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This day in .....

Discussion in 'Break Room' started by NewsBot, Apr 6, 2008.

  1. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    29 July 1914 – The Cape Cod Canal opened.

    Cape Cod Canal

    The Cape Cod Canal is an artificial waterway in Massachusetts connecting Cape Cod Bay in the north to Buzzards Bay in the south, and is part of the Atlantic Intracoastal Waterway. The approximately 17.4-mile (28.0 km) long canal traverses the neck of land joining Cape Cod to the state's mainland. It mostly follows tidal rivers widened to 480 feet (150 m) and deepened to 32 feet (9.8 m) at mean low water, shaving up to 135 miles (217 km) off the journey around the Cape for its approximately 14,000 annual users.[2]

    Most of the canal is located in the town of Bourne, but its northeastern terminus is in Sandwich. Scusset Beach State Reservation lies near the canal's north entrance, and the Massachusetts Maritime Academy is near its south. A swift-running current changes direction every six hours and can reach 5.2 miles per hour (8.4 km/h) during the receding ebb tide.

    The waterway is maintained by the United States Army Corps of Engineers and has no toll fees.[3] It is spanned by the Cape Cod Canal Railroad Bridge, the Bourne Bridge, and the Sagamore Bridge. Traffic lights at either end govern the approach of vessels over 65 feet (20 m).

    The canal is occasionally used by whales and dolphins,[4] including endangered North Atlantic right whales, which can cause closure of the canal.[5][6]

    1. ^ a b c New England District. "Cape Cod Canal Navigation". U.S. Army Corps of Engineers.
    2. ^ New England District (November 12, 2015). "Cape Cod Canal (Buzzards Bay and Sandwich, Mass.)". U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. Retrieved February 24, 2016.
    3. ^ "Cape Cod Canal". U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. Archived from the original on June 18, 2009. Retrieved May 23, 2009.
    4. ^ Pearson, Samantha. "Dolphins in Cape Cod Canal Saturday" (Video). Boston: WBZ-TV.
    5. ^ Bragg, Mary Ann (May 9, 2015). "Cape Cod Canal closed after right whale sighting". Cape Cod Times.
    6. ^ "Favorite Places". Archived from the original on September 8, 2008.
     
  2. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    30 July 1930 – In Montevideo, Uruguay wins the first FIFA World Cup.

    1930 FIFA World Cup

    The 1930 FIFA World Cup was the inaugural FIFA World Cup, the world championship for men's national football teams. It took place in Uruguay from 13 to 30 July 1930. FIFA, football's international governing body, selected Uruguay as the host nation, as the country would be celebrating the centenary of its first constitution and the Uruguay national football team had successfully retained their football title at the 1928 Summer Olympics. All matches were played in the Uruguayan capital, Montevideo, the majority at the Estadio Centenario, which was built for the tournament.

    Thirteen teams (seven from South America, four from Europe, and two from North America) entered the tournament. Only a handful of European teams chose to participate because of the difficulty of traveling to South America due to the Great Depression. The teams were divided into four groups, with the winner of each group progressing to the semi-finals. The first two World Cup matches took place simultaneously and were won by France and the United States, who defeated Mexico 4–1 and Belgium 3–0, respectively. Lucien Laurent of France scored the first goal in World Cup history, while United States goalkeeper Jimmy Douglas posted the first clean sheet in the tournament the same day.

    Argentina, Uruguay, the United States, and Yugoslavia won their respective groups to qualify for the semi-finals. In the final, hosts and pre-tournament favourites Uruguay defeated Argentina 4–2 in front of 68,346 people to become the first nation to win the World Cup. Francisco Varallo from Argentina was the last living player from this World Cup. He died in 2010 at the age of 100. The 2030 FIFA World Cup will see the opening match played at Estadio Centenario to honor the centennial of the World Cup.

    The 1930 FIFA World Cup final is the first and only one to date to have been contested between two Hispanic sides. It is also the only one to be contested between two South American sides, while the 1950 match between Brazil and Uruguay was actually a decider match rather than a cup final.

    1. ^ Cite error: The named reference four weeks was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    2. ^ Cite error: The named reference F279 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    3. ^ Cite error: The named reference awards was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    4. ^ "Fact Sheet: FIFA World Cup All-time Ranking 1930–2014" (PDF). FIFA. Archived (PDF) from the original on 8 April 2020. Retrieved 8 April 2020.


    Cite error: There are <ref group=nb> tags on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=nb}} template (see the help page).

     
  3. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

  4. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    1 August 1988 – A British soldier was killed in the Inglis Barracks bombing in London, England.

    Inglis Barracks bombing

     
  5. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

  6. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    3 August 2014 – A 6.1 magnitude earthquake kills at least 617 people and injures more than 2,400 in Yunnan, China.

    2014 Ludian earthquake

    The 2014 Ludian earthquake struck Ludian County, Yunnan, China, with a moment magnitude of 6.1 on 3 August.[10] The earthquake killed at least 617 people, injuring at least 2,400 others.[11][12] As of 5 August 2014, 112 people remain missing.[13] Over 12,000 houses collapsed and 30,000 were damaged.[14] According to the United States Geological Survey, the earthquake occurred 29 km (18 mi) WSW of Zhaotong city at 16:30 local time (08:30 UTC).[15][16][17]

    1. ^ 云南省昭通市鲁甸县6.5级地震 [Magnitude 6.5 earthquake in Ludian County, Zhaotong, Yunnan]. 中国地震台网. Retrieved 3 August 2014.
    2. ^ China Earthquake Network statistics
    3. ^ Government announcement
    4. ^ "China Earthquake Administration statistics". Archived from the original on 8 August 2014. Retrieved 6 August 2014.
    5. ^ "Yahoo! Finance article". Archived from the original on 6 February 2015. Retrieved 15 January 2017.
    6. ^ "M6.1 – 11km WNW of Wenping, China". United States Geological Survey. 3 August 2014. Retrieved 3 August 2014.
    7. ^ a b Armand Vervaeck (3 August 2014). "Deadly earthquake in Ludian county (Yunnan), China – at least 398 people killed + over 6 bn USD in damage". Earthquake-Report.com. Archived from the original on 8 August 2014. Retrieved 3 August 2014.
    8. ^ "Intensity of SW China quake reaches level IX". reliefweb.int.
    9. ^ 云南鲁甸地震遇难人数增至617人 [Ludian, Yunnan earthquake death toll rises to 617]. Ministry of Civil Affairs of the People's Republic of China. 8 August 2014. Archived from the original on 8 August 2014. Retrieved 8 August 2014.
    10. ^ "M6.1 – 11km WNW of Wenping, China". United States Geological Survey. 3 August 2014. Retrieved 3 August 2014.
    11. ^ 云南省鲁甸县6.5级地震造成410人死亡12人失踪 [Magnitude 6.5 earthquake in Ludian County, Yunnan results in 410 deaths and 12 missing] (in Chinese). 5 August 2014. Archived from the original on 8 August 2014. Retrieved 5 August 2014.
    12. ^ 昭通市鲁甸县发生6.5级地震(续报十八) (in Chinese). Ministry of Civil Affairs Yunnan. 5 August 2014. Archived from the original on 8 August 2014. Retrieved 5 August 2014.
    13. ^ 云南鲁甸县6.5级地震造成381人死亡3人失踪 [Magnitude 6.5 earthquake in Ludian County, Yunnan results in 381 deaths and 3 missing] (in Chinese). Government of China. 4 August 2014.
    14. ^ "Un séisme fait au moins 367 morts en Chine". Le Figaro (in French). 3 August 2014. Retrieved 3 August 2014.
    15. ^ "Earthquake kills 26 in south-west China". BBC News. 3 August 2014. Retrieved 3 August 2014.
    16. ^ "At least 175 dead after quake hits southwest China". Reuters. 3 August 2014. Retrieved 3 August 2014.
    17. ^ "Earthquake killed 398 people and more than 1.800 were injured". BBC News. 4 August 2014. Retrieved 4 August 2014.
     
  7. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    4 August 1947 – The Supreme Court of Japan is established.

    Supreme Court of Japan

    Preview warning: Page using Template:Infobox court with unknown parameter "country"

    The Supreme Court of Japan (最高裁判所, Saikō-Saibansho, called 最高裁 Saikō-Sai for short), located in Hayabusachō, Chiyoda, Tokyo, is the highest court in Japan. It has ultimate judicial authority to interpret the Japanese constitution and decide questions of national law. It has the power of judicial review, which allows it to determine the constitutionality of any law or official act.

     
  8. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    5 August 1973Mars 6 is launched from the USSR.

    Mars 6

    Mars 6 (Russian: Марс-6), also known as 3MP No.50P was a Soviet spacecraft launched to explore Mars. A 3MP bus spacecraft launched as part of the Mars program, it consisted of a lander, and a coast stage with instruments to study Mars as it flew past.

    1. ^ Krebs, Gunter. "Interplanetary Probes". Gunter's Space Page. Retrieved 12 April 2013.
    2. ^ a b c "Mars 6". US National Space Science Data Centre. Retrieved 12 April 2013.
    3. ^ McDowell, Jonathan. "Launch Log". Jonathan's Space Page. Retrieved 12 April 2013.
     
  9. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    6 August 1930 – Judge Joseph Force Crater steps into a taxi in New York and disappears never to be seen again.

    Joseph Force Crater

    Joseph Force Crater[1] (January 5, 1889 – disappeared August 6, 1930; declared legally dead June 6, 1939) was an American lawyer who served as a New York State Supreme Court Justice and mysteriously vanished shortly after the state began an investigation into corruption in New York City. Despite massive publicity, the missing person case was never solved and was officially closed 40 years after Crater was declared dead.

    1. ^ "PA-8536330.jpg". flashbak.com. Archived from the original on July 12, 2021. Retrieved April 6, 2023.
     
  10. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    7 August 1960Ivory Coast becomes independent from France.

