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This day in .....

Discussion in 'Break Room' started by NewsBot, Apr 6, 2008.

  1. NewsBot

    NewsBot The Admin that posts the news.

    Articles:
    1
    25 July 2000Concorde Air France Flight 4590 crashes at Paris Charles de Gaulle airport, killing 113 people.

    Air France Flight 4590

    On 25 July 2000, Air France Flight 4590, a Concorde passenger jet on an international charter flight from Paris to New York, crashed shortly after takeoff, killing all 109 people on board and four on the ground. It was the only fatal Concorde accident during its 27-year operational history.[1]

    Whilst taking off from Charles de Gaulle Airport, the aircraft ran over debris on the runway, causing a tyre to explode and disintegrate. Tyre fragments, launched upwards at great speed by the rapidly spinning wheel, violently struck the underside of the wing, damaging parts of the landing gear – thus preventing its retraction – and causing the integral fuel tank to rupture. Large amounts of fuel leaking from the rupture ignited, causing a loss of thrust in the left-hand-side engines 1 and 2. The aircraft lifted off, but the loss of thrust, high drag from the extended landing gear, and fire damage to the flight controls made it impossible to maintain control. The jet crashed into a hotel in nearby Gonesse two minutes after takeoff. All nine crew and 100 passengers on board were killed, as well as four people in the hotel. Four other people sustained slight injuries.[2][3]

    In the wake of the disaster, the entire Concorde fleet was grounded. It returned to service on November 7, 2001, following the implementation of various modifications to the airframe, but to limited commercial success. The type was finally retired by Air France in May 2003 and by British Airways in November of the same year.

    1. ^ Ranter, Harro. "ASN Aircraft accident Aérospatiale / BAC Concorde 101 F-BTSC Gonesse". Aviation Safety Network. Flight Safety Foundation. Archived from the original on 31 March 2019. Retrieved 22 July 2019.
    2. ^ Barry, Ben (5 September 2019). "How Concorde Pushed the Limits – Then Pushed Them Too Far – Disaster and Aftermath". National Geographic. Archived from the original on 29 June 2020. Retrieved 29 June 2020.
    3. ^ "Accident on 25 July 2000 at La Patte d'Oie in Gonesse (95) to the Concorde registered F-BTSC operated by Air France (REPORT translation f-sc000725a)" (PDF). Bureau of Enquiry and Analysis for Civil Aviation Safety. 16 January 2002. Archived (PDF) from the original on 7 August 2021. Retrieved 29 September 2021.
     
  2. NewsBot

    NewsBot The Admin that posts the news.

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    1
    26 July 1952 – King Farouk of Egypt abdicates in favor of his son Fuad.

    Farouk of Egypt

    Farouk I (/fəˈrk/; Egyptian Arabic: فاروق الأول Fārūq al-Awwal; 11 February 1920 – 18 March 1965) was the tenth ruler of Egypt from the Muhammad Ali dynasty and the penultimate King of Egypt and the Sudan, succeeding his father, Fuad I, in 1936 and reigning until his overthrow in a military coup in 1952.

    His full title was "His Majesty Farouk I, by the grace of God, King of Egypt and the Sudan". As king, Farouk was known for his extravagant playboy lifestyle. While initially popular, his reputation eroded due to the corruption and incompetence of his government. He was overthrown in the 1952 coup d'état and forced to abdicate in favour of his infant son, Ahmed Fuad, who succeeded him as Fuad II. Farouk died in exile in Italy in 1965.

    His sister, Princess Fawzia bint Fuad, was the first wife and consort of the Shah of Iran, Mohammad Reza Pahlavi.[3]

    1. ^ Whiteman, Marjorie Millace; Hackworth, Green Haywood (1963). Digest of International Law (snippet view). Vol. 2. U.S. State Department. p. 64. OCLC 79506166. Retrieved 26 February 2010. The Egyptian Parliament amended the Constitution by Law 176 of 16 October 1951, to provide that the title of the King should be 'King of Egypt and the Sudan' instead of 'King of Egypt, Sovereign of Nubia, Sudan, Kordofan and Darfur'.
    2. ^ Rizk, Yunan Labib (3 August 2005). "Crowning moment". Al-Ahram Weekly (753). Archived from the original on 14 September 2008. Retrieved 25 February 2010.
    3. ^ "Princess Fawzia Fuad of Egypt". The Daily Telegraph. 5 July 2013. Archived from the original on 12 January 2022. Retrieved 16 July 2013.
     
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    NewsBot The Admin that posts the news.

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    27 July 1997 – About 50 people are killed in the Si Zerrouk massacre in Algeria.

    Si Zerrouk massacre

    The Si Zerrouk massacre took place in the Si Zerrouk neighborhood in the south of Larbaa in Algeria on 27 July 1997. About 50 people were killed.

     
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    28 July 1917 – The Silent Parade took place in New York City, in protest to murders, lynchings, and other violence directed towards African Americans.

    Silent Parade

    The Negro Silent Protest Parade,[1] commonly known as the Silent Parade, was a silent march of about 10,000 African Americans along Fifth Avenue starting at 57th Street in New York City on July 28, 1917. The event was organized by the NAACP, church, and community leaders to protest violence directed towards African Americans, such as recent lynchings in Waco and Memphis. The parade was precipitated by the East St. Louis riots in May and July 1917 where at least 40 black people were killed by white mobs, in part touched off by a labor dispute where blacks were used for strike breaking.[2][3]

    1. ^ "The Negro Silent Protest Parade organized by the NAACP Fifth Ave., New York City July 28, 1917" (PDF). National Humanities Center, Research Triangle Park, NC. National Humanities Center. 2014. Archived (PDF) from the original on July 28, 2017. Retrieved July 28, 2017.
    2. ^ Encyclopedia of the Harlem Renaissance: K–Y. Routledge. 2004. p. 752. ISBN 157958389X. Archived from the original on 2023-07-28. Retrieved 2020-10-17.
    3. ^ "The East St. Louis Race Riot Left Dozens Dead, Devastating a Community on the Rise". Smithsonian.com. Smithsonian Institution. June 30, 2017. Archived from the original on July 28, 2017. Retrieved July 28, 2017.
     
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    Articles:
    1
    29 July 2005 – Astronomers announce their discovery of the dwarf planet Eris.

    Eris (dwarf planet)

    Eris (minor-planet designation 136199 Eris) is the most massive and second-largest known dwarf planet in the Solar System.[22] It is a trans-Neptunian object (TNO) in the scattered disk and has a high-eccentricity orbit. Eris was discovered in January 2005 by a Palomar Observatory–based team led by Mike Brown and verified later that year. In September 2006, it was named after the Greco–Roman goddess of strife and discord. Eris is the ninth-most massive known object orbiting the Sun and the sixteenth-most massive overall in the Solar System (counting moons). It is also the largest known object in the solar system that has not been visited by a spacecraft. Eris has been measured at 2,326 ± 12 kilometers (1,445 ± 7 mi) in diameter;[12] its mass is 0.28% that of the Earth and 27% greater than that of Pluto,[23][24] although Pluto is slightly larger by volume.[25] Both Eris and Pluto have a surface area that is comparable to the area of Russia or South America.

    Eris has one large known moon, Dysnomia. In February 2016, Eris's distance from the Sun was 96.3 AU (14.41 billion km; 8.95 billion mi),[20] more than three times that of Neptune or Pluto. With the exception of long-period comets, Eris and Dysnomia were the most distant known natural objects in the Solar System until the discovery of 2018 AG37 and 2018 VG18 in 2018.[20]

    Because Eris appeared to be larger than Pluto, NASA initially described it as the Solar System's tenth planet. This, along with the prospect of other objects of similar size being discovered in the future, motivated the International Astronomical Union (IAU) to define the term planet for the first time. Under the IAU definition approved on August 24, 2006, Eris, Pluto and Ceres are "dwarf planets",[26] reducing the number of known planets in the Solar System to eight, the same as before Pluto's discovery in 1930. Observations of a stellar occultation by Eris in 2010 showed that it was slightly smaller than Pluto,[27][28] which was measured by New Horizons as having a mean diameter of 2,377 ± 4 kilometers (1,477 ± 2 mi) in July 2015.[29][30]

    1. ^ Cite error: The named reference discovery was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    2. ^ Cite error: The named reference New Planet was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    3. ^ "Eris". Lexico UK English Dictionary. Oxford University Press. Archived from the original on July 31, 2020.
      "Eris". Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary.
    4. ^ a b "Eris". Dictionary.com Unabridged (Online). n.d.
    5. ^ Noah Webster (1884) A Practical Dictionary of the English Language
    6. ^ a b c Cite error: The named reference jpldata was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    7. ^ Cite error: The named reference MPC was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    8. ^ Cite error: The named reference Buie2007 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    9. ^ Cite error: The named reference Morrison was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    10. ^ Ian Douglas (2013) Semper Human
    11. ^ Cite error: The named reference Horizons2257 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    12. ^ a b c Cite error: The named reference sicardy was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    13. ^ Cite error: The named reference Beatty2010-NewScientist was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    14. ^ a b c d Cite error: The named reference Holler2021 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    15. ^ Cite error: The named reference Szakats2022 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    16. ^ a b Cite error: The named reference Holler2018 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    17. ^ Cite error: The named reference Verbiscer2022 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    18. ^ "Eris Facts". Space Facts. Archived from the original on May 28, 2023. Retrieved May 26, 2021.
    19. ^ Cite error: The named reference Snodgrass et al. 2010 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    20. ^ a b c Cite error: The named reference AstDys was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    21. ^ Cite error: The named reference Brown-2003-UB313 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    22. ^ "Dwarf Planets". Canadian Space Agency. March 12, 2020. Archived from the original on November 26, 2020. Retrieved January 1, 2023.
    23. ^ Cite error: The named reference Brown Schaller 2007 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    24. ^ Cite error: The named reference 070614_eris_mass was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    25. ^ Cite error: The named reference NASA Pluto larger 2015 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    26. ^ Cite error: The named reference IAUPressRelease2006 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    27. ^ Cite error: The named reference Brown2010-occult was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    28. ^ Cite error: The named reference Brown2010-Plutosize was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    29. ^ "How Big Is Pluto? New Horizons Settles Decades-Long Debate". NASA. 2015. Archived from the original on July 13, 2015. Retrieved July 13, 2015.
    30. ^ Stern, S. A.; Grundy, W.; et al. (September 2018). "The Pluto System After New Horizons". Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics. 56: 357–392. arXiv:1712.05669. Bibcode:2018ARA&A..56..357S. doi:10.1146/annurev-astro-081817-051935. S2CID 119072504. Archived from the original on October 21, 2022. Retrieved April 5, 2022.


    Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

     
  6. NewsBot

    NewsBot The Admin that posts the news.

    Articles:
    1
    29 July 2005 – Astronomers announce their discovery of the dwarf planet Eris.

    Eris (dwarf planet)

    Eris (minor-planet designation 136199 Eris) is the most massive and second-largest known dwarf planet in the Solar System.[22] It is a trans-Neptunian object (TNO) in the scattered disk and has a high-eccentricity orbit. Eris was discovered in January 2005 by a Palomar Observatory–based team led by Mike Brown and verified later that year. In September 2006, it was named after the Greco–Roman goddess of strife and discord. Eris is the ninth-most massive known object orbiting the Sun and the sixteenth-most massive overall in the Solar System (counting moons). It is also the largest known object in the solar system that has not been visited by a spacecraft. Eris has been measured at 2,326 ± 12 kilometers (1,445 ± 7 mi) in diameter;[12] its mass is 0.28% that of the Earth and 27% greater than that of Pluto,[23][24] although Pluto is slightly larger by volume.[25] Both Eris and Pluto have a surface area that is comparable to the area of Russia or South America.

    Eris has one large known moon, Dysnomia. In February 2016, Eris's distance from the Sun was 96.3 AU (14.41 billion km; 8.95 billion mi),[20] more than three times that of Neptune or Pluto. With the exception of long-period comets, Eris and Dysnomia were the most distant known natural objects in the Solar System until the discovery of 2018 AG37 and 2018 VG18 in 2018.[20]

    Because Eris appeared to be larger than Pluto, NASA initially described it as the Solar System's tenth planet. This, along with the prospect of other objects of similar size being discovered in the future, motivated the International Astronomical Union (IAU) to define the term planet for the first time. Under the IAU definition approved on August 24, 2006, Eris, Pluto and Ceres are "dwarf planets",[26] reducing the number of known planets in the Solar System to eight, the same as before Pluto's discovery in 1930. Observations of a stellar occultation by Eris in 2010 showed that it was slightly smaller than Pluto,[27][28] which was measured by New Horizons as having a mean diameter of 2,377 ± 4 kilometers (1,477 ± 2 mi) in July 2015.[29][30]

    1. ^ Cite error: The named reference discovery was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    2. ^ Cite error: The named reference New Planet was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    3. ^ "Eris". Lexico UK English Dictionary. Oxford University Press. Archived from the original on July 31, 2020.
      "Eris". Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary.
    4. ^ a b "Eris". Dictionary.com Unabridged (Online). n.d.
    5. ^ Noah Webster (1884) A Practical Dictionary of the English Language
    6. ^ a b c Cite error: The named reference jpldata was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    7. ^ Cite error: The named reference MPC was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    8. ^ Cite error: The named reference Buie2007 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    9. ^ Cite error: The named reference Morrison was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    10. ^ Ian Douglas (2013) Semper Human
    11. ^ Cite error: The named reference Horizons2257 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    12. ^ a b c Cite error: The named reference sicardy was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    13. ^ Cite error: The named reference Beatty2010-NewScientist was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    14. ^ a b c d Cite error: The named reference Holler2021 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    15. ^ Cite error: The named reference Szakats2022 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    16. ^ a b Cite error: The named reference Holler2018 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    17. ^ Cite error: The named reference Verbiscer2022 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    18. ^ "Eris Facts". Space Facts. Archived from the original on May 28, 2023. Retrieved May 26, 2021.
    19. ^ Cite error: The named reference Snodgrass et al. 2010 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    20. ^ a b c Cite error: The named reference AstDys was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    21. ^ Cite error: The named reference Brown-2003-UB313 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    22. ^ "Dwarf Planets". Canadian Space Agency. March 12, 2020. Archived from the original on November 26, 2020. Retrieved January 1, 2023.
    23. ^ Cite error: The named reference Brown Schaller 2007 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    24. ^ Cite error: The named reference 070614_eris_mass was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    25. ^ Cite error: The named reference NASA Pluto larger 2015 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    26. ^ Cite error: The named reference IAUPressRelease2006 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    27. ^ Cite error: The named reference Brown2010-occult was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    28. ^ Cite error: The named reference Brown2010-Plutosize was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    29. ^ "How Big Is Pluto? New Horizons Settles Decades-Long Debate". NASA. 2015. Archived from the original on July 13, 2015. Retrieved July 13, 2015.
    30. ^ Stern, S. A.; Grundy, W.; et al. (September 2018). "The Pluto System After New Horizons". Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics. 56: 357–392. arXiv:1712.05669. Bibcode:2018ARA&A..56..357S. doi:10.1146/annurev-astro-081817-051935. S2CID 119072504. Archived from the original on October 21, 2022. Retrieved April 5, 2022.


    Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

     
  7. NewsBot

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    Articles:
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    30 July 2006 – The world's longest running music show Top of the Pops is broadcast for the last time on BBC Two. The show had aired for 42 years.

    Top of the Pops

    Top of the Pops (TOTP) is a British music chart television programme, made by the BBC and broadcast weekly between 1 January 1964 and 30 July 2006. The programme was the world's longest-running weekly music show. For most of its history, it was broadcast on Thursday evenings on BBC One. Each show consisted of performances of some of the week's best-selling popular music records, usually excluding any tracks moving down the chart, including a rundown of that week's singles chart. This was originally the Top 20, though this varied throughout the show's history. The Top 30 was used from 1969, and the Top 40 from 1984.

    Dusty Springfield's "I Only Want to Be with You" was the first song featured on TOTP, while the Rolling Stones were the first band to perform, with "I Wanna Be Your Man".[4] Snow Patrol were the last act to play live on the weekly show when they performed their single "Chasing Cars".[5] Status Quo made more appearances than any other artist, with a total of 87 (the first was with "Pictures of Matchstick Men" in 1968 and last with "The Party Ain't Over Yet" in 2005).[6][7]

    Special editions were broadcast on Christmas Day (and usually, until 1984, a second edition a few days after Christmas), featuring some of the best-selling singles of the year and the Christmas number one. Although the weekly show was cancelled in 2006,[8] the Christmas special continued annually. End-of-year round-up editions have also been broadcast on BBC1 on or around New Year's Eve, albeit largely featuring the same acts and tracks as the Christmas Day shows.[9][10][11] In a change of format, the festive specials did not return in 2022 or 2023 and were replaced by an end-of-year review show on BBC Two. It also survives as Top of the Pops 2, which began in 1994 and features vintage performances from the Top of the Pops archives. Though TOTP2 ceased producing new episodes since 2017, repeats of older episodes are still shown.

    The Official Charts Company states that "performing on the show was considered an honour, and it pulled in just about every major player".[12] The show has seen seminal performances over its history. The March 1971 appearance of T. Rex frontman Marc Bolan wearing glitter and satins as he performed "Hot Love" is often seen as the inception of glam rock, and David Bowie's performance of "Starman" inspired future musicians.[13][14] In the 1990s, the show's format was sold to several foreign broadcasters in the form of a franchise package, and at one point various versions of the show were shown in more than 120 countries.[4] Editions of the programme from 1976 onwards started being repeated on BBC Four in 2011 and are aired on most Friday evenings – as of 2024 the repeat run has reached 1995. Episodes featuring disgraced presenters and artists such as Jimmy Savile, Dave Lee Travis, Jonathan King, Ian Watkins (Lostprophets), R. Kelly, Rolf Harris, and Gary Glitter are no longer repeated.[15]

    1. ^ a b c d e Cite error: The named reference :1 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    2. ^ "TOP OF THE POPS". lostshows.com. Archived from the original on 5 January 2016. Retrieved 28 October 2015.
    3. ^ "BBC One London – 24 December 1964 – BBC Genome". BBC Genome. Archived from the original on 31 October 2020. Retrieved 30 July 2020.
    4. ^ a b "BBC says fond farewell to Top of the Pops". BBC. Archived from the original on 20 November 2018. Retrieved 21 September 2019.
    5. ^ "And the most-played song on UK radio is ... Chasing Cars by Snow Patrol". BBC News. 17 July 2019. Archived from the original on 26 November 2020. Retrieved 17 July 2019.
    6. ^ "Status Quo: Top of Top of the Pops". 21 June 2006.
    7. ^ "Episode #42.38". IMDb.
    8. ^ Show's over for Top of the Pops Archived 10 July 2020 at the Wayback Machine, The Guardian, 20 June 2006.
    9. ^ "Top of the Pops – FAQ's". BBC. 24 September 2014. Archived from the original on 5 July 2020. Retrieved 16 February 2016.
    10. ^ "Programme Information Network TV Weeks 52/1". BBC Press Office. Archived from the original on 30 November 2007. Retrieved 1 December 2007.
    11. ^ "Entertainment | Top of the Pops back at Christmas". BBC News. 20 November 2008. Archived from the original on 15 February 2009. Retrieved 16 February 2016.
    12. ^ "Looking back at Top Of The Pops, which ended 10 years ago this week". Official Charts Company. Archived from the original on 6 August 2020. Retrieved 20 September 2019.
    13. ^ Mark Paytress, Bolan – The Rise And Fall Of A 20th Century Superstar (Omnibus Press 2002) ISBN 0-7119-9293-2, pp 180–181.
    14. ^ "Bowie performs 'Starman' on 'Top of the Pops'". Seven Ages of Rock. BBC. 5 July 1972. Archived from the original on 21 March 2013.
    15. ^ Revoir, Paul (27 November 2015). "Top of the Pops will continue on BBC4 – but without Jimmy Savile and Dave Lee Travis episodes". Radio Times. Archived from the original on 14 June 2016. Retrieved 24 June 2016.
     
