, Richard (May 25, 2001). "Man on the Moon: Kennedy speech ignited the dream". CNN. Archived from the original on June 6, 2010. Retrieved December 30, 2018.


    Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

     
  34. Admin2

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    22 July 1977 – Chinese leader Deng Xiaoping is restored to power.

    Deng Xiaoping

    Deng Xiaoping[a] (22 August 1904 – 19 February 1997) was a Chinese revolutionary and statesman who served as the paramount leader of the People's Republic of China (PRC) from December 1978 to November 1989. After Chinese Communist Party chairman Mao Zedong's death in 1976, Deng rose to power and led China through its process of Reform and Opening Up and the development of China's socialist market economy. Deng developed a reputation as the "Architect of Modern China" and his ideological contributions to socialism with Chinese characteristics are described as Deng Xiaoping Theory.

    Born in Sichuan during the end of the Qing dynasty, Deng moved to France in 1921 as a teenager, where he worked and studied; in the coming years he became attracted to the theories of Vladimir Lenin, and in 1924 he joined the Chinese Communist Party (CCP). In early 1926, Deng travelled to Moscow to study political science, becoming a commissar for the Red Army upon his return to China. Near the end of 1929, Deng led local Red Army uprisings in Guangxi. In 1931, he was demoted within the party due to his support for Mao, but was again promoted during the Zunyi Conference. Deng was an important figure throughout the Chinese Civil War (1927–1949), including during the Long March (1934–1935) and in fighting against the Japanese (1937–1945). He, Liu Bocheng and Chen Yi led the newly formed People's Liberation Army (PLA) into the former Kuomintang capital of Nanjing during the final stretch of the civil war. Following the proclamation of the People's Republic of China on 1 October 1949, Deng served in Tibet and southwestern China as the regional party chief, working to consolidate party control in the region. In 1952, he returned to Beijing and held a central position in the State Council. As the party's Secretary-General under Chairman Mao Zedong, and Vice Premier under Premier Zhou Enlai during the 1950s, Deng presided over the Anti-Rightist Campaign spearheaded by Mao, and became instrumental in China's economic reconstruction following the Great Leap Forward (1958–1960). However, his right-leaning political and economic stances eventually caused him to fall out of favor with Mao, and he was the target of purges twice during the Cultural Revolution (1966–1976).

    Following Mao's death in September 1976, Deng outmaneuvered Mao's chosen successor Hua Guofeng, and became China's paramount leader during the 3rd Plenary Session of the 11th Central Committee in December 1978. Because of the institutional disorder and political turmoil from the later Mao-era, Deng and his allies launched the Boluan Fanzheng program. The program sought to restore order, rehabilitating veteran CCP leadership, as well as millions of people were persecuted during the Cultural Revolution. From 1977 to early 1979, he resumed the National College Entrance Examination that had not taken place for ten years, and initiated the Reform and Opening-up program that introduced elements of market capitalism to the Chinese economy. This included designating special economic zones, such as Shenzhen. Still embroiled in the Sino-Soviet split that began during the 1960s, Deng's China fought a one-month war with Vietnam. On 1 January 1979, the PRC officially established diplomatic relations with the United States after years of prelude, and Deng became the first paramount leader of China to visit the US. In August 1980, Deng embarked on a series of political reforms, setting constitutional term limits for state officials and other systematic revisions, which were incorporated in the country's third constitution (1982). In the 1980s, Deng advocated for the one-child policy to deal with China's perceived overpopulation crisis, helped establish China's nine-year compulsory education, launched the 863 Program for science and technology, and downsized the PLA by one million. Deng also proposed the One Country, Two Systems principle for the governance of Hong Kong and Macau, as well as the future unification with Taiwan. During Deng's tenure, his protégés Hu Yaobang and Zhao Ziyang were head of the party and the government, but both of whom were later ousted from power. Deng stepped down from all his official positions in November 1989, in the wake of an eruption of protests in Tiananmen Square.

    The reforms carried out by Deng and his allies gradually led China away from a planned economy and Maoist ideologies, opened it up to foreign investments and technology, and introduced its vast labor force to the global market, thus elevating a billion people from poverty and turning China into one of the world's fastest-growing economies.[5] Deng and his chosen successors Jiang Zemin and Hu Jintao contributed to China becoming the world's second-largest economy by nominal GDP in 2010.[6][7] Despite never holding office as either the PRC's state representative or head of government nor as the head of CCP, Deng is generally viewed as the "core" of the CCP's second-generation leadership, a status enshrined within the party's constitution.[8] Deng was named the Time Person of the Year for 1978 and 1985.[9][10] He was criticized for ordering a military crackdown on the 1989 Tiananmen Square protests, yet was praised for his reaffirmation of the reform program in his Southern Tour of 1992 as well as the reversion of Hong Kong to Chinese control in 1997 and the return of Macau in 1999.

