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This day in .....

Discussion in 'Break Room' started by NewsBot, Apr 6, 2008.

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    19 March 1932 – The Sydney Harbour Bridge is opened.

    Sydney Harbour Bridge

    The Sydney Harbour Bridge is a steel through arch bridge in Sydney, New South Wales, Australia, spanning Sydney Harbour from the central business district (CBD) to the North Shore. The view of the bridge, the harbour, and the nearby Sydney Opera House is widely regarded as an iconic image of Sydney, and of Australia itself. Nicknamed "The Coathanger" because of its arch-based design, the bridge carries rail, vehicular, bicycle and pedestrian traffic.[1][2]

    Under the direction of John Bradfield of the New South Wales Department of Public Works, the bridge was designed and built by British firm Dorman Long of Middlesbrough, and opened in 1932.[3][4] The bridge's general design, which Bradfield tasked the NSW Department of Public Works with producing, was a rough copy of the Hell Gate Bridge in New York City. The design chosen from the tender responses was original work created by Dorman Long, who leveraged some of the design from its own Tyne Bridge.[5]

    It is the tenth longest spanning-arch bridge in the world and the tallest steel arch bridge, measuring 134 m (440 ft) from top to water level.[6] It was also the world's widest long-span bridge, at 48.8 m (160 ft) wide, until construction of the new Port Mann Bridge in Vancouver was completed in 2012.[7][8]

    1. ^ "7BridgesWalk.com.au". Bridge History. Archived from the original on 29 August 2007. Retrieved 23 October 2006.
    2. ^ "Sydney Harbour Bridge". Government of Australia. 14 August 2008. Archived from the original on 12 May 2012. Retrieved 29 May 2012.
    3. ^ "Dr J.J.C. Bradfield". Pylon Lookout: Sydney Harbour Bridge. Archived from the original on 18 February 2011. Retrieved 18 December 2010.
    4. ^ "Olympic connections across the UK". BBC News. 19 January 2012. Archived from the original on 20 March 2012. Retrieved 19 March 2012.
    5. ^ James Weirick (2007). "Radar Exhibition – Bridging Sydney". Archived from the original on 6 September 2008. Retrieved 20 March 2012.
    6. ^ "Sydney Harbour Bridge". culture.gov.au. Australian Government. Archived from the original on 20 September 2010. Retrieved 1 October 2010.
    7. ^ "Widest Bridge". Guinness World Records. Archived from the original on 14 September 2012. Retrieved 15 September 2012.
    8. ^ "Port Mann Bridge". Transportation Investment Corporation. British Columbia: Province of British Columbia. 2007. Archived from the original on 11 September 2012. Retrieved 15 September 2012. Once complete, the new 10-lane Port Mann Bridge will the second largest and longest cable-supported bridge in North America, and at 65 metres wide it will be the widest bridge in the world.
     
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    20 March 1915Albert Einstein publishes his general theory of relativity.

    General relativity

    Slow motion computer simulation of the black hole binary system GW150914 as seen by a nearby observer, during 0.33 s of its final inspiral, merge, and ringdown. The star field behind the black holes is being heavily distorted and appears to rotate and move, due to extreme gravitational lensing, as spacetime itself is distorted and dragged around by the rotating black holes.[1]

    General relativity, also known as the general theory of relativity and Einstein's theory of gravity, is the geometric theory of gravitation published by Albert Einstein in 1915 and is the current description of gravitation in modern physics. General relativity generalises special relativity and refines Newton's law of universal gravitation, providing a unified description of gravity as a geometric property of space and time or four-dimensional spacetime. In particular, the curvature of spacetime is directly related to the energy and momentum of whatever matter and radiation are present. The relation is specified by the Einstein field equations, a system of second order partial differential equations.

    Newton's law of universal gravitation, which describes classical gravity, can be seen as a prediction of general relativity for the almost flat spacetime geometry around stationary mass distributions. Some predictions of general relativity, however, are beyond Newton's law of universal gravitation in classical physics. These predictions concern the passage of time, the geometry of space, the motion of bodies in free fall, and the propagation of light, and include gravitational time dilation, gravitational lensing, the gravitational redshift of light, the Shapiro time delay and singularities/black holes. So far, all tests of general relativity have been shown to be in agreement with the theory. The time-dependent solutions of general relativity enable us to talk about the history of the universe and have provided the modern framework for cosmology, thus leading to the discovery of the Big Bang and cosmic microwave background radiation. Despite the introduction of a number of alternative theories, general relativity continues to be the simplest theory consistent with experimental data.

    Reconciliation of general relativity with the laws of quantum physics remains a problem, however, as there is a lack of a self-consistent theory of quantum gravity. It is not yet known how gravity can be unified with the three non-gravitational forces: strong, weak and electromagnetic.

    Einstein's theory has astrophysical implications, including the prediction of black holes—regions of space in which space and time are distorted in such a way that nothing, not even light, can escape from them. Black holes are the end-state for massive stars. Microquasars and active galactic nuclei are believed to be stellar black holes and supermassive black holes. It also predicts gravitational lensing, where the bending of light results in multiple images of the same distant astronomical phenomenon. Other predictions include the existence of gravitational waves, which have been observed directly by the physics collaboration LIGO and other observatories. In addition, general relativity has provided the base of cosmological models of an expanding universe.

    Widely acknowledged as a theory of extraordinary beauty, general relativity has often been described as the most beautiful of all existing physical theories.[2]

    1. ^ "GW150914: LIGO Detects Gravitational Waves". Black-holes.org. Retrieved 18 April 2016.
    2. ^ Cite error: The named reference :0 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
     
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    21 March 1963Alcatraz Federal Penitentiary (in California) closes.

    Alcatraz Federal Penitentiary

    United States Penitentiary, Alcatraz Island, also known simply as Alcatraz (English: /ˈælkəˌtræz/, Spanish: [alkaˈtɾas] "the gannet") or The Rock, was a maximum security federal prison on Alcatraz Island, 1.25 miles (2.01 km) off the coast of San Francisco, California, United States. The site of a fort since the 1850s, the main prison building was built in 1910–12 as a U.S. Army military prison.

    The United States Department of Justice acquired the United States Disciplinary Barracks, Pacific Branch, on Alcatraz on October 12, 1933. The island became adapted and used as a prison of the Federal Bureau of Prisons in August 1934 after the buildings were modernized and security increased. Given this high security and the island's location in the cold waters and strong currents of San Francisco Bay, prison operators believed Alcatraz to be escape-proof and America's most secure prison.

    The three-story cellhouse included the four main cell blocks – A-block through D-block – the warden's office, visitation room, the library, and the barber shop. The prison cells typically measured 9 feet (2.7 m) by 5 ft (1.5 m) and 7 ft (2.1 m) high. The cells were primitive and lacked privacy. They were furnished with a bed, desk, washbasin, a toilet on the back wall, and few items other than a blanket. African Americans were segregated from other inmates in cell designation due to racism during the Jim Crow era. D-Block housed the worst inmates, and six cells at its end were designated "The Hole". Prisoners with behavioral problems were sent to these for periods of often brutal punishment. The dining hall and kitchen extended from the main building. Prisoners and staff ate three meals a day together. The Alcatraz Hospital was located above the dining hall.

    Prison corridors were named after major U.S. streets, such as Broadway and Michigan Avenue, of New York and Chicago, respectively. Working at the prison was considered a privilege for inmates. Those who earned privileges were employed in the Model Industries Building and New Industries Building during the day, actively involved in providing for the military in jobs such as sewing and woodwork, and performing various maintenance and laundry chores.

    The prison closed in 1963, but Alcatraz was reopened as a public museum. The island and prison were occupied by Native Americans from 1969 to 1971. It is one of San Francisco's major tourist attractions, attracting some 1.5 million visitors annually. Now operated by the National Park Service's Golden Gate National Recreation Area, the former prison is being restored and maintained.

    1. ^ "Alcatraz Island". Geographic Names Information System. United States Geological Survey, United States Department of the Interior.
    2. ^ "Escapes from Alcatraz Image Gallery: Federal Penitentiary Wardens". San Francisco History. SFgenealogy. Retrieved March 4, 2022.
     
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    22 March 2017 – A terrorist attack in London near the Houses of Parliament leaves four people dead and at least 20 injured.

    2017 Westminster attack

    On 22 March 2017, a terrorist attack took place outside the Palace of Westminster in London, seat of the British Parliament. Khalid Masood, a 52-year-old Briton, drove a car into pedestrians on the pavement along the south side of Westminster Bridge and Bridge Street, injuring more than 50 people, four of them fatally. He then crashed the car into the perimeter fence of the palace grounds and ran into New Palace Yard, where he fatally stabbed an unarmed police officer. He was then shot by an armed police officer, and died at the scene.

    Police treated the attack as "Islamist-related terrorism". Masood said in a final text message that he was waging jihad in revenge for Western military action in Muslim countries in the Middle East. Amaq News Agency, which is linked to Islamic State, said the attacker answered the group's calls to target citizens of states that were fighting against it, though the claim was questioned by the UK police and government. Police have found no link with a terrorist organisation and believe Masood acted alone.[1]

    1. ^ a b Sengupta, Kim (27 April 2017). "Last message left by Westminster attacker Khalid Masood uncovered by security agencies". The Independent. Archived from the original on 1 May 2022. Retrieved 27 April 2017.
     
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    22 March 2017 – A terrorist attack in London near the Houses of Parliament leaves four people dead and at least 20 injured.

    2017 Westminster attack

    On 22 March 2017, a terrorist attack took place outside the Palace of Westminster in London, seat of the British Parliament. Khalid Masood, a 52-year-old Briton, drove a car into pedestrians on the pavement along the south side of Westminster Bridge and Bridge Street, injuring more than 50 people, four of them fatally. He then crashed the car into the perimeter fence of the palace grounds and ran into New Palace Yard, where he fatally stabbed an unarmed police officer. He was then shot by an armed police officer, and died at the scene.

    Police treated the attack as "Islamist-related terrorism". Masood said in a final text message that he was waging jihad in revenge for Western military action in Muslim countries in the Middle East. Amaq News Agency, which is linked to Islamic State, said the attacker answered the group's calls to target citizens of states that were fighting against it, though the claim was questioned by the UK police and government. Police have found no link with a terrorist organisation and believe Masood acted alone.[1]

    1. ^ a b Sengupta, Kim (27 April 2017). "Last message left by Westminster attacker Khalid Masood uncovered by security agencies". The Independent. Archived from the original on 1 May 2022. Retrieved 27 April 2017.
     
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    23 March 2001 – The Russian Mir space station is disposed of, breaking up in the atmosphere before falling into the southern Pacific Ocean near Fiji.

    Mir

    Preview warning: Page using Template:Infobox space station with unknown parameter "NSSDC_ID"

    Mir (Russian: Мир, IPA: [ˈmʲir]; lit.'peace' or 'world') was a space station that operated in low Earth orbit from 1986 to 2001, operated by the Soviet Union and later by Russia. Mir was the first modular space station and was assembled in orbit from 1986 to 1996. It had a greater mass than any previous spacecraft. At the time it was the largest artificial satellite in orbit, succeeded by the International Space Station (ISS) after Mir's orbit decayed. The station served as a microgravity research laboratory in which crews conducted experiments in biology, human biology, physics, astronomy, meteorology, and spacecraft systems with a goal of developing technologies required for permanent occupation of space.

    Mir was the first continuously inhabited long-term research station in orbit and held the record for the longest continuous human presence in space at 3,644 days, until it was surpassed by the ISS on 23 October 2010.[13] It holds the record for the longest single human spaceflight, with Valeri Polyakov spending 437 days and 18 hours on the station between 1994 and 1995. Mir was occupied for a total of twelve and a half years out of its fifteen-year lifespan, having the capacity to support a resident crew of three, or larger crews for short visits.

    Following the success of the Salyut programme, Mir represented the next stage in the Soviet Union's space station programme. The first module of the station, known as the core module or base block, was launched in 1986 and followed by six further modules. Proton rockets were used to launch all of its components except for the docking module, which was installed by US Space Shuttle mission STS-74 in 1995. When complete, the station consisted of seven pressurised modules and several unpressurised components. Power was provided by several photovoltaic arrays attached directly to the modules. The station was maintained at an orbit between 296 km (184 mi) and 421 km (262 mi) altitude and travelled at an average speed of 27,700 km/h (17,200 mph), completing 15.7 orbits per day.[6][page needed][7][page needed][8]

    The station was launched as part of the Soviet Union's crewed spaceflight programme effort to maintain a long-term research outpost in space, and following the collapse of the USSR, was operated by the new Russian Federal Space Agency (RKA). As a result, most of the station's occupants were Soviet; through international collaborations such as the Interkosmos, Euromir and Shuttle–Mir programmes, the station was made accessible to space travellers from several Asian, European and North American nations. Mir was deorbited in March 2001 after funding was cut off. The cost of the Mir programme was estimated by former RKA General Director Yuri Koptev in 2001 as $4.2 billion over its lifetime (including development, assembly and orbital operation).[14]

    1. ^ "Mir-Orbit Data". Heavens-Above.com. 23 March 2001. Archived from the original on 8 June 2011. Retrieved 30 June 2009.
    2. ^ "Mir FAQ – Facts and history". European Space Agency. 21 February 2001. Archived from the original on 22 October 2012. Retrieved 19 August 2010.
    3. ^ "Mir Space Station – Mission Status Center". Spaceflight Now. 23 March 2001. Archived from the original on 17 June 2009. Retrieved 19 August 2010.
    4. ^ "NASA – NSSDC – Spacecraft – Details – Mir". NASA. 23 July 2010. Archived from the original on 19 June 2018. Retrieved 22 August 2010.
    5. ^ "Soviet/Russian space programmes Q&A". NASASpaceflight.com. Archived from the original on 16 May 2019. Retrieved 22 August 2010.
    6. ^ a b Hall, R., ed. (2000). The History of Mir 1986–2000. British Interplanetary Society. ISBN 978-0-9506597-4-9.[page needed]
    7. ^ a b Hall, R., ed. (2001). Mir: The Final Year. British Interplanetary Society. ISBN 978-0-9506597-5-6.[page needed]
    8. ^ a b "Orbital period of a planet". CalcTool. Archived from the original on 12 November 2019. Retrieved 12 September 2010.
    9. ^ "Mir Space Station Observing". Satobs.org. 28 March 2001. Archived from the original on 23 September 2018. Retrieved 12 September 2010.
    10. ^ Mark Wade (4 September 2010). "Baikonur LC200/39". Encyclopedia Astronautica. Archived from the original on 24 August 2010. Retrieved 25 September 2010.[unreliable source?]
    11. ^ Mark Wade (4 September 2010). "Baikonur LC81/23". Encyclopedia Astronautica. Archived from the original on 1 February 2010. Retrieved 25 September 2010.[unreliable source?]
    12. ^ Macatangay, A.V. & Perry, J.L. (22 January 2007). Cabin Air Quality On Board Mir and the International Space Station—A Comparison (PDF) (Report). Johnson Space Center & Marshall Spaceflight Center: NASA. p. 2. Archived from the original (PDF) on 21 September 2013.
    13. ^ Jackman, Frank (29 October 2010). "ISS Passing Old Russian Mir In Crewed Time". Aviation Week.[permanent dead link]
    14. ^ Patrick E. Tyler (24 March 2001). "Russians Find Pride, and Regret, in Mir's Splashdown". New York Times. Archived from the original on 28 April 2014. Retrieved 9 March 2011.
     
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    24 March 1989 – In Prince William Sound in Alaska, the Exxon Valdez spills 240,000 barrels (38,000 m3) of crude oil after running aground.

    Exxon Valdez oil spill

    The Exxon Valdez oil spill was a major environmental disaster that made worldwide headlines in the spring of 1989 and occurred in Alaska's Prince William Sound on March 24, 1989. The spill occurred when Exxon Valdez, an oil supertanker owned by Exxon Shipping Company, bound for Long Beach, California, struck Prince William Sound's Bligh Reef, 6 mi (9.7 km) west of Tatitlek, Alaska at 12:04 a.m. The tanker spilled approximately 10.8 million US gallons (260,000 bbl) (or 37,000 tonnes)[1] of crude oil over the next few days.[2]

    The Exxon Valdez spill is the second largest in U.S. waters, after the 2010 Deepwater Horizon oil spill, in terms of volume of oil released.[3][4] Prince William Sound's remote location, accessible only by helicopter, plane, or boat, made government and industry response efforts difficult and made existing response plans especially hard to implement. The region is a habitat for salmon, sea otters, seals, and seabirds. The oil, extracted from the Prudhoe Bay Oil Field, eventually affected 1,300 miles (2,100 km) of coastline, of which 200 miles (320 km) were heavily or moderately oiled.[2][5][6]

    1. ^ "Properties of Prudhoe Bay (2004) (ESTS #679)" (PDF). Environment and Climate Change Canada. Government of Canada. 2004. Archived from the original (PDF) on May 7, 2017. Retrieved March 19, 2019.
    2. ^ a b Cite error: The named reference faq was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    3. ^ Cite error: The named reference histories was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    4. ^ Leahy, Stephen (March 22, 2019). "Exxon Valdez changed the oil industry forever – but new threats emerge". National Geographic. Archived from the original on March 25, 2019. Retrieved October 25, 2019.
    5. ^ Cite error: The named reference SpillAroundUs was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    6. ^ Shigenaka, Gary (2014). "Twenty-Five Years After the Exxon Valdez Oil Spill: NOAA's Scientific Support, Monitoring, and Research" (PDF). Office of Response and Restoration. Seattle: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved January 17, 2017.
     