  8. NewsBot

    NewsBot The Admin that posts the news.

    Articles:
    1
    30 July 2006 – The world's longest running music show Top of the Pops is broadcast for the last time on BBC Two. The show had aired for 42 years.

    Top of the Pops

    Top of the Pops (TOTP) is a British music chart television programme, made by the BBC and broadcast weekly between 1 January 1964 and 30 July 2006. The programme was the world's longest-running weekly music show. For most of its history, it was broadcast on Thursday evenings on BBC One. Each show consisted of performances of some of the week's best-selling popular music records, usually excluding any tracks moving down the chart, including a rundown of that week's singles chart. This was originally the Top 20, though this varied throughout the show's history. The Top 30 was used from 1969, and the Top 40 from 1984.

    Dusty Springfield's "I Only Want to Be with You" was the first song featured on TOTP, while the Rolling Stones were the first band to perform, with "I Wanna Be Your Man".[4] Snow Patrol were the last act to play live on the weekly show when they performed their single "Chasing Cars".[5] Status Quo made more appearances than any other artist, with a total of 87 (the first was with "Pictures of Matchstick Men" in 1968 and last with "The Party Ain't Over Yet" in 2005).[6][7]

    Special editions were broadcast on Christmas Day (and usually, until 1984, a second edition a few days after Christmas), featuring some of the best-selling singles of the year and the Christmas number one. Although the weekly show was cancelled in 2006,[8] the Christmas special continued annually. End-of-year round-up editions have also been broadcast on BBC1 on or around New Year's Eve, albeit largely featuring the same acts and tracks as the Christmas Day shows.[9][10][11] In a change of format, the festive specials did not return in 2022 or 2023 and were replaced by an end-of-year review show on BBC Two. It also survives as Top of the Pops 2, which began in 1994 and features vintage performances from the Top of the Pops archives. Though TOTP2 ceased producing new episodes since 2017, repeats of older episodes are still shown.

    The Official Charts Company states that "performing on the show was considered an honour, and it pulled in just about every major player".[12] The show has seen seminal performances over its history. The March 1971 appearance of T. Rex frontman Marc Bolan wearing glitter and satins as he performed "Hot Love" is often seen as the inception of glam rock, and David Bowie's performance of "Starman" inspired future musicians.[13][14] In the 1990s, the show's format was sold to several foreign broadcasters in the form of a franchise package, and at one point various versions of the show were shown in more than 120 countries.[4] Editions of the programme from 1976 onwards started being repeated on BBC Four in 2011 and are aired on most Friday evenings – as of 2024 the repeat run has reached 1995. Episodes featuring disgraced presenters and artists such as Jimmy Savile, Dave Lee Travis, Jonathan King, Ian Watkins (Lostprophets), R. Kelly, Rolf Harris, and Gary Glitter are no longer repeated.[15]

    1. ^ a b c d e Cite error: The named reference :1 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    2. ^ "TOP OF THE POPS". lostshows.com. Archived from the original on 5 January 2016. Retrieved 28 October 2015.
    3. ^ "BBC One London – 24 December 1964 – BBC Genome". BBC Genome. Archived from the original on 31 October 2020. Retrieved 30 July 2020.
    4. ^ a b "BBC says fond farewell to Top of the Pops". BBC. Archived from the original on 20 November 2018. Retrieved 21 September 2019.
    5. ^ "And the most-played song on UK radio is ... Chasing Cars by Snow Patrol". BBC News. 17 July 2019. Archived from the original on 26 November 2020. Retrieved 17 July 2019.
    6. ^ "Status Quo: Top of Top of the Pops". 21 June 2006.
    7. ^ "Episode #42.38". IMDb.
    8. ^ Show's over for Top of the Pops Archived 10 July 2020 at the Wayback Machine, The Guardian, 20 June 2006.
    9. ^ "Top of the Pops – FAQ's". BBC. 24 September 2014. Archived from the original on 5 July 2020. Retrieved 16 February 2016.
    10. ^ "Programme Information Network TV Weeks 52/1". BBC Press Office. Archived from the original on 30 November 2007. Retrieved 1 December 2007.
    11. ^ "Entertainment | Top of the Pops back at Christmas". BBC News. 20 November 2008. Archived from the original on 15 February 2009. Retrieved 16 February 2016.
    12. ^ "Looking back at Top Of The Pops, which ended 10 years ago this week". Official Charts Company. Archived from the original on 6 August 2020. Retrieved 20 September 2019.
    13. ^ Mark Paytress, Bolan – The Rise And Fall Of A 20th Century Superstar (Omnibus Press 2002) ISBN 0-7119-9293-2, pp 180–181.
    14. ^ "Bowie performs 'Starman' on 'Top of the Pops'". Seven Ages of Rock. BBC. 5 July 1972. Archived from the original on 21 March 2013.
    15. ^ Revoir, Paul (27 November 2015). "Top of the Pops will continue on BBC4 – but without Jimmy Savile and Dave Lee Travis episodes". Radio Times. Archived from the original on 14 June 2016. Retrieved 24 June 2016.
     
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  10. NewsBot

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    1 August 2004 – A supermarket fire kills 396 people and injures 500 others in Asunción, Paraguay.

    Ycuá Bolaños supermarket fire

    The Ycuá Bolaños supermarket fire, also known as the Ycuá Bolaños Tragedy, was a disastrous fire that occurred on 1 August 2004 in Asunción, Paraguay. After the fire broke out, exits were locked to prevent people from stealing merchandise. The building also lacked adequate fire protection systems. Over 300 people were killed and more than 500 were injured. The president of the supermarket company, as well as various employees, were later sentenced to prison terms for their actions during the fire.

     
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    2 August 1989 – A massacre is carried out by an Indian Peace Keeping Force in Sri Lanka killing 64 ethnic Tamil civilians.

    1989 Valvettiturai massacre

    The 1989 Valvettiturai massacre occurred on 2 and 3 August 1989 in the small coastal town of Valvettiturai, on the Jaffna Peninsula in Sri Lanka. Sixty-four Sri Lankan Tamil civilians were killed by soldiers of the Indian Peace Keeping Force. The massacre followed an attack on the soldiers by rebel Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam cadres. The rebel attack had left six Indian soldiers, including an officer, dead, and another 10 injured. Indian authorities claimed that the civilians were caught in crossfire. Journalists such as Rita Sebastian of the Indian Express,[1] David Husego of the Financial Times and local human rights groups such as the University Teachers for Human Rights have reported quoting eyewitness accounts that it was a massacre of civilians.[2] George Fernandes, who later served as defense minister of India (1998–2004), called the massacre India’s My Lai.[3]

    1. ^ a b c Sebastian, Rita (24 August 1989). "Massacre at Point Pedro" (PDF). Indian Express. Archived from the original (PDF) on 1 July 2007. Retrieved 24 December 2008.
    2. ^ Hoole, Rajan. "Vadamaratchi: April/August 1989". University Teachers for Human Rights. Archived from the original on 29 April 2009. Retrieved 24 December 2008.
    3. ^ Sharma, Sitaram (1998). Contemporary political leadership in India: George Fernandes- The defense minister. APH Publications. ISBN 978-81-7024-999-3. p.211–212
     
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    3 August 2019 – Twenty-three people are killed and 23 injured in a shooting in El Paso, Texas.

    2019 El Paso shooting

    On August 3, 2019, a terrorist mass shooting occurred at a Walmart store in El Paso, Texas, United States. The gunman, 21-year-old Patrick Wood Crusius, killed 23 people[n 1] and injured 22 others.[14][15] The Federal Bureau of Investigation investigated the shooting as an act of domestic terrorism and a hate crime.[16][17] The shooting has been described as the deadliest attack on Latinos in modern American history.[18][19]

    Crusius surrendered and was arrested and charged with capital murder in connection with the shooting. He posted a manifesto with white nationalist and anti-immigrant themes on the imageboard 8chan shortly before the attack.[20] The manifesto cites the Christchurch mosque shootings earlier that year, and the far-right conspiracy theory known as the Great Replacement, as inspiration for the attack. On February 8, 2023, following an announcement that the Department of Justice would not seek the death penalty, Crusius pleaded guilty to 90 federal murder and hate crime charges.[21][22] On July 7, 2023, Crusius was sentenced to 90 consecutive life sentences, but he is currently pending trial for state charges that would still potentially result in the death penalty under Texas state jurisdiction if found guilty.[23][24]

