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This day in .....

Discussion in 'Break Room' started by NewsBot, Apr 6, 2008.

  1. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    9 August 1973Mars 7 is launched from the USSR.

    Mars 7

    Mars 7 (Russian: Марс-7), also known as 3MP No.51P was a Soviet spacecraft launched in 1973 to explore Mars. A 3MP bus spacecraft which comprised the final mission of the Mars programme, it consisted of a lander and a coast stage with instruments to study Mars as it flew past. Due to a malfunction, the lander failed to perform a maneuver necessary to enter the Martian atmosphere, missing the planet and remaining in heliocentric orbit along with the coast stage.

    1. ^ Krebs, Gunter. "Interplanetary Probes". Gunter's Space Page. Retrieved 13 April 2013.
    2. ^ a b c "Mars 7". US National Space Science Data Centre. Retrieved 12 April 2013.
    3. ^ McDowell, Jonathan. "Launch Log". Jonathan's Space Page. Retrieved 12 April 2013.
    4. ^ Asif A. Siddiqi. "Beyond Earth : A CHRONICLE OF DEEP SPACE EXPLORATION, 1958–2016" (PDF). Nasa.gov. Retrieved 25 January 2022.
     
  2. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    10 August 1948Candid Camera makes its television debut after being on radio for a year as Candid Microphone.

    Candid Camera

    Candid Camera is an American hidden camera reality television series, with versions of the show appeared on television from 1948 until 2014. Originally created and produced by Allen Funt, it often featured practical jokes, and initially began on radio as The Candid Microphone on June 28, 1947.

    After a series of theatrical film shorts, also titled Candid Microphone, Funt's concept came to television on August 10, 1948, and continued into the 1970s. Aside from occasional specials in the 1980s, the show was off air until 1991, when Funt reluctantly authorized a syndicated revival with Dom DeLuise as host and Vin Di Bona producing; it ran for one year. The show made a comeback on CBS in 1996 before moving to PAX TV in 2001. This incarnation of the weekly series ended on May 5, 2004, concurrent with the selling of the PAX network itself. Beginning on August 11, 2014, the show returned[1] in a new series with hour-long episodes on TV Land, but this incarnation only lasted a single season.

    The format has been revived numerous times, appearing on U.S. TV networks and in syndication (first-run) in each succeeding decade, as either a regular show or a series of specials. Funt, who died in 1999, hosted or co-hosted all versions of the show until he became too ill to continue. His son Peter Funt, who had co-hosted the specials with his father since 1987, became the producer and host. A United Kingdom version of the format aired from 1960 to 1976.

    1. ^ "The Return of Candid Camera". Haphazard Stuff. September 25, 2014.
     
  3. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    11 August 1952Hussein bin Talal is proclaimed King of Jordan.

    Hussein of Jordan

    Hussein bin Talal (Arabic: الحسين بن طلال, romanizedAl-Ḥusayn bin Ṭalāl; 14 November 1935 – 7 February 1999) was King of Jordan from 11 August 1952 until his death in 1999. As a member of the Hashemite dynasty, the royal family of Jordan since 1921, Hussein was a 40th-generation direct descendant of Muhammad.

    Hussein was born in Amman as the eldest child of Talal bin Abdullah and Zein al-Sharaf bint Jamil. Talal was then the heir to his own father, King Abdullah I. Hussein began his schooling in Amman, continuing his education abroad. After Talal became king in 1951, Hussein was named heir apparent. The Jordanian Parliament forced Talal to abdicate a year later due to his illness, and a regency council was appointed until Hussein came of age. He was enthroned at the age of 17 on 2 May 1953. Hussein was married four separate times and fathered eleven children.

    Hussein, a constitutional monarch with wide executive and legislative powers, started his rule with what was termed a "liberal experiment", allowing in 1956 the formation of the only democratically elected government in Jordan's history. A few months into the experiment, he forced the leftist government to resign, declaring martial law and banning political parties. Jordan fought three wars with Israel under Hussein, including the 1967 Six-Day War, which ended in Jordan's loss of the West Bank. In 1970, Hussein expelled Palestinian fighters from Jordan after they had threatened the country's security in what became known as Black September. The King renounced Jordan's ties to the West Bank in 1988 after the Palestine Liberation Organization was recognized internationally as the sole representative of the Palestinians. He lifted martial law and reintroduced elections in 1989 when riots over price hikes spread in southern Jordan. In 1994 he became the second Arab head of state to sign a peace treaty with Israel.

    At the time of Hussein's accession in 1953, Jordan was a young nation and controlled the West Bank. The country had few natural resources, and a large Palestinian refugee population as a result of the 1948 Arab–Israeli War. Hussein led his country through four turbulent decades of the Arab–Israeli conflict and the Cold War, successfully balancing pressures from Arab nationalists, Islamists, the Soviet Union, Western countries, and Israel, transforming Jordan by the end of his 46-year reign into a stable modern state. After 1967 he engaged in efforts to solve the Israeli–Palestinian conflict. He acted as a conciliatory intermediate between various Middle Eastern rivals, and came to be seen as the region's peacemaker. He was revered for pardoning political dissidents and opponents, and giving them senior posts in the government. Hussein, who survived dozens of assassination attempts and plots to overthrow him, was the region's longest-reigning leader. He died at the age of 63 from cancer in 1999 and was succeeded by his eldest son, Abdullah II.

     
  4. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    12 August 1851Isaac Singer is granted a patent for his sewing machine.

    Isaac Singer

    Isaac Merritt Singer (October 27, 1811 – July 23, 1875) was an American inventor, actor, and businessman. He made important improvements in the design of the sewing machine[1] and was the founder of what became one of the first American multi-national businesses, the Singer Sewing Machine Company.[2]

    Many others, including Walter Hunt and Elias Howe, had patented sewing machines[3] before Singer, but his success was based on the practicality of his machine, the ease with which it could be adapted to home use and its availability on an installments payment basis.[4]

    Singer died in 1875, dividing his $13 million fortune unequally among 20 of his living children by his wives and various mistresses, although one son, who had supported his mother in her divorce case against Singer, received only $500.[2] Altogether he fathered 26 children.

    1. ^ "The Story of Singer Sewing Machines in Scotland". Historic Environment Scotland Blog. 12 June 2020. Retrieved 6 January 2021.
    2. ^ a b Hunter, Clare (2019). Threads of life : a history of the world through the eye of a needle. London: Sceptre (Hodder & Stoughton). pp. 256–266, 269–271. ISBN 978-1473687912. OCLC 1079199690.
    3. ^ Forsdyke, Graham. "History of the Sewing Machine". International Sewing Machine Collectors Society. Retrieved 30 June 2019.
    4. ^ История создания корпорации "Зингер". Биография Исаака Меррита Зингера. [All About Sewing Machines – The History of Singer Corporation] (in Russian). Archived from the original on 12 June 2008.
     
  5. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    13 August 2015 – At least 76 people are killed and 212 others are wounded in a truck bombing in Baghdad, Iraq.

    August 2015 Baghdad bombing

    The 2015 Baghdad market truck bombing was a truck bomb attack on 13 August 2015, targeting a Baghdad food market in Sadr City, a predominantly Shi'ite neighborhood.

    1. ^ a b "Islamic State claims huge truck bomb attack in Baghdad's Sadr City". Reuters. 13 August 2015. Archived from the original on 13 August 2015. Retrieved 13 August 2015.
     
  6. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    14 August 1975The Rocky Horror Picture Show, the longest-running release in film history, opens in London.

    The Rocky Horror Picture Show

    The Rocky Horror Picture Show is a 1975 independent[6][7] musical comedy horror film produced by Lou Adler and Michael White, directed by Jim Sharman, and distributed by 20th Century Fox. The screenplay was written by Sharman and actor Richard O'Brien, who is also a member of the cast. The film is based on the 1973 musical stage production The Rocky Horror Show, with music, book, and lyrics by O'Brien. The production is a tribute to the science fiction and horror B movies of the 1930s through to the early 1960s. Along with O'Brien, the film stars Tim Curry, Susan Sarandon, and Barry Bostwick and is narrated by Charles Gray, with cast members from the original Royal Court Theatre, Roxy Theatre, and Belasco Theatre productions, including Nell Campbell and Patricia Quinn.

    The story centres on a young engaged couple whose car breaks down in the rain near a castle, where they search for help. The castle is occupied by strangers in elaborate costumes celebrating. They discover the head of the house is Dr. Frank N. Furter, an apparently mad scientist, who creates a living muscle man named Rocky. Frank seduces the couple and it is finally revealed he is actually an alien transvestite from the planet Transsexual in the galaxy of Transylvania.

    The film was shot in the United Kingdom at Bray Studios and on location at an old country estate named Oakley Court, best known for its earlier use by Hammer Film Productions. A number of props and set pieces were reused from the Hammer horror films. Although the film is both a parody of and tribute to many kitsch science fiction and horror films, costume designer Sue Blane conducted no research for her designs. Blane has claimed that her creations for the film directly affected the development of punk rock fashion trends, such as torn fishnet stockings and colourfully dyed hair.[8]

    Initial reception was extremely negative, but it soon became a hit as a midnight movie, when audiences began participating with the film at the Waverly Theater in New York City in 1976. Audience members returned to the cinemas frequently and talked back to the screen and began dressing as the characters, spawning similar performance groups across the United States. At almost the same time, fans in costume began performing alongside the film. This "shadow cast" mimed the actions on screen above and behind them, while lip-synching their characters' lines.

    Still in limited release in 2024, some 48 years after its premiere, it is the longest-running theatrical release in film history. In many cities, live amateur shadow-casts act out the film as it is being shown and heavily draw upon a tradition of audience participation.[9] The film is most often shown close to Halloween. Today, the film has a large international cult following and has been considered by many as one of the greatest musical films of all time. In 2005, it was selected for preservation in the United States National Film Registry by the Library of Congress as being "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant."

    1. ^ "ROCKY HORROR PICTURE SHOW (AA)". British Board of Film Classification. 17 June 1975. Retrieved 18 April 2015.
    2. ^ Armstrong, Richard; et al. (7 November 2007). The Rough Guide to Film. Rough Guides. p. 506. ISBN 978-1-4053-8498-8.
    3. ^ a b "The Rocky Horror Picture Show". American Film Institute. Archived from the original on 18 September 2017. Retrieved 11 December 2015.
    4. ^ Solomon, Aubrey (2002). Twentieth Century Fox: A Corporate and Financial History. Scarecrow Press. p. 258. ISBN 978-0-8108-4244-1.
    5. ^ Ivan-Zadeh, Larushka (19 June 2020). "The Rocky Horror Picture Show: The film that's saved lives". BBC. Retrieved 5 February 2024.
    6. ^ The Top 10 Indie Movies of All Time | A Cinefix Movie List - IGN
    7. ^ 10 Indie Movies That Became Pop Culture Hits|Collider
    8. ^ Thompson, Dave (1 February 2016). The Rocky Horror Picture Show FAQ: Everything Left to Know About the Campy Cult Classic. Applause Theatre & Cinema Books. p. 1785. ISBN 978-1-4950-0747-7.
    9. ^ "Rocky Horror Picture Show – a How-To Guide for Audience Participation". 30 September 2014. Archived from the original on 1 November 2020. Retrieved 19 January 2022.
     