    Ivory Coast

    Ivory Coast, also known as Côte d'Ivoire[a] and officially the Republic of Côte d'Ivoire, is a country on the southern coast of West Africa. Its capital city of Yamoussoukro is located in the centre of the country, while its largest city and economic centre is the port city of Abidjan. It borders Guinea to the northwest, Liberia to the west, Mali to the northwest, Burkina Faso to the northeast, Ghana to the east, and the Gulf of Guinea (Atlantic Ocean) to the south. With 30.9 million inhabitants in 2023, Ivory Coast is the third-most populous country in West Africa.[3] Its official language is French, and indigenous languages are also widely used, including Bété, Baoulé, Dioula, Dan, Anyin, and Cebaara Senufo. In total, there are around 78 different languages spoken in Ivory Coast. The country has a religiously diverse population, including numerous followers of Islam, Christianity, and traditional faiths like Animism.[9][1]

    Before its colonization, Ivory Coast was home to several states, including Gyaaman, the Kong Empire, and Baoulé. The area became a protectorate of France in 1843 and was consolidated as a French colony in 1893 amid the Scramble for Africa. It achieved independence in 1960, led by Félix Houphouët-Boigny, who ruled the country until 1993. Relatively stable by regional standards, Ivory Coast established close political-economic ties with its West African neighbours while maintaining close relations with the West, especially France. Its stability was diminished by a coup d'état in 1999 and two civil wars—first between 2002 and 2007[10] and again during 2010–2011. It adopted a new constitution in 2016.[11]

    Ivory Coast is a republic with strong executive power vested in its president. Through the production of coffee and cocoa, it was an economic powerhouse in West Africa during the 1960s and 1970s, then experienced an economic crisis in the 1980s, contributing to a period of political and social turmoil that extended until 2011. Ivory Coast has experienced again high economic growth since the return of peace and political stability in 2011. From 2012 to 2023, the economy grew by an average of 7.1% per year in real terms, the second-fastest rate of economic growth in Africa and fourth-fastest rate in the world.[12] In 2023, Ivory Coast had the second-highest GDP per capita in West Africa, behind Cape Verde.[13] In 2020, Ivory Coast was the world's largest exporter of cocoa beans and had high levels of income for its region.[14] The economy still relies heavily on agriculture, with smallholder cash-crop production predominating.[2]

    1. ^ a b c "RECENSEMENT GENERAL DE LA POPULATION ET DE L'HABITAT 2021 RESULTATS GLOBAUX DEFINITIFS" (PDF). Institut National de la Statistique (INS) (in French). October 2022.
    2. ^ a b "Côte d'Ivoire". The World Factbook. CIA Directorate of Intelligence. 30 March 2022. Retrieved 16 March 2022.
    3. ^ a b Population Reference Bureau. "2023 World Population Data Sheet" (PDF). Retrieved 5 February 2024.
    4. ^ Institut National de la Statistique de Côte d'Ivoire. "RGPH 2021 Résultats globaux" (PDF). Retrieved 9 August 2022.
    5. ^ a b c d "World Economic Outlook Database, October 2023 Edition. (CI)". IMF.org. International Monetary Fund. 10 October 2023. Retrieved 14 October 2023.
    6. ^ "Gini Index". World Bank. Retrieved 14 July 2021.
    7. ^ "Human Development Report 2021/2022" (PDF). United Nations Development Programme. 8 September 2022. Retrieved 8 September 2022.
    8. ^ "Cote d'Ivoire definition". Dictionary.com. Retrieved 23 May 2014.
    9. ^ Cite error: The named reference :religions2021 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    10. ^ "Loi n° 2000-513 du 1er août 2000 portant Constitution de la République de Côte d'Ivoire" (PDF). Journal Officiel de la République de Côte d'Ivoire (in French). 42 (30): 529–538. 3 August 2000. Archived from the original (PDF) on 25 March 2009.,
    11. ^ "Ivory Coast backs new constitution in landslide vote, opposition cries foul". 2 November 2016.
    12. ^ IMF. "World Economic Outlook database: October 2023". Retrieved 11 February 2024.
    13. ^ IMF. "World Economic Outlook database: October 2023". Retrieved 11 February 2024.
    14. ^ "Ivory Coast country profile". BBC News. 18 November 2020. Retrieved 1 June 2021.


    Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

     
  11. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    7 August 1960Ivory Coast becomes independent from France.

    Ivory Coast

    Ivory Coast, also known as Côte d'Ivoire[a] and officially the Republic of Côte d'Ivoire, is a country on the southern coast of West Africa. Its capital city of Yamoussoukro is located in the centre of the country, while its largest city and economic centre is the port city of Abidjan. It borders Guinea to the northwest, Liberia to the west, Mali to the northwest, Burkina Faso to the northeast, Ghana to the east, and the Gulf of Guinea (Atlantic Ocean) to the south. With 30.9 million inhabitants in 2023, Ivory Coast is the third-most populous country in West Africa.[3] Its official language is French, and indigenous languages are also widely used, including Bété, Baoulé, Dioula, Dan, Anyin, and Cebaara Senufo. In total, there are around 78 different languages spoken in Ivory Coast. The country has a religiously diverse population, including numerous followers of Islam, Christianity, and traditional faiths like Animism.[9][1]

    Before its colonization, Ivory Coast was home to several states, including Gyaaman, the Kong Empire, and Baoulé. The area became a protectorate of France in 1843 and was consolidated as a French colony in 1893 amid the Scramble for Africa. It achieved independence in 1960, led by Félix Houphouët-Boigny, who ruled the country until 1993. Relatively stable by regional standards, Ivory Coast established close political-economic ties with its West African neighbours while maintaining close relations with the West, especially France. Its stability was diminished by a coup d'état in 1999 and two civil wars—first between 2002 and 2007[10] and again during 2010–2011. It adopted a new constitution in 2016.[11]

    Ivory Coast is a republic with strong executive power vested in its president. Through the production of coffee and cocoa, it was an economic powerhouse in West Africa during the 1960s and 1970s, then experienced an economic crisis in the 1980s, contributing to a period of political and social turmoil that extended until 2011. Ivory Coast has experienced again high economic growth since the return of peace and political stability in 2011. From 2012 to 2023, the economy grew by an average of 7.1% per year in real terms, the second-fastest rate of economic growth in Africa and fourth-fastest rate in the world.[12] In 2023, Ivory Coast had the second-highest GDP per capita in West Africa, behind Cape Verde.[13] In 2020, Ivory Coast was the world's largest exporter of cocoa beans and had high levels of income for its region.[14] The economy still relies heavily on agriculture, with smallholder cash-crop production predominating.[2]

    1. ^ a b c "RECENSEMENT GENERAL DE LA POPULATION ET DE L'HABITAT 2021 RESULTATS GLOBAUX DEFINITIFS" (PDF). Institut National de la Statistique (INS) (in French). October 2022.
    2. ^ a b "Côte d'Ivoire". The World Factbook. CIA Directorate of Intelligence. 30 March 2022. Retrieved 16 March 2022.
    3. ^ a b Population Reference Bureau. "2023 World Population Data Sheet" (PDF). Retrieved 5 February 2024.
    4. ^ Institut National de la Statistique de Côte d'Ivoire. "RGPH 2021 Résultats globaux" (PDF). Retrieved 9 August 2022.
    5. ^ a b c d "World Economic Outlook Database, October 2023 Edition. (CI)". IMF.org. International Monetary Fund. 10 October 2023. Retrieved 14 October 2023.
    6. ^ "Gini Index". World Bank. Retrieved 14 July 2021.
    7. ^ "Human Development Report 2021/2022" (PDF). United Nations Development Programme. 8 September 2022. Retrieved 8 September 2022.
    8. ^ "Cote d'Ivoire definition". Dictionary.com. Retrieved 23 May 2014.
    9. ^ Cite error: The named reference :religions2021 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    10. ^ "Loi n° 2000-513 du 1er août 2000 portant Constitution de la République de Côte d'Ivoire" (PDF). Journal Officiel de la République de Côte d'Ivoire (in French). 42 (30): 529–538. 3 August 2000. Archived from the original (PDF) on 25 March 2009.,
    11. ^ "Ivory Coast backs new constitution in landslide vote, opposition cries foul". 2 November 2016.
    12. ^ IMF. "World Economic Outlook database: October 2023". Retrieved 11 February 2024.
    13. ^ IMF. "World Economic Outlook database: October 2023". Retrieved 11 February 2024.
    14. ^ "Ivory Coast country profile". BBC News. 18 November 2020. Retrieved 1 June 2021.


    Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

     
  12. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    8 August 2013 – A suicide bombing at a funeral in the Pakistani city of Quetta kills at least 31 people.

    August 2013 Quetta bombing

    On 8 August 2013, a suicide attacker exploded a bomb at a funeral being held for a police officer in Quetta, Pakistan, and killed as many as thirty-seven[1] people and injured over fifty people. No group has taken responsibility for the bombing, but it is believed[by whom?] that the Taliban were behind the bombing. A senior police officer, Fayaz Sumbal, noticed the suicide bomber before he blew himself up. As Fayaz began searching the suicide bomber's body, the bomber blew himself up. The bomber was wearing a jacket that had ball bearings and shrapnel inside.[2]

    1. ^ "Fresh attack targets Pakistan's Quetta". Al Jazeera. Retrieved 11 April 2023.
    2. ^ "Pakistan Quetta suicide bomber kills at least 28 people". BBC News. 8 August 2013. Retrieved 8 August 2013.
     
  13. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    9 August 1969 – The Manson Family commits the Tate murders.

    Tate murders

     
  14. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    10 August 1557Battle of St. Quentin: Spanish victory over the French in the Italian War of 1551–59.