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    25 March 1931 – The Scottsboro Boys are arrested in Alabama and charged with rape.

    Scottsboro Boys

    The Scottsboro Boys, with attorney Samuel Leibowitz, under guard by the state militia, 1932

    The Scottsboro Boys were nine African American male teenagers accused in Alabama of raping two white women in 1931. The landmark set of legal cases from this incident dealt with racism and the right to a fair trial. The cases included a lynch mob before the suspects had been indicted, all-white juries, rushed trials, and disruptive mobs. It is commonly cited as an example of a legal injustice in the United States legal system.

    On March 25, 1931, two dozen people were "hoboing" on a freight train traveling between Chattanooga and Memphis, Tennessee. The hoboes were an equal mix of blacks and whites. A group of white teenage boys saw 18-year-old Haywood Patterson on the train and attempted to push him off, claiming that it was "a white man's train".[1] A group of whites then gathered rocks and attempted to force all of the black teenagers from the train. Patterson and the other black teenagers were able to ward off the group. The humiliated white teenagers jumped or were forced off the train and reported to the city's sheriff that they had been attacked by a group of black teenage boys. The sheriff deputized a posse, stopped and searched the train at Paint Rock, Alabama and arrested the black teenage boys. Two young white women were also taken to the jail, where they accused the African-American teenage boys of rape. The case was first heard in Scottsboro, Alabama, in three rushed trials, in which the defendants received poor legal representation. All but 13-year-old Roy Wright were convicted of rape and sentenced to death (the common sentence in Alabama at the time for black men convicted of raping white females), even though there was no medical evidence indicating that rape had taken place.[2]

    With help from the Communist Party USA (CPUSA) and the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP), the case was appealed. The Alabama Supreme Court affirmed seven of the eight convictions, and granted 13-year-old Eugene Williams a new trial because he was a minor. Chief Justice John C. Anderson dissented, ruling that the defendants had been denied an impartial jury, fair trial, fair sentencing, and effective counsel. While waiting for their trials, eight of the nine defendants were held in Kilby Prison. The cases were twice appealed to the United States Supreme Court, which led to landmark decisions on the conduct of trials. In Powell v. Alabama (1932), the US Supreme Court ordered new trials.[3]

    The case was first returned to the lower court and the judge allowed a change of venue, moving the retrials to Decatur, Alabama. Judge Horton was appointed. During the retrials, one of the alleged victims admitted to fabricating the rape story and asserted that none of the Scottsboro Boys touched either of the white women. The jury still found the defendants guilty, but the judge set aside the verdict and granted a new trial.

    The judge was replaced and the case retried. The new judge ruled frequently against the defense. For the third time a jury—now with one African-American member—returned a guilty verdict. The case was sent to the US Supreme Court on appeal. It ruled that African Americans had to be included on juries, and ordered retrials.[4] Charges were finally dropped for four of the nine defendants. The other five were convicted and received sentences ranging from 75 years to death. Three served prison sentences. In 1936 one of the Scottsboro Boys, Ozie Powell, was shot in the face and permanently disabled during an altercation with a sheriff's deputy in prison. He later pleaded guilty to assaulting the deputy. Clarence Norris, the oldest defendant and the only one sentenced to death in the final trial, "jumped parole" in 1946 and went into hiding. He was found in 1976 and pardoned by Governor George Wallace. Norris later wrote a book about his experiences. He died in 1989 as the last surviving defendant.

    The individuals involved and the case have been thoroughly analyzed. It is widely considered a legal injustice, highlighted by the state's use of all-white juries. Black Americans in Alabama had been disenfranchised since the Reconstruction era and thus were not allowed on juries because jurors were selected from voter rolls. The case has also been explored in many works of literature, music, theatre, film and television. On November 21, 2013, Alabama's parole board voted to grant posthumous pardons to the three Scottsboro Boys who had not been pardoned or had their convictions overturned.[5]

    1. ^ "Scottsboro: An American Tragedy Transcript". PBS. Archived from the original on January 28, 2017. Retrieved January 28, 2017.
    2. ^ Cite error: The named reference UMKC-SB_acct was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    3. ^ Powell v. Alabama, 1932, 287 U.S. 45.
    4. ^ Norris v. Alabama (1935), 294 U.S. 587, 595–596. (PDF)
    5. ^ Bentley, Robert J. (November 21, 2013). "Governor Bentley's Statement on the Pardoning of the Scottsboro Boys". Office of Alabama Governor. Archived from the original on January 17, 2017. Retrieved November 29, 2013.
     
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    26 March 1839 – The first Henley Royal Regatta is held.

    Henley Royal Regatta

    51°32′55″N 0°53′39″W / 51.5487°N 0.8941°W / 51.5487; -0.8941

    Henley Royal Regatta (or Henley Regatta, its original name pre-dating Royal patronage) is a rowing event held annually on the River Thames by the town of Henley-on-Thames, England. It was established on 26 March 1839. It differs from the three other regattas rowed over approximately the same course, Henley Women's Regatta, Henley Masters Regatta, and Henley Town and Visitors' Regatta, each of which is an entirely separate event.

    The regatta lasts for six days (Tuesday to Sunday) ending on the first weekend in July. Races are head-to-head knock out competitions, raced over a course of 1 mile 550 yards (2,112 m).[1] The regatta regularly attracts international crews to race. The most prestigious event at the regatta is the Grand Challenge Cup for Men's Eights, which has been awarded since the regatta was first staged.[2]

    As the regatta pre-dates any national or international rowing organisation, it has its own rules and organisation, although it is recognised by both British Rowing (the governing body of rowing in England and Wales) and FISA (the International Federation of Rowing Associations).[3] The regatta is organised by a self-perpetuating body of Stewards, who are largely former rowers themselves.[3] One exception to this rule is that the Mayor of Henley-on Thames Council is an ex-officio Steward. Pierre de Coubertin modelled elements of the organisation of the International Olympic Committee on the Henley Stewards.[4]

    The regatta is regarded as part of the English social season.[5] As with other events in the season, certain enclosures at the regatta have strict dress codes.[6]

    1. ^ "Henley Royal Regatta – History and organisation – The Course". Archived from the original on 14 June 2011. Retrieved 4 June 2011.
    2. ^ "Henley Royal Regatta – History and organisation – Trophies". Retrieved 4 June 2011.
    3. ^ a b "Henley Royal Regatta – History and organisation". Retrieved 4 June 2011.
    4. ^ "COUBERTIN, BRITAIN AND THE BRITISH A CHRONOLOGY" (MS Word). Dr Don Anthony. Retrieved 23 June 2008.
    5. ^ "Debretts – the traditional season". Retrieved 4 June 2011.
    6. ^ [1] Archived 13 January 2011 at the Wayback Machine | What to wear to Henley Royal Regatta
     
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    27 March 1915Typhoid Mary, the first healthy carrier of disease ever identified in the United States is put in quarantine for the second time, where she would remain for the rest of her life.

    Mary Mallon

    Mary Mallon (September 23, 1869 – November 11, 1938), known commonly as Typhoid Mary, was an Irish-born American cook believed to have infected between 51 and 122 people with typhoid fever. The infections caused three confirmed deaths, with unconfirmed estimates of as many as 50. She was the first person in the United States identified as an asymptomatic carrier of the pathogenic bacteria Salmonella typhi.[1][2] She was forcibly quarantined twice by authorities, the second time for the remainder of her life because she persisted in working as a cook and thereby exposed others to the disease. Mallon died after a total of nearly 30 years quarantined.[3][4] Her popular nickname has since become a term for persons who spread disease or other misfortune, not always aware that they are doing so.

    1. ^ Marineli et al. 2013.
    2. ^ "'Typhoid Mary' Dies Of A Stroke At 68. Carrier of Disease, Blamed for 51 Cases and 3 Deaths, but Immune". The New York Times. November 12, 1938. Archived from the original on June 5, 2011. Retrieved February 28, 2010.
    3. ^ The Gospel of Germs: Men, Women, and the Microbe in American Life, ISBN 0674357086
    4. ^ Typhoid Mary: An Urban Historical, ISBN 160819518X
     
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    28 March 1999Kosovo War: Serb paramilitary and military forces kill 146 Kosovo Albanians in Izbica.

    Kosovo War

    The Kosovo War (Albanian: Lufta e Kosovës, Serbian: Косовски рат), was an armed conflict in Kosovo that lasted from 28 February 1998 until 11 June 1999.[51][52][53] It was fought between the forces of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (i.e. Serbia and Montenegro), which controlled Kosovo before the war, and the Kosovo Albanian separatist militia known as the Kosovo Liberation Army (KLA). The conflict ended when the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) intervened by beginning air strikes in March 1999 which resulted in Yugoslav forces withdrawing from Kosovo.

    The KLA was formed in the early 1990s to fight against the discrimination of ethnic Albanians and the repression of political dissent by the Serbian authorities, which started after the suppression of Kosovo's autonomy by Serbian leader Slobodan Milošević in 1989.[54] The KLA initiated its first campaign in 1995, after Kosovo's case was left out of the Dayton Agreement and it had become clear that President Rugova's strategy of peaceful resistance had failed to bring Kosovo into the international agenda.[55] In June 1996, the group claimed responsibility for acts of sabotage targeting Kosovo police stations, during the Kosovo Insurgency.[56][57] In 1997, the organisation acquired a large amount of arms through weapons smuggling from Albania, following a rebellion in which weapons were looted from the country's police and army posts. In early 1998, KLA attacks targeting Yugoslav authorities in Kosovo resulted in an increased presence of Serb paramilitaries and regular forces who subsequently began pursuing a campaign of retribution targeting KLA sympathisers and political opponents;[58] this campaign killed 1,500 to 2,000 civilians and KLA combatants, and had displaced 370,000 Kosovar Albanians by March 1999.[59][60]

    On 20 March 1999, Yugoslav forces began a massive campaign of repression and expulsions of Kosovar Albanians following the withdrawal of the OSCE Kosovo Verification Mission (KVM) and the failure of the proposed Rambouillet Agreement.[59][61] In response to this, NATO intervened with an aerial bombing campaign that began on March 24, justifying it as a "humanitarian war".[62] The war ended with the Kumanovo Agreement, signed on 9 June 1999, with Yugoslav and Serb forces[63] agreeing to withdraw from Kosovo to make way for an international presence. NATO forces entered Kosovo on June 12.[64][65] The NATO bombing campaign has remained controversial.[66] It did not gain the approval of the UN Security Council and it caused at least 488 Yugoslav civilian deaths,[67] including substantial numbers of Kosovar refugees.[68][69][70]

    In 2001 a U.N administered Supreme Court, based in Kosovo found that there had been "a systematic campaign of terror, including murders, rapes, arsons and severe maltreatments" against the Albanian population, but that Yugoslav troops had tried to force them out of Kosovo, but not to eradicate them, and therefore it was not genocide.[71] After the war, a list was compiled which documented that over 13,500 people were killed or went missing during the two year conflict.[72] The Yugoslav and Serb forces caused the displacement of between 1.2 million[73] and 1.45 million Kosovo Albanians.[74] After the war, around 200,000 Serbs, Romani, and other non-Albanians fled Kosovo and many of the remaining civilians were victims of abuse.[75][76][77]

    The Kosovo Liberation Army disbanded soon after the end of the war, with some of its members going on to fight for the UÇPMB in the Preševo Valley[78] and others joining the National Liberation Army (NLA) and Albanian National Army (ANA) during the armed ethnic conflict in Macedonia,[79] while others went on to form the Kosovo Police.[80]

    The International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY) convicted six Serb/Yugoslav officials and one Albanian commander for war crimes.


    Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

    1. ^ Thomas 2006, p. 47.
    2. ^ Daniszewski, John (14 April 1999). "Yugoslav Troops Said to Cross Into Albania". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved 20 February 2012.
    3. ^ Daly, Emma (14 April 1999). "War In The Balkans: Serbs enter Albania and burn village". The Independent. London. Retrieved 20 February 2012.
    4. ^ "Hostage-Taking and Kidnapping Terror in the COE" (PDF). Fort Leavenworth, Kansas: US Army Training and Doctrine Command TRADOC G2. 5 December 2008 [15 September 2008] – via Federation of American Scientists.
    5. ^ "A Chronology of U.S.-Middle East Relations". WRMEA.
    6. ^ Noel, Sid (2005). From Power Sharing to Democracy: Post-Conflict Institutions in Ethnically Divided Societies. McGill-Queen's University Press. p. 109. ISBN 978-0-77357-310-9.
    7. ^ Ramet, Sabrina P.; Simkus, Albert; Listhaug, Ola, eds. (2015). Civic and Uncivic Values in Kosovo: History, Politics, and Value Transformation. Central European University Press. p. 121. ISBN 978-9-63386-074-8.
    8. ^ Stigler, Andrew L. "A clear victory for air power: NATO's empty threat to invade Kosovo." International Security 27.3 (2003): 124–157.
    9. ^ "Milosevic Claims Victory, Lauds Army". Washington Post. 11 June 1999.
    10. ^ Reitman, Valerie; Richter, Paul; Dahlburg, John-Thor (10 June 1999). "Yugoslav, NATO Generals Sign Peace Agreement for Kosovo / Alliance will end air campaign when Serbian troops pull out". San Francisco Chronicle. Retrieved 20 February 2012.
    11. ^ Vladisavljević, Nebojša (2012). "Kosovo and Two Dimensions of the Contemporary Serb-Albanian Conflict". In Hudson, Robert; Bowman, Glenn (eds.). After Yugoslavia: Identities and Politics Within the Successor States. Cham, Switzerland: Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 29–30. doi:10.1057/9780230305137_3. ISBN 978-0230201316. Retrieved 12 December 2022.
    12. ^ Wills, Siobhán (2009). Protecting Civilians: The Obligations of Peacekeepers. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. p. 219. ISBN 978-0-19-953387-9. Retrieved 12 December 2022.
    13. ^ "Abuses against Serbs and Roma in the new Kosovo". Human Rights Watch. August 1999. Archived from the original on 13 November 2022. Retrieved 12 December 2022.
    14. ^ "The Violence: Ethnic Albanian Attacks on Serbs and Roma". Human Rights Watch. July 2004. Archived from the original on 12 July 2022. Retrieved 12 December 2022.
    15. ^ "Kosovo Crisis Update". UNHCR. 4 August 1999. Archived from the original on 2 July 2022. Retrieved 12 December 2022.
    16. ^ "Forced Expulsion of Kosovo Roma, Ashkali and Egyptians from OSCE Participated state to Kosovo". OSCE. 6 October 2006. Archived from the original on 28 May 2022. Retrieved 12 December 2022.
    17. ^ Bartrop, Paul R. (18 January 2016). Bosnian Genocide: The Essential Reference Guide. Bloomsbury Publishing USA. p. 120. ISBN 978-1-4408-3869-9.
    18. ^ 12 mal bewertet (24 March 1999). "Die Bundeswehr zieht in den Krieg". 60xdeutschland.de. Archived from the original on 3 September 2011. Retrieved 6 May 2012.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
    19. ^ "Report to Congress: Kosovo operation allied force after-action report" (PDF). au.af.mil: 31–32. 30 January 2000. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2 November 2016. Retrieved 26 October 2016.
    20. ^ a b c d e f "NATO Operation Allied Force". Defense.gov. Archived from the original on 28 February 2010. Retrieved 28 February 2012.
    21. ^ "NATO Operation Allied Force". archive.wikiwix.com. Retrieved 4 January 2024.
    22. ^ "Under Orders: War Crimes in Kosovo - 3. Forces of the Conflict". hrw.org. Human Rights Watch.
    23. ^ "Fighting for a foreign land". BBC News. 20 May 1999. Retrieved 28 February 2012.
    24. ^ "Russian volunteer's account of Kosovo". The Russia Journal. 5 July 1999. Archived from the original on 26 December 2011. Retrieved 28 February 2012.
    25. ^ Daalder & O'Hanlon 2000, p. 151.
    26. ^ a b c d e "Kosovo Memory Book Database Presentation and Evaluation" (PDF). Humanitarian Law Center. 4 February 2015. Archived from the original (PDF) on 11 January 2019. Retrieved 6 February 2016.
    27. ^ "Two die in Apache crash". BBC News. 5 May 1999. Retrieved 6 May 2012.
    28. ^ "How to Take Down an F-117". Strategypage.com. 21 November 2005. Retrieved 6 May 2012.
    29. ^ "Holloman commander recalls being shot down in Serbia". F-16.net. 7 February 2007. Retrieved 6 May 2012.
    30. ^ Cite error: The named reference ejection-history1 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    31. ^ "F-117 damage said attributed to full moon". The Atlanta Journal-Constitution. 6 May 1999. p. A14. Retrieved 20 February 2012.
    32. ^ "Nato loses two planes". BBC News. 2 May 1999. Retrieved 6 May 2012.
    33. ^ Kislyakov, Andrei (9 October 2007). "Unmanned Aerial Vehicles Increase In Numbers". Radardaily.com. RIA Novosti. Retrieved 28 February 2012.
    34. ^ "NATO nam ubio 1.008 vojnika i policajaca". Mondo. 11 February 2013. Archived from the original on 6 August 2016. Retrieved 11 February 2013.
    35. ^ "Stradalo 1.008 vojnika i policajaca". www.rts.rs. RTS, Radio televizija Srbije, Radio Television of Serbia.
    36. ^ Bideleux, Robert; Jeffries, Ian (2006). The Balkans: A Post-Communist History. Routledge. p. 558. ISBN 978-0-203-96911-3.
    37. ^ Chambers II, John Whiteclay (1999). The Oxford Companion to American Military History. Oxford University Press. p. 375. ISBN 978-0-19-507198-6.
    38. ^ Coopersmith, Jonathan; Launius, Roger D. (2003). Taking Off: A Century of Manned Flight. American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics. p. 54. ISBN 978-1-56347-610-5.
    39. ^ Cockburn, Andrew (3 April 2011). "The limits of air power". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved 3 March 2013.
    40. ^ Macdonald 2007, p. 99.
    41. ^ Bacevich & Cohen 2001, p. 22.
    42. ^ https://srbin.info/drustvo/otkrivamo-ko-je-ubijeni-rusi-dobrovoljac-ciji-snimak-ubistva-su-objavili-albancivideo/
    43. ^ http://www.hlc-rdc.org/db/kkp_en/index.html
    44. ^ a b "Facts and Figurues – War in Europe". www.pbs.org. Retrieved 27 January 2015.
    45. ^ Judah, Tim (1997). The Serbs: History, Myth and the Destruction of Yugoslavia (2009, 3rd ed.). New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press. p. 150. ISBN 978-0-300-15826-7. Retrieved 3 January 2021 – via Google Books. the Serbian police began clearing ... people [who] were marched down to the station and deported... the UNCHR registered 848,000 people who had either been forcibly expelled or had fled
    46. ^ Kosovo/Kosova: As Seen. pp. Part III, Chap 14.
    47. ^ "UNHCR - Kosovo Fact Sheet 2019" (PDF). UNHCR.
    48. ^ Cite error: The named reference hrw2004 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    49. ^ "Civilian Deaths in the NATO Air Campaign – The Crisis In Kosovo". HRW. Archived from the original on 19 April 2009. Retrieved 20 January 2012.
    50. ^ "754 Victims of NATO Bombing – Fond za humanitarno pravo/Humanitarian Law Center/Fondi për të Drejtën Humanitare | Fond za humanitarno pravo/Humanitarian Law Center/Fondi për të Drejtën Humanitare". www.hlc-rdc.org.
    51. ^ Boyle, Michael J. (2014). Violence After War: Explaining Instability in Post-Conflict States. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. p. 175. ISBN 978-1421412573.
    52. ^ Independent International Commission on Kosovo (2000). The Kosovo Report (PDF). Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 2. ISBN 978-0199243099.
    53. ^ Quackenbush, Stephen L. (2015). International Conflict: Logic and Evidence. Los Angeles: Sage. p. 202. ISBN 978-1452240985.
    54. ^ Reveron & Murer 2006, pp. 67–68.
    55. ^ Kubo, Keiichi (9 August 2010). "Why Kosovar Albanians Took Up Arms against the Serbian Regime: The Genesis and Expansion of the UÇK in Kosovo". Europe-Asia Studies. 62 (7): 1135–1152. doi:10.1080/09668136.2010.497022. ISSN 0966-8136. S2CID 154405255. Retrieved 7 September 2023.
    56. ^ "Under Orders: War Crimes in Kosovo – 2. Background". www.hrw.org. Retrieved 7 August 2020.
    57. ^ United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees. "Chronology for Kosovo Albanians in Yugoslavia". Refworld. Retrieved 7 August 2020.
    58. ^ Mincheva & Gurr 2013, pp. 27–28.
    59. ^ a b "Under Orders: War Crimes in Kosovo (March–June 1999)". Human Rights Watch. 12 June 1999. Retrieved 25 February 2013.
    60. ^ Judah (2009). The Serbs. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-15826-7.
    61. ^ "A Review of NATO's War over Kosovo". chomsky.info.
    62. ^ "Endgame in Kosovo". The New York Times. 9 December 2007. Retrieved 6 May 2012.
    63. ^ "BBC News | Europe | K-For: The task ahead". news.bbc.co.uk.
    64. ^ "Kosovo war chronology". Human Rights Watch.
    65. ^ "The Balkan wars: Reshaping the map of south-eastern Europe". The Economist. 9 November 2012. Retrieved 26 February 2013.
    66. ^ Haines, Steven (May 2009). "The Influence of Operation Allied Force on the Development of the jus ad bellum". International Affairs. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press. 85 (3): 477–490. doi:10.1111/j.1468-2346.2009.00809.x. ISSN 1468-2346. JSTOR 27695026.
    67. ^ "The Civilian Deaths". Civilian deaths in the NATO air campaign. Human Rights Watch. February 2000. Retrieved 3 May 2015.
    68. ^ "Case Studies of Civilian Deaths". Civilian deaths in the NATO air campaign. Human Rights Watch. February 2000. Archived from the original on 22 October 2014. Retrieved 3 May 2015.
    69. ^ Massa, Anne-Sophie (2006). "NATO's Intervention in Kosovo and the Decision of the Prosecutor of the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia Not to Investigate". Berkeley Journal of International Law. 24 (2). Archived from the original on 3 September 2015. Retrieved 3 May 2015.
    70. ^ "NATO: We Mistakenly Bombed Refugees". AP News. Retrieved 7 August 2020.
    71. ^ "Kosovo assault 'was not genocide'". BBC. 7 September 2011. Retrieved 19 May 2013.
    72. ^ "List of Kosovo War Victims Published". 10 December 2014.
    73. ^ Krieger 2001, p. 90
    74. ^ "Kosovo / Kosova: As Seen, As Told". OSCE. 5 November 1999. p. 13. Retrieved 27 June 2017.
    75. ^ Abrahams 2001, pp. 454–456
    76. ^ "Serbia home to highest number of refugees and IDPs in Europe". B92. 20 June 2010.
    77. ^ "Serbia: Europe's largest proctracted refugee situation". OSCE. 2008.
    78. ^ "Kosovo one year on". BBC. 16 March 2000. Retrieved 4 April 2010.
    79. ^ Huggler, Justin (12 March 2001). "KLA veterans linked to latest bout of violence in Macedonia". The Independent. London. Archived from the original on 29 October 2014. Retrieved 4 April 2010.
    80. ^ Kosovo Liberation Army: the inside story of an insurgency, by Henry H. Perritt[page needed]
     
  12. NewsBot

    NewsBot The Admin that posts the news.

    Articles:
    1
    28 March 1999Kosovo War: Serb paramilitary and military forces kill 146 Kosovo Albanians in Izbica.

    Kosovo War

    The Kosovo War (Albanian: Lufta e Kosovës, Serbian: Косовски рат), was an armed conflict in Kosovo that lasted from 28 February 1998 until 11 June 1999.[51][52][53] It was fought between the forces of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (i.e. Serbia and Montenegro), which controlled Kosovo before the war, and the Kosovo Albanian separatist militia known as the Kosovo Liberation Army (KLA). The conflict ended when the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) intervened by beginning air strikes in March 1999 which resulted in Yugoslav forces withdrawing from Kosovo.

    The KLA was formed in the early 1990s to fight against the discrimination of ethnic Albanians and the repression of political dissent by the Serbian authorities, which started after the suppression of Kosovo's autonomy by Serbian leader Slobodan Milošević in 1989.[54] The KLA initiated its first campaign in 1995, after Kosovo's case was left out of the Dayton Agreement and it had become clear that President Rugova's strategy of peaceful resistance had failed to bring Kosovo into the international agenda.[55] In June 1996, the group claimed responsibility for acts of sabotage targeting Kosovo police stations, during the Kosovo Insurgency.[56][57] In 1997, the organisation acquired a large amount of arms through weapons smuggling from Albania, following a rebellion in which weapons were looted from the country's police and army posts. In early 1998, KLA attacks targeting Yugoslav authorities in Kosovo resulted in an increased presence of Serb paramilitaries and regular forces who subsequently began pursuing a campaign of retribution targeting KLA sympathisers and political opponents;[58] this campaign killed 1,500 to 2,000 civilians and KLA combatants, and had displaced 370,000 Kosovar Albanians by March 1999.[59][60]

    On 20 March 1999, Yugoslav forces began a massive campaign of repression and expulsions of Kosovar Albanians following the withdrawal of the OSCE Kosovo Verification Mission (KVM) and the failure of the proposed Rambouillet Agreement.[59][61] In response to this, NATO intervened with an aerial bombing campaign that began on March 24, justifying it as a "humanitarian war".[62] The war ended with the Kumanovo Agreement, signed on 9 June 1999, with Yugoslav and Serb forces[63] agreeing to withdraw from Kosovo to make way for an international presence. NATO forces entered Kosovo on June 12.[64][65] The NATO bombing campaign has remained controversial.[66] It did not gain the approval of the UN Security Council and it caused at least 488 Yugoslav civilian deaths,[67] including substantial numbers of Kosovar refugees.[68][69][70]

    In 2001 a U.N administered Supreme Court, based in Kosovo found that there had been "a systematic campaign of terror, including murders, rapes, arsons and severe maltreatments" against the Albanian population, but that Yugoslav troops had tried to force them out of Kosovo, but not to eradicate them, and therefore it was not genocide.[71] After the war, a list was compiled which documented that over 13,500 people were killed or went missing during the two year conflict.[72] The Yugoslav and Serb forces caused the displacement of between 1.2 million[73] and 1.45 million Kosovo Albanians.[74] After the war, around 200,000 Serbs, Romani, and other non-Albanians fled Kosovo and many of the remaining civilians were victims of abuse.[75][76][77]

    The Kosovo Liberation Army disbanded soon after the end of the war, with some of its members going on to fight for the UÇPMB in the Preševo Valley[78] and others joining the National Liberation Army (NLA) and Albanian National Army (ANA) during the armed ethnic conflict in Macedonia,[79] while others went on to form the Kosovo Police.[80]

    The International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY) convicted six Serb/Yugoslav officials and one Albanian commander for war crimes.


    Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

    1. ^ Thomas 2006, p. 47.
    2. ^ Daniszewski, John (14 April 1999). "Yugoslav Troops Said to Cross Into Albania". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved 20 February 2012.
    3. ^ Daly, Emma (14 April 1999). "War In The Balkans: Serbs enter Albania and burn village". The Independent. London. Retrieved 20 February 2012.
    4. ^ "Hostage-Taking and Kidnapping Terror in the COE" (PDF). Fort Leavenworth, Kansas: US Army Training and Doctrine Command TRADOC G2. 5 December 2008 [15 September 2008] – via Federation of American Scientists.
    5. ^ "A Chronology of U.S.-Middle East Relations". WRMEA.
    6. ^ Noel, Sid (2005). From Power Sharing to Democracy: Post-Conflict Institutions in Ethnically Divided Societies. McGill-Queen's University Press. p. 109. ISBN 978-0-77357-310-9.
    7. ^ Ramet, Sabrina P.; Simkus, Albert; Listhaug, Ola, eds. (2015). Civic and Uncivic Values in Kosovo: History, Politics, and Value Transformation. Central European University Press. p. 121. ISBN 978-9-63386-074-8.
    8. ^ Stigler, Andrew L. "A clear victory for air power: NATO's empty threat to invade Kosovo." International Security 27.3 (2003): 124–157.
    9. ^ "Milosevic Claims Victory, Lauds Army". Washington Post. 11 June 1999.
    10. ^ Reitman, Valerie; Richter, Paul; Dahlburg, John-Thor (10 June 1999). "Yugoslav, NATO Generals Sign Peace Agreement for Kosovo / Alliance will end air campaign when Serbian troops pull out". San Francisco Chronicle. Retrieved 20 February 2012.
    11. ^ Vladisavljević, Nebojša (2012). "Kosovo and Two Dimensions of the Contemporary Serb-Albanian Conflict". In Hudson, Robert; Bowman, Glenn (eds.). After Yugoslavia: Identities and Politics Within the Successor States. Cham, Switzerland: Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 29–30. doi:10.1057/9780230305137_3. ISBN 978-0230201316. Retrieved 12 December 2022.
    12. ^ Wills, Siobhán (2009). Protecting Civilians: The Obligations of Peacekeepers. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. p. 219. ISBN 978-0-19-953387-9. Retrieved 12 December 2022.
    13. ^ "Abuses against Serbs and Roma in the new Kosovo". Human Rights Watch. August 1999. Archived from the original on 13 November 2022. Retrieved 12 December 2022.
    14. ^ "The Violence: Ethnic Albanian Attacks on Serbs and Roma". Human Rights Watch. July 2004. Archived from the original on 12 July 2022. Retrieved 12 December 2022.
    15. ^ "Kosovo Crisis Update". UNHCR. 4 August 1999. Archived from the original on 2 July 2022. Retrieved 12 December 2022.
    16. ^ "Forced Expulsion of Kosovo Roma, Ashkali and Egyptians from OSCE Participated state to Kosovo". OSCE. 6 October 2006. Archived from the original on 28 May 2022. Retrieved 12 December 2022.
    17. ^ Bartrop, Paul R. (18 January 2016). Bosnian Genocide: The Essential Reference Guide. Bloomsbury Publishing USA. p. 120. ISBN 978-1-4408-3869-9.
    18. ^ 12 mal bewertet (24 March 1999). "Die Bundeswehr zieht in den Krieg". 60xdeutschland.de. Archived from the original on 3 September 2011. Retrieved 6 May 2012.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
    19. ^ "Report to Congress: Kosovo operation allied force after-action report" (PDF). au.af.mil: 31–32. 30 January 2000. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2 November 2016. Retrieved 26 October 2016.
    20. ^ a b c d e f "NATO Operation Allied Force". Defense.gov. Archived from the original on 28 February 2010. Retrieved 28 February 2012.
    21. ^ "NATO Operation Allied Force". archive.wikiwix.com. Retrieved 4 January 2024.
    22. ^ "Under Orders: War Crimes in Kosovo - 3. Forces of the Conflict". hrw.org. Human Rights Watch.
    23. ^ "Fighting for a foreign land". BBC News. 20 May 1999. Retrieved 28 February 2012.
    24. ^ "Russian volunteer's account of Kosovo". The Russia Journal. 5 July 1999. Archived from the original on 26 December 2011. Retrieved 28 February 2012.
    25. ^ Daalder & O'Hanlon 2000, p. 151.
    26. ^ a b c d e "Kosovo Memory Book Database Presentation and Evaluation" (PDF). Humanitarian Law Center. 4 February 2015. Archived from the original (PDF) on 11 January 2019. Retrieved 6 February 2016.
    27. ^ "Two die in Apache crash". BBC News. 5 May 1999. Retrieved 6 May 2012.
    28. ^ "How to Take Down an F-117". Strategypage.com. 21 November 2005. Retrieved 6 May 2012.
    29. ^ "Holloman commander recalls being shot down in Serbia". F-16.net. 7 February 2007. Retrieved 6 May 2012.
    30. ^ Cite error: The named reference ejection-history1 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    31. ^ "F-117 damage said attributed to full moon". The Atlanta Journal-Constitution. 6 May 1999. p. A14. Retrieved 20 February 2012.
    32. ^ "Nato loses two planes". BBC News. 2 May 1999. Retrieved 6 May 2012.
    33. ^ Kislyakov, Andrei (9 October 2007). "Unmanned Aerial Vehicles Increase In Numbers". Radardaily.com. RIA Novosti. Retrieved 28 February 2012.
    34. ^ "NATO nam ubio 1.008 vojnika i policajaca". Mondo. 11 February 2013. Archived from the original on 6 August 2016. Retrieved 11 February 2013.
    35. ^ "Stradalo 1.008 vojnika i policajaca". www.rts.rs. RTS, Radio televizija Srbije, Radio Television of Serbia.
    36. ^ Bideleux, Robert; Jeffries, Ian (2006). The Balkans: A Post-Communist History. Routledge. p. 558. ISBN 978-0-203-96911-3.
    37. ^ Chambers II, John Whiteclay (1999). The Oxford Companion to American Military History. Oxford University Press. p. 375. ISBN 978-0-19-507198-6.
    38. ^ Coopersmith, Jonathan; Launius, Roger D. (2003). Taking Off: A Century of Manned Flight. American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics. p. 54. ISBN 978-1-56347-610-5.
    39. ^ Cockburn, Andrew (3 April 2011). "The limits of air power". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved 3 March 2013.
    40. ^ Macdonald 2007, p. 99.
    41. ^ Bacevich & Cohen 2001, p. 22.
    42. ^ https://srbin.info/drustvo/otkrivamo-ko-je-ubijeni-rusi-dobrovoljac-ciji-snimak-ubistva-su-objavili-albancivideo/
    43. ^ http://www.hlc-rdc.org/db/kkp_en/index.html
    44. ^ a b "Facts and Figurues – War in Europe". www.pbs.org. Retrieved 27 January 2015.
    45. ^ Judah, Tim (1997). The Serbs: History, Myth and the Destruction of Yugoslavia (2009, 3rd ed.). New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press. p. 150. ISBN 978-0-300-15826-7. Retrieved 3 January 2021 – via Google Books. the Serbian police began clearing ... people [who] were marched down to the station and deported... the UNCHR registered 848,000 people who had either been forcibly expelled or had fled
    46. ^ Kosovo/Kosova: As Seen. pp. Part III, Chap 14.
    47. ^ "UNHCR - Kosovo Fact Sheet 2019" (PDF). UNHCR.
    48. ^ Cite error: The named reference hrw2004 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    49. ^ "Civilian Deaths in the NATO Air Campaign – The Crisis In Kosovo". HRW. Archived from the original on 19 April 2009. Retrieved 20 January 2012.
    50. ^ "754 Victims of NATO Bombing – Fond za humanitarno pravo/Humanitarian Law Center/Fondi për të Drejtën Humanitare | Fond za humanitarno pravo/Humanitarian Law Center/Fondi për të Drejtën Humanitare". www.hlc-rdc.org.
    51. ^ Boyle, Michael J. (2014). Violence After War: Explaining Instability in Post-Conflict States. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. p. 175. ISBN 978-1421412573.
    52. ^ Independent International Commission on Kosovo (2000). The Kosovo Report (PDF). Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 2. ISBN 978-0199243099.
    53. ^ Quackenbush, Stephen L. (2015). International Conflict: Logic and Evidence. Los Angeles: Sage. p. 202. ISBN 978-1452240985.
    54. ^ Reveron & Murer 2006, pp. 67–68.
    55. ^ Kubo, Keiichi (9 August 2010). "Why Kosovar Albanians Took Up Arms against the Serbian Regime: The Genesis and Expansion of the UÇK in Kosovo". Europe-Asia Studies. 62 (7): 1135–1152. doi:10.1080/09668136.2010.497022. ISSN 0966-8136. S2CID 154405255. Retrieved 7 September 2023.
    56. ^ "Under Orders: War Crimes in Kosovo – 2. Background". www.hrw.org. Retrieved 7 August 2020.
    57. ^ United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees. "Chronology for Kosovo Albanians in Yugoslavia". Refworld. Retrieved 7 August 2020.
    58. ^ Mincheva & Gurr 2013, pp. 27–28.
    59. ^ a b "Under Orders: War Crimes in Kosovo (March–June 1999)". Human Rights Watch. 12 June 1999. Retrieved 25 February 2013.
    60. ^ Judah (2009). The Serbs. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-15826-7.
    61. ^ "A Review of NATO's War over Kosovo". chomsky.info.
    62. ^ "Endgame in Kosovo". The New York Times. 9 December 2007. Retrieved 6 May 2012.
    63. ^ "BBC News | Europe | K-For: The task ahead". news.bbc.co.uk.
    64. ^ "Kosovo war chronology". Human Rights Watch.
    65. ^ "The Balkan wars: Reshaping the map of south-eastern Europe". The Economist. 9 November 2012. Retrieved 26 February 2013.
    66. ^ Haines, Steven (May 2009). "The Influence of Operation Allied Force on the Development of the jus ad bellum". International Affairs. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press. 85 (3): 477–490. doi:10.1111/j.1468-2346.2009.00809.x. ISSN 1468-2346. JSTOR 27695026.
    67. ^ "The Civilian Deaths". Civilian deaths in the NATO air campaign. Human Rights Watch. February 2000. Retrieved 3 May 2015.
    68. ^ "Case Studies of Civilian Deaths". Civilian deaths in the NATO air campaign. Human Rights Watch. February 2000. Archived from the original on 22 October 2014. Retrieved 3 May 2015.
    69. ^ Massa, Anne-Sophie (2006). "NATO's Intervention in Kosovo and the Decision of the Prosecutor of the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia Not to Investigate". Berkeley Journal of International Law. 24 (2). Archived from the original on 3 September 2015. Retrieved 3 May 2015.
    70. ^ "NATO: We Mistakenly Bombed Refugees". AP News. Retrieved 7 August 2020.
    71. ^ "Kosovo assault 'was not genocide'". BBC. 7 September 2011. Retrieved 19 May 2013.
    72. ^ "List of Kosovo War Victims Published". 10 December 2014.
    73. ^ Krieger 2001, p. 90
    74. ^ "Kosovo / Kosova: As Seen, As Told". OSCE. 5 November 1999. p. 13. Retrieved 27 June 2017.
    75. ^ Abrahams 2001, pp. 454–456
    76. ^ "Serbia home to highest number of refugees and IDPs in Europe". B92. 20 June 2010.
    77. ^ "Serbia: Europe's largest proctracted refugee situation". OSCE. 2008.
    78. ^ "Kosovo one year on". BBC. 16 March 2000. Retrieved 4 April 2010.
    79. ^ Huggler, Justin (12 March 2001). "KLA veterans linked to latest bout of violence in Macedonia". The Independent. London. Archived from the original on 29 October 2014. Retrieved 4 April 2010.
    80. ^ Kosovo Liberation Army: the inside story of an insurgency, by Henry H. Perritt[page needed]
     