  7. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    15 August 1939 – The Wizard of Oz premieres at Grauman's Chinese Theater in Los Angeles, California.

    The Wizard of Oz (1939 film)

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  8. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    16 August 1859 – The Grand Duchy of Tuscany formally deposes the exiled House of Lorraine.

    Grand Duchy of Tuscany

    The Grand Duchy of Tuscany (Italian: Granducato di Toscana; Latin: Magnus Ducatus Etruriae) was an Italian monarchy that existed, with interruptions, from 1569 to 1860, replacing the Republic of Florence.[2] The grand duchy's capital was Florence. In the 19th century the population of the Grand Duchy was about 1,815,000 inhabitants.[3]

    Having brought nearly all Tuscany under his control after conquering the Republic of Siena, Cosimo I de' Medici, was elevated by a papal bull of Pope Pius V to Grand Duke of Tuscany on 27 August 1569.[4][5] The Grand Duchy was ruled by the House of Medici until the extinction of its senior branch in 1737. While not as internationally renowned as the old republic, the grand duchy thrived under the Medici and it bore witness to unprecedented economic and military success under Cosimo I and his sons, until the reign of Ferdinando II, which saw the beginning of the state's long economic decline. It peaked under Cosimo III.[6]

    Francis Stephen of Lorraine, a cognatic descendant of the Medici, succeeded the family and ascended the throne of his Medicean ancestors. Tuscany was governed by a viceroy, Marc de Beauvau-Craon, for his entire rule. His descendants ruled, and resided in, the grand duchy until its end in 1859, barring one interruption, when Napoleon Bonaparte gave Tuscany to the House of Bourbon-Parma (Kingdom of Etruria, 1801–1807), then annexed it directly to the First French Empire. Following the collapse of the Napoleonic system in 1814, the grand duchy was restored. The United Provinces of Central Italy, a client state of the Kingdom of Sardinia, annexed Tuscany in 1859. Tuscany was formally annexed to Sardinia in 1860, as a part of the unification of Italy, following a landslide referendum, in which 95% of voters approved.[7]

    1. ^ United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland; House of Commons, John Bowring, 1839, p. 6.
    2. ^ Strathern, Paul (2003). The Medici: Godfathers of the Renaissance. London: Vintage. ISBN 978-0-09-952297-3. pp. 315–321.
    3. ^ Ministry of Agriculture, Industry and Commerce (1862). Popolazione censimento degli antichi Stati sardi (1. gennaio 1858) e censimenti di Lombardia, di Parma e di Modena (1857–1858) pubblicati per cura del Ministero d'agricoltura, industria e commercio: Relazione generale con una introduzione storica sopra i censimenti delle popolazioni italiane dai tempi antichi sino all'anno 1860. 1.1 (in Italian). Stamperia Reale.
    4. ^ "bolla papale di Pio V". archeologiavocidalpassato (in Italian). Retrieved 2021-02-10.
    5. ^ "Cosimo I | duke of Florence and Tuscany [1519–1574]". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 2021-02-10.
    6. ^ "COSIMO III de' Medici, granduca di Toscana". Dizionario Biografico (in Italian). Retrieved 2020-04-25.
    7. ^ Cite error: The named reference Heraldica was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
     
  9. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    17 August 2008 – American swimmer Michael Phelps becomes the first person to win eight gold medals at one Olympic Games.

    Michael Phelps

    Michael Fred Phelps II[5] (born June 30, 1985)[6] is an American former competitive swimmer. He is the most successful and most decorated Olympian of all time[7] with a total of 28 medals.[8] Phelps also holds the all-time records for Olympic gold medals (23),[9] Olympic gold medals in individual events (13), and Olympic medals in individual events (16).[10] At the 2004 Summer Olympics in Athens, Phelps tied the record of eight medals of any color at a single Games, held by gymnast Alexander Dityatin, by winning six gold and two bronze medals. Four years later, when he won eight gold medals at the 2008 Beijing Games, he broke fellow American swimmer Mark Spitz's 1972 record of seven first-place finishes at any single Olympic Games. At the 2012 Summer Olympics in London, Phelps won four gold and two silver medals, and at the 2016 Summer Olympics in Rio de Janeiro, he won five gold medals and one silver. This made him the most successful athlete of the Games for the fourth Olympics in a row.[11][12]

    Phelps is a former long course world record holder in the 200-meter freestyle, 100-meter butterfly, 200-meter butterfly, 200-meter individual medley, and 400-meter individual medley. He has won 82 medals in major international long course competitions, of which 65 were gold, 14 silver, and three bronze, spanning the Olympics, the World Championships, and the Pan Pacific Championships. Phelps's international titles and record-breaking performances have earned him the World Swimmer of the Year Award eight times and American Swimmer of the Year Award eleven times, as well as the FINA Swimmer of the Year Award in 2012 and 2016. Phelps earned Sports Illustrated magazine's Sportsman of the Year award due to his unprecedented Olympic success in the 2008 Games.

    After the 2008 Summer Olympics, Phelps started the Michael Phelps Foundation, which focuses on growing the sport of swimming and promoting healthier lifestyles. Phelps retired following the 2012 Olympics, but he made a comeback in April 2014.[13] At the 2016 Summer Olympics in Rio de Janeiro,[14] his fifth Olympics, he was selected by his team to be the flag bearer of the United States at the 2016 Summer Olympics Parade of Nations. He announced his second retirement on August 12, 2016,[15] having won more medals than 161 countries. He is widely regarded as the greatest swimmer of all time and is often considered to be one of the greatest athletes of all time.[16][17]

    1. ^ Harris, Nick (August 11, 2008). "'Baltimore Bullet' has history in his sights". The Independent. London. Archived from the original on August 22, 2009. Retrieved August 25, 2010.
    2. ^ "'Flying Fish' Phelps largely unknown in China". NBC News. August 17, 2008. Retrieved April 21, 2012.
    3. ^ Cite error: The named reference phelpsbio was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    4. ^ "Michael Phelps". London2012.com. Archived from the original on January 23, 2013. Retrieved August 1, 2012.
    5. ^ "Michael Phelps(Full Birth Name)". britannica.com. December 1, 2005. Archived from the original on July 12, 2021. Retrieved August 31, 2021.
    6. ^ "Michael Phelps Biography: Swimming, Athlete (1985–)". Biography.com (FYI / A&E Networks). Retrieved November 18, 2015.
    7. ^ Walters, Tanner (August 13, 2016). "Michael Phelps: 30 medals in Tokyo? 'I don't think so'". Yahoo! Sports. Retrieved August 14, 2016.
    8. ^ "Michael Phelps". www.olympedia.org. Retrieved May 26, 2020.
    9. ^ "Rio 2016 | Simone Biles dazzles while Phelps wins his 22nd gold on day 6". August 12, 2016. Retrieved August 12, 2016.
    10. ^ Gibbs, Robert (August 11, 2016). "Phelps breaks ties for most overall & gold individual medals". Swimswam. Retrieved August 12, 2016.
    11. ^ Anderson, Jared (September 28, 2016). "Phelps named USOC's male athlete of the Rio Olympics". Swimswam. Retrieved October 2, 2016.
    12. ^ Lord, Craig (September 16, 2012). "Franklin Pips Phelps For Top Honour". SwimNews. Archived from the original on October 6, 2014. Retrieved October 7, 2014.
    13. ^ Harris, Beth (April 14, 2014). "Olympic Great Michael Phelps Ending Retirement". NBC Washington. Retrieved November 21, 2015.
    14. ^ Zaccardi, Nick (May 3, 2016). "Michael Phelps left with one meet before Olympic Trials". Olympics on NBC. Retrieved May 23, 2016.
    15. ^ Rogers, Martin. "Michael Phelps on Olympic future: 'I am not coming back in four years'". USA Today. Retrieved July 26, 2017.
    16. ^ "Where Does Michael Phelps Rank Among Great Athletes Of All Time?". BleacherReport. Retrieved August 7, 2020.
    17. ^ Jones, Tom. "Jones: Put Michael Phelps in talk about greatest athlete of all time". Tampa Bay Times. Retrieved August 7, 2020.
     
  10. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    17 August 2008 – American swimmer Michael Phelps becomes the first person to win eight gold medals at one Olympic Games.

    Michael Phelps

    Michael Fred Phelps II[5] (born June 30, 1985)[6] is an American former competitive swimmer. He is the most successful and most decorated Olympian of all time[7] with a total of 28 medals.[8] Phelps also holds the all-time records for Olympic gold medals (23),[9] Olympic gold medals in individual events (13), and Olympic medals in individual events (16).[10] At the 2004 Summer Olympics in Athens, Phelps tied the record of eight medals of any color at a single Games, held by gymnast Alexander Dityatin, by winning six gold and two bronze medals. Four years later, when he won eight gold medals at the 2008 Beijing Games, he broke fellow American swimmer Mark Spitz's 1972 record of seven first-place finishes at any single Olympic Games. At the 2012 Summer Olympics in London, Phelps won four gold and two silver medals, and at the 2016 Summer Olympics in Rio de Janeiro, he won five gold medals and one silver. This made him the most successful athlete of the Games for the fourth Olympics in a row.[11][12]

    Phelps is a former long course world record holder in the 200-meter freestyle, 100-meter butterfly, 200-meter butterfly, 200-meter individual medley, and 400-meter individual medley. He has won 82 medals in major international long course competitions, of which 65 were gold, 14 silver, and three bronze, spanning the Olympics, the World Championships, and the Pan Pacific Championships. Phelps's international titles and record-breaking performances have earned him the World Swimmer of the Year Award eight times and American Swimmer of the Year Award eleven times, as well as the FINA Swimmer of the Year Award in 2012 and 2016. Phelps earned Sports Illustrated magazine's Sportsman of the Year award due to his unprecedented Olympic success in the 2008 Games.