    Battle of St. Quentin (1557)

    The Battle of Saint-Quentin of 1557 was a decisive engagement of the Italian War of 1551–1559 between the Kingdom of France and the Spanish Empire, at Saint-Quentin in Picardy. A Habsburg Spanish force under Duke Emmanuel Philibert of Savoy defeated a French army under the command of Louis Gonzaga, Duke of Nevers, and Anne de Montmorency, Duke of Montmorency.

    1. ^ a b Nolan 2006, p. 756.
    2. ^ Oman 1937, p. 255.
    3. ^ a b Bonner 1992, p. 35.
     
  15. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    11 August 1972Vietnam War: The last United States ground combat unit leaves South Vietnam.

    Vietnam War

    The Vietnam War (also known by other names) was a conflict in Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia from 1 November 1955[A 1] to the fall of Saigon on 30 April 1975. It was the second of the Indochina Wars and was a major conflict of the Cold War. While the war was officially fought between North Vietnam and South Vietnam, the north was supported by the Soviet Union, China, and other communist states, while the south was supported by the United States and other anti-communist allies, making the war a proxy war between the United States and the Soviet Union. It lasted almost 20 years, with direct U.S. military involvement ending in 1973. The conflict also spilled over into neighboring states, exacerbating the Laotian Civil War and the Cambodian Civil War, which ended with all three countries officially becoming communist states by 1976.

    After the fall of French Indochina with the 1954 Geneva Conference on 21 July, the country gained independence from France but was divided into two parts: the Viet Minh took control of North Vietnam, while the U.S. assumed financial and military support for South Vietnam.[56][A 8] The Viet Cong (VC), a South Vietnamese common front under the direction of the north, initiated a guerrilla war in the south. The People's Army of Vietnam (PAVN), also known as the North Vietnamese Army (NVA), engaged in more conventional warfare with U.S. and Army of the Republic of Vietnam (ARVN) forces. North Vietnam invaded Laos in 1958, establishing the Ho Chi Minh Trail to supply and reinforce the VC.[57]: 16  By 1963, the north had sent 40,000 soldiers to fight in the south.[57]: 16  U.S. involvement increased under President John F. Kennedy, from just under a thousand military advisors in 1959 to 23,000 by 1964.[58][29]: 131 

    Following the Gulf of Tonkin incident in August 1964, the U.S. Congress passed a resolution that gave President Lyndon B. Johnson broad authority to increase U.S. military presence in Vietnam, without a formal declaration of war. Johnson ordered the deployment of combat units for the first time and dramatically increased the number of American troops to 184,000.[58] U.S. and South Vietnamese forces relied on air superiority and overwhelming firepower to conduct search and destroy operations, involving ground forces, artillery, and airstrikes. The U.S. also conducted a large-scale strategic bombing campaign against North Vietnam[29]: 371–374 [59] and continued significantly building up its forces, despite little progress being made. In 1968, North Vietnamese forces launched the Tet Offensive. Though it was a tactical defeat for them, it was a strategic victory, as it caused U.S. domestic support for the war to fade.[29]: 481  By the end of the year, the VC held little territory and were sidelined by the PAVN.[60] In 1969, North Vietnam declared the Provisional Revolutionary Government of the Republic of South Vietnam. Operations crossed national borders, and the U.S. bombed North Vietnamese supply routes in Laos and Cambodia. The 1970 deposing of the Cambodian monarch, Norodom Sihanouk, resulted in a PAVN invasion of the country (at the request of the Khmer Rouge), and then a U.S.-ARVN counter-invasion, escalating the Cambodian Civil War. After the election of Richard Nixon in 1969, a policy of "Vietnamization" began, which saw the conflict fought by an expanded ARVN, while U.S. forces withdrew in the face of increasing domestic opposition. U.S. ground forces had largely withdrawn by early 1972, and their operations were limited to air and artillery support, advisors, and materiel shipments. The Paris Peace Accords of January 1973 saw all U.S. forces withdrawn [61]: 457  The accords were broken almost immediately, and fighting continued for two more years. Phnom Penh fell to the Khmer Rouge on 17 April 1975, while the 1975 spring offensive saw the Fall of Saigon to the PAVN on 30 April, marking the end of the war. North and South Vietnam were reunified on 2 July the following year.

    The war exacted an enormous human cost: estimates of the number of Vietnamese soldiers and civilians killed range from 966,000 to 3 million. Some 275,000–310,000 Cambodians, 20,000–62,000 Laotians, and 58,220 U.S. service members also died in the conflict.[A 7] The end of the Vietnam War would precipitate the Vietnamese boat people and the larger Indochina refugee crisis, which saw millions of refugees leave Indochina, an estimated 250,000 of whom perished at sea. Once in power, the Khmer Rouge carried out the Cambodian genocide, while conflict between them and the unified Vietnam would eventually escalate into the Cambodian–Vietnamese War, which toppled the Khmer Rouge government in 1979 and ended the genocide. In response, China invaded Vietnam, with subsequent border conflicts lasting until 1991. Within the United States, the war gave rise to what was referred to as Vietnam syndrome, a public aversion to American overseas military involvement,[62] which, together with the Watergate scandal, contributed to the crisis of confidence that affected America throughout the 1970s.[63]

    The U.S. Air Force destroyed more than 20% of the jungles of South Vietnam and 20–50% of the mangrove forests, by spraying over 20 million U.S. gallons (75 million liters) of toxic herbicides (defoliants), including Agent Orange.[64][65][66] The war is one of the most commonly used examples of ecocide.[67][68][69]