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    29 March 1973 – Operation Barrel Roll, a covert American bombing campaign in Laos to stop communist infiltration of South Vietnam, ends.

    Operation Barrel Roll

    Operation Barrel Roll was a covert U.S. Air Force 2nd Air Division and U.S. Navy Task Force 77, interdiction and close air support campaign conducted in the Kingdom of Laos between 14 December 1964 and 29 March 1973 concurrent with the Vietnam War. The operation resulted in 260 million bombs being dropped on Laos.[1]

    The original purpose of the operation was to serve as a signal to the Democratic Republic of Vietnam (North Vietnam) to cease its support for the insurgency then taking place in the Republic of Vietnam (South Vietnam). This action was taken within Laos due to the location of North Vietnam's expanding logistical corridor known as the Ho Chi Minh Trail (the Truong Son Road to the North Vietnamese), which ran from southwestern North Vietnam, through southeastern Laos, and into South Vietnam. The campaign then centered on the interdiction of that logistical system. Beginning during the same time frame (and expanding throughout the conflict) the operation became increasingly involved in providing close air support missions for Royal Lao Armed Forces, CIA-backed tribal mercenaries, and Thai Volunteer Defense Corps in a covert ground war in northern and northeastern Laos. Barrel Roll and the "Secret Army" attempted to stem an increasing tide of People's Army of Vietnam (PAVN) and Pathet Lao offensives.

    Barrel Roll was one of the most closely held secrets and one of the most unknown components of the American military commitment in Southeast Asia. Due to the ostensible neutrality of Laos, guaranteed by the Geneva Conference of 1954 and 1962, both the U.S. and North Vietnam strove to maintain the secrecy of their operations and only slowly escalated military actions there. As much as both parties would have liked to have publicized their enemy's own alleged violation of the accords, both had more to gain by keeping their own roles quiet.[2] Regardless, by the end of the conflict in 1975, Laos emerged from nine years of war just as devastated as any of the other Asian participants in the Vietnam War.

    1. ^ "Laos: Barack Obama regrets 'biggest bombing in history'". BBC News. 6 September 2016. Retrieved 21 July 2022.
    2. ^ Warner, Roger (1996). Shooting at the Moon: The Story of America's Clandestine War in Laos. Steerforth Press. p. 135. ISBN 9781883642365.
     
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    30 March 1981 – U.S. President Ronald Reagan is shot in the chest outside a Washington, D.C., hotel by John Hinckley, Jr.; three others are wounded in the same incident.

    Attempted assassination of Ronald Reagan

    On March 30, 1981, President of the United States Ronald Reagan was shot and wounded by John Hinckley Jr. in Washington, D.C., as he was returning to his limousine after a speaking engagement at the Washington Hilton. Hinckley believed the attack would impress actress Jodie Foster, with whom he had developed an erotomanic obsession.

    Reagan was seriously wounded by a revolver bullet that ricocheted off the side of the presidential limousine and hit him in the left underarm, breaking a rib, puncturing a lung, and causing serious internal bleeding. He was close to death upon arrival at George Washington University Hospital but was stabilized in the emergency room; he then underwent emergency exploratory surgery. He recovered and was released from the hospital on April 11. No formal invocation of sections 3 or 4 of the Constitution's 25th amendment (concerning the vice president assuming the president's powers and duties) took place, though Secretary of State Alexander Haig stated that he was "in control here" at the White House until Vice President George H. W. Bush returned to Washington from Fort Worth, Texas. Haig was fourth in the line of succession after Bush, Speaker of the House Tip O'Neill, and president pro tempore of the Senate Strom Thurmond.

    White House press secretary James Brady, Secret Service agent Tim McCarthy, and D.C. police officer Thomas Delahanty were also wounded. All three survived, but Brady had brain damage and was permanently disabled. His death in 2014 was considered a homicide because it was ultimately caused by his injury.[2][5]

    Hinckley was found not guilty by reason of insanity on charges of attempting to assassinate the president. He remained confined to St. Elizabeth's Hospital, a D.C. psychiatric facility. In January 2015, federal prosecutors announced that they would not charge Hinckley with Brady's death, despite the medical examiner's classification of his death as a homicide.[6] Hinckley was released from institutional psychiatric care on September 10, 2016.

    1. ^ "James Brady's death ruled a homicide, police say". CNN.com. August 9, 2014. Retrieved April 2, 2015.
    2. ^ a b "Medical examiner rules James Brady's death a homicide". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on March 28, 2016. Retrieved June 24, 2017.
    3. ^ "James Brady's Death Was a Homicide, Medical Examiner Rules". NBCWashington.com. August 8, 2014. Retrieved April 2, 2015.
    4. ^ Pear, Robert (August 25, 1981). "JURY INDICTS HINCKLEY ON 13 COUNTS BASED ON SHOOTING OF PRESIDENT". The New York Times.
    5. ^ Corasaniti, Nick (August 8, 2014). "Coroner Is Said to Rule James Brady's Death a Homicide, 33 Years After a Shooting". The New York Times. Retrieved January 2, 2015.
    6. ^ Hermann, Peter (January 2, 2015). "Hinckley won't face murder charge in death of James Brady, prosecutors say". The Washington Post. Retrieved January 2, 2015.


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    31 March 1990 – Approximately 200,000 protesters take to the streets of London to protest against the newly introduced Poll Tax.

    Poll tax riots

    The poll tax riots were a series of riots in British towns and cities during protests against the Community Charge (commonly known as the "poll tax"), introduced by the Conservative government of Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher. The largest protest occurred in central London on Saturday 31 March 1990, shortly before the tax was due to come into force in England and Wales.

     
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    1 April 2004Google announces Gmail to the public.

    Gmail

    Gmail is an email service provided by Google. As of 2019, it had 1.5 billion active users worldwide, making it the largest email service in the world.[1] It also provides a webmail interface, accessible through a web browser, and is also accessible through the official mobile application. Google also supports the use of third-party email clients via the POP and IMAP protocols.

    At its launch in 2004, Gmail provided a storage capacity of one gigabyte per user, which was significantly higher than its competitors offered at the time. Today, the service comes with 15 gigabytes of storage for free for individual users, which is divided among other Google services, such as Google Drive, and Google Photos.[3] Users in need of more storage can purchase Google One to increase this 15 GB limit.[4] Users can receive emails up to 50 megabytes in size, including attachments, and can send emails up to 25 megabytes. Gmail supports integration with Google Drive, allowing for larger attachments. Gmail has a search-oriented interface and supports a "conversation view" similar to an Internet forum.[5] The service is notable among website developers for its early adoption of Ajax.

    Google's mail servers automatically scan emails for multiple purposes, including to filter spam and malware and, prior to June 2017, to add context-sensitive advertisements next to emails. This advertising practice has been significantly criticized by privacy advocates with concerns over unlimited data retention, ease of monitoring by third parties, users of other email providers not having agreed to the policy upon sending emails to Gmail addresses, and the potential for Google to change its policies to further decrease privacy by combining information with other Google data usage. The company has been the subject of lawsuits concerning the issues. Google has stated that email users must "necessarily expect" their emails to be subject to automated processing and claims that the service refrains from displaying ads next to potentially sensitive messages, such as those mentioning race, religion, sexual orientation, health, or financial statements. In June 2017, Google announced the end of the use of contextual Gmail content for advertising purposes, relying instead on data gathered from the use of its other services.[6]

    1. ^ a b Petrova (October 26, 2019). "Gmail dominates consumer email with 1.5 billion users". CNBC.com. Archived from the original on November 17, 2019. Retrieved November 19, 2019.
    2. ^ Siegler, MG (March 14, 2010). "The Key To Gmail: Sh*t Umbrellas". TechCrunch. AOL. Archived from the original on October 22, 2016. Retrieved October 27, 2018.
    3. ^ "Manage files in your Google Drive storage - Gmail Help". support.google.com. Retrieved February 11, 2023.
    4. ^ "Buy more Google storage - Computer - Google Drive Help". support.google.com. Retrieved April 4, 2023.
    5. ^ "Group emails into conversations - Computer - Gmail Help". support.google.com. Retrieved December 8, 2023.
    6. ^ Cite error: The named reference No contextual ads was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
     
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    2 April 2014 – A spree shooting occurs at the Fort Hood army base in Texas, with four dead, including the gunman, and 16 others injured.

    2014 Fort Hood shooting

     
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    3 April 1997 – The Thalit massacre begins in Algeria; all but one of the 53 inhabitants of Thalit are killed by guerrillas.

    Thalit massacre

    The Thalit massacre took place in Thalit village (Médéa, near Ksar el Boukhari),[1] some 70 km from Algiers, on April 3–4, 1997 during the Algerian Civil War. Fifty-two out of the 53 inhabitants were killed by having their throats cut during a 12-hour rampage. The homes of the villagers were burned down afterward. The attack was attributed to "Islamist guerrillas",[2] thought to be affiliated with the Armed Islamic Group.[3]

    Location of massacres in Algeria 1997-1998 showing Thalit near the centre of the map.
    1. ^ Ksar el Boukhari, Algeria Page, retrieved 11 February 2010
    2. ^ "More than 80 Algerians killed in weekend massacres", CNN, 6 April 1997, retrieved 11 February 2010
    3. ^ Tucker, Spencer (2010). A Global Chronology of Conflict: From the Ancient World to the Modern Middle East. ABC-CLIO. p. 2648. ISBN 978-1-85109-667-1.
     
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    4 April 1979 – Prime Minister Zulfikar Ali Bhutto of Pakistan is executed.

    Zulfikar Ali Bhutto

    Preview warning: Page using Template:Infobox officeholder with unknown parameter "honorific prefix"

    Zulfikar Ali Bhutto[a] (5 January 1928 – 4 April 1979) was a Pakistani barrister, politician, and statesman. He served as the fourth president of Pakistan from 1971 to 1973 and later as the ninth prime minister of Pakistan from 1973 to 1977. Bhutto founded the Pakistan People's Party (PPP) and served as its chairman until his execution.

    Born in Sindh and educated at the University of California, Berkeley and the University of Oxford, Bhutto trained as a barrister at Lincoln's Inn before entering politics. Initially, he was a cabinet member during president Iskandar Ali Mirza's tenure, holding various ministries during president Muhammad Ayub Khan's military rule from 1958. Bhutto became the Foreign Minister in 1963, advocating for Operation Gibraltar in Kashmir, leading to the 1965 war with India. Following the Tashkent Declaration, he was dismissed from the government. Bhutto established the PPP in 1967, focusing on an Islamic socialist agenda, and contested the 1970 general election. The Awami League and PPP were unable to agree on power transfer, leading to civil unrest and the creation of Bangladesh. After Pakistan's loss in the 1971 war against Bangladesh, Bhutto assumed the presidency in December 1971, imposing emergency rule.

    During his presidency, Bhutto secured the release of 93,000 prisoners of war and reclaimed five thousand square miles (13,000 km2) of Indian-held territory through the Simla Agreement. He strengthened diplomatic ties with China and Saudi Arabia, recognized Bangladesh, and hosted the second Organisation of the Islamic Conference in Lahore in 1974. Bhutto's government drafted the current constitution of Pakistan in 1973, after which he transitioned to the prime minister's office. He played a crucial role in initiating the country's nuclear program. However, his policies, including extensive nationalisation, led to economic stagnation.