    1. ^ "Accused El Paso mass shooter charged with 90 counts of federal hate crimes". Reuters. February 6, 2020. Archived from the original on February 12, 2020. Retrieved November 13, 2022.
    2. ^ Multiple sources:
      • "Terror from the Right". Southern Poverty Law Center. Archived from the original on November 11, 2019. Retrieved November 11, 2019.
      • Wilbur, Del Quentin (August 11, 2019). "FBI struggles to confront right-wing terrorism". Los Angeles Times. Archived from the original on December 27, 2019. Retrieved November 11, 2019. Indeed, the gunman who killed 22 people at a Walmart store in El Paso on Aug. 3 pushed the total number of victims slain in domestic right-wing terrorism since 2002 to 109.
      • Friedman, Uri (August 4, 2019). "How Many Attacks Will It Take Until the White-Supremacist Threat Is Taken Seriously?". The Atlantic. Archived from the original on January 19, 2021. Retrieved November 11, 2019. But in another sense, if U.S. authorities confirm that the document was written by the 21-year-old white male suspected of committing the atrocity, then there was plenty of time—numerous years in which violence by far-right, white-supremacist extremists has emerged as arguably the premier domestic-terrorist threat in the United States.
    3. ^ Borunda, Molly Smith, Aaron Montes and Daniel. "90 federal charges filed against El Paso Walmart mass shooting suspect". El Paso Times. Archived from the original on February 21, 2023. Retrieved February 21, 2023.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
    4. ^ a b "El Paso Shooting Victim Dies Months Later, Death Toll Now 23". The Seattle Times. Associated Press. April 26, 2020. Archived from the original on May 20, 2020. Retrieved April 26, 2020.
    5. ^ "Texas Man Pleads Guilty to 90 Federal Hate Crimes and Firearms Violations for August 2019 Mass Shooting at Walmart in El Paso, Texas". www.justice.gov. February 8, 2023. Archived from the original on February 9, 2023. Retrieved February 9, 2023.
    6. ^ a b c Eligon, John (August 7, 2019). "The El Paso Screed, and the Racist Doctrine Behind It". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on February 6, 2021. Retrieved October 26, 2019. The threat of the 'great replacement,' or the idea that white people will be replaced by people of color, was cited directly in the four-page screed written by the man arrested in the killing of 22 people in El Paso over the weekend [...] The shooting in the immigrant-rich town of El Paso on Saturday was among the deadliest attacks in the United States motivated by white extremism since the 1995 Oklahoma City bombing that killed 168 people, according to the A.D.L.
    7. ^ a b Maxouris, Christina; et al. (August 5, 2019). "El Paso vigils bring together a city in mourning after mass shooting". CNN. Archived from the original on February 14, 2021. Retrieved August 5, 2019.
    8. ^ Aguilera, Jasmine (August 3, 2020). "One Year After Mass Shooting, El Paso Residents Grapple With White Supremacy: 'It Was There the Whole Time'". Time. The shooting, however, brought white supremacy to El Paso's doorstep, forcing the city to confront anti-Latino racism and white supremacy that has always existed in the U.S.
    9. ^ Cite error: The named reference Achenbach was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    10. ^ "Federal Grand Jury in El Paso Returns Superseding Indictment against Patrick Crusius". July 9, 2020. Archived from the original on August 18, 2021. Retrieved May 14, 2022.
    11. ^ Cite error: The named reference Law was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    12. ^ "Death toll in El Paso shooting rises to 22 as investigators put together timeline of accused shooter's movements". CBS News. August 5, 2019. Archived from the original on February 8, 2021. Retrieved November 10, 2019.
    13. ^ Aguilar, Julián (August 5, 2019). "Death toll in El Paso shooting climbs to 22". The Texas Tribune. Archived from the original on February 4, 2021. Retrieved November 10, 2019.
    14. ^ Lin, Nina (August 5, 2019). "22 Dead, 24 Injured in El Paso Shooting: Texas Officials". WRC-TV/NBC News. Archived from the original on October 24, 2019. Retrieved September 16, 2019.
    15. ^ "Texas Man Pleads Guilty to 90 Federal Hate Crimes and Firearms Violations for August 2019 Mass Shooting at Walmart in El Paso, Texas". www.justice.gov. February 8, 2023. Archived from the original on February 9, 2023. Retrieved February 14, 2023.
    16. ^ "Texas Walmart shooting: El Paso attack 'domestic terrorism'". BBC News. August 5, 2019. Archived from the original on August 4, 2019. Retrieved August 4, 2019.
    17. ^ Romero, Simon; Fernandez, Manny; Padilla, Mariel (August 3, 2019). "Day at a Shopping Center in Texas Turns Deadly". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on August 4, 2019. Retrieved August 3, 2019.
    18. ^ Cite error: The named reference Murphy was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    19. ^ Cite error: The named reference Levin was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    20. ^ "Texas Man Pleads Guilty to 90 Federal Hate Crimes and Firearms Violations for August 2019 Mass Shooting at Walmart in El Paso, Texas". www.justice.gov. February 8, 2023. Archived from the original on February 9, 2023. Retrieved February 9, 2023.
    21. ^ "DOJ won't seek death penalty for El Paso Walmart shooter". AP NEWS. January 17, 2023. Archived from the original on January 17, 2023. Retrieved January 17, 2023.
    22. ^ "Texas man pleads guilty in racist 2019 Walmart attack". AP NEWS. February 8, 2023. Archived from the original on February 8, 2023. Retrieved February 8, 2023.
    23. ^ "Shooter who killed 23 at Texas Walmart sentenced to 90 life terms". Singapore: The Straits Times. July 7, 2023. Archived from the original on July 8, 2023. Retrieved July 8, 2023.
    24. ^ "Texas gunman in Walmart shooting gets 90 consecutive life sentences and may still face death penalty". AP NEWS. July 7, 2023. Archived from the original on July 7, 2023. Retrieved July 7, 2023.


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    3 August 2019 – Twenty-three people are killed and 23 injured in a shooting in El Paso, Texas.

    2019 El Paso shooting

    On August 3, 2019, a terrorist mass shooting occurred at a Walmart store in El Paso, Texas, United States. The gunman, 21-year-old Patrick Wood Crusius, killed 23 people[n 1] and injured 22 others.[14][15] The Federal Bureau of Investigation investigated the shooting as an act of domestic terrorism and a hate crime.[16][17] The shooting has been described as the deadliest attack on Latinos in modern American history.[18][19]

    Crusius surrendered and was arrested and charged with capital murder in connection with the shooting. He posted a manifesto with white nationalist and anti-immigrant themes on the imageboard 8chan shortly before the attack.[20] The manifesto cites the Christchurch mosque shootings earlier that year, and the far-right conspiracy theory known as the Great Replacement, as inspiration for the attack. On February 8, 2023, following an announcement that the Department of Justice would not seek the death penalty, Crusius pleaded guilty to 90 federal murder and hate crime charges.[21][22] On July 7, 2023, Crusius was sentenced to 90 consecutive life sentences, but he is currently pending trial for state charges that would still potentially result in the death penalty under Texas state jurisdiction if found guilty.[23][24]

    1. ^ "Accused El Paso mass shooter charged with 90 counts of federal hate crimes". Reuters. February 6, 2020. Archived from the original on February 12, 2020. Retrieved November 13, 2022.
    2. ^ Multiple sources:
      • "Terror from the Right". Southern Poverty Law Center. Archived from the original on November 11, 2019. Retrieved November 11, 2019.
      • Wilbur, Del Quentin (August 11, 2019). "FBI struggles to confront right-wing terrorism". Los Angeles Times. Archived from the original on December 27, 2019. Retrieved November 11, 2019. Indeed, the gunman who killed 22 people at a Walmart store in El Paso on Aug. 3 pushed the total number of victims slain in domestic right-wing terrorism since 2002 to 109.
      • Friedman, Uri (August 4, 2019). "How Many Attacks Will It Take Until the White-Supremacist Threat Is Taken Seriously?". The Atlantic. Archived from the original on January 19, 2021. Retrieved November 11, 2019. But in another sense, if U.S. authorities confirm that the document was written by the 21-year-old white male suspected of committing the atrocity, then there was plenty of time—numerous years in which violence by far-right, white-supremacist extremists has emerged as arguably the premier domestic-terrorist threat in the United States.
    3. ^ Borunda, Molly Smith, Aaron Montes and Daniel. "90 federal charges filed against El Paso Walmart mass shooting suspect". El Paso Times. Archived from the original on February 21, 2023. Retrieved February 21, 2023.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
    4. ^ a b "El Paso Shooting Victim Dies Months Later, Death Toll Now 23". The Seattle Times. Associated Press. April 26, 2020. Archived from the original on May 20, 2020. Retrieved April 26, 2020.
    5. ^ "Texas Man Pleads Guilty to 90 Federal Hate Crimes and Firearms Violations for August 2019 Mass Shooting at Walmart in El Paso, Texas". www.justice.gov. February 8, 2023. Archived from the original on February 9, 2023. Retrieved February 9, 2023.
    6. ^ a b c Eligon, John (August 7, 2019). "The El Paso Screed, and the Racist Doctrine Behind It". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on February 6, 2021. Retrieved October 26, 2019. The threat of the 'great replacement,' or the idea that white people will be replaced by people of color, was cited directly in the four-page screed written by the man arrested in the killing of 22 people in El Paso over the weekend [...] The shooting in the immigrant-rich town of El Paso on Saturday was among the deadliest attacks in the United States motivated by white extremism since the 1995 Oklahoma City bombing that killed 168 people, according to the A.D.L.
    7. ^ a b Maxouris, Christina; et al. (August 5, 2019). "El Paso vigils bring together a city in mourning after mass shooting". CNN. Archived from the original on February 14, 2021. Retrieved August 5, 2019.
    8. ^ Aguilera, Jasmine (August 3, 2020). "One Year After Mass Shooting, El Paso Residents Grapple With White Supremacy: 'It Was There the Whole Time'". Time. The shooting, however, brought white supremacy to El Paso's doorstep, forcing the city to confront anti-Latino racism and white supremacy that has always existed in the U.S.
    9. ^ Cite error: The named reference Achenbach was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    10. ^ "Federal Grand Jury in El Paso Returns Superseding Indictment against Patrick Crusius". July 9, 2020. Archived from the original on August 18, 2021. Retrieved May 14, 2022.
    11. ^ Cite error: The named reference Law was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    12. ^ "Death toll in El Paso shooting rises to 22 as investigators put together timeline of accused shooter's movements". CBS News. August 5, 2019. Archived from the original on February 8, 2021. Retrieved November 10, 2019.
    13. ^ Aguilar, Julián (August 5, 2019). "Death toll in El Paso shooting climbs to 22". The Texas Tribune. Archived from the original on February 4, 2021. Retrieved November 10, 2019.
    14. ^ Lin, Nina (August 5, 2019). "22 Dead, 24 Injured in El Paso Shooting: Texas Officials". WRC-TV/NBC News. Archived from the original on October 24, 2019. Retrieved September 16, 2019.
    15. ^ "Texas Man Pleads Guilty to 90 Federal Hate Crimes and Firearms Violations for August 2019 Mass Shooting at Walmart in El Paso, Texas". www.justice.gov. February 8, 2023. Archived from the original on February 9, 2023. Retrieved February 14, 2023.
    16. ^ "Texas Walmart shooting: El Paso attack 'domestic terrorism'". BBC News. August 5, 2019. Archived from the original on August 4, 2019. Retrieved August 4, 2019.
    17. ^ Romero, Simon; Fernandez, Manny; Padilla, Mariel (August 3, 2019). "Day at a Shopping Center in Texas Turns Deadly". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on August 4, 2019. Retrieved August 3, 2019.
    18. ^ Cite error: The named reference Murphy was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    19. ^ Cite error: The named reference Levin was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    20. ^ "Texas Man Pleads Guilty to 90 Federal Hate Crimes and Firearms Violations for August 2019 Mass Shooting at Walmart in El Paso, Texas". www.justice.gov. February 8, 2023. Archived from the original on February 9, 2023. Retrieved February 9, 2023.
    21. ^ "DOJ won't seek death penalty for El Paso Walmart shooter". AP NEWS. January 17, 2023. Archived from the original on January 17, 2023. Retrieved January 17, 2023.
    22. ^ "Texas man pleads guilty in racist 2019 Walmart attack". AP NEWS. February 8, 2023. Archived from the original on February 8, 2023. Retrieved February 8, 2023.
    23. ^ "Shooter who killed 23 at Texas Walmart sentenced to 90 life terms". Singapore: The Straits Times. July 7, 2023. Archived from the original on July 8, 2023. Retrieved July 8, 2023.
    24. ^ "Texas gunman in Walmart shooting gets 90 consecutive life sentences and may still face death penalty". AP NEWS. July 7, 2023. Archived from the original on July 7, 2023. Retrieved July 7, 2023.