    1. ^ "Name of Technical Sergeant Richard B. Fitzgibbon to be added to the Vietnam Veterans Memorial". Department of Defense (DoD). Archived from the original on 20 October 2013.
    2. ^ a b Lawrence, A.T. (2009). Crucible Vietnam: Memoir of an Infantry Lieutenant. McFarland. ISBN 978-0-7864-4517-2.
    3. ^ Olson & Roberts 2008, p. 67.
    4. ^ "Chapter 5, Origins of the Insurgency in South Vietnam, 1954–1960". The Pentagon Papers (Gravel Edition), Volume 1. Boston: Beacon Press. 1971. Section 3, pp. 314–346. Archived from the original on 19 October 2017. Retrieved 17 August 2008 – via International Relations Department, Mount Holyoke College.
    5. ^ The Paris Agreement on Vietnam: Twenty-five Years Later (Conference Transcript). Washington, DC: The Nixon Center. April 1998. Archived from the original on 1 September 2019. Retrieved 5 September 2012 – via International Relations Department, Mount Holyoke College.
    6. ^ Military History Institute of Vietnam 2002, p. 182. "By the end of 1966 the total strength of our armed forces was 690,000 soldiers."
    7. ^ Doyle, Edward; Lipsman, Samuel; Maitland, Terence (1986). The Vietnam Experience The North. Time Life Education. pp. 45–49. ISBN 978-0-939526-21-5.
    8. ^ "China admits 320,000 troops fought in Vietnam". Toledo Blade. Reuters. 16 May 1989. Retrieved 24 December 2013.
    9. ^ Roy, Denny (1998). China's Foreign Relations. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 27. ISBN 978-0-8476-9013-8.
    10. ^ a b Womack, Brantly (2006). China and Vietnam. Cambridge University Press. p. 179. ISBN 978-0-521-61834-2.
    11. ^ a b c d e f Tucker, Spencer C (2011). The Encyclopedia of the Vietnam War: A Political, Social, and Military History. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 978-1-85109-960-3.
    12. ^ "Area Handbook Series Laos". Retrieved 1 November 2019.
    13. ^ O'Ballance, Edgar (1982). Tracks of the bear: Soviet imprints in the seventies. Presidio. p. 171. ISBN 978-0-89141-133-8.
    14. ^ Pham Thi Thu Thuy (1 August 2013). "The colorful history of North Korea-Vietnam relations". NK News. Archived from the original on 24 April 2015. Retrieved 3 October 2016.
    15. ^ Le Gro, William (1985). Vietnam from ceasefire to capitulation (PDF). US Army Center of Military History. p. 28. ISBN 978-1-4102-2542-9. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2 February 2023.
    16. ^ "The rise of Communism". www.footprinttravelguides.com. Archived from the original on 17 November 2010. Retrieved 31 May 2018.
    17. ^ "Hmong rebellion in Laos". Members.ozemail.com.au. Archived from the original on 4 April 2023. Retrieved 11 April 2021.
    18. ^ "Vietnam War Allied Troop Levels 1960–73". Archived from the original on 2 August 2016. Retrieved 2 August 2016., accessed 7 November 2017
    19. ^ Doyle, Jeff; Grey, Jeffrey; Pierce, Peter (2002). "Australia's Vietnam War – A Select Chronology of Australian Involvement in the Vietnam War" (PDF). Texas A&M University Press. Archived from the original (PDF) on 10 November 2022.
    20. ^ Blackburn, Robert M. (1994). Mercenaries and Lyndon Johnson's "More Flage": The Hiring of Korean, Filipino, and Thai Soldiers in the Vietnam War. McFarland. ISBN 0-89950-931-2.
    21. ^ Marín, Paloma (9 April 2012). "Spain's secret support for US in Vietnam". El País.
    22. ^ a b c d e Hirschman, Charles; Preston, Samuel; Vu, Manh Loi (December 1995). "Vietnamese Casualties During the American War: A New Estimate" (PDF). Population and Development Review. 21 (4): 783. doi:10.2307/2137774. JSTOR 2137774. Archived from the original (PDF) on 12 October 2013.
    23. ^ a b c d e Lewy, Guenter (1978). America in Vietnam. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-987423-1.
    24. ^ "Battlefield:Vietnam – Timeline". PBS. Archived from the original on 4 June 2023.
    25. ^ a b Moyar, Mark. "Triumph Regained: The Vietnam War, 1965–1968." Encounter Books, December 2022. Chapter 17 index: "Communists provided further corroboration of the proximity of their casualty figures to American figures in a postwar disclosure of total losses from 1960 to 1975. During that period, they stated, they lost 849,018 killed plus approximately 232,000 missing and 463,000 wounded. Casualties fluctuated considerably from year to year, but a degree of accuracy can be inferred from the fact that 500,000 was 59 percent of the 849,018 total and that 59 percent of the war's days had passed by the time of Fallaci's conversation with Giap. The killed in action figure comes from "Special Subject 4: The Work of Locating and Recovering the Remains of Martyrs From Now Until 2020 And Later Years," downloaded from the Vietnamese government website datafile on 1 December 2017. The above figures on missing and wounded were calculated using Hanoi's declared casualty ratios for the period of 1945 to 1979, during which time the Communists incurred 1.1 million killed, 300,000 missing, and 600,000 wounded. Ho Khang, ed, Lich Su Khang Chien Chong My, Cuu Nuoc 1954–1975, Tap VIII: Toan Thang (Hanoi: Nha Xuat Ban Chinh Tri Quoc Gia, 2008), 463."
    26. ^ "Chuyên đề 4 CÔNG TÁC TÌM KIẾM, QUY TẬP HÀI CỐT LIỆT SĨ TỪ NAY ĐẾN NĂM 2020 VÀ NHỮNG NĂM TIẾP THEO". Datafile.chinhsachquandoi.gov.vn. Archived from the original on 4 April 2023. Retrieved 11 April 2021.
    27. ^ "Công tác tìm kiếm, quy tập hài cốt liệt sĩ từ nay đến năm 2020 và những năn tiếp theo" [The work of searching and collecting the remains of martyrs from now to 2020 and the next] (in Vietnamese). Ministry of Defence, Government of Vietnam. Archived from the original on 17 December 2018. Retrieved 11 June 2018.
    28. ^ Joseph Babcock (29 April 2019). "Lost Souls: The Search for Vietnam's 300,000 or More MIAs". Pulitzer Centre. Archived from the original on 10 November 2022. Retrieved 28 June 2021.
    29. ^ a b c d Hastings, Max (2018). Vietnam an epic tragedy, 1945–1975. Harper Collins. ISBN 978-0-06-240567-8.
    30. ^ James F. Dunnigan; Albert A. Nofi (2000). Dirty Little Secrets of the Vietnam War: Military Information You're Not Supposed to Know. Macmillan. ISBN 978-0-312-25282-3.
    31. ^ "North Korea fought in Vietnam War". BBC News Online. 31 March 2000. Archived from the original on 12 March 2023. Retrieved 18 October 2015.
    32. ^ Pribbenow, Merle (November 2011). "North Korean Pilots in the Skies over Vietnam" (PDF). Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars. p. 1. Archived from the original (PDF) on 5 June 2023. Retrieved 3 March 2023.
    33. ^ Thayer, Thomas C. (1985). War Without Fronts: The American Experience in Vietnam. Westview Press. ISBN 978-0-8133-7132-0.
    34. ^ Rummel, R.J (1997), "Table 6.1A. Vietnam Democide : Estimates, Sources, and Calculations", Freedom, Democracy, Peace; Power, Democide, and War, University of Hawaii System, archived from the original (GIF) on 13 March 2023
    35. ^ Clarke, Jeffrey J. (1988). United States Army in Vietnam: Advice and Support: The Final Years, 1965–1973. Center of Military History, United States Army. The Army of the Republic of Vietnam suffered 254,256 recorded combat deaths between 1960 and 1974, with the highest number of recorded deaths being in 1972, with 39,587 combat deaths
    36. ^ "The Fall of South Vietnam" (PDF). Rand.org. Archived from the original (PDF) on 29 January 2023. Retrieved 11 April 2021.
    37. ^ Vietnam Veterans Memorial Fund (4 May 2021). "2021 NAME ADDITIONS AND STATUS CHANGES ON THE VIETNAM VETERANS MEMORIAL" (Press release). Archived from the original on 29 April 2023.
    38. ^ National Archives–Vietnam War U.S. Military Fatal Casualties, 15 August 2016, retrieved 29 July 2020
    39. ^ "Vietnam War U.S. Military Fatal Casualty Statistics: HOSTILE OR NON-HOSTILE DEATH INDICATOR." U.S. National Archives. 29 April 2008. Accessed 13 July 2019.
    40. ^ America's Wars (PDF) (Report). Department of Veterans Affairs. May 2010. Archived from the original (PDF) on 24 January 2014.
    41. ^ Anne Leland; Mari–Jana "M-J" Oboroceanu (26 February 2010). American War and Military Operations: Casualties: Lists and Statistics (PDF) (Report). Congressional Research Service. Archived from the original (PDF) on 14 May 2023.
    42. ^ Aaron Ulrich (editor); Edward FeuerHerd (producer and director) (2005, 2006). Heart of Darkness: The Vietnam War Chronicles 1945–1975 (Box set, Color, Dolby, DVD-Video, Full Screen, NTSC, Dolby, Vision Software) (Documentary). Koch Vision. Event occurs at 321 minutes. ISBN 1-4172-2920-9.
    43. ^ Kueter, Dale (2007). Vietnam Sons: For Some, the War Never Ended. AuthorHouse. ISBN 978-1-4259-6931-8.
    44. ^ T. Lomperis, From People's War to People's Rule (1996)
    45. ^ "Australian casualties in the Vietnam War, 1962–72". Australian War Memorial. Archived from the original on 14 February 2023. Retrieved 29 June 2013.
    46. ^ "Overview of the war in Vietnam". New Zealand and the Vietnam War. 16 July 1965. Archived from the original on 26 July 2013. Retrieved 29 June 2013.
    47. ^ "America Wasn't the Only Foreign Power in the Vietnam War". 2 October 2013. Archived from the original on 18 April 2023. Retrieved 10 June 2017.
    48. ^ "Vietnam Reds Said to Hold 17 From Taiwan as Spies". The New York Times. 1964. Archived from the original on 7 March 2023.
    49. ^ Larsen, Stanley (1975). Vietnam Studies Allied Participation in Vietnam (PDF). Department of the Army. ISBN 978-1-5176-2724-9. Archived from the original (PDF) on 6 June 2023.
    50. ^ "Asian Allies in Vietnam" (PDF). Embassy of South Vietnam. March 1970. Archived from the original (PDF) on 21 May 2023. Retrieved 18 October 2015.
    51. ^ Shenon, Philip (23 April 1995). "20 Years After Victory, Vietnamese Communists Ponder How to Celebrate". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 27 May 2023. Retrieved 24 February 2011. The Vietnamese government officially claimed a rough estimate of 2 million civilian deaths, but it did not divide these deaths between those of North and South Vietnam.
    52. ^ a b c Obermeyer, Ziad; Murray, Christopher J L; Gakidou, Emmanuela (23 April 2008). "Fifty years of violent war deaths from Vietnam to Bosnia: analysis of data from the world health survey programme". British Medical Journal. 336 (7659): 1482–1486. doi:10.1136/bmj.a137. PMC 2440905. PMID 18566045. From 1955 to 2002, data from the surveys indicated an estimated 5.4 million violent war deaths ... 3.8 million in Vietnam
    53. ^ Heuveline, Patrick (2001). "The Demographic Analysis of Mortality Crises: The Case of Cambodia, 1970–1979". Forced Migration and Mortality. National Academies Press. pp. 102–104, 120, 124. ISBN 978-0-309-07334-9. As best as can now be estimated, over two million Cambodians died during the 1970s because of the political events of the decade, the vast majority of them during the mere four years of the 'Khmer Rouge' regime. ... Subsequent reevaluations of the demographic data situated the death toll for the [civil war] in the order of 300,000 or less.
    54. ^ Banister, Judith; Johnson, E. Paige (1993). Genocide and Democracy in Cambodia: The Khmer Rouge, the United Nations and the International Community. Yale University Southeast Asia Studies. p. 97. ISBN 978-0-938692-49-2. An estimated 275,000 excess deaths. We have modeled the highest mortality that we can justify for the early 1970s.
    55. ^ Sliwinski, Marek (1995). Le Génocide Khmer Rouge: Une Analyse Démographique [The Khmer Rouge genocide: A demographic analysis]. L'Harmattan. pp. 42–43, 48. ISBN 978-2-7384-3525-5.
    56. ^ Eckhardt, George (1991). Vietnam Studies Command and Control 1950–1969. Department of the Army. p. 6. Archived from the original on 19 October 2017. Retrieved 31 October 2014.
    57. ^ a b Ang, Cheng Guan (2002). The Vietnam War from the Other Side. RoutledgeCurzon. ISBN 978-0-7007-1615-9.
    58. ^ a b "Vietnam War Allied Troop Levels 1960–73". Archived from the original on 2 August 2016. Retrieved 1 June 2018.
    59. ^ Li, Xiaobing (2010). Voices from the Vietnam War: Stories from American, Asian, and Russian Veterans. University Press of Kentucky. p. 85. ISBN 978-0-8131-7386-3.
    60. ^ Military History Institute of Vietnam 2002, pp. 247–249.
    61. ^ Kolko, Gabriel (1985). Anatomy of a War: Vietnam, the United States, and the Modern Historical Experience. Pantheon Books. ISBN 978-0-394-74761-3.
    62. ^ Kalb, Marvin (22 January 2013). "It's Called the Vietnam Syndrome, and It's Back". Brookings Institution. Archived from the original on 24 December 2022. Retrieved 12 June 2015.
    63. ^ Horne, Alistair (2010). Kissinger's Year: 1973. Phoenix Press. pp. 370–371. ISBN 978-0-7538-2700-0.
    64. ^ Cite error: The named reference :02 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    65. ^ Kolko 1994, pp. 144–145.
    66. ^ Cite error: The named reference :0 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    67. ^ Cite error: The named reference :2 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    68. ^ Cite error: The named reference :4 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    69. ^ Cite error: The named reference :6 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).


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    12 August 1865Joseph Lister, British surgeon and scientist, performs 1st antiseptic surgery.