    After the 2008 Summer Olympics, Phelps started the Michael Phelps Foundation, which focuses on growing the sport of swimming and promoting healthier lifestyles. Phelps retired following the 2012 Olympics, but he made a comeback in April 2014.[13] At the 2016 Summer Olympics in Rio de Janeiro,[14] his fifth Olympics, he was selected by his team to be the flag bearer of the United States at the 2016 Summer Olympics Parade of Nations. He announced his second retirement on August 12, 2016,[15] having won more medals than 161 countries. He is widely regarded as the greatest swimmer of all time and is often considered to be one of the greatest athletes of all time.[16][17]

    1. ^ Harris, Nick (August 11, 2008). "'Baltimore Bullet' has history in his sights". The Independent. London. Archived from the original on August 22, 2009. Retrieved August 25, 2010.
    2. ^ "'Flying Fish' Phelps largely unknown in China". NBC News. August 17, 2008. Retrieved April 21, 2012.
    3. ^ Cite error: The named reference phelpsbio was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    4. ^ "Michael Phelps". London2012.com. Archived from the original on January 23, 2013. Retrieved August 1, 2012.
    5. ^ "Michael Phelps(Full Birth Name)". britannica.com. December 1, 2005. Archived from the original on July 12, 2021. Retrieved August 31, 2021.
    6. ^ "Michael Phelps Biography: Swimming, Athlete (1985–)". Biography.com (FYI / A&E Networks). Retrieved November 18, 2015.
    7. ^ Walters, Tanner (August 13, 2016). "Michael Phelps: 30 medals in Tokyo? 'I don't think so'". Yahoo! Sports. Retrieved August 14, 2016.
    8. ^ "Michael Phelps". www.olympedia.org. Retrieved May 26, 2020.
    9. ^ "Rio 2016 | Simone Biles dazzles while Phelps wins his 22nd gold on day 6". August 12, 2016. Retrieved August 12, 2016.
    10. ^ Gibbs, Robert (August 11, 2016). "Phelps breaks ties for most overall & gold individual medals". Swimswam. Retrieved August 12, 2016.
    11. ^ Anderson, Jared (September 28, 2016). "Phelps named USOC's male athlete of the Rio Olympics". Swimswam. Retrieved October 2, 2016.
    12. ^ Lord, Craig (September 16, 2012). "Franklin Pips Phelps For Top Honour". SwimNews. Archived from the original on October 6, 2014. Retrieved October 7, 2014.
    13. ^ Harris, Beth (April 14, 2014). "Olympic Great Michael Phelps Ending Retirement". NBC Washington. Retrieved November 21, 2015.
    14. ^ Zaccardi, Nick (May 3, 2016). "Michael Phelps left with one meet before Olympic Trials". Olympics on NBC. Retrieved May 23, 2016.
    15. ^ Rogers, Martin. "Michael Phelps on Olympic future: 'I am not coming back in four years'". USA Today. Retrieved July 26, 2017.
    16. ^ "Where Does Michael Phelps Rank Among Great Athletes Of All Time?". BleacherReport. Retrieved August 7, 2020.
    17. ^ Jones, Tom. "Jones: Put Michael Phelps in talk about greatest athlete of all time". Tampa Bay Times. Retrieved August 7, 2020.
     
  11. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    18 August 1868 – French astronomer Pierre Janssen discovers helium.

    Helium

    Helium (from Greek: ἥλιος, romanizedhelios, lit.'sun') is a chemical element; it has symbol He and atomic number 2. It is a colorless, odorless, tasteless, non-toxic, inert, monatomic gas and the first in the noble gas group in the periodic table.[a] Its boiling point is the lowest among all the elements, and it does not have a melting point at standard pressures. It is the second-lightest and second most abundant element in the observable universe, after hydrogen. It is present at about 24% of the total elemental mass, which is more than 12 times the mass of all the heavier elements combined. Its abundance is similar to this in both the Sun and Jupiter, because of the very high nuclear binding energy (per nucleon) of helium-4, with respect to the next three elements after helium. This helium-4 binding energy also accounts for why it is a product of both nuclear fusion and radioactive decay. The most common isotope of helium in the universe is helium-4, the vast majority of which was formed during the Big Bang. Large amounts of new helium are created by nuclear fusion of hydrogen in stars.

    Helium was first detected as an unknown, yellow spectral line signature in sunlight during a solar eclipse in 1868 by Georges Rayet,[14] Captain C. T. Haig,[15] Norman R. Pogson,[16] and Lieutenant John Herschel,[17] and was subsequently confirmed by French astronomer Jules Janssen.[18] Janssen is often jointly credited with detecting the element, along with Norman Lockyer. Janssen recorded the helium spectral line during the solar eclipse of 1868, while Lockyer observed it from Britain. However, only Lockyer proposed that the line was due to a new element, which he named after the Sun. The formal discovery of the element was made in 1895 by chemists Sir William Ramsay, Per Teodor Cleve, and Nils Abraham Langlet, who found helium emanating from the uranium ore cleveite, which is now not regarded as a separate mineral species, but as a variety of uraninite.[19][20] In 1903, large reserves of helium were found in natural gas fields in parts of the United States, by far the largest supplier of the gas today.

    Liquid helium is used in cryogenics (its largest single use, consuming about a quarter of production), and in the cooling of superconducting magnets, with its main commercial application in MRI scanners. Helium's other industrial uses—as a pressurizing and purge gas, as a protective atmosphere for arc welding, and in processes such as growing crystals to make silicon wafers—account for half of the gas produced. A small but well-known use is as a lifting gas in balloons and airships.[21] As with any gas whose density differs from that of air, inhaling a small volume of helium temporarily changes the timbre and quality of the human voice. In scientific research, the behavior of the two fluid phases of helium-4 (helium I and helium II) is important to researchers studying quantum mechanics (in particular the property of superfluidity) and to those looking at the phenomena, such as superconductivity, produced in matter near absolute zero.

    On Earth, it is relatively rare—5.2 ppm by volume in the atmosphere. Most terrestrial helium present today is created by the natural radioactive decay of heavy radioactive elements (thorium and uranium, although there are other examples), as the alpha particles emitted by such decays consist of helium-4 nuclei. This radiogenic helium is trapped with natural gas in concentrations as great as 7% by volume, from which it is extracted commercially by a low-temperature separation process called fractional distillation. Terrestrial helium is a non-renewable resource because once released into the atmosphere, it promptly escapes into space. Its supply is thought to be rapidly diminishing.[22][23] However, some studies suggest that helium produced deep in the Earth by radioactive decay can collect in natural gas reserves in larger-than-expected quantities,[24] in some cases having been released by volcanic activity.[25]

    1. ^ "Standard Atomic Weights: Helium". CIAAW. 1983.
    2. ^ Prohaska, Thomas; Irrgeher, Johanna; Benefield, Jacqueline; Böhlke, John K.; Chesson, Lesley A.; Coplen, Tyler B.; Ding, Tiping; Dunn, Philip J. H.; Gröning, Manfred; Holden, Norman E.; Meijer, Harro A. J. (2022-05-04). "Standard atomic weights of the elements 2021 (IUPAC Technical Report)". Pure and Applied Chemistry. doi:10.1515/pac-2019-0603. ISSN 1365-3075.
    3. ^ Shuen-Chen Hwang, Robert D. Lein, Daniel A. Morgan (2005). "Noble Gases". Kirk Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology. Wiley. pp. 343–383. doi:10.1002/0471238961.0701190508230114.a01.
    4. ^ Magnetic susceptibility of the elements and inorganic compounds, in Handbook of Chemistry and Physics 81st edition, CRC press.
    5. ^ Weast, Robert (1984). CRC, Handbook of Chemistry and Physics. Boca Raton, Florida: Chemical Rubber Company Publishing. pp. E110. ISBN 0-8493-0464-4.
    6. ^ Kondev, F. G.; Wang, M.; Huang, W. J.; Naimi, S.; Audi, G. (2021). "The NUBASE2020 evaluation of nuclear properties" (PDF). Chinese Physics C. 45 (3): 030001. doi:10.1088/1674-1137/abddae.
    7. ^ Grochala, Wojciech (1 November 2017). "On the position of helium and neon in the Periodic Table of Elements". Foundations of Chemistry. 20 (2018): 191–207. doi:10.1007/s10698-017-9302-7.
    8. ^ Bent Weberg, Libby (18 January 2019). ""The" periodic table". Chemical & Engineering News. 97 (3). Retrieved 27 March 2020.
    9. ^ Grandinetti, Felice (23 April 2013). "Neon behind the signs". Nature Chemistry. 5 (2013): 438. Bibcode:2013NatCh...5..438G. doi:10.1038/nchem.1631. PMID 23609097.
    10. ^ Kurushkin, Mikhail (2020). "Helium's placement in the Periodic Table from a crystal structure viewpoint". IUCrJ. 7 (4): 577–578. Bibcode:2020IUCrJ...7..577K. doi:10.1107/S2052252520007769. PMC 7340260. PMID 32695406. Retrieved 19 June 2020.
    11. ^ Labarca, Martín; Srivaths, Akash (2016). "On the Placement of Hydrogen and Helium in the Periodic System: A New Approach". Bulgarian Journal of Science Education. 25 (4): 514–530. Archived from the original on 29 November 2021. Retrieved 19 June 2020.
    12. ^ Siekierski, S.; Burgess, J. (2002). Concise Chemistry of the Elements. Horwood. pp. 23–26. ISBN 978-1-898563-71-6.
    13. ^ Lewars, Errol G. (5 December 2008). Modeling Marvels: Computational Anticipation of Novel Molecules. Springer Science & Business Media. pp. 69–71. ISBN 978-1-4020-6973-4. Archived from the original on 19 May 2016.
    14. ^ Rayet, G. (1868) "Analyse spectral des protubérances observées, pendant l'éclipse totale de Soleil visible le 18 août 1868, à la presqu'île de Malacca" (Spectral analysis of the protuberances observed during the total solar eclipse, seen on 18 August 1868, from the Malacca peninsula), Comptes rendus ... , 67 : 757–759. From p. 758: " ... je vis immédiatement une série de neuf lignes brillantes qui ... me semblent devoir être assimilées aux lignes principales du spectre solaire, B, D, E, b, une ligne inconnue, F, et deux lignes du groupe G." ( ... I saw immediately a series of nine bright lines that ... seemed to me should be classed as the principal lines of the solar spectrum, B, D, E, b, an unknown line, F, and two lines of the group G.)
    15. ^ Captain C. T. Haig (1868) "Account of spectroscopic observations of the eclipse of the sun, August 18th, 1868" Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, 17 : 74–80. From p. 74: "I may state at once that I observed the spectra of two red flames close to each other, and in their spectra two broad bright bands quite sharply defined, one rose-madder and the other light golden."
    16. ^ Pogson filed his observations of the 1868 eclipse with the local Indian government, but his report wasn't published. (Biman B. Nath, The Story of Helium and the Birth of Astrophysics (New York, New York: Springer, 2013), p. 8.) Nevertheless, Lockyer quoted from his report. From p. 320 Archived 17 August 2018 at the Wayback Machine of Lockyer, J. Norman (1896) "The story of helium. Prologue," Nature, 53 : 319–322 : "Pogson, in referring to the eclipse of 1868, said that the yellow line was "at D, or near D." "
    17. ^ Lieutenant John Herschel (1868) "Account of the solar eclipse of 1868, as seen at Jamkandi in the Bombay Presidency," Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, 17 : 104–120. From p. 113: As the moment of the total solar eclipse approached, " ... I recorded an increasing brilliancy in the spectrum in the neighborhood of D, so great in fact as to prevent any measurement of that line till an opportune cloud moderated the light. I am not prepared to offer any explanation of this." From p. 117: "I also consider that there can be no question that the ORANGE LINE was identical with D, so far as the capacity of the instrument to establish any such identity is concerned."
    18. ^ In his initial report to the French Academy of Sciences about the 1868 eclipse, Janssen made no mention of a yellow line in the solar spectrum. See: However, subsequently, in an unpublished letter of 19 December 1868 to Charles Sainte-Claire Deville, Janssen asked Deville to inform the French Academy of Sciences that : "Several observers have claimed the bright D line as forming part of the spectrum of the prominences on 18 August. The bright yellow line did indeed lie very close to D, but the light was more refrangible [i.e., of shorter wavelength] than those of the D lines. My subsequent studies of the Sun have shown the accuracy of what I state here." (See: (Launay, 2012), p. 45.)
    19. ^ "Cleveite". Mindat.org. Retrieved 14 February 2020.
    20. ^ "Uraninite". Mindat.org. Retrieved 14 February 2020.
    21. ^ Rose, Melinda (October 2008). "Helium: Up, Up and Away?". Photonics Spectra. Archived from the original on 22 August 2010. Retrieved 27 February 2010. For a more authoritative but older 1996 pie chart showing U.S. helium use by sector, showing much the same result, see the chart reproduced in "Applications" section of this article.
    22. ^ Connor, Steve (23 August 2010). "Why the world is running out of helium". The Independent. London. Archived from the original on 27 September 2013. Retrieved 16 September 2013.
    23. ^ Siegel, Ethan (12 December 2012). "Why the World Will Run Out of Helium". Starts with a Bang. Scienceblogs.com. Archived from the original on 14 September 2013. Retrieved 16 September 2013.
    24. ^ Szondy, David (24 August 2015). "We may not be running out of helium after all". www.gizmag.com. Archived from the original on 25 March 2016. Retrieved 1 April 2016.
    25. ^ Sample, Ian (28 June 2016). "Huge helium gas find in east Africa averts medical shortage". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 29 June 2016. Retrieved 29 June 2016.