    Despite winning the 1977 parliamentary elections, Bhutto faced allegations of widespread vote rigging, sparking violence across the country. On 5 July 1977, Bhutto was deposed in a military coup by army chief Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq. Controversially tried and executed in 1979, Bhutto's legacy remains contentious, praised for nationalism and a secular internationalist agenda, yet criticized for political repression, economic challenges, and human rights abuses. He is often considered one of Pakistan's greatest leaders. His party, the PPP, continues to be a significant political force in Pakistan, with his daughter Benazir Bhutto serving twice as Prime Minister, and his son-in-law, Asif Ali Zardari, becoming president.

    1. ^ "The multipurpose Muslim League". Dawn. 13 August 2012. Retrieved 23 October 2021.
    2. ^ Chitkara, M.G. (1996). Benazir – a profile. New Delhi: APH Publ. Corp. p. 69. ISBN 978-8170247524.


    Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

     
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    4 April 1979 – Prime Minister Zulfikar Ali Bhutto of Pakistan is executed.

    Zulfikar Ali Bhutto

    Preview warning: Page using Template:Infobox officeholder with unknown parameter "honorific prefix"

    Zulfikar Ali Bhutto[a] (5 January 1928 – 4 April 1979) was a Pakistani barrister, politician, and statesman. He served as the fourth president of Pakistan from 1971 to 1973 and later as the ninth prime minister of Pakistan from 1973 to 1977. Bhutto founded the Pakistan People's Party (PPP) and served as its chairman until his execution.

    Born in Sindh and educated at the University of California, Berkeley and the University of Oxford, Bhutto trained as a barrister at Lincoln's Inn before entering politics. Initially, he was a cabinet member during president Iskandar Ali Mirza's tenure, holding various ministries during president Muhammad Ayub Khan's military rule from 1958. Bhutto became the Foreign Minister in 1963, advocating for Operation Gibraltar in Kashmir, leading to the 1965 war with India. Following the Tashkent Declaration, he was dismissed from the government. Bhutto established the PPP in 1967, focusing on an Islamic socialist agenda, and contested the 1970 general election. The Awami League and PPP were unable to agree on power transfer, leading to civil unrest and the creation of Bangladesh. After Pakistan's loss in the 1971 war against Bangladesh, Bhutto assumed the presidency in December 1971, imposing emergency rule.

    During his presidency, Bhutto secured the release of 93,000 prisoners of war and reclaimed five thousand square miles (13,000 km2) of Indian-held territory through the Simla Agreement. He strengthened diplomatic ties with China and Saudi Arabia, recognized Bangladesh, and hosted the second Organisation of the Islamic Conference in Lahore in 1974. Bhutto's government drafted the current constitution of Pakistan in 1973, after which he transitioned to the prime minister's office. He played a crucial role in initiating the country's nuclear program. However, his policies, including extensive nationalisation, led to economic stagnation.

    Despite winning the 1977 parliamentary elections, Bhutto faced allegations of widespread vote rigging, sparking violence across the country. On 5 July 1977, Bhutto was deposed in a military coup by army chief Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq. Controversially tried and executed in 1979, Bhutto's legacy remains contentious, praised for nationalism and a secular internationalist agenda, yet criticized for political repression, economic challenges, and human rights abuses. He is often considered one of Pakistan's greatest leaders. His party, the PPP, continues to be a significant political force in Pakistan, with his daughter Benazir Bhutto serving twice as Prime Minister, and his son-in-law, Asif Ali Zardari, becoming president.

    1. ^ "The multipurpose Muslim League". Dawn. 13 August 2012. Retrieved 23 October 2021.
    2. ^ Chitkara, M.G. (1996). Benazir – a profile. New Delhi: APH Publ. Corp. p. 69. ISBN 978-8170247524.


    Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

     
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    6 April 1992 – The Bosnian War begins.

    Bosnian War

    The Bosnian War[a] (Serbo-Croatian: Rat u Bosni i Hercegovini / Рат у Босни и Херцеговини) was an international armed conflict that took place in Bosnia and Herzegovina between 1992 and 1995. The war is commonly seen as having started on 6 April 1992, following a number of earlier violent incidents. The war ended on 14 December 1995 when the Dayton accords were signed. The main belligerents were the forces of the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina, the Republic of Herzeg-Bosnia, and the Republika Srpska, the latter two entities being proto-states led and supplied by Croatia and Serbia, respectively.[12][13]

    The war was part of the breakup of Yugoslavia. Following the Slovenian and Croatian secessions from the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia in 1991, the multi-ethnic Socialist Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina – which was inhabited by mainly Muslim Bosniaks (44%), Orthodox Serbs (32.5%) and Catholic Croats (17%) – passed a referendum for independence on 29 February 1992. Political representatives of the Bosnian Serbs boycotted the referendum, and rejected its outcome. Anticipating the outcome of the referendum, the Assembly of the Serb People in Bosnia and Herzegovina adopted the Constitution of the Serbian Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina on 28 February 1992. Following Bosnia and Herzegovina's declaration of independence (which gained international recognition) and following the withdrawal of Alija Izetbegović from the previously signed Cutileiro Plan[14] (which proposed a division of Bosnia into ethnic cantons), the Bosnian Serbs, led by Radovan Karadžić and supported by the government of Slobodan Milošević and the Yugoslav People's Army (JNA), mobilised their forces inside Bosnia and Herzegovina in order to secure ethnic Serb territory. The war soon spread across the country, accompanied by ethnic cleansing.

    The conflict was initially between Yugoslav Army units in Bosnia which later transformed into the Army of Republika Srpska (VRS) on the one side, and the Army of the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina (ARBiH), largely composed of Bosniaks, and the Croat forces in the Croatian Defence Council (HVO) on the other side. Tensions between Croats and Bosniaks increased throughout late 1992, resulting in the escalation of the Croat–Bosniak War in early 1993.[15] The Bosnian War was characterised by bitter fighting, indiscriminate shelling of cities and towns, ethnic cleansing, and systematic mass rape, mainly perpetrated by Serb,[16] and to a lesser extent, Croat[17] and Bosniak[18] forces. Events such as the siege of Sarajevo and the Srebrenica massacre later became iconic of the conflict.

    The Serbs, although initially militarily superior due to the weapons and resources provided by the JNA, eventually lost momentum as the Bosniaks and Croats allied against the Republika Srpska in 1994 with the creation of the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina following the Washington agreement. Pakistan ignored the UN's ban on supply of arms, and airlifted anti-tank missiles to the Bosnian Muslims, while after the Srebrenica and Markale massacres, NATO intervened in 1995 with Operation Deliberate Force targeting the positions of the Army of the Republika Srpska, which proved key in ending the war.[19][20] The war ended after the signing of the General Framework Agreement for Peace in Bosnia and Herzegovina in Paris on 14 December 1995. Peace negotiations were held in Dayton, Ohio, and were finalised on 21 November 1995.[21]

    By early 2008, the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia convicted forty-five Serbs, twelve Croats, and four Bosniaks of war crimes in connection with the war in Bosnia.[22][needs update] Estimates suggest over 100,000 people were killed during the war.[23][24][25] Over 2.2 million people were displaced,[26] making it, at the time, the most violent conflict in Europe since the end of World War II.[27][28] In addition, an estimated 12,000–50,000 women were raped, mainly carried out by Serb forces, with most of the victims being Bosniak women.[29][30]

    1. ^ Ramet 2010, p. 130.
    2. ^ Christia 2012, p. 154.
    3. ^ CIA 1993, p. 28.
    4. ^ Shrader 2003, p. 22.
    5. ^ Ramet 2006, p. 450.
    6. ^ Mulaj 2008, p. 53.
    7. ^ Finlan 2004, p. 21
    8. ^ Ramet 2006, p. 451.
    9. ^ a b c Cite error: The named reference RDC 2012 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    10. ^ a b c Prometej. "Spolna i nacionalna struktura žrtava i ljudski gubitci vojnih formacija (1991–1996)". www.prometej.ba. Prometej. Archived from the original on 25 December 2018. Retrieved 9 May 2015.
    11. ^ "After years of toil, book names Bosnian war dead". Reuters. 15 February 2013. Archived from the original on 21 July 2013. Retrieved 30 June 2017.
    12. ^ "ICTY: Conflict between Bosnia and Herzegovina and the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia". Archived from the original on 7 January 2019. Retrieved 25 April 2015.
    13. ^ "ICJ: The genocide case: Bosnia v. Serbia – See Part VI – Entities involved in the events 235–241" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 1 March 2011. Retrieved 25 April 2015.
    14. ^ "From Lisbon to Dayton: International Mediation and the Bosnia Crisis" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 23 January 2023. Retrieved 16 November 2019.
    15. ^ Christia 2012, p. 172.
    16. ^ Wood 2013, pp. 140, 343.
    17. ^ Forsythe 2009, p. 145
    18. ^ "Bosnia Handout". fas.org. Archived from the original on 19 October 2017. Retrieved 14 May 2016.
    19. ^ Cohen, Roger (31 August 1995). "Conflict in the Balkans: The overview; NATO presses Bosnia bombing, vowing to make Sarajevo safe". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 19 September 2018. Retrieved 5 May 2011.
    20. ^ Holbrooke, Richard (1999). To End a War. New York: Modern Library. p. 102. ISBN 978-0-375-75360-2. OCLC 40545454.
    21. ^ "Dayton Peace Accords on Bosnia". US Department of State. 30 March 1996. Archived from the original on 22 May 2011. Retrieved 19 March 2006.
    22. ^ Bilefsky, Dan (30 July 2008). "Karadzic Sent to Hague for Trial Despite Violent Protest by Loyalists". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on 24 June 2017. Retrieved 25 September 2022.
    23. ^ "Bosnia war dead figure announced". BBC. 21 June 2007. Archived from the original on 9 April 2022. Retrieved 16 February 2013.
    24. ^ "Bosnia's dark days – a cameraman reflects on war of 1990s". CBC. 6 April 2012. Archived from the original on 15 June 2012. Retrieved 16 February 2013.
    25. ^ Logos 2019, p. 265, 412.
    26. ^ "Jolie highlights the continuing suffering of the displaced in Bosnia". UNHCR. 6 April 2010. Archived from the original on 29 January 2018. Retrieved 19 October 2010.
    27. ^ Hartmann, Florence. "Bosnia". Crimes of War. Archived from the original on 9 May 2015. Retrieved 30 April 2015.
    28. ^ Harsch, Michael F. (2015). The Power of Dependence: NATO-UN Cooperation in Crisis Management. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 37. ISBN 978-0-19-872231-1.
    29. ^ Burg & Shoup 2015, p. 222.
    30. ^ Crowe, David M. (2013). War Crimes, Genocide, and Justice: A Global History. Palgrave Macmillan. p. 343. ISBN 978-0-230-62224-1. Archived from the original on 23 January 2023. Retrieved 14 May 2016.


    Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

     
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    6 April 1992 – The Bosnian War begins.

    Bosnian War

    The Bosnian War[a] (Serbo-Croatian: Rat u Bosni i Hercegovini / Рат у Босни и Херцеговини) was an international armed conflict that took place in Bosnia and Herzegovina between 1992 and 1995. The war is commonly seen as having started on 6 April 1992, following a number of earlier violent incidents. The war ended on 14 December 1995 when the Dayton accords were signed. The main belligerents were the forces of the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina, the Republic of Herzeg-Bosnia, and the Republika Srpska, the latter two entities being proto-states led and supplied by Croatia and Serbia, respectively.[12][13]

    The war was part of the breakup of Yugoslavia. Following the Slovenian and Croatian secessions from the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia in 1991, the multi-ethnic Socialist Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina – which was inhabited by mainly Muslim Bosniaks (44%), Orthodox Serbs (32.5%) and Catholic Croats (17%) – passed a referendum for independence on 29 February 1992. Political representatives of the Bosnian Serbs boycotted the referendum, and rejected its outcome. Anticipating the outcome of the referendum, the Assembly of the Serb People in Bosnia and Herzegovina adopted the Constitution of the Serbian Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina on 28 February 1992. Following Bosnia and Herzegovina's declaration of independence (which gained international recognition) and following the withdrawal of Alija Izetbegović from the previously signed Cutileiro Plan[14] (which proposed a division of Bosnia into ethnic cantons), the Bosnian Serbs, led by Radovan Karadžić and supported by the government of Slobodan Milošević and the Yugoslav People's Army (JNA), mobilised their forces inside Bosnia and Herzegovina in order to secure ethnic Serb territory. The war soon spread across the country, accompanied by ethnic cleansing.

    The conflict was initially between Yugoslav Army units in Bosnia which later transformed into the Army of Republika Srpska (VRS) on the one side, and the Army of the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina (ARBiH), largely composed of Bosniaks, and the Croat forces in the Croatian Defence Council (HVO) on the other side. Tensions between Croats and Bosniaks increased throughout late 1992, resulting in the escalation of the Croat–Bosniak War in early 1993.[15] The Bosnian War was characterised by bitter fighting, indiscriminate shelling of cities and towns, ethnic cleansing, and systematic mass rape, mainly perpetrated by Serb,[16] and to a lesser extent, Croat[17] and Bosniak[18] forces. Events such as the siege of Sarajevo and the Srebrenica massacre later became iconic of the conflict.

    The Serbs, although initially militarily superior due to the weapons and resources provided by the JNA, eventually lost momentum as the Bosniaks and Croats allied against the Republika Srpska in 1994 with the creation of the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina following the Washington agreement. Pakistan ignored the UN's ban on supply of arms, and airlifted anti-tank missiles to the Bosnian Muslims, while after the Srebrenica and Markale massacres, NATO intervened in 1995 with Operation Deliberate Force targeting the positions of the Army of the Republika Srpska, which proved key in ending the war.[19][20] The war ended after the signing of the General Framework Agreement for Peace in Bosnia and Herzegovina in Paris on 14 December 1995. Peace negotiations were held in Dayton, Ohio, and were finalised on 21 November 1995.[21]

    By early 2008, the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia convicted forty-five Serbs, twelve Croats, and four Bosniaks of war crimes in connection with the war in Bosnia.[22][needs update] Estimates suggest over 100,000 people were killed during the war.[23][24][25] Over 2.2 million people were displaced,[26] making it, at the time, the most violent conflict in Europe since the end of World War II.[27][28] In addition, an estimated 12,000–50,000 women were raped, mainly carried out by Serb forces, with most of the victims being Bosniak women.[29][30]

    1. ^ Ramet 2010, p. 130.
    2. ^ Christia 2012, p. 154.
    3. ^ CIA 1993, p. 28.
    4. ^ Shrader 2003, p. 22.
    5. ^ Ramet 2006, p. 450.
    6. ^ Mulaj 2008, p. 53.
    7. ^ Finlan 2004, p. 21
    8. ^ Ramet 2006, p. 451.
    9. ^ a b c Cite error: The named reference RDC 2012 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    10. ^ a b c Prometej. "Spolna i nacionalna struktura žrtava i ljudski gubitci vojnih formacija (1991–1996)". www.prometej.ba. Prometej. Archived from the original on 25 December 2018. Retrieved 9 May 2015.
    11. ^ "After years of toil, book names Bosnian war dead". Reuters. 15 February 2013. Archived from the original on 21 July 2013. Retrieved 30 June 2017.
    12. ^ "ICTY: Conflict between Bosnia and Herzegovina and the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia". Archived from the original on 7 January 2019. Retrieved 25 April 2015.
    13. ^ "ICJ: The genocide case: Bosnia v. Serbia – See Part VI – Entities involved in the events 235–241" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 1 March 2011. Retrieved 25 April 2015.
    14. ^ "From Lisbon to Dayton: International Mediation and the Bosnia Crisis" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 23 January 2023. Retrieved 16 November 2019.
    15. ^ Christia 2012, p. 172.
    16. ^ Wood 2013, pp. 140, 343.
    17. ^ Forsythe 2009, p. 145
    18. ^ "Bosnia Handout". fas.org. Archived from the original on 19 October 2017. Retrieved 14 May 2016.
    19. ^ Cohen, Roger (31 August 1995). "Conflict in the Balkans: The overview; NATO presses Bosnia bombing, vowing to make Sarajevo safe". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 19 September 2018. Retrieved 5 May 2011.
    20. ^ Holbrooke, Richard (1999). To End a War. New York: Modern Library. p. 102. ISBN 978-0-375-75360-2. OCLC 40545454.
    21. ^ "Dayton Peace Accords on Bosnia". US Department of State. 30 March 1996. Archived from the original on 22 May 2011. Retrieved 19 March 2006.
    22. ^ Bilefsky, Dan (30 July 2008). "Karadzic Sent to Hague for Trial Despite Violent Protest by Loyalists". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on 24 June 2017. Retrieved 25 September 2022.
    23. ^ "Bosnia war dead figure announced". BBC. 21 June 2007. Archived from the original on 9 April 2022. Retrieved 16 February 2013.
    24. ^ "Bosnia's dark days – a cameraman reflects on war of 1990s". CBC. 6 April 2012. Archived from the original on 15 June 2012. Retrieved 16 February 2013.
    25. ^ Logos 2019, p. 265, 412.
    26. ^ "Jolie highlights the continuing suffering of the displaced in Bosnia". UNHCR. 6 April 2010. Archived from the original on 29 January 2018. Retrieved 19 October 2010.
    27. ^ Hartmann, Florence. "Bosnia". Crimes of War. Archived from the original on 9 May 2015. Retrieved 30 April 2015.
    28. ^ Harsch, Michael F. (2015). The Power of Dependence: NATO-UN Cooperation in Crisis Management. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 37. ISBN 978-0-19-872231-1.
    29. ^ Burg & Shoup 2015, p. 222.
    30. ^ Crowe, David M. (2013). War Crimes, Genocide, and Justice: A Global History. Palgrave Macmillan. p. 343. ISBN 978-0-230-62224-1. Archived from the original on 23 January 2023. Retrieved 14 May 2016.