    Joseph Lister

    Joseph Lister, 1st Baron Lister, OM, PC, FRS, FRCSE, FRCPGlas, FRCS (5 April 1827 – 10 February 1912[1]) was a British surgeon, medical scientist, experimental pathologist and a pioneer of antiseptic surgery[2] and preventive healthcare.[1] Joseph Lister revolutionised the craft of surgery in the same manner that John Hunter revolutionised the science of surgery.[3]

    From a technical viewpoint, Lister was not an exceptional surgeon,[2] but his research into bacteriology and infection in wounds raised his operative technique to a new plane where his observations, deductions and practices revolutionised surgery throughout the world.[4]

    Lister's contributions were four-fold. Firstly, as a surgeon at the Glasgow Royal Infirmary, he introduced carbolic acid (modern-day phenol) as a steriliser for surgical instruments, patients' skins, sutures, surgeons' hands, and wards, promoting the principle of antiseptics. Secondly, he researched the role of inflammation and tissue perfusion in the healing of wounds. Thirdly, he advanced diagnostic science by analyzing specimens using microscopes. Fourthly, he devised strategies to increase the chances of survival after surgery. His most important contribution, however, was recognising that putrefaction in wounds is caused by germs, in connection to Louis Pasteur's then-novel germ theory of fermentation.[a][6]

    Lister's work led to a reduction in post-operative infections and made surgery safer for patients, leading to him being distinguished as the "father of modern surgery".[7]


    Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

     
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    13 August 1645 – Sweden and Denmark sign Peace of Brömsebro.

    Second Treaty of Brömsebro (1645)

    The Treaty of Brömsebro in 1645. Brown: Denmark–Norway; Green: Sweden; Yellow: the provinces of Jämtland, Härjedalen, Idre and Särna and the Baltic Sea islands of Gotland and Ösel, which were ceded to Sweden; Red: the province of Halland, ceded for 30 years

    The Second Treaty of Brömsebro (or the Peace of Brömsebro) was signed on 13 August 1645, and ended the Torstenson War, a local conflict that began in 1643 (and was part of the larger Thirty Years' War) between Sweden and Denmark–Norway. Negotiations for the treaty began in February the same year.

     
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    14 August 1975The Rocky Horror Picture Show, the longest-running release in film history, opens in London.

    The Rocky Horror Picture Show

    The Rocky Horror Picture Show is a 1975 independent[6][7] musical comedy horror film produced by Lou Adler and Michael White, directed by Jim Sharman, and distributed by 20th Century Fox. The screenplay was written by Sharman and actor Richard O'Brien, who is also a member of the cast. The film is based on the 1973 musical stage production The Rocky Horror Show, with music, book, and lyrics by O'Brien. The production is a tribute to the science fiction and horror B movies of the 1930s through to the early 1960s. Along with O'Brien, the film stars Tim Curry, Susan Sarandon, and Barry Bostwick and is narrated by Charles Gray, with cast members from the original Royal Court Theatre, Roxy Theatre, and Belasco Theatre productions, including Nell Campbell and Patricia Quinn.

    The story centres on a young engaged couple whose car breaks down in the rain near a castle, where they search for help. The castle is occupied by strangers in elaborate costumes celebrating. They discover the head of the house is Dr. Frank N. Furter, an apparently mad scientist, who creates a living muscle man named Rocky. Frank seduces the couple and it is finally revealed he is actually an alien transvestite from the planet Transsexual in the galaxy of Transylvania.

    The film was shot in the United Kingdom at Bray Studios and on location at an old country estate named Oakley Court, best known for its earlier use by Hammer Film Productions. A number of props and set pieces were reused from the Hammer horror films. Although the film is both a parody of and tribute to many kitsch science fiction and horror films, costume designer Sue Blane conducted no research for her designs. Blane has claimed that her creations for the film directly affected the development of punk rock fashion trends, such as torn fishnet stockings and colourfully dyed hair.[8]

    Initial reception was extremely negative, but it soon became a hit as a midnight movie, when audiences began participating with the film at the Waverly Theater in New York City in 1976. Audience members returned to the cinemas frequently and talked back to the screen and began dressing as the characters, spawning similar performance groups across the United States. At almost the same time, fans in costume began performing alongside the film. This "shadow cast" mimed the actions on screen above and behind them, while lip-synching their characters' lines.

    Still in limited release in 2024, some 48 years after its premiere, it is the longest-running theatrical release in film history. In many cities, live amateur shadow-casts act out the film as it is being shown and heavily draw upon a tradition of audience participation.[9] The film is most often shown close to Halloween. Today, the film has a large international cult following and has been considered by many as one of the greatest musical films of all time. In 2005, it was selected for preservation in the United States National Film Registry by the Library of Congress as being "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant."

    1. ^ "ROCKY HORROR PICTURE SHOW (AA)". British Board of Film Classification. 17 June 1975. Retrieved 18 April 2015.
    2. ^ Armstrong, Richard; et al. (7 November 2007). The Rough Guide to Film. Rough Guides. p. 506. ISBN 978-1-4053-8498-8.
    3. ^ a b "The Rocky Horror Picture Show". American Film Institute. Archived from the original on 18 September 2017. Retrieved 11 December 2015.
    4. ^ Solomon, Aubrey (2002). Twentieth Century Fox: A Corporate and Financial History. Scarecrow Press. p. 258. ISBN 978-0-8108-4244-1.
    5. ^ Ivan-Zadeh, Larushka (19 June 2020). "The Rocky Horror Picture Show: The film that's saved lives". BBC. Retrieved 5 February 2024.
    6. ^ The Top 10 Indie Movies of All Time | A Cinefix Movie List - IGN
    7. ^ 10 Indie Movies That Became Pop Culture Hits|Collider
    8. ^ Thompson, Dave (1 February 2016). The Rocky Horror Picture Show FAQ: Everything Left to Know About the Campy Cult Classic. Applause Theatre & Cinema Books. p. 1785. ISBN 978-1-4950-0747-7.
    9. ^ "Rocky Horror Picture Show – a How-To Guide for Audience Participation". 30 September 2014. Archived from the original on 1 November 2020. Retrieved 19 January 2022.
     
  19. Admin2

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    15 August 1695 – French forces end the bombardment of Brussels.

    Bombardment of Brussels

    During the Nine Years' War, the French Royal Army carried out a bombardment of Brussels from August 13–15, 1695. Led by King Louis XIV and the Duke of Villeroi, French forces bombarded the city in an attempt to divert Grand Alliance troops from reinforcing the concurrent siege of Namur. The bombardment ultimately proved to be the most destructive event in the history of Brussels, destroying a third of the buildings in the city, including the Grand-Place/Grote Markt (Brussels' main square).

    After the bombardment, reconstruction efforts over the following years profoundly changed the appearance of the city and left numerous traces still visible today. The French attempt to divert the Grand Alliance was ultimately unsuccessful, though Louis XIV's reputation suffered for his involvement in the destruction of the city.

     
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    17 August 1962Peter Fechter is shot and bleeds to death while trying to cross the new Berlin Wall.

    Killing of Peter Fechter

    Peter Fechter (14 January 1944 – 17 August 1962) was a German bricklayer who became the twenty-seventh known person to die at the Berlin Wall. Fechter was 18 years old when he was shot and killed by East German border guards while trying to cross over to West Berlin.

     
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    18 August 1868 – French astronomer Pierre Janssen discovers helium.

    Pierre Janssen

    Jules Janssen; photograph by Nadar (date unknown)
    Photo taken by Janssen, from the Meudon observatory, of Renard and Krebs' La France dirigible (1885)

    Pierre Jules César Janssen (22 February 1824 – 23 December 1907), usually known as Jules Janssen, was a French astronomer who, along with English scientist Joseph Norman Lockyer, is credited with discovering the gaseous nature of the solar chromosphere, and with some justification the element helium.

     
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    19 August 1909 – The first automobile race at the Indianapolis Motor Speedway.

    Indianapolis Motor Speedway

    The Indianapolis Motor Speedway is a motor racing circuit located in Speedway, Indiana, an enclave suburb of Indianapolis, Indiana. It is the home of the Indianapolis 500 and the Brickyard 400[4] and formerly the home of the United States Grand Prix and Indianapolis motorcycle Grand Prix. It is located six miles (9.7 km) west of Downtown Indianapolis.

    Constructed in 1909, it is the second purpose-built, banked oval racing circuit after Brooklands and the first to be called a 'speedway'. It is the third-oldest permanent automobile race track in the world, behind Brooklands and the Milwaukee Mile. With a permanent seating capacity of 257,325,[1] it is the highest-capacity sports venue in the world.[5]

    The track is a 2.5-mile-long (4.0 km) rectangular oval with dimensions that have remained essentially unchanged since its construction. It has two 58-mile-long (1,000 m) straightaways, four geometrically identical 14-mile (400 m) turns, connected by two 18-mile (200 m) short straightaways, termed "short chutes", between turns 1 and 2, and between turns 3 and 4. The turns have 9°12' banking, considered relatively flat by American standards.

    A modern, FIA Grade One infield road course was completed in 2000, incorporating part of the oval, including the main stretch and the southeast turn, measuring 2.605 mi (4.192 km). In 2008, and again in 2014, the road course layout was modified to accommodate motorcycle racing, as well as to improve competition. Altogether, the current grounds have expanded from an original 320 acres (1.3 km2) on which the speedway was first built to cover an area of over 559 acres (2.3 km2). Placed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1975 and designated a National Historic Landmark in 1987, it is the only such site to be affiliated with automotive racing history.

    In addition to the Indianapolis 500, the speedway also hosts NASCAR's Brickyard 400 and Pennzoil 250. From 2000 to 2007, the speedway hosted the Formula One United States Grand Prix, and from 2008 to 2015 the Moto GP. The speedway served as the venue for the opening ceremonies for the 1987 Pan American Games.