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    19 August 1854 – The First Sioux War begins when United States Army soldiers kill Lakota chief Conquering Bear and in return are massacred.

    Sioux Wars

    The Sioux Wars were a series of conflicts between the United States and various subgroups of the Sioux people which occurred in the later half of the 19th century. The earliest conflict came in 1854 when a fight broke out at Fort Laramie in Wyoming, when Sioux warriors killed 31 American soldiers in the Grattan Massacre, and the final came in 1890 during the Ghost Dance War.

    1. ^ Libby, Orin G. (1920): The Arikara Narrative. Bismarck.
    2. ^ Kappler, Joseph C. (1904): Indian Affairs. Laws and Treaties. Vol. 2. pp. 1008–1011: Treaty with the Crows, May 7, 1868.
    3. ^ Dunlay, Thomas W. (1982). Wolves for the Blue Soldiers. Indian Scouts and Auxiliaries with the United States Army, 1860–90. Lincoln and London. p. 113.
    4. ^ Hoxie, Frederick E. (1995): Parading Through History. The Making of the Crow Nation in America, 1805–1935. Cambridge. p. 108 and map p. 99.
    5. ^ Medicine Crow, Joseph (1992): From the Heart of the Crow Country. The Crow Indians' Own Stories. New York. Map facing p. xxi.
    6. ^ Kappler, Joseph C. (1904): Indian Affairs. Laws and Treaties. Vol. 2. p. 595.
    7. ^ "The Battle of the Little Bighorn and the Great Sioux War (1876)". June 16, 2019.
    8. ^ Linderman, Frank B. (1962): Plenty Coups. Chief of the Crows. Lincoln and London. p. 155.
     
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    20 August 1882Tchaikovsky's 1812 Overture debuts in Moscow, Russia.

    1812 Overture

    The Year 1812, Solemn Overture, Op. 49, popularly known as the 1812 Overture,[1] is a concert overture in E major written in 1880 by Russian composer Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky. The piece commemorates Russia's successful defense of the French invasion of the country by Napoleon in 1812.

    The overture debuted in Moscow on 20 August [O.S. 8 August] 1882,[2] conducted by Ippolit Al'tani under a tent near the then-almost-finished Cathedral of Christ the Saviour, which also memorialised the 1812 defense of Russia.[3]

    The fifteen-minute overture is best known for its climactic volley of cannon fire, ringing chimes, and a brass fanfare finale. It has also become a common accompaniment to fireworks displays on the United States' Independence Day.[4] The 1812 Overture went on to become one of Tchaikovsky's most popular works, along with his ballet scores to The Nutcracker, The Sleeping Beauty, and Swan Lake.[5]

    1. ^ "Tchaikovsky Research: The Year 1812, Op. 49 (TH 49)". Retrieved 21 June 2015.
    2. ^ Lax, Roger; Smith, Frederick (1989). The Great Song Thesaurus. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 230. ISBN 978-0-19-505408-8.
    3. ^ Felsenfeld, Daniel. Tchaikovsky: A Listener's Guide, p. 54. Amadeus Press, 2006.
    4. ^ Hernández, Javier C. (3 July 2022). "Amid Ukraine War, Orchestras Rethink '1812 Overture,' a July 4 Rite – Some ensembles have decided not to perform Tchaikovsky's overture, written as commemoration of Russia's defeat of Napoleon's army". The New York Times. Retrieved 4 July 2022.
    5. ^ Robinson, Harlow (2012). Rzhevsky, Nicholas (ed.). The Cambridge Companion to Modern Russian Culture. Cambridge University Press. p. 268. ISBN 978-1-107-00252-4.
     
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    22 August 1851 – The first America's Cup is won by the yacht America.

    America's Cup

    The America's Cup is a sailing competition and the oldest international competition still operating in any sport.[1][2][3] America's Cup match races are held between two sailing yachts: one from the yacht club that currently holds the trophy (known as the defender) and the other from the yacht club that is challenging for the cup (the challenger). The winner is awarded the America's Cup trophy, informally known as the Auld Mug. Matches are held several years apart on dates agreed between the defender and the challenger. There is no fixed schedule, but the races have generally been held every three to four years. The most recent America's Cup match took place in March 2021.[4]

    Any yacht club that meets the requirements specified in the deed of gift has the right to challenge the yacht club that currently holds the cup. If the challenging club wins the match, it gains stewardship of the cup. From the first defence of the cup in 1870 until the twentieth defence in 1967, there was always only one challenger. In 1970 multiple challengers applied, so a Challenger Selection Series was held to decide which applicant would become the official challenger and compete in the America's Cup match. This approach has been used for each subsequent competition.[5]

    The history and prestige associated with the America's Cup attracts the world's top sailors, yacht designers, wealthy entrepreneurs and sponsors. It is a test of sailing skill, boat and sail design, and fundraising and management skills. Competing for the cup is expensive, with modern teams spending more than $US100 million each;[6] the 2013 winner was estimated to have spent $US300 million on the competition.The America's Cup is currently held by the Royal New Zealand Yacht Squadron,[7] who successfully defended the 36th America's Cup in March 2021 using an AC75 foiling monohull called Te Rehutai, owned and sailed by the Team New Zealand syndicate. The next America's Cup will be held between the defending Royal New Zealand Yacht Squadron and a challenging yacht club from 12 October 2024 in Barcelona, Spain. Both the 37th and 38th America's Cup matches will be sailed in AC75 class yachts.

    1. ^ "A Brief History of the America's Cup". America's Cup Event Authority LLC. Archived from the original on 7 February 2021. Retrieved 14 March 2021.
    2. ^ "America's Cup". Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived from the original on 31 March 2017. Retrieved 26 March 2017.
    3. ^ "About America's Cup". Sir Peter Blake Trust. 2 August 2014. Archived from the original on 11 December 2015.
    4. ^ "36th America's Cup Announcement". Royal New Zealand Yacht Squadron. Archived from the original on 25 July 2017. Retrieved 27 July 2017.
    5. ^ "America's Cup: The rising cost of sailing's ultimate prize". Boat International. Archived from the original on 4 July 2021. Retrieved 5 September 2019.
    6. ^ Newton, Casey (3 September 2013). "Billionaire death race: inside America's Cup and the world's most dangerous sailboat". The Verge. Archived from the original on 11 July 2017. Retrieved 5 September 2019.
    7. ^ Das, Andrew (17 March 2021). "Team New Zealand Beats Luna Rossa to Win America's Cup". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 17 March 2021. Retrieved 17 March 2021.
     
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    23 August 1831Nat Turner's slave rebellion is suppressed.

    Nat Turner's slave rebellion

    Nat Turner's Rebellion, historically known as the Southampton Insurrection, was a rebellion of enslaved Virginians that took place in Southampton County, Virginia, in August 1831.[1] Led by Nat Turner, the rebels killed between 55 and 65 White people, making it the deadliest slave revolt for white people in U.S. history.[2][3] The rebellion was effectively suppressed within a few days, at Belmont Plantation on the morning of August 23, but Turner survived in hiding for more than 30 days afterward.[4]

    There was widespread fear amongst the White population in the aftermath of the rebellion. Militia and mobs killed as many as 120 enslaved people and free African Americans in retaliation.[5][6] After trials, the Commonwealth of Virginia executed 56 enslaved people accused of participating in the rebellion, including Turner himself; many Black people who had not participated were also persecuted in the frenzy. Because Turner was educated and was a preacher, Southern state legislatures subsequently passed new laws prohibiting the education of enslaved people and free Black people, restricting rights of assembly and other civil liberties for free Black people, and requiring White ministers to be present at all worship services.[7]

    Lonnie Bunch, director of the National Museum of African American History and Culture, said, "The Nat Turner rebellion is probably the most significant uprising in American history."[8]

    1. ^ Schwarz, Frederic D. "1831 Nat Turner's Rebellion," American Heritage, August/September 2006. Archived December 3, 2008, at the Wayback Machine "
    2. ^ "Nat Turner – Black History". History.com. Retrieved February 26, 2018.
    3. ^ Haltiwanger, John (September 21, 2017). "Nat Turner to Be Included on Monument in Richmond". Newsweek. Retrieved December 18, 2022.
    4. ^ Virginia Historic Landmarks Commission Staff (July 1973). "National Register of Historic Places Inventory/Nomination: Belmont" (PDF). Virginia Department of Historic Resources. Archived from the original (PDF) on December 27, 2016. Retrieved October 8, 2013.
    5. ^ Breen, Patrick H. (2015). The land shall be deluged in blood: a new history of the Nat Turner Revolt. New York, NY. ISBN 978-0-19-982800-5. OCLC 892895344.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) "high estimates have been widely accepted in both academic and popular sources".
    6. ^ Allmendinger, David F. (2014). Nat Turner and the rising in Southampton County. Baltimore. ISBN 978-1-4214-1480-5. OCLC 889812744.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) Recent studies which review various estimates for the number of enslaved and free Black people killed without trial, giving a range of from 23 killed to over 200 killed.
    7. ^ Gray-White, Deborah; Bay, Mia; Martin, Waldo E. Jr. (2013). Freedom on my mind: A History of African Americans. New York: Bedford/St. Martin's, 2013. p. 225.
    8. ^ Trescott, Jacqueline (February 16, 2012). "Descendants of Va. family donate Nat Turner's Bible to museum". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on April 22, 2017. Retrieved March 28, 2017.
     
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    24 August 1891Thomas Edison patents the motion picture camera.

    Thomas Edison

    Thomas Alva Edison (February 11, 1847 – October 18, 1931) was an American inventor and businessman.[1][2][3] He developed many devices in fields such as electric power generation, mass communication, sound recording, and motion pictures.[4] These inventions, which include the phonograph, the motion picture camera, and early versions of the electric light bulb, have had a widespread impact on the modern industrialized world.[5] He was one of the first inventors to apply the principles of organized science and teamwork to the process of invention, working with many researchers and employees. He established the first industrial research laboratory.[6]

    Edison was raised in the American Midwest. Early in his career he worked as a telegraph operator, which inspired some of his earliest inventions.[4] In 1876, he established his first laboratory facility in Menlo Park, New Jersey, where many of his early inventions were developed. He later established a botanical laboratory in Fort Myers, Florida, in collaboration with businessmen Henry Ford and Harvey S. Firestone, and a laboratory in West Orange, New Jersey, that featured the world's first film studio, the Black Maria. With 1,093 US patents in his name, as well as patents in other countries, Edison is regarded as the most prolific inventor in American history.[7] Edison married twice and fathered six children. He died in 1931 due to complications from diabetes.