    1. ^ "Deng Xiaoping". Collins English Dictionary. HarperCollins. Archived from the original on 4 June 2019. Retrieved 8 March 2019.
    2. ^ "Deng Xiaoping". Archived from the original on 4 June 2019. (US) and "Deng Xiaoping". Oxford Dictionaries UK English Dictionary. Oxford University Press. Archived from the original on 8 March 2019.
    3. ^ "Teng Hsiao-p'ing". Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary. Retrieved 8 March 2019.
    4. ^ "Mao's last hurrah: the campaign against Teng Hsiao-Ping" (PDF). CIA. August 1976. Archived from the original (PDF) on 13 April 2021.
    5. ^ Denmark, Abraham. "40 years ago, Deng Xiaoping changed China — and the world". The Washington Post. ISSN 0190-8286. Archived from the original on 8 May 2019. Retrieved 19 April 2021.
    6. ^ "China overtakes Japan as world's second-largest economy". The Guardian. 16 August 2010. Archived from the original on 12 June 2022. Retrieved 12 June 2022.
    7. ^ Barboza, David (16 August 2010). "China Passes Japan as Second-Largest Economy". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on 11 April 2021. Retrieved 12 June 2022.
    8. ^ "Constitution of the Communist Party of China" (PDF). Xinhuanet. Archived (PDF) from the original on 26 October 2021. Retrieved 18 February 2021.
    9. ^ "Man of the Year: Teng Hsiao-p'ing: Visions of a New China". Time. 1 January 1979. Archived from the original on 19 April 2021. Retrieved 19 April 2021.
    10. ^ "Man of the Year: Deng Xiaoping". Time. 6 January 1986. Archived from the original on 9 December 2019. Retrieved 19 April 2021.


    Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

     
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    23 July 1942The Holocaust: The Treblinka extermination camp is opened.

    Treblinka extermination camp

    Treblinka (pronounced [trɛˈbliŋka]) was the second-deadliest extermination camp to be built and operated by Nazi Germany in occupied Poland during World War II.[2] It was in a forest north-east of Warsaw, 4 km (2.5 mi) south of the village of Treblinka in what is now the Masovian Voivodeship. The camp operated between 23 July 1942 and 19 October 1943 as part of Operation Reinhard, the deadliest phase of the Final Solution.[6] During this time, it is estimated that between 700,000 and 900,000 Jews were murdered in its gas chambers,[7][8] along with 2,000 Romani people.[9] More Jews were murdered at Treblinka than at any other Nazi extermination camp apart from Auschwitz-Birkenau.[10]

    Managed by the German SS with assistance from Trawniki guards – recruited from among Soviet POWs to serve with the Germans – the camp consisted of two separate units.[11] Treblinka I was a forced-labour camp (Arbeitslager) whose prisoners worked in the gravel pit or irrigation area and in the forest, where they cut wood to fuel the cremation pits.[12] Between 1941 and 1944, more than half of its 20,000 inmates were murdered via shootings, hunger, disease and mistreatment.[13][14]

    The second camp, Treblinka II, was an extermination camp (Vernichtungslager), referred to euphemistically as the SS-Sonderkommando Treblinka by the Nazis. A small number of Jewish men who were not murdered immediately upon arrival became members of its Sonderkommando[15] whose jobs included being forced to bury the victims' bodies in mass graves. These bodies were exhumed in 1943 and cremated on large open-air pyres along with the bodies of new victims.[16] Gassing operations at Treblinka II ended in October 1943 following a revolt by the prisoners in early August. Several Trawniki guards were killed and 200 prisoners escaped from the camp;[17][18] almost a hundred survived the subsequent pursuit.[19][20] The camp was dismantled in late 1943. A farmhouse for a watchman was built on the site and the ground ploughed over in an attempt to hide the evidence of genocide.[21]

    In the postwar Polish People's Republic, the government bought most of the land where the camp had stood, and built a large stone memorial there between 1959 and 1962. In 1964, Treblinka was declared a national monument of Jewish martyrdom[b] in a ceremony at the site of the former gas chambers.[22] In the same year, the first German trials were held regarding the crimes committed at Treblinka by former SS members. After the end of communism in Poland in 1989, the number of visitors coming to Treblinka from abroad increased. An exhibition centre at the camp opened in 2006. It was later expanded and made into a branch of the Siedlce Regional Museum.[23][24]