    Cite error: There are <ref group=n> tags on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=n}} template (see the help page).

     
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    4 August 2007NASA's Phoenix spacecraft is launched.

    Phoenix (spacecraft)

    Phoenix was an uncrewed space probe that landed on the surface of Mars on May 25, 2008, and operated until November 2, 2008.[2] Phoenix was operational on Mars for 157 sols (161 days). Its instruments were used to assess the local habitability and to research the history of water on Mars. The mission was part of the Mars Scout Program; its total cost was $420 million, including the cost of launch.[3]

    The multi-agency program was led by the Lunar and Planetary Laboratory at the University of Arizona, with project management by NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory. Academic and industrial partners included universities in the United States, Canada, Switzerland, Denmark, Germany, the United Kingdom, NASA, the Canadian Space Agency, the Finnish Meteorological Institute, Lockheed Martin Space Systems, MacDonald Dettwiler & Associates (MDA) in partnership with Optech Incorporated (Optech) and other aerospace companies.[4] It was the first NASA mission to Mars led by a public university.[5]

    Phoenix was NASA's sixth successful landing on Mars, from seven attempts, and the first in Mars' polar region. The lander completed its mission in August 2008, and made a last brief communication with Earth on November 2 as available solar power dropped with the Martian winter. The mission was declared concluded on November 10, 2008, after engineers were unable to re-contact the craft.[6] After unsuccessful attempts to contact the lander by the Mars Odyssey orbiter up to and past the Martian summer solstice on May 12, 2010, JPL declared the lander to be dead. The program was considered a success because it completed all planned science experiments and observations.[7]

    1. ^ "Phoenix Launch Mission to the Martian Polar North" (PDF). NASA (published August 2007). July 5, 2007. Archived (PDF) from the original on January 22, 2023. Retrieved December 6, 2018.
    2. ^ a b Nelson, Jon (ed.). "Phoenix". Jet Propulsion Laboratory. Archived from the original on February 19, 2014. Retrieved February 2, 2014.
    3. ^ "The Cost of NASA's Phoenix Mission to Mars". The Planetary Society. Archived from the original on September 25, 2023. Retrieved December 2, 2020.
    4. ^ Webster, Guy; Brown, Dwayne (May 25, 2008). "NASA's Phoenix Spacecraft Reports Good Health After Mars Landing" (Press release). Pasadena, Ca.: Jet Propulsion Laboratory. 2008-82. Archived from the original on January 10, 2024. Retrieved May 26, 2008.
    5. ^ Peter Smith (2008). "Snow On Mars!". Forbes. Archived from the original on December 17, 2008.
    6. ^ Amos, Jonathan (November 10, 2008). "Probe ends historic Mars mission". BBC News. Archived from the original on January 23, 2023. Retrieved November 10, 2008.
    7. ^ Ian O'Neill (May 17, 2010). "Dear Phoenix lander, will you raise from the dead?". Discovery. Archived from the original on May 20, 2010.
     
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    5 August 2003 – A car bomb explodes in the Indonesian capital of Jakarta outside the Marriott Hotel killing 12 and injuring 150.

    2003 Marriott Hotel bombing

    A suicide bomber detonated a car bomb outside the lobby of the JW Marriott Jakarta hotel on August 5, 2003, killing 12 people and injuring 150. Those killed included 11 Indonesians and one Dutch national. The hotel was viewed as a Western symbol, and had been used by the United States embassy for various events.[1] The hotel was closed for five weeks and reopened to the public on September 8, 2003.

    1. ^ "Indonesia considers measures after attack" Archived 9 March 2012 at the Wayback Machine Taipei Times/Reuters 14 August 2003
     
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    6 August 2015 – A suicide bomb attack kills at least 15 people at a mosque in the Saudi city of Abha.

    2015 Abha mosque bombing

    The 2015 Abha mosque bombing occurred on 6 August 2015, when a suicide bomb attack killed 17 people at a mosque in the south-western Saudi Arabian city of Abha.[1][2][3][4][5]

    Responsibility for the attack, in a city near Saudi Arabia's southern border with Yemen, a country presently torn apart by the Yemeni Civil War, was claimed by a self-described affiliate of Islamic State of Iraq and Syria calling itself Hijaz Province of the Islamic State.[6][7]

    1. ^ a b "Suicide bomber kills 15 in Saudi security site mosque". Reuters UK. 6 August 2015. Retrieved 6 August 2015.
    2. ^ "Saudi says its citizen carried out mosque suicide blast". Retrieved 11 August 2015.
    3. ^ Kareem Shaheen (6 August 2015). "Islamic State claims suicide bombing at Saudi Arabian mosque". the Guardian. Retrieved 11 August 2015.
    4. ^ Hubbard, Ben (6 August 2015). "At Least 15 die at Saudi Mosque from Suicide Bomber". The New York Times.
    5. ^ Saudi Gazette. "Terror strikes mosque in Abha". Archived from the original on 10 August 2015. Retrieved 11 August 2015.
    6. ^ al-Shihri, Abdullah (7 August 2015). "Saudi Arabia mosque bombing that killed 15 claimed by 'new' Islamic State group". Sydney Morning Herald. Retrieved 7 August 2015.
    7. ^ "Islamic State group claims Saudi mosque suicide blast". BBC News. 6 August 2015. Retrieved 11 August 2015.
     
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    7 August 1858 – The first Australian rules football match is played between Melbourne Grammar and Scotch College.

    Australian rules football

    Australian rules football, also called Australian football or Aussie rules,[2] or more simply football or footy, is a contact sport played between two teams of 18 players on an oval field, often a modified cricket ground. Points are scored by kicking the oval ball between the central goal posts (worth six points), or between a central and outer post (worth one point, otherwise known as a "behind").

    During general play, players may position themselves anywhere on the field and use any part of their bodies to move the ball. The primary methods are kicking, handballing and running with the ball. There are rules on how the ball can be handled; for example, players running with the ball must intermittently bounce or touch it on the ground. Throwing the ball is not allowed, and players must not get caught holding the ball. A distinctive feature of the game is the mark, where players anywhere on the field who catch the ball from a kick (with specific conditions) are awarded unimpeded possession.[3] Possession of the ball is in dispute at all times except when a free kick or mark is paid. Players can tackle using their hands or use their whole body to obstruct opponents. Dangerous physical contact (such as pushing an opponent in the back), interference when marking, and deliberately slowing the play are discouraged with free kicks, distance penalties, or suspension for a certain number of matches depending on the severity of the infringement. The game features frequent physical contests, spectacular marking, fast movement of both players and the ball, and high scoring.

    The sport's origins can be traced to football matches played in Melbourne, Victoria, in 1858, inspired by English public school football games. Seeking to develop a game more suited to adults and Australian conditions, the Melbourne Football Club published the first laws of Australian football in May 1859.[4][5]

    Australian football has the highest spectator attendance and television viewership of all sports in Australia,[6][7] while the Australian Football League (AFL), the sport's only fully professional competition, is the nation's wealthiest sporting body.[8] The AFL Grand Final, held annually at the Melbourne Cricket Ground, is the second-highest-attended club championship event in the world. The sport is also played at amateur level in many countries and in several variations. Its rules are governed by the AFL Commission with the advice of the AFL's Laws of the Game Committee.

    1. ^ a b Collins, Ben (22 November 2016). "Women's football explosion results in record participation" Archived 22 November 2016 at the Wayback Machine, AFL. Retrieved 22 November 2016.
    2. ^ "About the AFL: Australian Football (Official title of the code)". Australian Football League. Archived from the original on 3 December 2013. Retrieved 20 June 2017.
    3. ^ 2012 Laws of the game Archived 22 May 2012 at the Wayback Machine Section 14, page 45
    4. ^ History Archived 13 December 2007 at the Wayback Machine Official Website of the Australian Football League
    5. ^ Wendy Lewis; Simon Balderstone; John Bowan (2006). Events That Shaped Australia. New Holland. p. 61. ISBN 978-1-74110-492-9.
    6. ^ Kwek, Glenda (26 March 2013). "AFL leaves other codes in the dust" Archived 6 November 2016 at the Wayback Machine, The Sydney Morning Herald. Retrieved 18 December 2016.
    7. ^ "AFL is clearly Australia's most watched Football Code, while V8 Supercars have the local edge over Formula 1" Archived 6 August 2020 at the Wayback Machine (14 March 2014), Roy Morgan. Retrieved 18 December 2016.
    8. ^ "The richest codes in world sport: Forget the medals, these sports are chasing the gold" (8 May 2014). Courier Mail. Retrieved 9 October 2016.
     
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    8 August 1969 – At a zebra crossing in London, photographer Iain Macmillan takes the iconic photo that becomes the cover image of the Beatles' album Abbey Road.

    Abbey Road

    Abbey Road is the eleventh studio album by the English rock band the Beatles, released on 26 September 1969. It is the last album the group recorded,[2] although Let It Be was the last album completed before the band's break-up in April 1970.[3] It was mostly recorded in April, July, and August 1969, and topped the record charts in both the United States and the United Kingdom. A double A-side single from the album, "Something" / "Come Together", was released in October, which also topped the charts in the US.