    1. ^ Adrian Wooldridge (September 15, 2016). "The alphabet of success". The Economist. Archived from the original on September 16, 2016. Retrieved September 16, 2016.
    2. ^ Sproule, Anna (2000). Thomas Alva Edison: The World's Greatest Inventor (1st U.S. ed.). Woodbridge, CT: Blackbirch Press. ISBN 978-1-56711-331-0.
    3. ^ "Hangout – Thomas Edison". state.nj.us. State of New Jersey.
    4. ^ a b "Con Edison: A Brief History of Con Edison – electricity". Coned.com. January 1, 1998. Archived from the original on October 30, 2012. Retrieved October 11, 2012.
    5. ^ "The Wizard of Menlo Park". The Franklin Institute. Archived from the original on March 5, 2013. Retrieved February 24, 2013.
    6. ^ Walsh, Bryan (July 15, 2009). "The Electrifying Edison". Time. Archived from the original on July 18, 2009. Retrieved December 31, 2013.
    7. ^ Boyer, Paul S., ed. (2001). The Oxford Companion to United States History. Oxford University Press. p. 211. ISBN 978-0-19-989109-2. OCLC 57680178.
     
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    25 August 1940World War II: The first Bombing of Berlin by the British Royal Air Force.

    Bombing of Berlin in World War II

    Berlin, the capital of Nazi Germany, was subject to 363 air raids during the Second World War.[1] It was bombed by the RAF Bomber Command between 1940 and 1945, the United States Army Air Forces' Eighth Air Force between 1943 and 1945, and the French Air Force in 1940 and between 1944 and 1945 as part of the Allied campaign of strategic bombing of Germany. It was also attacked by aircraft of the Red Air Force in 1941 and particularly in 1945, as Soviet forces closed on the city. British bombers dropped 45,517 tons of bombs,[2] while American aircraft dropped 22,090.3 tons. As the bombings continued, more and more people fled the city. By May 1945, 1.7 million people (40% of the population) had fled.[3]

    1. ^ Taylor, Chapter "Thunderclap and Yalta" Page 216
    2. ^ "Target Analysis". Flight. 9 August 1945. p. 154. Archived from the original on 10 January 2015.
    3. ^ Richard Overy, The Bombers and the Bombed: Allied Air War Over Europe 1940–1945 (2014), pp 301, 304
     
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    26 August 1791John Fitch is granted a United States patent for the steamboat.

    Steamboat

    Lookout, transport steamer on the Tennessee River, c. 1860–1865
    Dutch river steam-tugboat Mascotte II

    A steamboat is a boat that is propelled primarily by steam power, typically driving propellers or paddlewheels. Steamboats sometimes use the prefix designation SS, S.S. or S/S (for 'Screw Steamer') or PS (for 'Paddle Steamer'); however, these designations are most often used for steamships.

    The term steamboat is used to refer to smaller, insular, steam-powered boats working on lakes and rivers, particularly riverboats. As using steam became more reliable, steam power became applied to larger, ocean-going vessels.

     
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    27 August 410 – The sacking of Rome by the Visigoths ends after three days.

    Sack of Rome (410)

    The sack of Rome on 24 August 410 AD was undertaken by the Visigoths led by their king, Alaric. At that time, Rome was no longer the capital of the Western Roman Empire, having been replaced in that position first by Mediolanum (now Milan) in 286 and then by Ravenna in 402. Nevertheless, the city of Rome retained a paramount position as "the eternal city" and a spiritual center of the Empire. This was the first time in almost 800 years that Rome had fallen to a foreign enemy, and the sack was a major shock to contemporaries, friends and foes of the Empire alike.

    The sacking of 410 is seen as a major landmark in the fall of the Western Roman Empire. St. Jerome, living in Bethlehem, wrote: "the city which had taken the whole world was itself taken".[7]

    1. ^ Maenchen-Helfen, Otto J. (2022). Knight, Max (ed.). The World of the Huns Studies in Their History and Culture. University of California Press. p. 60. ISBN 9780520302617. Retrieved 19 November 2022.
    2. ^ Burns, Thomas S. (1994). Barbarians Within the Gates of Rome A Study of Roman Military Policy and the Barbarians, Ca.375–425 A.D. Indiana University Press. p. 236. ISBN 9780253312884. Retrieved 18 November 2022.
    3. ^ The Cambridge Ancient History Volume 13, (Cambridge University Press, 1998), p. 126
    4. ^ Arnold Hugh Martin Jones, The Later Roman Empire, 284–602, (The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1964), p. 186.
    5. ^ Arnold Hugh Martin Jones, The Later Roman Empire, 284–602, (The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1964), p. 199.
    6. ^ Peter Heather, The Fall of the Roman Empire: A New History of Rome and the Barbarians (Oxford University Press, 2006), p. 224.
    7. ^ St Jerome, Letter CXXVII. To Principia, s:Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers: Series II/Volume VI/The Letters of St. Jerome/Letter 127 paragraph 12.


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    28 August 1879Cetshwayo, last king of the Zulus, is captured by the British.

    Cetshwayo kaMpande

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    1
    29 August 1842Treaty of Nanking signing ends the First Opium War.

    First Opium War

    The First Opium War (Chinese: 第一次鴉片戰爭; pinyin: Dìyīcì Yāpiàn Zhànzhēng), also known as the Anglo-Chinese War, was a series of military engagements fought between the British Empire and the Qing dynasty of China between 1839 and 1842. The immediate issue was the Chinese enforcement of their ban on the opium trade by seizing private opium stocks from merchants at Canton and threatening to impose the death penalty for future offenders. Despite the opium ban, the British government supported the merchants' demand for compensation for seized goods, and insisted on the principles of free trade and equal diplomatic recognition with China. Opium was Britain's single most profitable commodity trade of the 19th century. After months of tensions between the two states, the British navy launched an expedition in June 1840, which ultimately defeated the Chinese using technologically superior ships and weapons by August 1842. The British then imposed the Treaty of Nanking, which forced China to increase foreign trade, give compensation, and cede Hong Kong Island to the British. Consequently the opium trade continued in China. Twentieth-century nationalists considered 1839 the start of a century of humiliation, and many historians consider it the beginning of modern Chinese history.

    In the 18th century, the demand for Chinese luxury goods (particularly silk, porcelain, and tea) created a trade imbalance between China and Britain. European silver flowed into China through the Canton System, which confined incoming foreign trade to the southern port city of Canton. To counter this imbalance, the British East India Company began to grow opium in Bengal and allowed private British merchants to sell opium to Chinese smugglers for illegal sale in China. The influx of narcotics reversed the Chinese trade surplus, drained the economy of silver, and increased the numbers of opium addicts inside the country, outcomes that seriously worried Chinese officials.

    In 1839, the Daoguang Emperor, rejecting proposals to legalise and tax opium, appointed Viceroy Lin Zexu to go to Canton to halt the opium trade completely.[8] Lin wrote an open letter to Queen Victoria appealing to her moral responsibility to stop the opium trade, although she never read it.[9][10][11] Lin then resorted to using force in the western merchants enclave. He arrived in Guangzhou at the end of January and organized a coastal defense. In March, British opium dealers were forced to hand over 2.37 million pounds of opium. On 3 June, Lin ordered the opium to be destroyed in public on Humen Beach to show the Government's determination to ban smoking.[12] All other supplies were confiscated and a blockade of foreign ships on the Pearl River was ordered.[13][page needed]

    Tensions escalated in July after British sailors killed a Chinese villager and the British government refused to hand the accused men over to Chinese authorities. Fighting later broke out, with the British navy destroying the Chinese naval blockade, and launching an offensive.[12] In the ensuing conflict, the Royal Navy used its superior naval and gunnery power to inflict a series of decisive defeats on the Chinese Empire.[14] In 1842, the Qing dynasty was forced to sign the Treaty of Nanking—the first of what the Chinese later called the unequal treaties—which granted an indemnity and extraterritoriality to British subjects in China, opened five treaty ports to British merchants, and ceded Hong Kong Island to the British Empire. The failure of the treaty to satisfy British goals of improved trade and diplomatic relations led to the Second Opium War (1856–60). The resulting social unrest was the background for the Taiping Rebellion, which further weakened the Qing regime.[15][full citation needed][16]

    1. ^ a b c d Martin, Robert Montgomery (1847). China: Political, Commercial, and Social; In an Official Report to Her Majesty's Government. Volume 2. London: James Madden. pp. 80–82.
    2. ^ Mao 2016, pp. 50–53.
    3. ^ The Chinese Repository, vol. 12, p. 248.
    4. ^ Bate 1952, p. 174.
    5. ^ Rait, Robert S. (1903). The Life and Campaigns of Hugh, First Viscount Gough, Field-Marshal. Volume 1. p. 265.
    6. ^ Makeham, John (2008). China: The World's Oldest Living Civilization Revealed. Thames & Hudson. p. 331. ISBN 978-0-500-25142-3.
    7. ^ 张莉. "第一次鸦片战争中、英军队的伤亡及其影响". 2008年. Archived from the original on 19 December 2014. Retrieved 19 December 2014.
    8. ^ Fay (2000) p. 73.
    9. ^ Fay (2000) p. 143.
    10. ^ "digital china/harvard: Letter of Advice to Queen Victoria". cyber.harvard.edu. Retrieved 23 November 2022.
    11. ^ "Longman World History". wps.pearsoncustom.com. Retrieved 23 November 2022.
    12. ^ a b "Opium Wars | Definition, Summary, Facts, & Causes | Britannica". www.britannica.com. Retrieved 28 November 2021.
    13. ^ Farooqui, Amar (March 2005). Smuggling as Subversion: Colonialism, Indian Merchants, and the Politics of Opium, 1790–1843. Lexington Books. ISBN 0-7391-0886-7.
    14. ^ Steve Tsang, A modern history of Hong Kong (2007) pp. 3–13.
    15. ^ Tsang, A modern history of Hong Kong p. 29.
    16. ^ "The Mechanics of Opium Wars". The Australian Museum. Retrieved 28 June 2022.


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    30 August 1942 – World War II: The Battle of Alam el Halfa begins.

    Battle of Alam el Halfa

    The Battle of Alam el Halfa took place between 30 August and 5 September 1942 south of El Alamein during the Western Desert Campaign of the Second World War. Panzerarmee Afrika (Generalfeldmarschall Erwin Rommel), attempted an envelopment of the British Eighth Army (Lieutenant-General Bernard Montgomery). In Unternehmen Brandung (Operation Surf), the last big Axis offensive of the Western Desert Campaign, Rommel intended to defeat the Eighth Army before Allied reinforcements arrived.