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    7 April 1906Mount Vesuvius erupts and devastates Naples.

    Mount Vesuvius

    Mount Vesuvius (/vɪˈsviəs/ viss-OO-vee-əs)[a] is a somma-stratovolcano located on the Gulf of Naples in Campania, Italy, about 9 km (5.6 mi) east of Naples and a short distance from the shore. It is one of several volcanoes forming the Campanian volcanic arc. Vesuvius consists of a large cone partially encircled by the steep rim of a summit caldera, resulting from the collapse of an earlier, much higher structure.

    The eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 AD destroyed the Roman cities of Pompeii, Herculaneum, Oplontis, Stabiae, and several other settlements. The eruption ejected a cloud of stones, ashes and volcanic gases to a height of 33 km (21 mi), erupting molten rock and pulverized pumice at the rate of 6×105 cubic metres (7.8×105 cu yd) per second.[5] More than 1,000 people are thought to have died in the eruption, though the exact toll is unknown. The only surviving eyewitness account of the event consists of two letters by Pliny the Younger to the historian Tacitus.[6]

    Vesuvius has erupted many times since. It is the only volcano on Europe's mainland to have erupted in the last hundred years. It is regarded as one of the most dangerous volcanoes in the world because 3,000,000 people live near enough to be affected by an eruption, with at least 600,000 in the danger zone. This is the most densely populated volcanic region in the world. Eruptions tend to be violent and explosive; these are known as Plinian eruptions.[7]

    1. ^ "Vesuvio nell'Enciclopedia Treccani". www.treccani.it (in Italian). Retrieved 7 February 2021.
    2. ^ Grasso, Alfonso, ed. (2007). "Il Vesuvio" [Vesuvius]. ilportaledelsud.org (in Italian). Retrieved 8 February 2021.
    3. ^ Castiglioni, Luigi; Mariotti, Scevola (2007). Vocabolario della lingua latina : IL : latino-italiano, italiano-latino / Luigi Castiglioni, Scevola Mariotti ; redatto con la collaborazione di Arturo Brambilla e Gaspare Campagna (in Italian) (4th ed.). Loescher. p. 1505. ISBN 978-8820166601.
    4. ^ "Vesuvio o Vesevius nell'Enciclopedia Treccani". www.treccani.it (in Italian). Retrieved 8 February 2021.
    5. ^ Woods, Andrew W. (2013). "Sustained explosive activity: volcanic eruption columns and hawaiian fountains". In Fagents, Sarah A.; Gregg, Tracy K. P.; Lopes, Rosaly M. C. (eds.). Modeling Volcanic Processes: The Physics and Mathematics of Volcanism. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 158. ISBN 978-0521895439.
    6. ^ Cite error: The named reference epistularum was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    7. ^ McGuire, Bill (16 October 2003). "In the shadow of the volcano". The Guardian. Retrieved 8 May 2010.


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    7 April 1906Mount Vesuvius erupts and devastates Naples.

    Mount Vesuvius

    Mount Vesuvius (/vɪˈsviəs/ viss-OO-vee-əs)[a] is a somma-stratovolcano located on the Gulf of Naples in Campania, Italy, about 9 km (5.6 mi) east of Naples and a short distance from the shore. It is one of several volcanoes forming the Campanian volcanic arc. Vesuvius consists of a large cone partially encircled by the steep rim of a summit caldera, resulting from the collapse of an earlier, much higher structure.

    The eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 AD destroyed the Roman cities of Pompeii, Herculaneum, Oplontis, Stabiae, and several other settlements. The eruption ejected a cloud of stones, ashes and volcanic gases to a height of 33 km (21 mi), erupting molten rock and pulverized pumice at the rate of 6×105 cubic metres (7.8×105 cu yd) per second.[5] More than 1,000 people are thought to have died in the eruption, though the exact toll is unknown. The only surviving eyewitness account of the event consists of two letters by Pliny the Younger to the historian Tacitus.[6]

    Vesuvius has erupted many times since. It is the only volcano on Europe's mainland to have erupted in the last hundred years. It is regarded as one of the most dangerous volcanoes in the world because 3,000,000 people live near enough to be affected by an eruption, with at least 600,000 in the danger zone. This is the most densely populated volcanic region in the world. Eruptions tend to be violent and explosive; these are known as Plinian eruptions.[7]

    1. ^ "Vesuvio nell'Enciclopedia Treccani". www.treccani.it (in Italian). Retrieved 7 February 2021.
    2. ^ Grasso, Alfonso, ed. (2007). "Il Vesuvio" [Vesuvius]. ilportaledelsud.org (in Italian). Retrieved 8 February 2021.
    3. ^ Castiglioni, Luigi; Mariotti, Scevola (2007). Vocabolario della lingua latina : IL : latino-italiano, italiano-latino / Luigi Castiglioni, Scevola Mariotti ; redatto con la collaborazione di Arturo Brambilla e Gaspare Campagna (in Italian) (4th ed.). Loescher. p. 1505. ISBN 978-8820166601.
    4. ^ "Vesuvio o Vesevius nell'Enciclopedia Treccani". www.treccani.it (in Italian). Retrieved 8 February 2021.
    5. ^ Woods, Andrew W. (2013). "Sustained explosive activity: volcanic eruption columns and hawaiian fountains". In Fagents, Sarah A.; Gregg, Tracy K. P.; Lopes, Rosaly M. C. (eds.). Modeling Volcanic Processes: The Physics and Mathematics of Volcanism. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 158. ISBN 978-0521895439.
    6. ^ Cite error: The named reference epistularum was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    7. ^ McGuire, Bill (16 October 2003). "In the shadow of the volcano". The Guardian. Retrieved 8 May 2010.


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    8 April 1943Otto and Elise Hampel are executed in Berlin for their anti-Nazi activities.

    Otto and Elise Hampel

    Elise and Otto Hampel's 1942 Gestapo pictures

    Otto and Elise Hampel were a working class German couple who created a simple method of protest against Nazism in Berlin during the middle years of World War II. They wrote postcards denouncing Hitler's government and left them in public places around the city. They were eventually caught, tried, and beheaded in Berlin's Plötzensee Prison in April 1943. Shortly after the end of the war, their Gestapo file was given to German novelist Hans Fallada, and their story inspired his 1947 novel, translated into English and published in 2009 as Every Man Dies Alone (Alone in Berlin in the UK). The story was filmed in 2016 as Alone in Berlin.

     
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    9 April 2003Iraq War: Baghdad falls to American forces.

    Battle of Baghdad (2003)

    The Battle of Baghdad, also known as the Fall of Baghdad, was a military engagement that took place in Baghdad in early April 2003, as part of the invasion of Iraq.

    Three weeks into the invasion of Iraq, Coalition Forces Land Component Command elements, led by the U.S. Army 3rd Infantry Division, captured Baghdad. Over 2,000 Iraqi soldiers as well as 34 coalition troops were killed in the battle. After the fall of Baghdad, Coalition forces entered the city of Kirkuk on April 10 and Tikrit on April 15, 2003. The United States officially declared victory against the Iraqi regime of Saddam Hussein on April 15, and President George W. Bush gave his Mission Accomplished Speech on May 1.

    Baghdad suffered serious damage to its civilian infrastructure, economy, and cultural inheritance from the battle and following unrest, including looting and arson. During the invasion, the Al-Yarmouk Hospital in south Baghdad saw a steady rate of about 100 new patients an hour.[7]


    Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

    1. ^ Woods, Kevin M. (2009). Iraqi Perspectives Project: A View of Operation Iraqi Freedom from Saddam's Senior Leadership (PDF). p. 145; 210. ISBN 978-0-9762550-1-7. Archived from the original (PDF) on June 9, 2010.
    2. ^ Iraq Coalition Casualties: Military Fatalities Archived March 26, 2010, at the Wayback Machine
    3. ^ "On April 4, 5th RCT ran into several hundred fedayeen from Syria, Jordan, Egypt, and other parts of the Middle East and Africa. The result was wholesale slaughter, but the cost was considerable: two Abrams tanks were destroyed by the attackers, while numerous vehicles sustained damage from RPG fire. The marines killed a senior general from the Republican Guard ... In addition, marine tankers destroyed twelve to fifteen T-72s and T-55s as well as numerous 37mm anti-aircraft guns, which the Iraqis attempted to use against advancing marines." The Iraq War, Wiiliamson Murray, Robert Scales, p.225, Harvard University Press, 2005
    4. ^ Myers, Steven Lee (April 7, 2003). "Iraqi Missile Hits Army Base". The New York Times. Archived from the original on June 27, 2018. Retrieved April 30, 2018.
    5. ^ "Wages of War – Appendix 1. Survey and assessment of reported Iraqi combatant fatalities in the 2003 War". comw.org. Archived from the original on September 2, 2009. Retrieved December 16, 2011.
    6. ^ Iraqi Death Toll, Health Perils Assessed by Medical Group Archived June 18, 2013, at the Wayback Machine
    7. ^ Cite error: The named reference usa was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
     
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    10 April 1939Alcoholics Anonymous, A.A.'s "Big Book", is first published.

    Alcoholics Anonymous

    Alcoholics Anonymous (AA) is a global peer-led mutual aid fellowship begun in the United States dedicated to abstinence-based recovery from alcoholism through its spiritually inclined twelve-step program.[1][2][3][4][5][6][7] AA's twelve traditions, besides stressing anonymity, establish it as non-professional, unafiliated, non-denominational and apolitical with a public relations policy of attraction rather than promotion.[2][3][8] In 2020 AA estimated a worldwide membership of over two million, with 75% of those in the US and Canada.[9][10]

    AA dates its founding to Bill Wilson’s (Bill W.) and Bob Smith’s (Dr. Bob) first commiseration alcoholic-to-alcoholic in 1935. Having met through AA's immediate precursor the Christian revivalist Oxford Group, they and other alcoholics helped each other there until forming what became AA. At first only white and male, neither by design or for long, the new fellowship published in 1939 Alcoholics Anonymous: The Story of How More than One Hundred Men Have Recovered from Alcoholism. Known as “the Big Book", it is also the origin of AA's name.[11][12][13]

    The Big Book debuted AA's suggested twelve steps as a continuing sobriety program of prayer, reflection, admission, better conduct and atonement, all to produce a "spiritual awakening" followed by taking others—usually sponsees—through the steps. Divining and following the will of an undefined God—"as we understood Him" or as “a higher power"—is integral to the steps, but differing practices and beliefs, including those of atheists and other non-theists, are accommodated.[8]

    To keep sobriety as its primary purpose, AA instituted its twelve traditions in 1950 to ensure membership to all wishing to stop drinking without any dues or fees required. They urge all memberships to be kept anonymous, especially in public media, but when anonymity is broken, no consequences are prescribed. The traditions also have AA avoiding hierarchies, dogma, public controversies and other outside entanglements as well as not acquiring property and for no members to use AA for material gain or public prestige. To stay independent and self-supporting, the traditions say no AA entity should accept outside financial aid.[14][15]

    For all demographics a 2020 scientific review found clinical interventions increasing AA participation via AA twelve step facilitation (AA/TSF) had sustained remission rates 20-60% above other well-established treatments. Additionally, 4 of the 5 economic studies in the review found that AA/TSF lowered healthcare costs considerably.[a][17][18][19] Regarding the disease model of alcoholism, an otherwise receptive AA has not endorsed it though many AA members have promoted it towards wider acceptance.[20]

    With AA’s permission other recovery fellowships such as Narcotics Anonymous and Al-Anon have adopted and adapted the twelve steps and traditions.[21]

    1. ^ Kitchin, Heather A. (December 2002). "Alcoholics Anonymous Discourse and Members' Resistance in a Virtual Community: Exploring Tensions between Theory and Practice". Contemporary Drug Problems. 29 (4): 749–778. doi:10.1177/009145090202900405. ISSN 0091-4509. S2CID 143316323.
    2. ^ a b AA Grapevine (15 May 2013), A.A. Preamble (PDF), AA General Service Office, archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022, retrieved 13 May 2017
    3. ^ a b Michael Gross (1 December 2010). "Alcoholics Anonymous: Still Sober After 75 Years". American Journal of Public Health. 100 (12): 2361–2363. doi:10.2105/ajph.2010.199349. PMC 2978172. PMID 21068418.
    4. ^ Mäkelä 1996, p. 3.
    5. ^ "Benign Anarchy: Voluntary Association, Mutual Aid and Alcoholics Anonymous | PDF | Alcoholics Anonymous | Twelve Step Program". Scribd. Retrieved 3 September 2022.
    6. ^ "New Cochrane Review finds Alcoholics Anonymous and 12-Step Facilitation programs help people to recover from alcohol problems". www.cochrane.org. Retrieved 13 February 2023.
    7. ^ Miller, Hannah (30 March 2020). "AA meetings, addiction counseling move online as social-distancing guidelines limit group gatherings". CNBC.
    8. ^ a b "Information on AA". aa.org. Retrieved 18 April 2019.
    9. ^ Tonigan, Scott J; Connors, Gerard J; Miller, William R (December 2000). "Special Populations in Alcoholics Anonymous" (PDF). Alcohol Health and Research World. 22 (4): 281–285. PMC 6761892. PMID 15706756. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022.
    10. ^ Alcoholics Anonymous (April 2016). "Estimates of A.A. Groups and Members As of December 31, 2020" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 17 December 2016. cf. Alcoholics Anonymous (2001). Alcoholics Anonymous (PDF) (4th ed.). Alcoholics Anonymous World Services. p. xxiii. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 17 December 2016.
    11. ^ "A Brief History of the Big Book | Alcoholics Anonymous". www.aa.org. Retrieved 5 December 2022.
    12. ^ "The Beginnings of The Twelve Traditions | Alcoholics Anonymous". www.aa.org. Retrieved 5 December 2022.
    13. ^ Bill W. (1957). "benign+anarchy" Alcoholics Anonymous Comes of Age: A Brief History of A.A. Harper, and Brothers. p. 224.
    14. ^ "The Twelve Traditions". The AA Grapevine. Alcoholics Anonymous. 6 (6). November 1949. ISSN 0362-2584. OCLC 50379271.
    15. ^ AA. "The Twelve Traditions of Alcoholics Anonymous (Long Form)" (PDF). Alcoholics Anonymous.
    16. ^ Kelly, John F.; Humphreys, Keith; Ferri, Marica (2020). "Alcoholics Anonymous and other 12-step programs for alcohol use disorder". Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 3 (CD012880): 15. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD012880.pub2. PMC 7065341. PMID 32159228.
    17. ^ Kelly, John F.; Humphreys, Keith; Ferri, Marica (2020). "Alcoholics Anonymous and other 12-step programs for alcohol use disorder". Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 3 (3): CD012880. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD012880.pub2. PMC 7065341. PMID 32159228.
    18. ^ Kelly, John F.; Abry, Alexandra; Ferri, Marica; Humphreys, Keith (2020). "Alcoholics Anonymous and 12-Step Facilitation Treatments for Alcohol Use Disorder: A Distillation of a 2020 Cochrane Review for Clinicians and Policy Makers". Alcohol and Alcoholism. 55 (6): 641–651. doi:10.1093/alcalc/agaa050. PMC 8060988. PMID 32628263.
    19. ^ "How Effective is Alcoholics Anonymous?".
    20. ^ Kurtz, Ernest (2002). "Alcoholics Anonymous and the Disease Concept of Alcoholism" (PDF). Alcoholism Treatment Quarterly. Informa UK Limited. 20 (3–4): 5–39. doi:10.1300/j020v20n03_02. ISSN 0734-7324. S2CID 144972034. Archived from the original (PDF) on 26 January 2012.
    21. ^ Chappel, JN; Dupont, RL (1999). "Twelve-Step and Mutual-Help Programs for Addictive Disorders". Psychiatric Clinics of North America. 22 (2): 425–46. doi:10.1016/S0193-953X(05)70085-X. PMID 10385942.


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    11 April 1970Apollo 13 is launched.