    1. ^ Webb & Chocholatý 2014, p. 20.
    2. ^ a b Arad 1987, p. 37.
    3. ^ Kopówka & Rytel-Andrianik 2011, p. 125.
    4. ^ Arad 1987, p. 209.
    5. ^ Wiernik 1945.
    6. ^ Sereny 2013, p. 151.
    7. ^ Roca, Xavier (2010). "Comparative Efficacy of the Extermination Methods in Auschwitz and Operation Reinhard" (PDF). Equip Revista HMiC (Història Moderna i Contemporània). University of Barcelona. 8. p. 204 (4/15 in current document). Archived from the original on 3 March 2016. Retrieved 8 August 2014.
    8. ^ Kopówka & Rytel-Andrianik 2011, p. 114.
    9. ^ Huttenbach, Henry R. (1991). "The Romani Porajmos: The Nazi Genocide of Europe's Gypsies". Nationalities Papers: The Journal of Nationalism and Ethnicity. Routledge. 19 (3): 380–381. doi:10.1080/00905999108408209. S2CID 163090608.
    10. ^ Fischel 1998, p. 173.
    11. ^ Browning 2017, pp. 52, 77, 79, 80.
    12. ^ Webb & Chocholatý 2014, p. 90.
    13. ^ Cite error: The named reference Maranda-161 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    14. ^ Cywiński 2013.
    15. ^ Webb & Chocholatý 2014, pp. 153, 370.
    16. ^ Rees 2005, BBC.
    17. ^ Weinfeld 2013, p. 43.
    18. ^ Kopówka & Rytel-Andrianik 2011, p. 110.
    19. ^ Cite error: The named reference Śląski-PAX was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    20. ^ Cite error: The named reference BBC-Easton was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    21. ^ Grossman 1946, p. 405.
    22. ^ Kopówka & Rytel-Andrianik 2011, p. 122.
    23. ^ Cite error: The named reference memorialmuseums.org was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    24. ^ Cite error: The named reference MWiMT was invoked but never defined (see the help page).


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    24 July 1977 – End of a four-day-long Libyan–Egyptian War.

    Libyan–Egyptian War

     
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    25 July 1868 – The Wyoming Territory is established.

    Wyoming Territory

    The Territory of Wyoming was an organized incorporated territory of the United States that existed from July 25, 1868,[1] until July 10, 1890, when it was admitted to the Union as the State of Wyoming. Cheyenne was the territorial capital. The boundaries of the Wyoming Territory were identical to those of the modern State of Wyoming.

    1. ^ 15 Stat. 178
     
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  39. Admin2

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    27 July 1865Welsh settlers arrive at Chubut in Argentina.

    Y Wladfa

    Y Wladfa is located in Argentina
    Y Wladfa
    Y Wladfa
    Y Wladfa
    Y Wladfa
    Y Wladfa
    Y Wladfa
    Y Wladfa
    Welsh speaking settlements in Argentina

    Y Wladfa (Welsh pronunciation: ˈwladva], 'The Colony'),[2] also occasionally Y Wladychfa Gymreig (Welsh pronunciation: wlaˈdəχva ɡəmˈreiɡ], 'The Welsh Settlement'),[3][4] refers to the establishment of settlements by Welsh colonists and immigrants in the Argentine Patagonia, beginning in 1865, mainly along the coast of the lower Chubut Valley.[5] In 1881, the area became part of the Chubut National Territory of Argentina which, in 1955, became Chubut Province.[6]

    In the 19th and early 20th century the Argentine government encouraged emigration from Europe to populate Argentina and south Patagonia particularly, which until the Conquest of the Desert had sparsely rural and coastal settlements. Indigenous peoples of Patagonia include the Tehuelche and the Yahgan.

    Between 1856 and 1875, 34 settlements of immigrants of various nationalities were established in Santa Fe and Entre Ríos. In addition to the main colony in Chubut, a smaller colony was set up in Santa Fe by 44 Welsh people who left Chubut, and another group settled at Coronel Suárez in southern Buenos Aires Province.[7][8]

    The Welsh-Argentine community is centred on Gaiman, Dolavon, Trelew, and Trevelin.[9] There are 70,000 Welsh-Patagonians. However, Chubut estimates the number of Patagonian Welsh speakers to be about 1,500, while other estimates put the number at 5,000.[10][11]