    Montgomery knew of Axis intentions through Ultra signals intercepts and left a gap in the southern sector of the front, knowing that Rommel planned to attack there and deployed the bulk of his armour and artillery around Alam el Halfa Ridge, 20 miles (32 km) behind the front. Unlike in previous engagements, Montgomery ordered that the tanks were to be used as anti-tank guns, remaining in their defensive positions on the ridge. When Axis attacks on the ridge failed and short on supplies, Rommel ordered a withdrawal. The 2nd New Zealand Division conducted Operation Beresford against Italian positions, which was a costly failure.

    Montgomery did not exploit his defensive victory, preferring to continue the methodical build up of strength for his autumn offensive, the Second Battle of El Alamein. Rommel claimed that British air superiority determined the result, being unaware of Ultra. Rommel adapted to the increasing Allied dominance in the air by keeping his forces dispersed. With the failure at Alam Halfa, the Axis forces in Africa lost the initiative and Axis strategic aims in Africa were no longer possible.

    1. ^ a b c d e f Watson (2007), p. 14
    2. ^ Buffetaut pp. 90–91
     
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    31 August 1939Nazi Germany mounts a false flag attack on the Gleiwitz radio station, creating an excuse to attack Poland the following day, thus starting World War II in Europe.

    Gleiwitz incident

    The Gleiwitz incident (German: Überfall auf den Sender Gleiwitz; Polish: Prowokacja gliwicka) was a false flag attack on the radio station Sender Gleiwitz in Gleiwitz (then Germany and now Gliwice, Poland) staged by Nazi Germany on the night of 31 August 1939. Along with some two dozen similar incidents, the attack was manufactured by Germany as a casus belli to justify the invasion of Poland. Prior to the invasion, Adolf Hitler gave a radio address condemning the acts and announcing German plans to attack Poland, which began the next morning.[1][2] Despite the German government using the attack as a justification to go to war with Poland, the Gleiwitz assailants were not Polish but were German SS officers wearing Polish uniforms.

    During his declaration of war, Hitler did not mention the Gleiwitz incident but grouped all provocations staged by the SS as an alleged "Polish assault" on Germany. The Gleiwitz incident is the best-known action of Operation Himmler, a series of special operations undertaken by the Schutzstaffel (SS) to serve German propaganda at the outbreak of war. The operation was intended to create the appearance of a Polish aggression against Germany to justify the invasion of Poland. On September 3, Britain and France declared war on Germany, and the European theatre of World War II had begun. Manufactured evidence for the Gleiwitz attack by the SS was provided by the German SS officer Alfred Naujocks in 1945.[1]

    1. ^ a b Gleiwitz casus belli. 2018. Nazi government under Hitler's leadership staged the Gleiwitz incident as a casus belli for the invasion of Poland the following morning
    2. ^ "Address by Adolf Hitler - September 1, 1939". fcit.usf.edu. Retrieved 21 March 2022.
     
  25. Admin2

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    1 September 1985 – A joint American–French expedition locates the wreckage of the RMS Titanic.

    RMS Titanic

    Redirect to:

     
  26. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    2 September 1970NASA announces the cancellation of two Apollo missions to the Moon, Apollo 15 (the designation is re-used by a later mission), and Apollo 19.

    Canceled Apollo missions

    Several planned missions of the Apollo crewed Moon landing program of the 1960s and 1970s were canceled, for reasons which included changes in technical direction, the Apollo 1 fire, hardware delays, and budget limitations. After the landing by Apollo 12, Apollo 20, which would have been the final crewed mission to the Moon, was canceled to allow Skylab to launch as a "dry workshop" (assembled on the ground in an unused S-IVB Saturn IB second stage). The next two missions, Apollos 18 and 19, were later canceled after the Apollo 13 incident and further budget cuts. Two Skylab missions also ended up being canceled. Two complete Saturn V rockets remained unused and were put on display in the United States.

     
  27. Admin2

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    3 September 2004Beslan school siege results in over 330 fatalities, including 186 children.

    Beslan school siege

    The Beslan school siege (also referred to as the Beslan school hostage crisis or the Beslan massacre)[2][3][4] was a terrorist attack that started on 1 September 2004, lasted three days, involved the imprisonment of more than 1,100 people as hostages (including 777 children)[5] and ended with the deaths of 334 people, 186 of them children,[6] as well as 31 of the attackers.[1] It is considered the deadliest school shooting in history.[7]

    The crisis began when a group of armed terrorists occupied School Number One (SNO) in the town of Beslan, North Ossetia (an autonomous republic in the North Caucasus region of Russia) on 1 September 2004. The hostage-takers were members of the Riyad-us Saliheen, sent by the Chechen warlord Shamil Basayev, who demanded Russian withdrawal from and recognition of the independence of Chechnya. On the third day of the standoff, Russian security forces stormed the building.

    The event had security and political repercussions in Russia, leading to a series of federal government reforms consolidating power in the Kremlin and strengthening the powers of the President of Russia.[8] Criticisms of the Russian government's management of the crisis have persisted, including allegations of disinformation and censorship in news media as well as questions about journalistic freedom,[9] negotiations with the terrorists, allocation of responsibility for the eventual outcome and the use of excessive force.[10][11][12][13][14]

    1. ^ a b "Woman injured in 2004 Russian siege dies". The Boston Globe. 8 December 2006. Archived from the original on 17 October 2007. Retrieved 9 January 2007. bringing the total death toll to 334, a Beslan activist said. ... Two other former hostages died of their wounds last year and another died last August, which had brought the overall death toll to 333 -- a figure that does not include the hostage-takers.
    2. ^ Beslan mothers' futile quest for relief Archived 20 April 2010 at the Wayback Machine, BBC News, 4 June 2005.
    3. ^ Beslan School Massacre One Year Later Archived 13 October 2008 at the Wayback Machine, U.S. Department of State, 31 August 2004
    4. ^ Cite error: The named reference legacy was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    5. ^ Cite error: The named reference unicef was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    6. ^ "Putin meets angry Beslan mothers". BBC News. 2 September 2005. Archived from the original on 4 September 2017. Retrieved 28 July 2006. Of those who died, 186 were children.
    7. ^ "Russian Children Return to School on 'Day of Knowledge'". The Moscow Times. 1 September 2021. Archived from the original on 25 September 2021. Retrieved 25 September 2021.
    8. ^ Cite error: The named reference shadow was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    9. ^ Russia 'impeded media' in Beslan Archived 20 April 2010 at the Wayback Machine, BBC News, 16 September 2004.
    10. ^ Satter, David (16 November 2016). "The Truth About Beslan | Hudson". www.hudson.org. Archived from the original on 31 January 2023. Retrieved 31 January 2023.
    11. ^ Cite error: The named reference aching was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    12. ^ Beslan's unanswered questions Archived 14 June 2006 at the Wayback Machine, International Herald Tribune, 30 May 2006.
    13. ^ Beslan siege still a mystery Archived 23 June 2011 at the Wayback Machine, BBC News, 2 September 2005.
    14. ^ "One Year Later, Beslan's School Tragedy Still Haunts". The Boston Globe. 2 September 2005. Archived from the original on 4 June 2011. Retrieved 2 March 2008.
     
  28. Admin2

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    4 September 1971Alaska Airlines Flight 1866 crashes near Juneau, Alaska, killing all 111 people on board.

    Alaska Airlines Flight 1866

    Alaska Airlines Flight 1866 was a regularly scheduled passenger flight operated by Alaska Airlines from Anchorage, Alaska, to Seattle, Washington, with several intermediate stops in southeast Alaska. The aircraft was a Boeing 727-100 with U.S. registry N2969G[1] manufactured in 1966. On September 4, 1971, the aircraft operating the flight crashed into a mountain in Haines Borough, about 18 miles west of Juneau, Alaska, while on approach for landing. All 111 people aboard were killed.[2] The subsequent investigation found that erroneous navigation readouts led the crew to descend prematurely. No definitive cause for the misleading data was found. It was the first fatal jet aircraft crash involving Alaska Airlines, and remained the deadliest single-aircraft accident in United States history until June 24, 1975, when Eastern Air Lines Flight 66 crashed.[3] It is still, however, the worst air disaster in Alaska state history.[4]

    1. ^ Cite error: The named reference :0 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    2. ^ "Alaska Airlines - HistoryLink.org". Retrieved January 14, 2017.
    3. ^ Accident description at the Aviation Safety Network
    4. ^ Brooks, James (September 3, 2016). "The disaster that taught us to fly safely: 45 years after Flight 1866". Juneau Empire.
     
  29. Admin2

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    5 September 1915 – The pacifist Zimmerwald Conference begins.

    Zimmerwald Conference

    The Hotel Beau Séjour, site of the Zimmerwald conference, in 1864

    The Zimmerwald Conference was held in Zimmerwald, Switzerland, from September 5 to 8, 1915. It was the first of three international socialist conferences convened by anti-militarist socialist parties from countries that were originally neutral during World War I. The individuals and organizations participating in this and subsequent conferences held at Kienthal and Stockholm are known jointly as the Zimmerwald movement.

    The Zimmerwald Conference began the unraveling of the coalition between revolutionary socialists (the so-called Zimmerwald Left) and reformist socialists in the Second International.

     
  30. Admin2

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    6 September 1970 – Two passenger jets bound from Europe to New York are simultaneously hijacked by Palestinian terrorist members of the PFLP and taken to Dawson's Field, Jordan.

    Dawson's Field hijackings

    In September 1970, members of the Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine (PFLP) hijacked four airliners bound for New York City and one for London. Three aircraft were forced to land at Dawson's Field, a remote desert airstrip near Zarqa, Jordan, formerly Royal Air Force Station Zarqa, which then became PFLP's "Revolutionary Airport". By the end of the incident, one hijacker had been killed and one injury reported. This was the second instance of mass aircraft hijacking, after an escape from communist Czechoslovakia in 1950.

    On 6 September, TWA Flight 741 from Frankfurt (a Boeing 707) and Swissair Flight 100 from Zürich (a Douglas DC-8) were forced to land at Dawson's Field.[1][2] On the same day, the hijacking of El Al Flight 219 from Amsterdam (another 707) was foiled: hijacker Patrick Argüello was shot and killed, and his partner Leila Khaled was subdued and handed over to British authorities in London. Two PFLP hijackers, who were prevented from boarding the El Al flight, hijacked instead Pan Am Flight 93, a Boeing 747, diverting the large plane first to Beirut and then to Cairo, rather than to the small Jordanian airstrip. On 9 September, a fifth plane, BOAC Flight 775, a Vickers VC10 coming from Bahrain, was hijacked by a PFLP sympathizer and taken to Dawson's Field in order to pressure the British to free Khaled.

    While the majority of the 310 hostages were transferred to Amman and freed on 11 September, the PFLP segregated the flight crews and Jewish passengers, keeping the 56 Jewish hostages in custody, while releasing the non-Jews. Six hostages in particular were kept because they were men and American citizens, not necessarily Jews: Robert Norman Schwartz, a U.S. Defense Department researcher stationed in Thailand; James Lee Woods, Schwartz's assistant and security detail; Gerald Berkowitz, an American-born Jew and college chemistry professor; Rabbi Avraham Harari-Raful and his brother Rabbi Yosef Harari-Raful, two Sephardi Brooklyn school teachers; and John Hollingsworth, a U.S. State Department employee. Schwartz, whose father was Jewish, was a convert to Catholicism.[3][4][5] On 12 September, prior to their announced deadline, the PFLP used explosives to destroy the empty planes, as they anticipated a counterstrike.[1]

    The PFLP's exploitation of Jordanian territory was an example of the increasingly autonomous Arab Palestinian activity within the Kingdom of Jordan – a serious challenge to the Hashemite monarchy of King Hussein. Hussein declared martial law on 16 September and from 17 to 27 September his forces deployed into Palestinian-controlled areas in what became known as Black September in Jordan, nearly triggering a regional war involving Syria, Iraq, and Israel.