    Apollo 13

    Apollo 13 (April 11–17, 1970) was the seventh crewed mission in the Apollo space program and the third meant to land on the Moon. The craft was launched from Kennedy Space Center on April 11, 1970, but the lunar landing was aborted after an oxygen tank in the service module (SM) ruptured two days into the mission, disabling its electrical and life-support system. The crew, supported by backup systems on the lunar module (LM), instead looped around the Moon in a circumlunar trajectory and returned safely to Earth on April 17. The mission was commanded by Jim Lovell, with Jack Swigert as command module (CM) pilot and Fred Haise as lunar module (LM) pilot. Swigert was a late replacement for Ken Mattingly, who was grounded after exposure to rubella.

    A routine stir of an oxygen tank ignited damaged wire insulation inside it, causing an explosion that vented the contents of both of the SM's oxygen tanks to space.[note 1] Without oxygen, needed for breathing and for generating electric power, the SM's propulsion and life support systems could not operate. The CM's systems had to be shut down to conserve its remaining resources for reentry, forcing the crew to transfer to the LM as a lifeboat. With the lunar landing canceled, mission controllers worked to bring the crew home alive.

    Although the LM was designed to support two men on the lunar surface for two days, Mission Control in Houston improvised new procedures so it could support three men for four days. The crew experienced great hardship, caused by limited power, a chilly and wet cabin and a shortage of potable water. There was a critical need to adapt the CM's cartridges for the carbon dioxide scrubber system to work in the LM; the crew and mission controllers were successful in improvising a solution. The astronauts' peril briefly renewed public interest in the Apollo program; tens of millions watched the splashdown in the South Pacific Ocean on television.

    An investigative review board found fault with preflight testing of the oxygen tank and Teflon being placed inside it. The board recommended changes, including minimizing the use of potentially combustible items inside the tank; this was done for Apollo 14. The story of Apollo 13 has been dramatized several times, most notably in the 1995 film Apollo 13 based on Lost Moon, the 1994 memoir co-authored by Lovell – and an episode of the 1998 miniseries From the Earth to the Moon.

    1. ^ "Apollo 13 CM". N2YO.com. Retrieved August 18, 2019.
    2. ^ Orloff 2000, p. 309.
    3. ^ "Apollo 13 Command and Service Module (CSM)". NASA Space Science Data Coordinated Archive. Retrieved January 9, 2023.
    4. ^ "Apollo 13 Lunar Module / EASEP". NASA Space Science Data Coordinated Archive. Retrieved January 9, 2023.
    5. ^ Orloff 2000, p. 307.
    6. ^ "Apollo 13". NASA Space Science Data Coordinated Archive. Retrieved January 9, 2023.
    7. ^ Williams, David. "The Apollo 13 accident". NASA. The Apollo 13 malfunction was caused by an explosion and rupture of oxygen tank no. 2 in the service module.
    8. ^ Cortright 1975, p. 248-249: "I did, of course, occasionally think of the possibility that the spacecraft explosion might maroon us... Thirteen minutes after the explosion, I happened to look out of the left-hand window, and saw the final evidence pointing toward potential catastrophe. "
    9. ^ Accident report, p. 143.
    10. ^ Cooper 2013, p. 21: "Later, in describing what happened, NASA engineers avoided using the word "explosion;" they preferred the more delicate and less dramatic term "tank failure," and in a sense it was the more accurate expression, inasmuch as the tank did not explode in the way a bomb does but broke open under pressure."


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    12 April 1955 – The polio vaccine, developed by Dr. Jonas Salk, is declared safe and effective.

    Polio vaccine

    Polio vaccines are vaccines used to prevent poliomyelitis (polio).[2][3] Two types are used: an inactivated poliovirus given by injection (IPV) and a weakened poliovirus given by mouth (OPV).[2] The World Health Organization (WHO) recommends all children be fully vaccinated against polio.[2] The two vaccines have eliminated polio from most of the world,[4][5] and reduced the number of cases reported each year from an estimated 350,000 in 1988 to 33 in 2018.[6][7]

    The inactivated polio vaccines are very safe.[2] Mild redness or pain may occur at the site of injection.[2] Oral polio vaccines cause about three cases of vaccine-associated paralytic poliomyelitis per million doses given.[2] This compares with 5,000 cases per million who are paralysed following a polio infection.[8] Both types of vaccine are generally safe to give during pregnancy and in those who have HIV/AIDS but are otherwise well.[2] However, the emergence of circulating vaccine-derived poliovirus (cVDPV), a form of the vaccine virus that has reverted to causing poliomyelitis, has led to the development of novel oral polio vaccine type 2 (nOPV2) which aims to make the vaccine safer and thus stop further outbreaks of cVDPV2.[9]

    The first successful demonstration of a polio vaccine was by Hilary Koprowski in 1950, with a live attenuated virus which people drank.[10] The vaccine was not approved for use in the United States, but was used successfully elsewhere.[10] The success of an inactivated (killed) polio vaccine, developed by Jonas Salk, was announced in 1955.[2][11] Another attenuated live oral polio vaccine was developed by Albert Sabin and came into commercial use in 1961.[2][12]

    Polio vaccine is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines.[13][14]

    1. ^ Use During Pregnancy and Breastfeeding
    2. ^ a b c d e f g h i World Health Organization (2016). "Polio vaccines: WHO position paper – March, 2016". Weekly Epidemiological Record. 91 (12): 145–68. hdl:10665/254399. PMID 27039410.
    3. ^ World Health Organization (2022). "Polio vaccines: WHO position paper – June 2022". Weekly Epidemiological Record. 97 (25): 277–300. hdl:10665/357168.
    4. ^ Aylward RB (2006). "Eradicating polio: today's challenges and tomorrow's legacy". Annals of Tropical Medicine and Parasitology. 100 (5–6): 401–413. doi:10.1179/136485906X97354. PMID 16899145. S2CID 25327986.
    5. ^ Schonberger LB, Kaplan J, Kim-Farley R, Moore M, Eddins DL, Hatch M (1984). "Control of paralytic poliomyelitis in the United States". Reviews of Infectious Diseases. 6 (Suppl 2): S424–S426. doi:10.1093/clinids/6.Supplement_2.S424. PMID 6740085.
    6. ^ "Global Wild Poliovirus 2014–2019" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 3 February 2019. Retrieved 3 February 2019.
    7. ^ "Does polio still exist? Is it curable?". World Health Organization (WHO). Archived from the original on 29 May 2018. Retrieved 21 May 2018.
    8. ^ "Poliomyelitis". World Health Organization (WHO). Archived from the original on 18 April 2017. Retrieved 25 April 2017.
    9. ^ "GPEI-nOPV2". Archived from the original on 27 July 2021. Retrieved 1 August 2021.
    10. ^ a b Fox M (20 April 2013). "Hilary Koprowski, Who Developed First Live-Virus Polio Vaccine, Dies at 96". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 25 August 2017. Retrieved 8 September 2017.
    11. ^ Bazin H (2011). Vaccination: A History. John Libbey Eurotext. p. 395. ISBN 978-2742007752. Archived from the original on 8 September 2017.
    12. ^ Smith DR, Leggat PA (2005). "Pioneering figures in medicine: Albert Bruce Sabin – inventor of the oral polio vaccine". The Kurume Medical Journal. 52 (3): 111–116. doi:10.2739/kurumemedj.52.111. PMID 16422178.
    13. ^ World Health Organization (2019). World Health Organization model list of essential medicines: 21st list 2019. Geneva: World Health Organization. hdl:10665/325771. WHO/MVP/EMP/IAU/2019.06. License: CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 IGO.
    14. ^ World Health Organization (2021). World Health Organization model list of essential medicines: 22nd list (2021). Geneva: World Health Organization. hdl:10665/345533. WHO/MHP/HPS/EML/2021.02.
     
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    13 April 1997Tiger Woods becomes the youngest golfer to win the Masters Tournament.

    Tiger Woods

    Eldrick Tont "Tiger" Woods (born December 30, 1975) is an American professional golfer. He is tied for first in PGA Tour wins, ranks second in men's major championships, and holds numerous golf records.[4] Woods is widely regarded as one of the greatest golfers of all time and is one of the most famous athletes in modern history.[4] He is an inductee of the World Golf Hall of Fame.[5]

    Following an outstanding junior, college, and amateur golf career, Woods turned professional in 1996 at the age of 20. By the end of April 1997, he had won three PGA Tour events in addition to his first major, the 1997 Masters, which he won by 12 strokes in a record-breaking performance. He reached number one in the Official World Golf Ranking for the first time in June 1997, less than a year after turning pro. Throughout the first decade of the 21st century, Woods was the dominant force in golf. He was the top-ranked golfer in the world from August 1999 to September 2004 (264 consecutive weeks) and again from June 2005 to October 2010 (281 consecutive weeks). During this time, he won 13 of golf's major championships.

    The next decade of Woods's career was marked by comebacks from personal problems and injuries. He took a self-imposed hiatus from professional golf from December 2009 to early April 2010 in an attempt to resolve marital issues with his wife at the time, Elin. Woods admitted to multiple marital infidelities, and the couple eventually divorced.[6] He fell to number 58 in the world rankings in November 2011 before ascending again to the number-one ranking between March 2013 and May 2014.[7][8] However, injuries led him to undergo four back surgeries between 2014 and 2017.[9] Woods competed in only one tournament between August 2015 and January 2018, and he dropped off the list of the world's top 1,000 golfers.[10][11] On his return to regular competition, Woods made steady progress to the top of the game, winning his first tournament in five years at the Tour Championship in September 2018 and his first major in 11 years at the 2019 Masters.

    Woods has held numerous golf records. He has been the number one player in the world for the most consecutive weeks and for the greatest total number of weeks of any golfer in history. He has been awarded PGA Player of the Year a record 11 times[12] and has won the Byron Nelson Award for lowest adjusted scoring average a record eight times. Woods has the record of leading the money list in ten different seasons. He has won 15 professional major golf championships (trailing only Jack Nicklaus, who leads with 18) and 82 PGA Tour events (tied for first all time with Sam Snead).[13] Woods leads all active golfers in career major wins and career PGA Tour wins. Woods is the fifth (after Gene Sarazen, Ben Hogan, Gary Player and Jack Nicklaus) player to achieve the career Grand Slam, and the youngest to do so. He is also the second golfer out of two (after Nicklaus) to achieve a career Grand Slam three times.

    Woods has won 18 World Golf Championships. He was also part of the American winning team for the 1999 Ryder Cup. In May 2019, Woods was awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom by President Trump, the fourth golfer to receive the honor.[14]

    On February 23, 2021, Woods was hospitalized in serious but stable condition after a single-car collision and underwent emergency surgery to repair compound fractures sustained in his right leg in addition to a shattered ankle.[15] In an interview with Golf Digest in November 2021, Woods indicated that his full-time career as a professional golfer was over, although he would continue to play "a few events per year".[16] For the first time since the car crash, he returned to the PGA Tour at the 2022 Masters.

    1. ^ a b "Tiger Woods – Profile". PGA Tour. Archived from the original on September 10, 2017. Retrieved June 7, 2015.
    2. ^ "Week 24 1997 Ending 15 Jun 1997" (pdf). OWGR. Retrieved December 20, 2018.
    3. ^ 2009 European Tour Official Guide Section 4, p. 577 PDF 21. European Tour. Retrieved April 21, 2009. Archived January 26, 2010, at the Wayback Machine
    4. ^ a b
    5. ^ Harig, Bob (March 11, 2020). "Tiger Woods to be inducted into World Golf Hall of Fame in 2021". ESPN.
    6. ^ Cite error: The named reference legend was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    7. ^ "Westwood becomes world number one". BBC News. October 31, 2010.
    8. ^ Cite error: The named reference chevron was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    9. ^ "Complete list of Tiger Woods' injuries". PGA Tour. March 5, 2019.
    10. ^ DiMeglio, Steve (August 1, 2018). "With game on point, Tiger Woods is in perfect place to win again at Firestone". USA Today. Retrieved July 29, 2021.
    11. ^ Reid, Philip (August 14, 2018). "For the new Tiger Woods, second place is far from first loser". The Irish Times. Dublin.
    12. ^ Kelley, Brent (October 20, 2009). "Woods Clinches PGA Player of the Year Award". About.com: Golf. Archived from the original on June 11, 2011. Retrieved December 2, 2009.
    13. ^ "Tracking Tiger". NBC Sports. Archived from the original on June 3, 2009. Retrieved June 3, 2009.
    14. ^ Rogers, Katie (May 6, 2019). "'I've Battled,' Tiger Woods Says as He Accepts Presidential Medal of Freedom". The New York Times. Retrieved May 8, 2019.
    15. ^ Macaya, Melissa (February 23, 2021). "Tiger Woods injured in car crash". CNN. Retrieved July 30, 2021.
    16. ^ Rapaport, Dan (November 29, 2021). "Exclusive: Tiger Woods discusses golf future in first in-depth interview since car accident". Golf Digest. Retrieved November 30, 2021.


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    14 April 1927 – The first Volvo car premieres in Gothenburg, Sweden.

    Volvo

    The Volvo Group (Swedish: Volvokoncernen; legally Aktiebolaget Volvo, shortened to AB Volvo, stylized as VOLVO) is a Swedish multinational manufacturing corporation headquartered in Gothenburg. While its core activity is the production, distribution and sale of trucks, buses and construction equipment, Volvo also supplies marine and industrial drive systems and financial services. In 2016, it was the world's second-largest manufacturer of heavy-duty trucks with its subsidiary Volvo Trucks.[5]

    Volvo was founded in 1927. Initially involved in the automobile industry, Volvo expanded into other manufacturing sectors throughout the twentieth century. Automobile manufacturer Volvo Cars, also based in Gothenburg, was part of AB Volvo until 1999, when it was sold to the Ford Motor Company. Since 2010 Volvo Cars has been owned by the automotive company Geely Holding Group. Both AB Volvo and Volvo Cars share the Volvo logo and cooperate in running the Volvo Museum in Gothenburg, Sweden.[6]

    The corporation was first listed on the Stockholm Stock Exchange in 1935, and was on the NASDAQ indices from 1985 to 2007.[7] Volvo is one of Sweden's largest companies by market capitalisation and revenue.[8]

    1. ^ "Annual and Sustainability Report 2023" (PDF). AB Volvo. pp. 6, 57, 60–61, 81. Retrieved 5 March 2024.
    2. ^ "The foundations of Volvo Group". Volvo Group. 14 April 1927. Retrieved 12 December 2023.
    3. ^ "La historia de Volvo". Auto Bild España (in Spanish). 17 November 2013. Retrieved 12 December 2023.
    4. ^ "La historia de Volvo". Todas las noticias de coches (in Spanish). 23 February 2010. Retrieved 12 December 2023.
    5. ^ "Annual and Sustainability Report 2016" (PDF). Volvo. p. 1. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2 July 2017. Retrieved 8 June 2017.
    6. ^ "Home". Volvo Museum. Retrieved 28 October 2023.
    7. ^ "Volvo to quit Nasdaq". Toronto Star. 14 June 2007. Archived from the original on 20 October 2017. Retrieved 15 June 2017.
    8. ^ "Largest Swedish companies by market capitalization". companiesmarketcap.com. Retrieved 28 October 2023.


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    15 April 1952 – First flight of the Boeing B-52 Stratofortress.

    Boeing B-52 Stratofortress

    The Boeing B-52 Stratofortress is an American long-range, subsonic, jet-powered strategic bomber. The B-52 was designed and built by Boeing, which has continued to provide support and upgrades. It has been operated by the United States Air Force (USAF) since the 1950s, and NASA for over 40 years. The bomber can carry up to 70,000 pounds (32,000 kg) of weapons,[2] and has a typical combat range of around 8,800 miles (14,200 km) without aerial refueling.[3]

    Beginning with the successful contract bid in June 1946, the B-52 design evolved from a straight wing aircraft powered by six turboprop engines to the final prototype YB-52 with eight turbojet engines and swept wings. The B-52 took its maiden flight in April 1952. The B-52 has been in service with the USAF since 1955, and NASA from 1959 to 2007.[4] Built to carry nuclear weapons for Cold War–era deterrence missions, the B-52 Stratofortress replaced the Convair B-36 Peacemaker.

    Superior performance at high subsonic speeds and relatively low operating costs have kept them in service despite more advanced strategic bombers, such as the Mach 2+ Convair B-58 Hustler, the canceled Mach 3 North American XB-70 Valkyrie, the variable-geometry Rockwell B-1 Lancer, and the stealth Northrop Grumman B-2 Spirit. A veteran of several wars, the B-52 has dropped only conventional munitions in combat.

    The B-52's official name Stratofortress is rarely used; informally, the aircraft has become commonly referred to as the BUFF (Big Ugly Fat Fucker/Fella).[5][6][7][Note 1] There are 72 aircraft in inventory as of 2022;[9] 58 operated by active forces (2nd Bomb Wing and 5th Bomb Wing), 18 by reserve forces (307th Bomb Wing), and about 12 in long-term storage at the Davis-Monthan AFB Boneyard.[2][3][10][11][12] The bombers flew under the Strategic Air Command (SAC) until it was disestablished in 1992 and its aircraft absorbed into the Air Combat Command (ACC); in 2010, all B-52 Stratofortresses were transferred from the ACC to the new Air Force Global Strike Command (AFGSC). The B-52 completed 60 years of continuous service with its original operator in 2015. After being upgraded between 2013 and 2015, the last airplanes are expected to serve into the 2050s.