    On the grounds of the speedway is the Indianapolis Motor Speedway Museum, which opened in 1956, and houses the Hall of Fame. The museum moved into its current building located in the infield in 1976. Also on the grounds is the Brickyard Crossing Golf Resort, which originally opened as the Speedway Golf Course in 1929. The golf course has 14 holes outside the track, along the backstretch, and four holes in the infield. The site is among the most visited attractions in the Indianapolis metropolitan area, with 1 million guests annually.[6] The track is nicknamed "The Brickyard" (see below), and the venue self-describes as the "Racing Capital of the World".[7] The garage area is known as Gasoline Alley, though Indy 500 racecars have used methanol and currently ethanol.

    The Speedway is owned by Roger Penske's company Penske Corporation, following its 2019 purchase of Hulman & Company and its assets, which included the Speedway, the IndyCar Series, and associated enterprises.[8]

    1. ^ a b "Take a seat: Study puts Indy's capacity at 257,325". usatoday30.usatoday.com. Retrieved May 8, 2018.
    2. ^ "National Register Information System – (#75000044)". National Register of Historic Places. National Park Service. March 13, 2009.
    3. ^ "Indianapolis Motor Speedway". National Historic Landmarks Program. National Park Service. Archived from the original on June 5, 2011. Retrieved June 5, 2009.
    4. ^ Charleton, James H. (October 1985). "National Register of Historic Places Inventory – Nomination Form: Indianapolis Motor Speedway". National Park Service. and Accompanying two photos from 1985
    5. ^ "100 000+ Stadiums". World Stadiums. Archived from the original on June 5, 2011. Retrieved November 23, 2010.
    6. ^ "Most Popular Indianapolis-Area Attractions". Indianapolis Business Journal. Retrieved November 11, 2020.
    7. ^ Richard S. James (July 29, 2022). "IMSA confirms IMS return for 2023". Racer.
    8. ^ Ryckaert, Vic; Horner, Scott (November 4, 2019). "Indianapolis Motor Speedway, IndyCar are being sold to Penske Corp". USA Today. Retrieved November 4, 2019.
     
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    20 August 1997Souhane massacre in Algeria; over 60 people are killed and 15 kidnapped

    Souhane massacre

    The largest of the Souhane massacres took place in the small mountain town of Souhane (about 25 km south of Algiers, between Larbaa and Tablat) on 20–21 August 1997. 64 people were killed, and 15 women kidnapped; the resulting terror provoked a mass exodus, bringing the town's population down from 4000 before the massacre to just 103 in 2002. Smaller-scale massacres later took place on November 27, 1997 (18 men, 3 women, 4 children killed) and 2 March 2000, when some 10 people from a single household were killed by guerrillas. The massacres were blamed on Islamist groups such as the GIA.

     
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    21 August 1821Jarvis Island is discovered by the crew of the ship, Eliza Frances.

    Jarvis Island

    Jarvis Island (/ˈɑːrvɪs/; formerly known as Bunker Island or Bunker's Shoal) is an uninhabited 4.5 km2 (1.7 sq mi) coral island located in the South Pacific Ocean, about halfway between Hawaii and the Cook Islands.[1] It is an unincorporated, unorganized territory of the United States, administered by the United States Fish and Wildlife Service of the United States Department of the Interior as part of the National Wildlife Refuge system.[2] Unlike most coral atolls, the lagoon on Jarvis is wholly dry.

    Jarvis is one of the Line Islands and for statistical purposes is also grouped as one of the United States Minor Outlying Islands. Jarvis Island is the largest of three U.S. equatorial possessions, which include Baker Island and Howland Island.[3]

    It was claimed by the US in the 19th century and mined for guano, in the 20th century it was the subject of a small settlement. It was attacked during WW2 and evacuated, leaving some buildings and a day beacon. In modern times it is managed as a nature reserve.

    1. ^ Darwin, Charles; Bonney, Thomas George (1897). The structure and distribution of coral reefs. New York: D. Appleton and Company. p. 207. ISBN 978-0-520-03282-8.
    2. ^ "Jarvis Island". DOI Office of Insular Affairs. Archived from the original on February 7, 2012. Retrieved January 26, 2007.
    3. ^ Rauzon, Mark J. (2016). Isles of Amnesia: The History, Geography, and Restoration of America's Forgotten Pacific Islands. University of Hawai'i Press, Latitude 20. Page 38. ISBN 9780824846794.
     
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    22 AUgust 1851 – The first America's Cup is won by the yacht America.

    America's Cup

    The America's Cup is a sailing competition and the oldest international competition still operating in any sport.[1][2][3] America's Cup match races are held between two sailing yachts: one from the yacht club that currently holds the trophy (known as the defender) and the other from the yacht club that is challenging for the cup (the challenger). The winner is awarded the America's Cup trophy, informally known as the Auld Mug. Matches are held several years apart on dates agreed between the defender and the challenger. There is no fixed schedule, but the races have generally been held every three to four years. The most recent America's Cup match took place in March 2021.[4]

    Any yacht club that meets the requirements specified in the deed of gift has the right to challenge the yacht club that currently holds the cup. If the challenging club wins the match, it gains stewardship of the cup. From the first defence of the cup in 1870 until the twentieth defence in 1967, there was always only one challenger. In 1970 multiple challengers applied, so a Challenger Selection Series was held to decide which applicant would become the official challenger and compete in the America's Cup match. This approach has been used for each subsequent competition.[5]

    The history and prestige associated with the America's Cup attracts the world's top sailors, yacht designers, wealthy entrepreneurs and sponsors. It is a test of sailing skill, boat and sail design, and fundraising and management skills. Competing for the cup is expensive, with modern teams spending more than $US100 million each;[6] the 2013 winner was estimated to have spent $US300 million on the competition.The America's Cup is currently held by the Royal New Zealand Yacht Squadron,[7] who successfully defended the 36th America's Cup in March 2021 using an AC75 foiling monohull called Te Rehutai, owned and sailed by the Team New Zealand syndicate. The next America's Cup will be held between the defending Royal New Zealand Yacht Squadron and a challenging yacht club from 12 October 2024 in Barcelona, Spain. Both the 37th and 38th America's Cup matches will be sailed in AC75 class yachts.

    1. ^ "A Brief History of the America's Cup". America's Cup Event Authority LLC. Archived from the original on 7 February 2021. Retrieved 14 March 2021.
    2. ^ "America's Cup". Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived from the original on 31 March 2017. Retrieved 26 March 2017.
    3. ^ "About America's Cup". Sir Peter Blake Trust. 2 August 2014. Archived from the original on 11 December 2015.
    4. ^ "36th America's Cup Announcement". Royal New Zealand Yacht Squadron. Archived from the original on 25 July 2017. Retrieved 27 July 2017.
    5. ^ "America's Cup: The rising cost of sailing's ultimate prize". Boat International. Archived from the original on 4 July 2021. Retrieved 5 September 2019.
    6. ^ Newton, Casey (3 September 2013). "Billionaire death race: inside America's Cup and the world's most dangerous sailboat". The Verge. Archived from the original on 11 July 2017. Retrieved 5 September 2019.
    7. ^ Das, Andrew (17 March 2021). "Team New Zealand Beats Luna Rossa to Win America's Cup". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 17 March 2021. Retrieved 17 March 2021.
     
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    23 August 1328Battle of Cassel: French troops stop an uprising of Flemish farmers.

    Battle of Cassel (1328)

    The battle between the Flemish and the French at Cassel
    The Virgil Master, c. 1410
    15th century illustration of the battle
    Bataille de Cassel du 23 août 1328

    On 23 August 1328, the Battle of Cassel took place near the city of Cassel, 30 km south of Dunkirk in present-day France. Philip VI (King of France from 1328 to 1350) fought Nicolaas Zannekin, a wealthy farmer from Lampernisse. Zannekin was the leader of a band of Flemish rebels. The fighting erupted over taxation and punitive edicts of the French over the Flemish. The battle was won decisively by the French. Zannekin and about 3,200 Flemish rebels were killed in the battle.

    1. ^ Jan Frans Verbruggen (2002). The Battle of the Golden Spurs: (Courtrai, 11 July 1302) ; a Contribution to the History on Flanders' War of Liberation, 1297–1305. Boydell & Brewer. p. 269. ISBN 978-0-85115-888-4. Retrieved 15 May 2013.
     
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    24 August 1561Willem of Orange marries duchess Anna of Saxony.

    William the Silent

    William the Silent or William the Taciturn (Dutch: Willem de Zwijger;[1][2] 24 April 1533 – 10 July 1584), more commonly known in the Netherlands[3][4] as William of Orange (Dutch: Willem van Oranje), was the leader of the Dutch revolt against the Spanish Habsburgs that set off the Eighty Years' War (1568–1648) and resulted in the formal independence of the United Provinces in 1648. Born into the House of Nassau, he became Prince of Orange in 1544 and is thereby the founder of the Orange-Nassau branch and the ancestor of the monarchy of the Netherlands. In the Netherlands, he is also known as Father of the Fatherland (Latin: Pater Patriae; Dutch: Vader des Vaderlands).

    A wealthy nobleman, William originally served the Habsburgs as a member of the court of Margaret of Parma, governor of the Spanish Netherlands. Unhappy with the centralisation of political power away from the local estates and with the Spanish persecution of Dutch Protestants, William joined the Dutch uprising and turned against his former masters. The most influential and politically capable of the rebels, he led the Dutch to several successes in the fight against the Spanish. Declared an outlaw by the Spanish king in 1580, he was assassinated by Balthasar Gérard in Delft in 1584.

    1. ^ Abelous, Louis David (1872). William the Taciturn. Translated by Lacroix, J. P. The Library of Congress catalogued with subject "William I, Prince of Orange (1534–1584). New York: Nelson & Phillips; [etc.]
    2. ^ John Whitehead Historian, Oxford, Oriel College, weblog page about William I Once I was a clever boy
    3. ^ "Willem van Oranje". Canon van Nederland (in Dutch). Retrieved 21 May 2023.
    4. ^ "Hoe wordt Willem van Oranje vader des vaderlands?". NPO Kennis (in Dutch). Retrieved 5 October 2021.
     