    A swift Jordanian victory, however, enabled a 30 September deal in which the remaining PFLP hostages were released in exchange for Khaled and three PFLP members in a Swiss prison.[1]

    1. ^ a b c BBC News, "On This Day: 12 September". "Hijacked jets destroyed by guerrillas". BBC News. 12 September 1970. Retrieved 1 May 2006.
    2. ^ Dawson's Field was named after Air Chief Marshal Sir Walter Dawson Air of Authority – A History of RAF Organisation – Air Chief Marshal Sir Walter Dawson Archived 21 August 2017 at the Wayback Machine refers
    3. ^ "Britain Releases Girl Guerilla". The Palm Beach Post. 1 October 1970. Retrieved 16 December 2014.[permanent dead link]
    4. ^ "Robert Schwartz; Defense Official Was Hostage in Hijacking". The Washington Post. 17 June 2007. Retrieved 16 December 2014.
    5. ^ Cite error: The named reference Tugend was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
     
  31. Admin2

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    7 September 1159Pope Alexander III is chosen.

    Pope Alexander III

    Pope Alexander III (c. 1100/1105 – 30 August 1181), born Roland (Italian: Rolando), was head of the Catholic Church and ruler of the Papal States from 7 September 1159 until his death in 1181.

    A native of Siena, Alexander became pope after a contested election, but had to spend much of his pontificate outside Rome while several rivals, supported by Holy Roman Emperor Frederick I Barbarossa, claimed the papacy. Alexander rejected Byzantine Emperor Manuel I Komnenos' offer to end the East–West Schism, sanctioned the Northern Crusades, and held the Third Council of the Lateran. The city of Alessandria in Piedmont is named after him.

     
  32. Admin2

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    8 September 1978Black Friday, a massacre by soldiers against protesters in Tehran, results in 700–3000 deaths, it marks the beginning of the end of the monarchy in Iran.

    Black Friday (1978)

    Black Friday (Persian: جمعه سیاه, romanizedJom'e-ye Siyāh) is the name given to an incident occurring on 8 September 1978 (17 Shahrivar 1357 in the Iranian calendar) in Iran,[9] in which 64,[1] or at least 100[10][11] people were shot dead and 205 injured by the Pahlavi military in Jaleh Square (Persian: میدان ژاله, romanizedMeydān-e Jāleh) in Tehran.[12][13] According to the military historian Spencer C. Tucker, 94 were killed on Black Friday, consisting of 64 protesters and 30 government security forces.[2] The deaths were described as the pivotal event in the Iranian Revolution that ended any "hope for compromise" between the protest movement and the regime of Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi.[14]

    1. ^ a b Foltz, Richard (2016). Iran in World History. Oxford University Press. p. 108.
    2. ^ a b Tucker, Spencer C. (2017). The Roots and Consequences of Civil Wars and Revolutions: Conflicts that Changed World History. ABC-CLIO. p. 439.
    3. ^ Cite error: The named reference Baghi was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    4. ^ Shakman Hurd, Elizabeth (2009). The Politics of Secularism in International Relations. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-1400828012.
    5. ^ Berg-Sørensen, Anders (2016). Contesting Secularism: Comparative Perspectives. Routledge. ISBN 9781317160243.
    6. ^ Thiessen, Mark (2008). An Island of Stability: The Islamic Revolution of Iran and the Dutch Opinion. Sidestone Press. ISBN 9789088900198.
    7. ^ a b "Emad Baghi :: English". emadbaghi.com. Retrieved 8 September 2018.
    8. ^ Andrew Scott Cooper, The Fall of Heaven: The Pahlavis and the Final Days of Imperial Iran Hardcover – 19 July 2016 ISBN 0805098976
    9. ^ Abrahamian, Ervand (21 July 1982). Iran Between Two Revolutions. Princeton University Press. p. 516. ISBN 978-0691101347. black friday iran.
    10. ^ Razipour, Suzanne Maloney and Keian (24 January 2019). "The Iranian revolution—A timeline of events". Brookings. Retrieved 7 September 2020.
    11. ^ "Timeline of the Iranian revolution". Reuters. 11 February 2019. Retrieved 7 September 2020.
    12. ^ Bashiriyeh, Hossein (27 April 2012). The State and Revolution in Iran (RLE Iran D). Taylor & Francis. ISBN 9781136820892.
    13. ^ Fischer, Michael M. J. (15 July 2003). Iran: From Religious Dispute to Revolution. Univ of Wisconsin Press. ISBN 9780299184735.
    14. ^ Abrahamian, Ervand, History of Modern Iran, Cambridge University Press, 2008, p. 160–1
     
  33. Admin2

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    9 September 2015Elizabeth II became the longest reigning monarch of the United Kingdom.

    List of monarchs in Britain by length of reign

    Elizabeth II, the longest-reigning monarch, reigned from 6 February 1952 until her death on 8 September 2022.

    The following is a list, ordered by length of reign, of the monarchs of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland (1927–present), the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland (1801–1927), the Kingdom of Great Britain (1707–1800), the Kingdom of England (871–1707), the Kingdom of Scotland (878–1707), the Kingdom of Ireland (1542–1800), and the Principality of Wales (1216–1542).

    Queen Elizabeth II became the longest-reigning monarch in British history on 9 September 2015 when she surpassed the reign of her great-great-grandmother Queen Victoria.[1][2] On 6 February 2017, she became the first British monarch to celebrate a Sapphire Jubilee, commemorating 65 years on the throne. On 6 February 2022, Elizabeth II became the first British monarch to reign for 70 years, and large-scale celebrations for her Platinum Jubilee occurred on 2 to 5 June. Later that year, Elizabeth II died at the age of 96, after reigning for 70 years and 214 days.[3]

    1. ^ Patricia Treble (30 December 2014). "Palace calculations: Queen Elizabeth II set to lap Victoria". Maclean's. Retrieved 4 September 2015.
    2. ^ "Official Website of the British Monarchy". Retrieved 5 September 2015. On 9 September 2015, The Queen will become the longest reigning British Monarch, surpassing Queen Victoria.
    3. ^ "Queen Elizabeth II has died, Buckingham Palace announces". BBC News. 8 September 2022. Retrieved 8 September 2022.
     
  34. Admin2

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    10 September 2008 – The Large Hadron Collider at CERN, described as the biggest scientific experiment in history, is powered up in Geneva, Switzerland.

    Large Hadron Collider

    The Large Hadron Collider (LHC) is the world's largest and highest-energy particle collider.[1][2] It was built by the European Organization for Nuclear Research (CERN) between 1998 and 2008 in collaboration with over 10,000 scientists and hundreds of universities and laboratories across more than 100 countries.[3] It lies in a tunnel 27 kilometres (17 mi) in circumference and as deep as 175 metres (574 ft) beneath the France–Switzerland border near Geneva.

    The first collisions were achieved in 2010 at an energy of 3.5 teraelectronvolts (TeV) per beam, about four times the previous world record.[4][5] The discovery of the Higgs boson at the LHC was announced in 2012. Between 2013 and 2015, the LHC was shut down and upgraded; after those upgrades it reached 6.5 TeV per beam (13.0 TeV total collision energy).[6][7][8][9] At the end of 2018, it was shut down for maintenance and further upgrades, reopening over three years later in April 2022.[10]

    The collider has four crossing points where the accelerated particles collide. Nine detectors,[11] each designed to detect different phenomena, are positioned around the crossing points. The LHC primarily collides proton beams, but it can also accelerate beams of heavy ions, such as in lead–lead collisions and proton–lead collisions.[12]

    The LHC's goal is to allow physicists to test the predictions of different theories of particle physics, including measuring the properties of the Higgs boson,[13] searching for the large family of new particles predicted by supersymmetric theories,[14] and studying other unresolved questions in particle physics.

    1. ^ "The Large Hadron Collider". CERN. 28 June 2023.
    2. ^ Joel Achenbach (March 2012). "The God Particle". National Geographic Magazine. Archived from the original on 25 February 2008. Retrieved 25 February 2008.
    3. ^ Highfield, Roger (16 September 2008). "Large Hadron Collider: Thirteen ways to change the world". The Daily Telegraph. London. Archived from the original on 24 September 2009. Retrieved 10 October 2008.
    4. ^ "CERN LHC sees high-energy success". BBC News. 30 March 2010. Retrieved 30 March 2010.
    5. ^ "LHC to run at 4 TeV per beam in 2012". Media and Press Relations (Press release). CERN. 13 February 2012.
    6. ^ Cite error: The named reference BBC was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    7. ^ O'Luanaigh, Cian. "Proton beams are back in the LHC". CERN. Retrieved 24 April 2015.
    8. ^ Rincon, Paul (3 June 2015). "Large Hadron Collider turns on 'data tap'". Retrieved 28 August 2015.
    9. ^ Webb, Jonathan (21 May 2015). "LHC smashes energy record with test collisions". Retrieved 28 August 2015.
    10. ^ "2022 Digital Media Kit: Higgs10, LHC Run 3 and restart". CERN. 7 October 2023. Retrieved 10 October 2023.
    11. ^ "Facts and figures about the LHC". CERN. Retrieved 17 April 2023.
    12. ^ "Time for lead collisions in the LHC". CERN. 7 October 2023. Retrieved 10 October 2023.
    13. ^ "Missing Higgs". CERN. 2008. Retrieved 10 October 2008.
    14. ^ "Towards a superforce". CERN. 2008. Retrieved 10 October 2008.
     
  35. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    10 September 2008 – The Large Hadron Collider at CERN, described as the biggest scientific experiment in history, is powered up in Geneva, Switzerland.

    Large Hadron Collider

    The Large Hadron Collider (LHC) is the world's largest and highest-energy particle collider.[1][2] It was built by the European Organization for Nuclear Research (CERN) between 1998 and 2008 in collaboration with over 10,000 scientists and hundreds of universities and laboratories across more than 100 countries.[3] It lies in a tunnel 27 kilometres (17 mi) in circumference and as deep as 175 metres (574 ft) beneath the France–Switzerland border near Geneva.

    The first collisions were achieved in 2010 at an energy of 3.5 teraelectronvolts (TeV) per beam, about four times the previous world record.[4][5] The discovery of the Higgs boson at the LHC was announced in 2012. Between 2013 and 2015, the LHC was shut down and upgraded; after those upgrades it reached 6.5 TeV per beam (13.0 TeV total collision energy).[6][7][8][9] At the end of 2018, it was shut down for maintenance and further upgrades, reopening over three years later in April 2022.[10]

    The collider has four crossing points where the accelerated particles collide. Nine detectors,[11] each designed to detect different phenomena, are positioned around the crossing points. The LHC primarily collides proton beams, but it can also accelerate beams of heavy ions, such as in lead–lead collisions and proton–lead collisions.[12]

    The LHC's goal is to allow physicists to test the predictions of different theories of particle physics, including measuring the properties of the Higgs boson,[13] searching for the large family of new particles predicted by supersymmetric theories,[14] and studying other unresolved questions in particle physics.