    1. ^ Knaack 1988, p. 291.
    2. ^ a b "Fact Sheets: 5th Bomb Wing". 30 October 2019. Archived from the original on 31 May 2021.
    3. ^ a b "B-52 Stratofortress". USAF. Retrieved 2 March 2023.
    4. ^ "B-52 Heavy-lift Airborne Launch Aircraft". NASA. 14 September 2023. Retrieved 25 February 2024.
    5. ^ Sanders, Gordon F (20 January 2018). "The Incredible 50-year-old Plane on the Front Lines of the North Korea Standoff". POLITICO Magazine.
    6. ^ "BUF". Wordorigins.org. Archived from the original on 27 July 2010.
    7. ^ B 52 Instant Thunder (Television production). Wings. Discovery Channel. 17 April 2019.
    8. ^ Flinn 1997, p. 138.
    9. ^ Cite error: The named reference WAF_2023 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    10. ^ "Facts Sheets: 2nd Bomb Wing". March 2021. Archived from the original on 2 November 2022.
    11. ^ "307th Bomb Wing-About Us". 25 September 2021. Archived from the original on 25 September 2021.
    12. ^ Trevithick, Joseph (19 February 2015). "I'll Be Damned, These Boneyard B-52s Can Still Fly". Medium.


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    16 April 1912Harriet Quimby becomes the first woman to fly an airplane across the English Channel.

    Harriet Quimby

    Harriet Quimby (May 11, 1875 – July 1, 1912) was an American pioneering aviator, journalist, and film screenwriter. In 1911, she became the first woman in the United States to receive a pilot's license and in 1912 the first woman to fly across the English Channel.[1][2] Although Quimby died at the age of 37 in a flying accident, she strongly influenced the role of women in aviation.

    1. ^ "Harriet Quimby". National Air and Space Museum.
    2. ^ Cite error: The named reference obit was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
     
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    17 April 2006 – A Palestinian suicide bomber detonates an explosive device in a Tel Aviv restaurant, killing 11 people and injuring 70.

    2006 Tel Aviv shawarma restaurant bombing

     
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    18 April 1923Yankee Stadium: "The House that Ruth Built" opens.

    Yankee Stadium (1923)

    The original Yankee Stadium was located in the Bronx in New York City. It was the home of the New York Yankees from 1923 to 2008, except for 19741975 when it was renovated. It hosted 6,581 Yankees regular season home games during its 85-year history. It was also the home of the New York Giants National Football League (NFL) team from October 21, 1956 through September 23, 1973. The stadium's nickname is "The House That Ruth Built"[3] which is derived from Babe Ruth, the baseball superstar whose prime years coincided with the stadium's opening and the beginning of the Yankees' winning history.

    The stadium was built from 1922 to 1923 for $2.4 million ($43 million in 2023 dollars). Its construction was paid for entirely by Yankees owner Jacob Ruppert, who was eager to have his own stadium after sharing the Polo Grounds with the New York Giants baseball team the previous ten years. Yankee Stadium opened for the 1923 season and was hailed at the time as a unique facility in the country. Over the course of its history, it became one of the most famous venues in the United States, hosting a variety of events and historic moments during its existence. Many of these moments were baseball-related, including World Series games, no-hitters, perfect games, and historic home runs, but the stadium also hosted boxing matches, the 1958 NFL Championship Game, college football, concerts, and three Papal Masses. Its condition deteriorated in the 1960s and 1970s, prompting its closure for renovation from October 1973 through 1975. The renovation significantly altered the appearance of the venue and reduced the distance of the outfield fences.[4]

    In 2006, the Yankees began building a new $2.3 billion stadium in public parkland adjacent to the stadium, which included $1.2 billion in public subsidies.[5] The design includes a replica of the frieze along the roof that had been part of the original Yankee Stadium. Monument Park, a Hall of Fame for prominent former Yankees, was relocated to the new stadium. Yankee Stadium closed following the 2008 season and the new stadium opened in 2009, adopting the "Yankee Stadium" moniker. The original Yankee Stadium was demolished in 2010, two years after it closed, and the 8-acre (3.2 ha) site was converted into a public park called Heritage Field.[6]

    1. ^ "8/3/1958 JEHOVAH'S WITNESSES CONVENTION - LARGEST CROWD Old Yankee Stadium Historical Plaque, Ruppert Plaza, Bronx, New York City" (Photo). flickr. April 2013. Retrieved October 9, 2019.
    2. ^ 1634–1699: McCusker, J. J. (1997). How Much Is That in Real Money? A Historical Price Index for Use as a Deflator of Money Values in the Economy of the United States: Addenda et Corrigenda (PDF). American Antiquarian Society. 1700–1799: McCusker, J. J. (1992). How Much Is That in Real Money? A Historical Price Index for Use as a Deflator of Money Values in the Economy of the United States (PDF). American Antiquarian Society. 1800–present: Federal Reserve Bank of Minneapolis. "Consumer Price Index (estimate) 1800–". Retrieved February 29, 2024.
    3. ^ "Yankee Stadium History – New York Yankees". newyork.yankees.mlb.com. Archived from the original on June 29, 2008. Retrieved September 24, 2015.
    4. ^ "Call it Yankee Stadium - but just isn't same". Spokesman-Review. Spokane, Washington. Associated Press. March 7, 1976. p. D8.
    5. ^ Neil deMause (January 15, 2009). "PRIVATE/PUBLIC COST BREAKDOWN FOR NEW YANKEES/METS STADIUMS, BY NEIL DEMAUSE, FIELDOFSCHEMES.COM, LAST UPDATE JANUARY 2009" (PDF). Retrieved September 17, 2015.
    6. ^ "The Yankee Stadium Redevelopment Project". New York City Department of Parks & Recreation. Retrieved May 16, 2010.
     
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    19 April 2013Boston Marathon bombing suspect Tamerlan Tsarnaev is killed in a shootout with police. His brother Dzhokhar is later captured hiding in a boat inside a backyard in the suburb of Watertown.

    Boston Marathon bombing

    The Boston Marathon bombing, sometimes referred to as just simply the Boston bombing,[4] was a domestic terrorist attack that took place during the annual Boston Marathon on April 15, 2013. Brothers Dzhokhar and Tamerlan Tsarnaev planted two homemade pressure cooker bombs that detonated near the finish line of the race 14 seconds and 210 yards (190 m) apart. Three people were killed and hundreds injured, including 17 who lost limbs.[1][5][6]

    On April 18, 2013, the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) released images of two suspects in the bombing.[7][8][9] The two suspects were later identified as the Tsarnaev brothers. Later on the evening of April 18, the Tsarnaev brothers killed an MIT policeman (Sean Collier) and proceeded to commit a carjacking. They engaged in a shootout with police in nearby Watertown during which two officers were severely injured (one of the injured officers, Dennis Simmonds, died a year later). Tamerlan was shot several times, and his brother Dzhokhar ran him over while escaping in the stolen car. Tamerlan died soon thereafter.

    An unprecedented manhunt for Dzhokhar Tsarnaev ensued, with thousands of law enforcement officers searching a 20-block area of Watertown.[10] Residents of Watertown and surrounding communities were asked to stay indoors, and the transportation system and most businesses and public places closed.[11][12] After a Watertown resident discovered Dzhokhar hiding in a boat in his backyard,[13] Tsarnaev was shot and wounded by police before being taken into custody on the evening of April 19.[14][15]

    During questioning, Dzhokhar said that he and his brother were motivated by the wars in Iraq and Afghanistan, that they were self-radicalized and unconnected to any outside terrorist groups, and that he was following his brother's lead. He said they learned to build explosive devices from the online magazine of al-Qaeda in the Arabian Peninsula.[16] He also said they had intended to travel to New York City to bomb Times Square. He was convicted of 30 charges, including use of a weapon of mass destruction and malicious destruction of property resulting in death.[17][18][19]

    Two months later, he was sentenced to death,[20] but the sentence was vacated by the United States Court of Appeals for the First Circuit.[21] A writ of certiorari was granted by the Supreme Court of the United States, which considered the questions of whether the lower court erred in vacating the death sentence. After hearing arguments as United States v. Tsarnaev, the Court upheld the death penalty, reversing the First Circuit Court's decision.[22][23]

    1. ^ a b Cite error: The named reference NYDN-5/15 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    2. ^ Cite error: The named reference AutoQU-1 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    3. ^ Cite error: The named reference cbs20130516 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    4. ^ https://www.bbc.com/news/world-us-canada-56482800
    5. ^ Cite error: The named reference globe-number-injured was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    6. ^ Cite error: The named reference cnn-what-we-know was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    7. ^ Cite error: The named reference Clark Estes was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    8. ^ Cite error: The named reference AutoLC-4 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    9. ^ Cite error: The named reference AutoLC-5 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    10. ^ Cite error: The named reference AutoLC-6 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    11. ^ Cite error: The named reference AutoLC-7 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    12. ^ Cite error: The named reference AutoZ2-1 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    13. ^ "Two unnamed officials say Dzhokhar Tsarnaev, 19, did not have a gun when he was captured Friday in a Watertown, Mass. backyard. Boston Police Commissioner Ed Davis said earlier that shots were fired from inside the boat." The Associated Press Wednesday, April 24, 2013, 8:42 PM.
    14. ^ Cite error: The named reference NY Times Standoff was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    15. ^ O'Neill, Ann (March 4, 2015). "Tsarnaev trial: Timeline of the bombings, manhunt and aftermath". CNN.
    16. ^ Cite error: The named reference AutoLC-8 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    17. ^ Cite error: The named reference DOJ affidavit was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    18. ^ Cite error: The named reference AutoLC-9 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    19. ^ "Dzhokhar Tsarnaev: Boston Marathon bomber found guilty". BBC News. April 8, 2015. Retrieved April 8, 2015.
    20. ^ "What Happened To Dzhokhar Tsarnaev? Update On Boston Marathon Bomber Sentenced To Death". International Business Times. April 16, 2017. Retrieved March 12, 2018.
    21. ^ Cite error: The named reference cnn appeal july312020 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    22. ^ "United States v. Tsarnaev". Oyez. Retrieved December 13, 2021.
    23. ^ Cite error: The named reference :0 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
     
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    19 April 2013Boston Marathon bombing suspect Tamerlan Tsarnaev is killed in a shootout with police. His brother Dzhokhar is later captured hiding in a boat inside a backyard in the suburb of Watertown.

    Boston Marathon bombing

    The Boston Marathon bombing, sometimes referred to as just simply the Boston bombing,[4] was a domestic terrorist attack that took place during the annual Boston Marathon on April 15, 2013. Brothers Dzhokhar and Tamerlan Tsarnaev planted two homemade pressure cooker bombs that detonated near the finish line of the race 14 seconds and 210 yards (190 m) apart. Three people were killed and hundreds injured, including 17 who lost limbs.[1][5][6]

    On April 18, 2013, the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) released images of two suspects in the bombing.[7][8][9] The two suspects were later identified as the Tsarnaev brothers. Later on the evening of April 18, the Tsarnaev brothers killed an MIT policeman (Sean Collier) and proceeded to commit a carjacking. They engaged in a shootout with police in nearby Watertown during which two officers were severely injured (one of the injured officers, Dennis Simmonds, died a year later). Tamerlan was shot several times, and his brother Dzhokhar ran him over while escaping in the stolen car. Tamerlan died soon thereafter.

    An unprecedented manhunt for Dzhokhar Tsarnaev ensued, with thousands of law enforcement officers searching a 20-block area of Watertown.[10] Residents of Watertown and surrounding communities were asked to stay indoors, and the transportation system and most businesses and public places closed.[11][12] After a Watertown resident discovered Dzhokhar hiding in a boat in his backyard,[13] Tsarnaev was shot and wounded by police before being taken into custody on the evening of April 19.[14][15]

    During questioning, Dzhokhar said that he and his brother were motivated by the wars in Iraq and Afghanistan, that they were self-radicalized and unconnected to any outside terrorist groups, and that he was following his brother's lead. He said they learned to build explosive devices from the online magazine of al-Qaeda in the Arabian Peninsula.[16] He also said they had intended to travel to New York City to bomb Times Square. He was convicted of 30 charges, including use of a weapon of mass destruction and malicious destruction of property resulting in death.[17][18][19]

    Two months later, he was sentenced to death,[20] but the sentence was vacated by the United States Court of Appeals for the First Circuit.[21] A writ of certiorari was granted by the Supreme Court of the United States, which considered the questions of whether the lower court erred in vacating the death sentence. After hearing arguments as United States v. Tsarnaev, the Court upheld the death penalty, reversing the First Circuit Court's decision.[22][23]

    1. ^ a b Cite error: The named reference NYDN-5/15 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    2. ^ Cite error: The named reference AutoQU-1 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    3. ^ Cite error: The named reference cbs20130516 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    4. ^ https://www.bbc.com/news/world-us-canada-56482800
    5. ^ Cite error: The named reference globe-number-injured was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    6. ^ Cite error: The named reference cnn-what-we-know was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    7. ^ Cite error: The named reference Clark Estes was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    8. ^ Cite error: The named reference AutoLC-4 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    9. ^ Cite error: The named reference AutoLC-5 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    10. ^ Cite error: The named reference AutoLC-6 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    11. ^ Cite error: The named reference AutoLC-7 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    12. ^ Cite error: The named reference AutoZ2-1 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    13. ^ "Two unnamed officials say Dzhokhar Tsarnaev, 19, did not have a gun when he was captured Friday in a Watertown, Mass. backyard. Boston Police Commissioner Ed Davis said earlier that shots were fired from inside the boat." The Associated Press Wednesday, April 24, 2013, 8:42 PM.
    14. ^ Cite error: The named reference NY Times Standoff was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    15. ^ O'Neill, Ann (March 4, 2015). "Tsarnaev trial: Timeline of the bombings, manhunt and aftermath". CNN.
    16. ^ Cite error: The named reference AutoLC-8 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    17. ^ Cite error: The named reference DOJ affidavit was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    18. ^ Cite error: The named reference AutoLC-9 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    19. ^ "Dzhokhar Tsarnaev: Boston Marathon bomber found guilty". BBC News. April 8, 2015. Retrieved April 8, 2015.
    20. ^ "What Happened To Dzhokhar Tsarnaev? Update On Boston Marathon Bomber Sentenced To Death". International Business Times. April 16, 2017. Retrieved March 12, 2018.
    21. ^ Cite error: The named reference cnn appeal july312020 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    22. ^ "United States v. Tsarnaev". Oyez. Retrieved December 13, 2021.
    23. ^ Cite error: The named reference :0 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
     
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    20 April 1968 – English politician Enoch Powell makes his controversial "Rivers of Blood" speech.

    Rivers of Blood speech

    Enoch Powell (1912–1998)

    The "Rivers of Blood" speech was made by British Member of Parliament (MP) Enoch Powell on 20 April 1968, to a meeting of the Conservative Political Centre in Birmingham, England. His speech made various remarks, which included strong criticism of significant Commonwealth immigration to the United Kingdom and the proposed Race Relations Act, which made it illegal to refuse housing, employment, or public services to a person on the grounds of colour, race, ethnic or national origins in the country. It became known as the "Rivers of Blood" speech, although Powell always referred to it as "the Birmingham speech". The former name alludes to a prophecy from Virgil's Aeneid which Powell, a former classical scholar, quoted:

    As I look ahead, I am filled with foreboding; like the Roman, I seem to see 'the River Tiber foaming with much blood'.[1]

    The speech caused a political storm, making Powell one of the most talked about and divisive politicians in the country; it led to his controversial dismissal from the Shadow Cabinet by Conservative Party Leader Edward Heath.[2] According to most accounts, the popularity of Powell's perspective on immigration may have been a decisive factor in the Conservatives' surprise victory in the 1970 general election, although he became one of the most persistent opponents of the subsequent Heath government.[2][3]

    1. ^ Heffer 1998, p. 449; the line in Virgil is Aen. VI, 87: [et] Thybrim multo spumantem sanguine cerno.
    2. ^ a b McLean 2001, pp. 129–30
    3. ^ Heffer 1998, p. 568
     
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    21 April 1977Annie opens on Broadway.

    Annie (musical)

    Annie is a musical with music by Charles Strouse, lyrics by Martin Charnin, and a book by Thomas Meehan. It is based on the 1924 comic strip Little Orphan Annie by Harold Gray (which in turn was inspired from the poem Little Orphant Annie by James Whitcomb Riley). The original Broadway production opened in 1977 and ran for nearly six years, setting a record for the Alvin Theatre (now the Neil Simon Theatre).[1] It spawned numerous productions in many countries, as well as national tours, and won seven Tony Awards, including for Best Musical. The musical's songs "Tomorrow" and "It's the Hard Knock Life" are among its most popular musical numbers.

    1. ^ Cite error: The named reference Morrison was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
     

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