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    25 August 1835 – The first Great Moon Hoax article is published in The New York Sun, announcing the discovery of life and civilization on the Moon.

    Great Moon Hoax

    A lithograph of the hoax's "ruby amphitheater", as printed in The Sun

    The "Great Moon Hoax", also known as the "Great Moon Hoax of 1835" was a series of six articles published in The Sun (a New York newspaper), beginning on August 25, 1835, about the supposed discovery of life and civilization on the Moon. The discoveries were falsely attributed to Sir John Herschel and his fictitious companion Andrew Grant.[1]

    The story was advertised on August 21, 1835, as an upcoming feature allegedly reprinted from The Edinburgh Courant.[2] The first in a series of six was published four days later on August 25. These articles were never retracted, however on September 16, 1835, The Sun admitted the articles were in fact fabricated.[3]

    1. ^ Vida, István Kornél (2012). "The "Great Moon Hoax" of 1835". Hungarian Journal of English and American Studies. 18 (1/2): 431–441. JSTOR 43488485.
    2. ^ Maliszewski, Paul. "Paper Moon", Wilson Quarterly. Winter 2005. p. 26.
    3. ^ ""The Great Moon Hoax" is published in the "New York Sun" | August 25, 1835". HISTORY. Retrieved 2023-11-29.
     
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    27 August 410 – The sacking of Rome by the Visigoths ends after three days.

    Sack of Rome (410)

    The sack of Rome on 24 August 410 AD was undertaken by the Visigoths led by their king, Alaric. At that time, Rome was no longer the capital of the Western Roman Empire, having been replaced in that position first by Mediolanum (now Milan) in 286 and then by Ravenna in 402. Nevertheless, the city of Rome retained a paramount position as "the eternal city" and a spiritual center of the Empire. This was the first time in almost 800 years that Rome had fallen to a foreign enemy, and the sack was a major shock to contemporaries, friends and foes of the Empire alike.

    The sacking of 410 is seen as a major landmark in the fall of the Western Roman Empire. St. Jerome, living in Bethlehem, wrote: "the city which had taken the whole world was itself taken".[7]

    1. ^ Maenchen-Helfen, Otto J. (2022). Knight, Max (ed.). The World of the Huns Studies in Their History and Culture. University of California Press. p. 60. ISBN 9780520302617. Retrieved 19 November 2022.
    2. ^ Burns, Thomas S. (1994). Barbarians Within the Gates of Rome A Study of Roman Military Policy and the Barbarians, Ca.375–425 A.D. Indiana University Press. p. 236. ISBN 9780253312884. Retrieved 18 November 2022.
    3. ^ The Cambridge Ancient History Volume 13, (Cambridge University Press, 1998), p. 126
    4. ^ Arnold Hugh Martin Jones, The Later Roman Empire, 284–602, (The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1964), p. 186.
    5. ^ Arnold Hugh Martin Jones, The Later Roman Empire, 284–602, (The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1964), p. 199.
    6. ^ Peter Heather, The Fall of the Roman Empire: A New History of Rome and the Barbarians (Oxford University Press, 2006), p. 224.
    7. ^ St Jerome, Letter CXXVII. To Principia, s:Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers: Series II/Volume VI/The Letters of St. Jerome/Letter 127 paragraph 12.


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    28 August 1609Henry Hudson discovers Delaware Bay.

    Henry Hudson

    Henry Hudson (c. 1565 – disappeared 23 June 1611) was an English sea explorer and navigator during the early 17th century, best known for his explorations of present-day Canada and parts of the northeastern United States.

    In 1607 and 1608, Hudson made two attempts on behalf of English merchants to find a rumoured Northeast Passage to Cathay via a route above the Arctic Circle. In 1609, he landed in North America on behalf of the Dutch East India Company and explored the region around the modern New York metropolitan area. Looking for a Northwest Passage to Asia[3] on his ship Halve Maen ("Half Moon"), he sailed up the Hudson River, which was later named after him, and thereby laid the foundation for Dutch colonization of the region. His contributions to the exploration of the New World were significant and lasting. His voyages helped to establish European contact with the native peoples of North America and contributed to the development of trade and commerce.

    On his final expedition, while still searching for the Northwest Passage, Hudson became the first European to see Hudson Strait and the immense Hudson Bay.[4] In 1611, after wintering on the shore of James Bay, Hudson wanted to press on to the west, but most of his crew mutinied. The mutineers cast Hudson, his son, and six others adrift; the Hudsons and their companions were never seen again.[5]

    1. ^ Butts 2009, p. 17.
    2. ^ Hunter, D. (2007). God's Mercies: rivalry, betrayal and the dream of discovery. Toronto: Doubleday. p. 12. ISBN 978-0385660587.
    3. ^ De Laet, J. (1625). Nieuvve wereldt, ofte, Beschrijvinghe van West-Indien (in Dutch). Leyden: Elzevier. p. 83. OCLC 65327738.
    4. ^ Rink, O. A. (1986). Holland on the Hudson: an economic and social history of Dutch New York. Ithaca: Cornell University Press. p. 29. ISBN 978-0801418662.
    5. ^ "Biography – Hudson, Henry – Volume I (1000–1700) – Dictionary of Canadian Biography". www.biographi.ca. Retrieved 24 May 2023.


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    29 August 1484Pope Innocent VIII succeeds Pope Sixtus IV.

    Pope Innocent VIII

    Pope Innocent VIII (Latin: Innocentius VIII; Italian: Innocenzo VIII; 1432 – 25 July 1492), born Giovanni Battista Cybo (or Cibo), was head of the Catholic Church and ruler of the Papal States from 29 August 1484 to his death, in July 1492. Son of the viceroy of Naples, Cybo spent his early years at the Neapolitan court. He became a priest in the retinue of Cardinal Calandrini, half-brother to Pope Nicholas V (1447–55), Bishop of Savona under Pope Paul II, and with the support of Cardinal Giuliano Della Rovere. After intense politicking by Della Rovere, Cybo was elected pope in 1484. King Ferdinand I of Naples had supported Cybo's competitor, Rodrigo Borgia. The following year, Pope Innocent supported the barons in their failed revolt.

    During his papacy, Pope Innocent issued a papal bull on witchcraft named Summis desiderantes affectibus. In March 1489, Cem, the captive brother of Bayezid II, the sultan of the Ottoman Empire, came into Innocent's custody. Viewing his brother as a rival, the Sultan paid Pope Innocent not to set him free. The amount he paid to Pope Innocent was 120,000 crowns (an amount equal to all of the annual revenue to the Vatican) in addition to some holy relics and another sum of money to be paid annually. Any time the Sultan threatened war against the Christian Balkans, Innocent threatened to release his brother. On 28 January 1495, Cem was released by Innocent's successor, Pope Alexander VI, into the custody of King Charles's army.

     
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    30 August 1574Guru Ram Das becomes the Fourth Sikh Guru/Master.

    Guru Ram Das

    Guru Ram Das (Gurmukhi: ਗੁਰੂ ਰਾਮ ਦਾਸ, pronunciation: [gʊɾuː ɾaːmᵊ d̯aːsᵊ]; 24 September 1534 – 1 September 1581) was the fourth of the ten Sikh gurus.[2][3] He was born in a family based in Lahore.[3][1] His birth name was Jetha, and he was orphaned at age seven; he thereafter grew up with his maternal grandmother in a village.[3]

    At age 12, Bhai Jetha and his grandmother moved to Goindval, where they met Guru Amar Das.[3] The boy thereafter accepted Guru Amar Das as his mentor and served him. The daughter of Guru Amar Das married Bhai Jetha, and he thus became part of Guru Amar Das's family. As with the first two Gurus of Sikhism, Guru Amar Das instead of choosing his own sons, chose Bhai Jetha, owing to Bhai Jetha's exemplary service, selfless devotion and unquestioning obedience to the commands of the Guru, as his successor and renamed him as Ram Das or "slave of God."[3][1][4]

    Guru Ram Das became the Guru of Sikhism in 1574 and served as the 4th guru until he gave up his body to transcend the material world in 1581.[5] He faced hostility from the sons of Guru Amar Das, and shifted his official base to lands identified by Guru Amar Das as Guru-ka-Chak.[3] This newly founded town was eponymous Ramdaspur, later to evolve and be renamed as Amritsar – the holiest city of Sikhism.[6][7] He is also remembered in the Sikh tradition for expanding the manji organization for clerical appointments and donation collections to theologically and economically support the Sikh movement.[3] He appointed his own son as his successor, and unlike the first four Gurus who were not related through descent, the fifth through tenth Sikh Gurus were the direct descendants of Guru Ram Das.[7][8]

    1. ^ a b c G.S. Mansukhani. "Ram Das, Guru (1534–1581)". Encyclopaedia of Sikhism. Punjab University Patiala. Retrieved 19 January 2017.
    2. ^ a b William Owen Cole; Piara Singh Sambhi (1995). The Sikhs: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices. Sussex Academic Press. pp. 22–24. ISBN 978-1-898723-13-4.
    3. ^ a b c d e f g Arvind-Pal Singh Mandair (2013). Sikhism: A Guide for the Perplexed. Bloomsbury Publishing. pp. 38–40. ISBN 978-1-4411-5366-1.
    4. ^ Shakti Pawha Kaur Khalsa (1998). Kundalini Yoga: The Flow of Eternal Power. Penguin. p. 76. ISBN 978-0-399-52420-2.
    5. ^ Arvind-pal Singh Mandair (2013). Religion and the Specter of the West: Sikhism, India, Postcoloniality, and the Politics of Translation. Columbia University Press. pp. 251–252. ISBN 978-0-231-51980-9.
    6. ^ W.H. McLeod (1990). Textual Sources for the Study of Sikhism. University of Chicago Press. pp. 28–29. ISBN 978-0-226-56085-4.
    7. ^ a b Christopher Shackle; Arvind Mandair (2013). Teachings of the Sikh Gurus: Selections from the Sikh Scriptures. Routledge. pp. xv–xvi. ISBN 978-1-136-45101-0.
    8. ^ W. H. McLeod (2009). The A to Z of Sikhism. Scarecrow Press. p. 86. ISBN 978-0-8108-6344-6.
     