    1. ^ "The Large Hadron Collider". CERN. 28 June 2023.
    2. ^ Joel Achenbach (March 2012). "The God Particle". National Geographic Magazine. Archived from the original on 25 February 2008. Retrieved 25 February 2008.
    3. ^ Highfield, Roger (16 September 2008). "Large Hadron Collider: Thirteen ways to change the world". The Daily Telegraph. London. Archived from the original on 24 September 2009. Retrieved 10 October 2008.
    4. ^ "CERN LHC sees high-energy success". BBC News. 30 March 2010. Retrieved 30 March 2010.
    5. ^ "LHC to run at 4 TeV per beam in 2012". Media and Press Relations (Press release). CERN. 13 February 2012.
    6. ^ Cite error: The named reference BBC was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    7. ^ O'Luanaigh, Cian. "Proton beams are back in the LHC". CERN. Retrieved 24 April 2015.
    8. ^ Rincon, Paul (3 June 2015). "Large Hadron Collider turns on 'data tap'". Retrieved 28 August 2015.
    9. ^ Webb, Jonathan (21 May 2015). "LHC smashes energy record with test collisions". Retrieved 28 August 2015.
    10. ^ "2022 Digital Media Kit: Higgs10, LHC Run 3 and restart". CERN. 7 October 2023. Retrieved 10 October 2023.
    11. ^ "Facts and figures about the LHC". CERN. Retrieved 17 April 2023.
    12. ^ "Time for lead collisions in the LHC". CERN. 7 October 2023. Retrieved 10 October 2023.
    13. ^ "Missing Higgs". CERN. 2008. Retrieved 10 October 2008.
    14. ^ "Towards a superforce". CERN. 2008. Retrieved 10 October 2008.
     
  36. Admin2

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    11 September 2012 – A total of 315 people are killed in two garment factory fires in Pakistan.

    2012 Pakistan factory fires

    Factories in Pakistan's two largest cities of Karachi and Lahore caught fire on 11 September 2012. The fires occurred in a textile factory in the western part of Karachi and in a shoe factory in Lahore. The fires are considered to be the most deadly and worst industrial factory fires in Pakistan's history,[3] killing 289 people and seriously injuring more than 600.[4][5][6]

    1. ^ Mansoor, Kamran (12 September 2012). "Karachi inferno toll hits 298". The News International. Retrieved 16 September 2012.
    2. ^ a b Shah, Imtiaz; Akhtar Soomro (12 September 2012). "Fires engulf Pakistan factories killing 314 workers". Reuters. Retrieved 16 September 2012.
    3. ^ "Pakistan: Hundreds Die In Factory Blazes". Yahoo! News. 12 September 2012. Retrieved 16 September 2012.
    4. ^ "289 killed in Karachi factory fire in Pakistan". China Daily. Xinhua News Agency. Retrieved 16 September 2012.
    5. ^ Zia ur-Rehman; Declan Walsh & Salman Masood (12 September 2012). "Pakistan Factory Fires Kill More Than 300". The New York Times. Retrieved 16 September 2012.
    6. ^ Chaudary, K.M. (12 September 2012). "Death toll in Pakistani fires hits 314". The Irish Times. Retrieved 16 September 2012.
     
  37. Admin2

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    12 September 1962 – President Kennedy delivers his "We choose to go to the Moon" speech at Rice University.

    We choose to go to the Moon

    "We choose to go to the Moon", formally the Address at Rice University on the Nation's Space Effort, is a September 12, 1962, speech by United States President John F. Kennedy to bolster public support for his proposal to land a man on the Moon before 1970 and bring him safely back to Earth. Kennedy gave the speech, largely written by presidential advisor and speechwriter Ted Sorensen, to a large crowd at Rice University Stadium in Houston, Texas. In his speech, Kennedy characterized space as a new frontier, invoking the pioneer spirit that dominated American folklore. He infused the speech with a sense of urgency and destiny, and emphasized the freedom enjoyed by Americans to choose their destiny rather than have it chosen for them. Although he called for competition with the Soviet Union, Kennedy also proposed making the Moon landing a joint project. The speech resonated widely and is still remembered, although at the time there was disquiet about the cost and value of the Moon-landing effort. Kennedy's goal was realized posthumously, in July 1969, with the Apollo program's successful Apollo 11 mission.

     
  38. Admin2

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    13 September 1985Super Mario Bros. is released in Japan for the NES, which starts the Super Mario series of platforming games.

    Super Mario Bros.

    Super Mario Bros.[b] is a platform game developed and published in 1985 by Nintendo for the Famicom in Japan and for the Nintendo Entertainment System (NES) in North America. It is the successor to the 1983 arcade game Mario Bros. and the first game in the Super Mario series. Following a US test market release for the NES, it was converted to international arcades on the Nintendo VS. System in early 1986. The NES version received a wide release in North America that year and in PAL regions in 1987.

    Players control Mario, or his brother Luigi in the multiplayer mode, to explore the Mushroom Kingdom to rescue Princess Toadstool from King Koopa (later named Bowser). They traverse side-scrolling stages while avoiding hazards such as enemies and pits with the aid of power-ups such as the Super Mushroom, Fire Flower, and Starman.

    The game was designed by Shigeru Miyamoto and Takashi Tezuka as "a grand culmination" of the Famicom team's three years of game mechanics and programming, drawing from their experiences working on Devil World and the side-scrollers Excitebike and Kung Fu to advance their previous work on platforming "athletic games" such as Donkey Kong and Mario Bros. The design of the first level, World 1-1, is a tutorial for platform gameplay.

    Super Mario Bros. is frequently cited as one of the greatest video games of all time, and is particularly admired for its precise controls. It has been re-released on most Nintendo systems, and is one of the bestselling games of all time, with more than 58 million copies sold worldwide. It is credited alongside the NES as one of the key factors in reviving the video game industry after the 1983 crash, and helped popularize the side-scrolling platform game genre. Koji Kondo's soundtrack is one of the earliest and most popular in video games, making music a centerpiece of game design and has since been considered one of the best video game soundtracks of all time as a result. Mario has become prominent in popular culture, and Super Mario Bros. began a multimedia franchise including a long-running game series, an animated television series, a Japanese anime feature film, a live-action feature film and an animated feature film.

    1. ^ "The history of Super Mario". Nintendo. Archived from the original on February 1, 2021. Retrieved February 17, 2021. Released: Oct. 18, 1985


    Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

     
  39. Admin2

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    14 September 1982 – President-elect of Lebanon Bachir Gemayel is assassinated.

    Bachir Gemayel

    Bachir Pierre Gemayel (Arabic: بشير بيار الجميّل [baˈʃiːr ʒɪ'ma.jjɪl]; 10 November 1947 – 14 September 1982) was a Lebanese militia commander who led the Lebanese Forces, the military wing of the Kataeb Party in the Lebanese Civil War and was elected President of Lebanon in 1982.

    He founded and later became the supreme commander of the Lebanese Forces, uniting major Christian militias by force under the slogan of "Uniting the Christian Rifle". Gemayel allied with Israel and his forces fought the Palestine Liberation Organization and the Syrian Army. He was elected president on 23 August 1982, but he was assassinated before taking office on 14 September, via a bomb explosion by Habib Shartouni, a member of the Syrian Social Nationalist Party.[1]

    Gemayel is described as the most controversial figure in the history of Lebanon. He remains popular among Maronite Christians, where he is seen as a "martyr" and an "icon". Conversely, he has been criticized for committing alleged war crimes and accused of treason for his relations with Israel.[2][3]


    Cite error: There are <ref group=note> tags on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=note}} template (see the help page).

    1. ^ "Phalangists identify bomber of Gemayel as Lebanese leftist". The New York Times. Reuters. 10 March 1982.
    2. ^ "بشير الجميل.. الحلم الضائع". Al-Afkar. 5 January 2017. Archived from the original on 31 December 2020. Retrieved 1 December 2020.
    3. ^ Rami (31 August 2016). "Bachir Gemayel The Series". +961. Retrieved 1 December 2020.
     
  40. Admin2

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    15 September 1935 – The Nuremberg Laws deprive German Jews of citizenship.

    Nuremberg Laws

    Title page of the German government gazette Reichsgesetzblatt issue proclaiming the laws, published on 16 September 1935 (RGBl. I No. 100)

    The Nuremberg Laws (German: Nürnberger Gesetze, pronounced [ˈnʏʁnbɛʁɡɐ ɡəˈzɛtsə] ) were antisemitic and racist laws that were enacted in Nazi Germany on 15 September 1935, at a special meeting of the Reichstag convened during the annual Nuremberg Rally of the Nazi Party. The two laws were the Law for the Protection of German Blood and German Honour, which forbade marriages and extramarital intercourse between Jews and Germans and the employment of German females under 45 in Jewish households; and the Reich Citizenship Law, which declared that only those of German or related blood were eligible to be Reich citizens. The remainder were classed as state subjects without any citizenship rights. A supplementary decree outlining the definition of who was Jewish was passed on 14 November, and the Reich Citizenship Law officially came into force on that date. The laws were expanded on 26 November 1935 to include Romani and Black people. This supplementary decree defined Romanis as "enemies of the race-based state", the same category as Jews.

    Out of foreign policy concerns, prosecutions under the two laws did not commence until after the 1936 Summer Olympics, held in Berlin. After Hitler rose to power in 1933, the Nazis began to implement antisemitic policies, which included the formation of a Volksgemeinschaft (people's community) based on race. Chancellor and Führer (leader) of the Nazi Party Adolf Hitler declared a national boycott of Jewish businesses on 1 April 1933, and the Law for the Restoration of the Professional Civil Service, passed on 7 April, excluded so-called non-Aryans from the legal profession, the civil service, and from teaching in secondary schools and universities. Books considered un-German, including those by Jewish authors, were destroyed in a nationwide book burning on 10 May. Jewish citizens were harassed and subjected to violent attacks. They were actively suppressed, stripped of their citizenship and civil rights, and eventually completely removed from German society.

    The Nuremberg Laws had a crippling economic and social impact on the Jewish community. Persons convicted of violating the marriage laws were imprisoned, and (subsequent to 8 March 1938) upon completing their sentences were re-arrested by the Gestapo and sent to Nazi concentration camps. Non-Jews gradually stopped socialising with Jews or shopping in Jewish-owned stores, many of which closed due to a lack of customers. As Jews were no longer permitted to work in the civil service or government-regulated professions such as medicine and education, many middle-class business owners and professionals were forced to take menial employment. Emigration was problematic, as Jews were required to remit up to 90% of their wealth as a tax upon leaving the country.[1] By 1938 it was almost impossible for potential Jewish emigrants to find a country willing to take them. Mass deportation schemes such as the Madagascar Plan proved to be impossible for the Nazis to carry out, and starting in mid-1941, the German government started mass exterminations of European Jews.

    1. ^ Longerich 2010, pp. 64, 66.
     

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