    Abbey Road incorporates styles such as rock, pop, blues, and progressive rock,[4] and makes prominent use of the Moog synthesizer and guitar played through a Leslie speaker unit. It is also notable for having a long medley of songs on side two that have subsequently been covered as one suite by other notable artists. The album was recorded in a more collegial atmosphere than the Get Back / Let It Be sessions earlier in the year, but there were still significant confrontations within the band, particularly over Paul McCartney's song "Maxwell's Silver Hammer", and John Lennon did not perform on several tracks. By the time the album was released, Lennon had left the group, though this was not publicly announced until McCartney also quit the following year.

    Although Abbey Road was an instant commercial success, it received mixed reviews upon release. Some critics found its music inauthentic and criticised the production's artificial effects. By contrast, critics today view the album as one of the Beatles' best ventures and it is considered by many to be one of the greatest albums of all time. George Harrison's two songs on the album, "Something" and "Here Comes the Sun", have been regarded as among the best he wrote for the group. The album's cover, featuring the Beatles walking across the zebra crossing outside of Abbey Road Studios (then officially named EMI Studios), has become one of the most famous and imitated in the history of recorded music.

    1. ^ Matthews, Rex D. (2007). Timetables of History for Students of Methodism. Abingdon Press. p. 224. ISBN 978-1426764592.
    2. ^ MacDonald 1997, p. 300.
    3. ^ MacDonald 1997, p. 322.
    4. ^ Perone, James E. The Album: A Guide to Pop Music's Most Provocative, Influential, and Important Creations. p. 215.
     
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    9 August 48 BCCaesar's Civil War: Battle of Pharsalus: Julius Caesar decisively defeats Pompey at Pharsalus and Pompey flees to Egypt.

    Battle of Pharsalus

    The Battle of Pharsalus was the decisive battle of Caesar's Civil War fought on 9 August 48 BC near Pharsalus in Central Greece. Julius Caesar and his allies formed up opposite the army of the Roman Republic under the command of Pompey.[6] Pompey had the backing of a majority of Roman senators and his army significantly outnumbered the veteran Caesarian legions.

    Pressured by his officers, Pompey reluctantly engaged in battle and suffered an overwhelming defeat, ultimately fleeing the camp and his men, disguised as an ordinary citizen. Eventually making his way to Egypt, he was assassinated upon his arrival at the order of Ptolemy XIII.[7]

    1. ^ History, Military (8 July 2019). "The Battle of Pharsalus, 9 August 48 BC | The Past". the-past.com. Retrieved 8 August 2023.
    2. ^ "Battle of Pharsalus | Summary, Facts, & Significance | Britannica". www.britannica.com. Retrieved 18 July 2023.
    3. ^ "Pharsalus (48 BCE) - Livius". www.livius.org. Retrieved 18 July 2023.
    4. ^ History, Military (8 July 2019). "The Battle of Pharsalus, 9 August 48 BC | The Past". the-past.com. Retrieved 18 July 2023.
    5. ^ Caesar, BC III 99,1.
    6. ^ "The Battle of Pharsalus". World History Encyclopedia. Retrieved 22 November 2021.
    7. ^ Goldsworthy, p. 431.


    Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-roman> tags or {{efn-lr}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-roman}} template or {{notelist-lr}} template (see the help page).

     
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    9 August 48 BCCaesar's Civil War: Battle of Pharsalus: Julius Caesar decisively defeats Pompey at Pharsalus and Pompey flees to Egypt.

    Battle of Pharsalus

    The Battle of Pharsalus was the decisive battle of Caesar's Civil War fought on 9 August 48 BC near Pharsalus in Central Greece. Julius Caesar and his allies formed up opposite the army of the Roman Republic under the command of Pompey.[6] Pompey had the backing of a majority of Roman senators and his army significantly outnumbered the veteran Caesarian legions.

    Pressured by his officers, Pompey reluctantly engaged in battle and suffered an overwhelming defeat, ultimately fleeing the camp and his men, disguised as an ordinary citizen. Eventually making his way to Egypt, he was assassinated upon his arrival at the order of Ptolemy XIII.[7]

    1. ^ History, Military (8 July 2019). "The Battle of Pharsalus, 9 August 48 BC | The Past". the-past.com. Retrieved 8 August 2023.
    2. ^ "Battle of Pharsalus | Summary, Facts, & Significance | Britannica". www.britannica.com. Retrieved 18 July 2023.
    3. ^ "Pharsalus (48 BCE) - Livius". www.livius.org. Retrieved 18 July 2023.
    4. ^ History, Military (8 July 2019). "The Battle of Pharsalus, 9 August 48 BC | The Past". the-past.com. Retrieved 18 July 2023.
    5. ^ Caesar, BC III 99,1.
    6. ^ "The Battle of Pharsalus". World History Encyclopedia. Retrieved 22 November 2021.
    7. ^ Goldsworthy, p. 431.


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    10 August 2001 – The 2001 Angola train attack occurred, causing 252 deaths.

    2001 Angola train attack

    The 2001 Angola train attack was an attack during the Angolan Civil War when on 10 August 2001 UNITA forces derailed a train travelling between towns of Zenza and Dondo with an anti-tank mine and then attacked the passengers with small arms fire.

    1. ^ "Train bombing signals new UNITA offensive in Angola". Wsws.org. 2009-01-13. Retrieved 2010-03-21.
     
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    11 August 1984 – "We begin bombing in five minutes": United States President Ronald Reagan, while running for re-election, jokes while preparing to make his weekly Saturday address on National Public Radio.

    We begin bombing in five minutes

    "We begin bombing in five minutes" is the last sentence of a controversial, off-the-record joke made by U.S. President Ronald Reagan in 1984, during the Cold War. While preparing for a scheduled radio address from his vacation home in California, Reagan joked with those present about outlawing and bombing Russia. The joke was not broadcast live, but was recorded and later leaked to the public. The Soviet Union criticized the joke, as did Reagan's opponent in the 1984 United States presidential election, Walter Mondale.

     
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    12 August 1964South Africa is banned from the Olympic Games due to the country's racist policies.

    Apartheid

    "Reserved for the sole use of members of the white race group" sign in English, Afrikaans, and Zulu at a beach in Durban, 1989

    Apartheid (/əˈpɑːrt(h)t/ ə-PART-(h)yte, especially South African English/əˈpɑːrt(h)t/ ə-PART-(h)ayt, Afrikaans: [aˈpartɦɛit] ; transl. "separateness", lit.'aparthood') was a system of institutionalised racial segregation that existed in South Africa and South West Africa[a] (now Namibia) from 1948 to the early 1990s.[note 1] Apartheid was characterised by an authoritarian political culture based on baasskap (lit. 'boss-ship' or 'boss-hood'), which ensured that South Africa was dominated politically, socially, and economically by the nation's minority white population.[4] In this minoritarian system, there was social stratification, where white citizens had the highest status, followed by Indians and Coloureds, then Black Africans.[4] The economic legacy and social effects of apartheid continue to the present day, particularly inequality.[5][6][7][8]

    Broadly speaking, apartheid was delineated into petty apartheid, which entailed the segregation of public facilities and social events, and grand apartheid, which dictated housing and employment opportunities by race.[9] The first apartheid law was the Prohibition of Mixed Marriages Act, 1949, followed closely by the Immorality Amendment Act of 1950, which made it illegal for most South African citizens to marry or pursue sexual relationships across racial lines.[10] The Population Registration Act, 1950 classified all South Africans into one of four racial groups based on appearance, known ancestry, socioeconomic status, and cultural lifestyle: "Black", "White", "Coloured", and "Indian", the last two of which included several sub-classifications.[11] Places of residence were determined by racial classification.[10] Between 1960 and 1983, 3.5 million black Africans were removed from their homes and forced into segregated neighbourhoods as a result of apartheid legislation, in some of the largest mass evictions in modern history.[12] Most of these targeted removals were intended to restrict the black population to ten designated "tribal homelands", also known as bantustans, four of which became nominally independent states.[10] The government announced that relocated persons would lose their South African citizenship as they were absorbed into the bantustans.[9]

    Apartheid sparked significant international and domestic opposition, resulting in some of the most influential global social movements of the 20th century.[13] It was the target of frequent condemnation in the United Nations and brought about extensive international sanctions, including arms embargoes and economic sanctions on South Africa.[14] During the 1970s and 1980s, internal resistance to apartheid became increasingly militant, prompting brutal crackdowns by the National Party ruling government and protracted sectarian violence that left thousands dead or in detention.[15] The Truth and Reconciliation Commission found that there were 21,000 deaths from political violence, with 7,000 deaths between 1948 and 1989, and 14,000 deaths and 22,000 injuries in the transition period between 1990 and 1994.[16][17] Some reforms of the apartheid system were undertaken, including allowing for Indian and Coloured political representation in parliament, but these measures failed to appease most activist groups.[18]

    Between 1987 and 1993, the National Party entered into bilateral negotiations with the African National Congress (ANC), the leading anti-apartheid political movement, for ending segregation and introducing majority rule.[18][19] In 1990, prominent ANC figures such as Nelson Mandela were released from prison.[20] Apartheid legislation was repealed on 17 June 1991,[2] leading to multiracial elections in April 1994.[21]


    Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

    1. ^ "Repeal of Population Registration Act". C-Span. 17 June 1991. Archived from the original on 12 June 2018. Retrieved 7 June 2018.
    2. ^ a b Myre, Greg (18 June 1991). "South Africa ends racial classifications". Cape Girardeau: Southeast Missourian. Associated Press. Archived from the original on 8 June 2020. Retrieved 1 March 2018.
    3. ^ Bartusis, Mark (2012). Gomez, Edmund; Premdas, Ralph (eds.). Affirmative Action, Ethnicity and Conflict. New York: Routledge Books. pp. 126–132. ISBN 978-0415627689.
    4. ^ a b Mayne, Alan (1999). From Politics Past to Politics Future: An Integrated Analysis of Current and Emergent Paradigms. Westport, Connecticut: Praeger. p. 52. ISBN 978-0-275-96151-0.
    5. ^ Leander (15 June 2015). "Despite the 1994 political victory against apartheid, its economic legacy persists by Haydn Cornish-Jenkins". South African History Online. Archived from the original on 2 May 2018. Retrieved 2 May 2018.
    6. ^ Moeti, Thato (27 April 2018). "Apartheid legacy haunts SA economy". www.sabcnews.com. SABC News. Archived from the original on 19 November 2018. Retrieved 2 May 2018.
    7. ^ Hirsch, Alan (6 April 2018). "Ramaphosa's tough job on fixing Apartheid legacy". The Conversation Africa. AllAfrica.
    8. ^ Msimang, Sisonke (12 December 2017). "All Is Not Forgiven: South Africa and the Scars of Apartheid". Foreign Affairs. No. January/February 2018. ISSN 0015-7120. Retrieved 20 November 2023.
    9. ^ a b Crompton, Samuel Willard (2007). Desmond Tutu: Fighting Apartheid. New York: Chelsea House, Publishers. pp. 34–35. ISBN 978-0791092217.
    10. ^ a b c Walton, F. Carl; Udayakumar, S.P.; Muck, William; McIlwain, Charlton; Kramer, Eric; Jensen, Robert; Ibrahim, Vivian; Caliendo, Stephen Maynard; Asher, Nhia (2011). The Routledge Companion to Race and Ethnicity. New York: Routledge Books. pp. 103–105. ISBN 978-0415777070.
    11. ^ Baldwin-Ragaven, Laurel; London, Lesley; du Gruchy, Jeanelle (1999). An ambulance of the wrong colour: health professionals, human rights and ethics in South Africa. Juta and Company Limited. p. 18.
    12. ^ "South Africa – Overcoming Apartheid". African Studies Center of Michigan State University. Archived from the original on 14 December 2013. Retrieved 26 December 2013.
    13. ^ Lodge, Tim (2011). Sharpeville: An Apartheid Massacre and Its Consequences. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 234–235. ISBN 978-0192801852.
    14. ^ Lodge, Tom (1983). Black Politics in South Africa Since 1945. New York: Longman.
    15. ^ Pandey, Satish Chandra (2006). International Terrorism and the Contemporary World. New Delhi: Sarup & Sons, Publishers. pp. 197–199. ISBN 978-8176256384.
    16. ^ Ugorji, Basil (2012). From Cultural Justice to Inter-Ethnic Mediation: A Reflection on the Possibility of Ethno-Religious Mediation in Africa. Denver: Outskirts Press. pp. 65–66. ISBN 978-1432788353.
    17. ^ "SAPA - 27 May 97 - HRC SUBMITS APARTHEID REPRESSION BOOK TO TRUTH BODY".
    18. ^ a b Thomas, Scott (1995). The Diplomacy of Liberation: The Foreign Relations of the ANC Since 1960. London: Tauris Academic Studies. pp. 202–210. ISBN 978-1850439936.
    19. ^ "De Klerk dismantles apartheid in South Africa". BBC News. 2 February 1990. Archived from the original on 15 February 2009. Retrieved 21 February 2009.
    20. ^ Alex Duval Smith (31 January 2010). "Why FW de Klerk let Nelson Mandela out of prison". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 17 March 2016. Retrieved 25 March 2016.
    21. ^ Mitchell, Thomas (2008). Native vs Settler: Ethnic Conflict in Israel/Palestine, Northern Ireland and South Africa. Westport: Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 8. ISBN 978-0313313578.


    Cite error: There are <ref group=note> tags on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=note}} template (see the help page).

     
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    12 August 1964South Africa is banned from the Olympic Games due to the country's racist policies.

    Apartheid

    "Reserved for the sole use of members of the white race group" sign in English, Afrikaans, and Zulu at a beach in Durban, 1989

    Apartheid (/əˈpɑːrt(h)t/ ə-PART-(h)yte, especially South African English/əˈpɑːrt(h)t/ ə-PART-(h)ayt, Afrikaans: [aˈpartɦɛit] ; transl. "separateness", lit.'aparthood') was a system of institutionalised racial segregation that existed in South Africa and South West Africa[a] (now Namibia) from 1948 to the early 1990s.[note 1] Apartheid was characterised by an authoritarian political culture based on baasskap (lit. 'boss-ship' or 'boss-hood'), which ensured that South Africa was dominated politically, socially, and economically by the nation's minority white population.[4] In this minoritarian system, there was social stratification, where white citizens had the highest status, followed by Indians and Coloureds, then Black Africans.[4] The economic legacy and social effects of apartheid continue to the present day, particularly inequality.[5][6][7][8]

    Broadly speaking, apartheid was delineated into petty apartheid, which entailed the segregation of public facilities and social events, and grand apartheid, which dictated housing and employment opportunities by race.[9] The first apartheid law was the Prohibition of Mixed Marriages Act, 1949, followed closely by the Immorality Amendment Act of 1950, which made it illegal for most South African citizens to marry or pursue sexual relationships across racial lines.[10] The Population Registration Act, 1950 classified all South Africans into one of four racial groups based on appearance, known ancestry, socioeconomic status, and cultural lifestyle: "Black", "White", "Coloured", and "Indian", the last two of which included several sub-classifications.[11] Places of residence were determined by racial classification.[10] Between 1960 and 1983, 3.5 million black Africans were removed from their homes and forced into segregated neighbourhoods as a result of apartheid legislation, in some of the largest mass evictions in modern history.[12] Most of these targeted removals were intended to restrict the black population to ten designated "tribal homelands", also known as bantustans, four of which became nominally independent states.[10] The government announced that relocated persons would lose their South African citizenship as they were absorbed into the bantustans.[9]

    Apartheid sparked significant international and domestic opposition, resulting in some of the most influential global social movements of the 20th century.[13] It was the target of frequent condemnation in the United Nations and brought about extensive international sanctions, including arms embargoes and economic sanctions on South Africa.[14] During the 1970s and 1980s, internal resistance to apartheid became increasingly militant, prompting brutal crackdowns by the National Party ruling government and protracted sectarian violence that left thousands dead or in detention.[15] The Truth and Reconciliation Commission found that there were 21,000 deaths from political violence, with 7,000 deaths between 1948 and 1989, and 14,000 deaths and 22,000 injuries in the transition period between 1990 and 1994.[16][17] Some reforms of the apartheid system were undertaken, including allowing for Indian and Coloured political representation in parliament, but these measures failed to appease most activist groups.[18]

    Between 1987 and 1993, the National Party entered into bilateral negotiations with the African National Congress (ANC), the leading anti-apartheid political movement, for ending segregation and introducing majority rule.[18][19] In 1990, prominent ANC figures such as Nelson Mandela were released from prison.[20] Apartheid legislation was repealed on 17 June 1991,[2] leading to multiracial elections in April 1994.[21]


    Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

    1. ^ "Repeal of Population Registration Act". C-Span. 17 June 1991. Archived from the original on 12 June 2018. Retrieved 7 June 2018.
    2. ^ a b Myre, Greg (18 June 1991). "South Africa ends racial classifications". Cape Girardeau: Southeast Missourian. Associated Press. Archived from the original on 8 June 2020. Retrieved 1 March 2018.
    3. ^ Bartusis, Mark (2012). Gomez, Edmund; Premdas, Ralph (eds.). Affirmative Action, Ethnicity and Conflict. New York: Routledge Books. pp. 126–132. ISBN 978-0415627689.
    4. ^ a b Mayne, Alan (1999). From Politics Past to Politics Future: An Integrated Analysis of Current and Emergent Paradigms. Westport, Connecticut: Praeger. p. 52. ISBN 978-0-275-96151-0.
    5. ^ Leander (15 June 2015). "Despite the 1994 political victory against apartheid, its economic legacy persists by Haydn Cornish-Jenkins". South African History Online. Archived from the original on 2 May 2018. Retrieved 2 May 2018.
    6. ^ Moeti, Thato (27 April 2018). "Apartheid legacy haunts SA economy". www.sabcnews.com. SABC News. Archived from the original on 19 November 2018. Retrieved 2 May 2018.
    7. ^ Hirsch, Alan (6 April 2018). "Ramaphosa's tough job on fixing Apartheid legacy". The Conversation Africa. AllAfrica.
    8. ^ Msimang, Sisonke (12 December 2017). "All Is Not Forgiven: South Africa and the Scars of Apartheid". Foreign Affairs. No. January/February 2018. ISSN 0015-7120. Retrieved 20 November 2023.
    9. ^ a b Crompton, Samuel Willard (2007). Desmond Tutu: Fighting Apartheid. New York: Chelsea House, Publishers. pp. 34–35. ISBN 978-0791092217.
    10. ^ a b c Walton, F. Carl; Udayakumar, S.P.; Muck, William; McIlwain, Charlton; Kramer, Eric; Jensen, Robert; Ibrahim, Vivian; Caliendo, Stephen Maynard; Asher, Nhia (2011). The Routledge Companion to Race and Ethnicity. New York: Routledge Books. pp. 103–105. ISBN 978-0415777070.
    11. ^ Baldwin-Ragaven, Laurel; London, Lesley; du Gruchy, Jeanelle (1999). An ambulance of the wrong colour: health professionals, human rights and ethics in South Africa. Juta and Company Limited. p. 18.
    12. ^ "South Africa – Overcoming Apartheid". African Studies Center of Michigan State University. Archived from the original on 14 December 2013. Retrieved 26 December 2013.
    13. ^ Lodge, Tim (2011). Sharpeville: An Apartheid Massacre and Its Consequences. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 234–235. ISBN 978-0192801852.
    14. ^ Lodge, Tom (1983). Black Politics in South Africa Since 1945. New York: Longman.
    15. ^ Pandey, Satish Chandra (2006). International Terrorism and the Contemporary World. New Delhi: Sarup & Sons, Publishers. pp. 197–199. ISBN 978-8176256384.
    16. ^ Ugorji, Basil (2012). From Cultural Justice to Inter-Ethnic Mediation: A Reflection on the Possibility of Ethno-Religious Mediation in Africa. Denver: Outskirts Press. pp. 65–66. ISBN 978-1432788353.
    17. ^ "SAPA - 27 May 97 - HRC SUBMITS APARTHEID REPRESSION BOOK TO TRUTH BODY".
    18. ^ a b Thomas, Scott (1995). The Diplomacy of Liberation: The Foreign Relations of the ANC Since 1960. London: Tauris Academic Studies. pp. 202–210. ISBN 978-1850439936.
    19. ^ "De Klerk dismantles apartheid in South Africa". BBC News. 2 February 1990. Archived from the original on 15 February 2009. Retrieved 21 February 2009.
    20. ^ Alex Duval Smith (31 January 2010). "Why FW de Klerk let Nelson Mandela out of prison". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 17 March 2016. Retrieved 25 March 2016.
    21. ^ Mitchell, Thomas (2008). Native vs Settler: Ethnic Conflict in Israel/Palestine, Northern Ireland and South Africa. Westport: Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 8. ISBN 978-0313313578.