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    31 August 1888Mary Ann Nichols is murdered. She is the first of Jack the Ripper's confirmed victim

    Mary Ann Nichols

    Mary Ann Nichols, known as Polly Nichols (née Walker; 26 August 1845 – 31 August 1888), was the first canonical victim of the unidentified serial killer known as Jack the Ripper, who is believed to have murdered and mutilated at least five women in and around the Whitechapel district of London from late August to early November 1888.[2][3]

    The two previous murders linked to the Whitechapel murderer are unlikely to have been committed by Jack the Ripper. When the murder of Mary Ann Nichols was initially linked to this series, it increased both press and public interest into the criminal activity and general living conditions of the inhabitants of the East End of London.[4]

    1. ^ Begg, Jack the Ripper: The Definitive History, p. 115
    2. ^ Evans and Rumbelow, pp. 96–113
    3. ^ Metropolitan Police. "History". met.police.uk. Archived from the original on 20 April 2013.
    4. ^ "The Whitechapel Murder Victims". 3 January 2008. Retrieved 26 August 2020.
     
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    1 September 1914 – The last known passenger pigeon, a female named Martha, dies in captivity in the Cincinnati Zoo.

    Martha (passenger pigeon)

    Martha (c. 1885 – September 1, 1914) was a passenger pigeon, the last known of her species; she was named "Martha" in honor of Martha Washington, the first lady of the United States from 1789 to 1797.

     
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    2 September 1912Arthur Rose Eldred is awarded the first Eagle Scout award of the Boy Scouts of America.

    Eagle Scout (Boy Scouts of America)

    Redirect to:

     
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    3 September 1666 – The Royal Exchange burns down in the Great Fire of London.

    Royal Exchange, London

    The Royal Exchange in London was founded in the 16th century by the merchant Sir Thomas Gresham on the suggestion of his factor Richard Clough to act as a centre of commerce for the City of London.[1] The site was provided by the City of London Corporation and the Worshipful Company of Mercers, who still jointly own the freehold. The original foundation was ceremonially opened by Queen Elizabeth I who granted it its "royal" title. The current neoclassical building has a trapezoidal floor plan and is flanked by Cornhill and Threadneedle Street, which converge at Bank junction in the heart of the city. It lies in the Ward of Cornhill.

    The exchange building has twice been destroyed by fire and subsequently rebuilt. The present building was designed by Sir William Tite in the 1840s. The site was notably occupied by the Lloyd's insurance market for nearly 150 years. Today, the Royal Exchange contains Fortnum & Mason's Bar & Restaurant, luxury shops, and offices.

    Traditionally, the steps of the Royal Exchange are the place where certain royal proclamations (such as the dissolution of parliament) are read out by either a herald or a crier. Following the death or abdication of a monarch and the confirmation of the next monarch's accession to the throne by the Accession Council, the Royal Exchange Building is one of the locations where a herald proclaims the new monarch's reign to the public.

    1. ^ grisham.weebly.com; accessed 31 July 2016
     
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    4 September 1797Coup of 18 Fructidor in France.

    Coup of 18 Fructidor

    The Coup of 18 Fructidor, Year V (4 September 1797 in the French Republican Calendar), was a seizure of power in France by members of the Directory, the government of the French First Republic, with support from the French military.[2] The coup was provoked by the results of elections held months earlier, which had given the majority of seats in the country's Corps législatif (Legislative body) to royalist candidates, threatening a restoration of the monarchy and a return to the ancien régime.[3] Three of the five members of the Directory, Paul Barras, Jean-François Rewbell and Louis Marie de La Révellière-Lépeaux, with support of foreign minister Charles Maurice de Talleyrand-Périgord,[4] staged the coup d'état that annulled many of the previous election's results and ousted the monarchists from the legislature.[5]

    1. ^ a b "coup d'État du 18 fructidor an V". Larousse (in French). Retrieved 11 June 2021.
    2. ^ Doyle, William (2002). The Oxford History of the French Revolution. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 330. ISBN 978-0-19-925298-5.
    3. ^ Manière, Fabienne. "4 septembre 1797 - Coup d'État de Fructidor". Horodote (in French). Retrieved 11 June 2021.
    4. ^ Bernard, pp. 193–194.
    5. ^ Hall Stewart, John (1951). A Documentary Survey of the French Revolution (adapted). New York: Macmillan.
     
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    5 September 1941 – Whole territory of Estonia is occupied by Nazi Germany.

    Estonia

    Estonia,[a] officially the Republic of Estonia, is a country by the Baltic Sea in Europe.[b] It is bordered to the north by the Gulf of Finland across from Finland, to the west by the sea across from Sweden, to the south by Latvia, and to the east by Lake Peipsi and Russia. The territory of Estonia consists of the mainland, the larger islands of Saaremaa and Hiiumaa, and over 2,300 other islands and islets on the eastern coast of the Baltic Sea,[3] covering a total area of 45,335 square kilometres (17,504 sq mi). The capital city Tallinn and Tartu are the two largest urban areas of the country. The Estonian language is the indigenous and the official language of Estonia; it is the first language of the majority of its population, as well as the world's second-most spoken Finnic language.

    The land of what is now modern Estonia has been inhabited by humans since at least 9,000 BCE. The medieval indigenous population of Estonia was one of the last pagan civilisations in Europe to adopt Christianity following the Papal-sanctioned Livonian Crusade in the 13th century.[13] After centuries of successive rule by the Teutonic Order, Denmark, Sweden, and the Russian Empire, a distinct Estonian national identity began to emerge in the mid-19th century. This culminated in the 24 February 1918 Estonian Declaration of Independence from the then-warring Russian and German empires. Democratic throughout most of the interwar period, Estonia declared neutrality at the outbreak of World War II, however the country was repeatedly contested, invaded, and occupied; first by the Soviet Union in 1940, then by Nazi Germany in 1941, and was ultimately reoccupied in 1944 by, and annexed into, the USSR as an administrative subunit (Estonian SSR). Throughout the 1944–1991 Soviet occupation,[14] Estonia's de jure state continuity was preserved by diplomatic representatives and the government-in-exile. Following the bloodless Estonian "Singing Revolution" of 1988–1990, the nation's de facto independence from the Soviet Union was restored on 20 August 1991.

    Estonia is a developed country, with a high-income advanced economy, ranking 31st (out of 191) in the Human Development Index.[15] The sovereign state of Estonia is a democratic unitary parliamentary republic, administratively subdivided into 15 maakond (counties). With a population of just around 1.4 million, it is one of the least populous members of the European Union, the Eurozone, the OECD, the Schengen Area, and NATO. Estonia has consistently ranked highly in international rankings for quality of life,[16] education,[17] press freedom, digitalisation of public services[18][19] and the prevalence of technology companies.[20]

    1. ^ "Rv0222U: Population by Sex, Ethnic Nationality and County, 1 January".
    2. ^ "Estonia Census 2021". Statistics Estonia. 29 April 2013. Archived from the original on 24 November 2017. Retrieved 9 January 2014.
    3. ^ a b "Estonia gains 95 islands, but loses 4 square kilometers with updated map". ERR. 22 February 2024. Retrieved 22 February 2024.
    4. ^ "Estonia's population grew in 2023". 2 January 2024.
    5. ^ "Population census: Estonia's population and the number of Estonians have grown". Statistics Estonia. 1 June 2022. Retrieved 5 June 2022.
    6. ^ a b c d "World Economic Outlook Database, October 2023 Edition. (Estonia)". International Monetary Fund. 10 October 2023. Retrieved 12 October 2023.
    7. ^ "Gini coefficient of equivalised disposable income". EU-SILC survey. Eurostat. Retrieved 22 June 2022.
    8. ^ "Human Development Report 2023/2024" (PDF). United Nations Development Programme. 13 March 2024. Archived (PDF) from the original on 13 March 2024. Retrieved 13 March 2024.
    9. ^ "United Nations Statistics Division- Standard Country and Area Codes Classifications (M49)-Geographic Regions". Unstats.un.org.
    10. ^ "Estonia - EU Vocabularies - Publications Office of the EU". op.europa.eu. Retrieved 24 December 2023.
    11. ^ Directorate, OECD Statistics. "OECD Glossary of Statistical Terms - Central and Eastern European Countries (CEECs) Definition". stats.oecd.org.
    12. ^ "Estonia". CIA World Factbook. 24 December 2023.
    13. ^ "Country Profile – LegaCarta". Retrieved 26 November 2019.
    14. ^ See, for instance, position expressed by European Parliament, which condemned "the fact that the occupation of these formerly independent and neutral States by the Soviet Union occurred in 1940 following the Molotov/Ribbentrop pact, and continues." European Parliament (13 January 1983). "Resolution on the situation in Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania". Official Journal of the European Communities. C 42/78.
    15. ^ "Human Development Report 2020: Estonia" (PDF). United Nations Development Programme. 2020.
    16. ^ "Estonia (Ranked 21st)". Legatum Prosperity Index 2020.
    17. ^ "Pisa rankings: Why Estonian pupils shine in global tests". BBC News. 2 December 2019.
    18. ^ "Estonia among top 3 in the UN e-Government Survey 2020". e-Estonia. 24 July 2020.
    19. ^ Harold, Theresa (30 October 2017). "How A Former Soviet State Became One Of The World's Most Advanced Digital Nations". Alphr. Retrieved 29 November 2021.
    20. ^ "Number of start-ups per capita by country". 2020.stateofeuropeantech.com.


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