    1. ^ "150th anniversary of Welsh voyage to Patagonia". ITV. 30 May 2015. The community still exists in Argentina today, with a population of more than 70,000.
    2. ^ National Library of Wales' bibliography for 'The Welsh settlement in Patagonia'
    3. ^ Gwladychfa Gymreig Archived 3 February 2014 at the Wayback Machine, being an essay by the Rev. Michael D. Jones probably written during the early 1860s, outlining his vision of a Welsh settlement.
    4. ^ Banner Cymru, Mercher, Mawrth 4, 1857, Cyf. I, Rhif 1, p. 7, col. C, article about a meeting in Caernarfon to discuss the advantages and disadvantages of Patagonia as somewhere to establish "Y Wladychfa Gymreig"; see also Williams, R. Bryn, Gwladfa Patagonia: The Welsh Colony in Patagonia 1865–1965 (Gwasg Prifysgol Cymru, Caerdydd, 1965), plate facing p. 33, showing printed money notes for "Gwladychfa Gymreig Patagonia", with one also bearing the stamp "Y Wladychfa Gymreig"
    5. ^ "The Chubut Colony". The Welsh of Patagonia. Retrieved 12 July 2021.
    6. ^ "Chubut province, Argentina". Britannica. Retrieved 12 July 2021.
    7. ^ Birt, Paul W. (2005). "Welsh (in Argentina)". In Diarmuid Ó Néill (ed.). Rebuilding the Celtic Languages. Talybont: Y Lolfa. p. 146. ISBN 978-0-86243-723-7.
    8. ^ "Wales and Patagonia". 26 June 2015. Retrieved 4 May 2017.
    9. ^ Berresford Ellis, Peter (1983). The Celtic revolution: a study in anti-imperialism. Talybont: Y Lolfa. pp. 175–178. ISBN 978-0-86243-096-2.
    10. ^ Western Mail, 27 Dec 2004
    11. ^ "Viewpoint: The Argentines who speak Welsh". BBC News. 16 October 2014. Retrieved 16 October 2014.
     
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    28 July 2001 – Australian Ian Thorpe becomes the first swimmer to win six gold medals at a single World Championship.

    Ian Thorpe

    Ian James Thorpe AM (born 13 October 1982) is an Australian retired[1] swimmer who specialised in freestyle, but also competed in backstroke and the individual medley. He has won five Olympic gold medals, the most won by any Australian along with fellow swimmer Emma McKeon. With three gold and two silver medals, Thorpe was the most successful athlete at the 2000 Summer Olympics, held in his hometown of Sydney.

    At the age of 14, Thorpe became the youngest male ever to represent Australia,[2] and his victory in the 400 metre freestyle at the 1998 Perth World Championships made him the youngest-ever individual male World Champion.[3] After that victory, Thorpe dominated the 400 m freestyle, winning the event at every Olympic, World, Commonwealth and Pan Pacific Swimming Championships until his break after the 2004 Olympics in Athens.[4] At the 2001 World Aquatics Championships, he became the first person to win six gold medals in one World Championship.[5] Aside from 13 individual long-course world records, Thorpe anchored the Australian relay teams, numbering the victories in the 4 × 100 m and the 4 × 200 m freestyle relays in Sydney among his five relay world records. His wins in the 200 m and 400 m and his bronze in the 100 m freestyle at the 2004 Summer Olympics made him the only male to have won medals in the 100–200–400 combination.[4] He acquired the nickname "Thorpedo" because of his speed in swimming. Thorpe announced his retirement from competitive swimming in November 2006, citing waning motivation;[6] he made a brief comeback in 2011 and 2012.

    In total, Thorpe has won eleven World Championship gold medals; this is the fifth-highest number of gold medals won by any male swimmer.[7] Thorpe was the first person to have been named Swimming World Swimmer of the Year four times,[8][9] and was the Australian Swimmer of the Year from 1999 to 2003. His athletic achievements made him one of Australia's most popular athletes, and he was recognised as the Young Australian of the Year in 2000.[10]

    1. ^ "I'll never swim again, says Ian Thorpe". The Australian. 19 March 2016.
    2. ^ Hunter, p. 75.
    3. ^ Andrews, pp. 434–436, 487.
    4. ^ a b "Ian Thorpe – Career at a glance". ABC News. 21 November 2006. Archived from the original on 20 September 2008. Retrieved 22 November 2006.
    5. ^ Hunter, pp. 274–275.
    6. ^ "Thorpe announces retirement". ABC News. 24 November 2006. Archived from the original on 16 March 2007. Retrieved 29 January 2014.
    7. ^ "Ian Thorpe". Grand Slam International. Archived from the original on 19 August 2006. Retrieved 14 November 2006.
    8. ^ Hunter, p. viii.
    9. ^ "Swimming World's – World Swimmers of the Year". Swimming World. Archived from the original on 18 November 2006. Retrieved 29 January 2014.
    10. ^ "Young Australian of the Year 2000". National Australia Day Council. Archived from the original on 6 August 2020. Retrieved 6 February 2022.
     

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