    Cite error: There are <ref group=note> tags on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=note}} template (see the help page).

     
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    13 August 1913 – First production in the UK of stainless steel by Harry Brearley.

    Stainless steel

    Stainless steel taps and sink
    Stainless steel is used for industrial equipment when it is important that the equipment be durable and easy to clean.

    Stainless steel, also known as inox, corrosion-resistant steel (CRES) and rustless steel, is an alloy of iron that is resistant to rusting and corrosion. It contains at least 10.5% chromium and usually nickel, as well as 0.2 to 2.11% carbon. Stainless steel's resistance to corrosion results from the chromium, which forms a passive film that can protect the material and self-heal in the presence of oxygen.[1]: 3 

    The alloy's properties, such as luster and resistance to corrosion, are useful in many applications. Stainless steel can be rolled into sheets, plates, bars, wire, and tubing. These can be used in cookware, cutlery, surgical instruments, major appliances, vehicles, construction material in large buildings, industrial equipment (e.g., in paper mills, chemical plants, water treatment), and storage tanks and tankers for chemicals and food products.

    The biological cleanability of stainless steel is superior to both aluminium and copper, and comparable to glass.[2] Its cleanability, strength, and corrosion resistance have prompted the use of stainless steel in pharmaceutical and food processing plants.[3]

    Different types of stainless steel are labeled with an AISI three-digit number.[4] The ISO 15510 standard lists the chemical compositions of stainless steels of the specifications in existing ISO, ASTM, EN, JIS, and GB standards in a useful interchange table.[5]

    1. ^ Davis, Joseph R., ed. (1994). Stainless Steels. ASM Specialty Handbook. Materials Park, OH: ASM International. ISBN 978-0871705037. Archived from the original on 14 April 2021. Retrieved 8 March 2020.
    2. ^ Boulané-Petermann, L. (1996). "Processes of bioadhesion on stainless steel surfaces and cleanability: A review with special reference to the food industry". Biofouling. 10 (4): 275–300. Bibcode:1996Biofo..10..275B. doi:10.1080/08927019609386287. ISSN 0892-7014. PMID 22115182. Retrieved 21 January 2022.
    3. ^ Zaffora, Andrea; Di Franco, Francesco; Santamaria, Monica (October 2021). "Corrosion of stainless steel in food and pharmaceutical industry". Current Opinion in Electrochemistry. 29: Article 100760. doi:10.1016/j.coelec.2021.100760. Retrieved 21 January 2022.
    4. ^ ASM International (2000). "Introduction to Stainless Steels". Alloy Digest Sourcebook: Stainless Steels. Archived from the original on 1 July 2021. Retrieved 1 October 2021.
    5. ^ International Organization for Standardization (May 2014). "ISO 15510:2014 Stainless steels – Chemical composition". Archived from the original on 2 June 2021. Retrieved 1 October 2021.
     
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    13 August 1913 – First production in the UK of stainless steel by Harry Brearley.

    Stainless steel

    Stainless steel taps and sink
    Stainless steel is used for industrial equipment when it is important that the equipment be durable and easy to clean.

    Stainless steel, also known as inox, corrosion-resistant steel (CRES) and rustless steel, is an alloy of iron that is resistant to rusting and corrosion. It contains at least 10.5% chromium and usually nickel, as well as 0.2 to 2.11% carbon. Stainless steel's resistance to corrosion results from the chromium, which forms a passive film that can protect the material and self-heal in the presence of oxygen.[1]: 3 

    The alloy's properties, such as luster and resistance to corrosion, are useful in many applications. Stainless steel can be rolled into sheets, plates, bars, wire, and tubing. These can be used in cookware, cutlery, surgical instruments, major appliances, vehicles, construction material in large buildings, industrial equipment (e.g., in paper mills, chemical plants, water treatment), and storage tanks and tankers for chemicals and food products.

    The biological cleanability of stainless steel is superior to both aluminium and copper, and comparable to glass.[2] Its cleanability, strength, and corrosion resistance have prompted the use of stainless steel in pharmaceutical and food processing plants.[3]

    Different types of stainless steel are labeled with an AISI three-digit number.[4] The ISO 15510 standard lists the chemical compositions of stainless steels of the specifications in existing ISO, ASTM, EN, JIS, and GB standards in a useful interchange table.[5]

    1. ^ Davis, Joseph R., ed. (1994). Stainless Steels. ASM Specialty Handbook. Materials Park, OH: ASM International. ISBN 978-0871705037. Archived from the original on 14 April 2021. Retrieved 8 March 2020.
    2. ^ Boulané-Petermann, L. (1996). "Processes of bioadhesion on stainless steel surfaces and cleanability: A review with special reference to the food industry". Biofouling. 10 (4): 275–300. Bibcode:1996Biofo..10..275B. doi:10.1080/08927019609386287. ISSN 0892-7014. PMID 22115182. Retrieved 21 January 2022.
    3. ^ Zaffora, Andrea; Di Franco, Francesco; Santamaria, Monica (October 2021). "Corrosion of stainless steel in food and pharmaceutical industry". Current Opinion in Electrochemistry. 29: Article 100760. doi:10.1016/j.coelec.2021.100760. Retrieved 21 January 2022.
    4. ^ ASM International (2000). "Introduction to Stainless Steels". Alloy Digest Sourcebook: Stainless Steels. Archived from the original on 1 July 2021. Retrieved 1 October 2021.
    5. ^ International Organization for Standardization (May 2014). "ISO 15510:2014 Stainless steels – Chemical composition". Archived from the original on 2 June 2021. Retrieved 1 October 2021.
     
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    14 August 2013Egypt declares a state of emergency as security forces kill hundreds of demonstrators supporting former president Mohamed Morsi.

    August 2013 Rabaa massacre

    Redirect to:

     
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    15 August 1965The Beatles play to nearly 60,000 fans at Shea Stadium in New York City, an event later regarded as the birth of stadium rock.

    The Beatles' 1965 US tour

    The Beatles staged their second concert tour of the United States (with one date in Canada) in the late summer of 1965. At the peak of American Beatlemania, they played a mixture of outdoor stadiums and indoor arenas, with historic concerts at Shea Stadium in New York and the Hollywood Bowl. Typically of the era, the tour was a "package" presentation, with several artists on the bill. The Beatles played for just 30 minutes at each show, following sets by support acts such as Brenda Holloway and the King Curtis Band, Cannibal & the Headhunters, and Sounds Incorporated.

    After the tour's conclusion, the Beatles took a six-week break before reconvening in mid-October to record the album Rubber Soul.

     
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    16 August 1954 – The first issue of Sports Illustrated is published.

    Sports Illustrated

    Sports Illustrated (SI) is an American sports magazine first published in August 1954. Founded by Stuart Scheftel, it was the first magazine with circulation over one million to win the National Magazine Award for General Excellence twice. It is also known for its annual swimsuit issue, which has been published since 1964, and has spawned other complementary media works and products.

    Owned until 2018 by Time Inc., it was sold to Authentic Brands Group (ABG) following the sale of Time Inc. to Meredith Corporation. The Arena Group (formerly theMaven, Inc.) was subsequently awarded a 10-year license to operate the Sports Illustrated-branded editorial operations, while ABG licenses the brand for other non-editorial ventures and products. In January 2024, The Arena Group missed a quarterly licensing payment, leading ABG to terminate the company's license. Arena, in turn, laid off the publication's editorial staff.[4]

    1. ^ "10 Things You Didn't Know About SI's First Issue".
    2. ^ "New Sports Illustrated Photography Director: Brad Smith". nppa.org. February 28, 2013. Archived from the original on June 20, 2017. Retrieved April 26, 2018.
    3. ^ "eCirc for Consumer Magazines". Alliance for Audited Media. December 30, 2020. Retrieved March 16, 2021.
    4. ^ Perez, A. J. (January 19, 2024). "Sports Illustrated's Publisher Lays Off Entire Staff. Future Unclear". Front Office Sports. Retrieved January 19, 2024.
     
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    17 August 2005 – Over 500 bombs are set off by terrorists at 300 locations in 63 out of the 64 districts of Bangladesh

    2005 Bangladesh series bombings

     
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    18 August 1966 – Vietnam War: The Battle of Long Tan ensues after a patrol from the 6th Battalion, Royal Australian Regiment clashes with a Viet Cong force in Phước Tuy Province.

    Battle of Long Tan

    The Battle of Long Tan (18 August 1966) took place in a rubber plantation near Long Tân, in Phước Tuy Province, South Vietnam, during the Vietnam War. The action was fought between Viet Cong (VC) and People's Army of Vietnam (PAVN) units and elements of the 1st Australian Task Force (1 ATF).

    Australian signals intelligence (SIGINT) had tracked the VC 275th Regiment and D445 Battalion moving to a position just north of Long Tan. By 16 August, it was positioned near Long Tan outside the range of the 1 ATF artillery at Nui Dat. Using mortars and recoilless rifles (RCLs), on the night of 16/17 August, the VC attacked Nui Dat from a position 2 kilometres (1.2 mi) to the east, until counter-battery fire made it stop. The next morning D Company, 6th Battalion, Royal Australian Regiment (6 RAR), departed Nui Dat to locate the firing positions and determine the direction of the VC withdrawal. D Company found weapon pits and firing positions for mortars and RCLs, and around midday on 18 August made contact with VC elements.

    Facing a larger force, D Company called in artillery support. Heavy fighting ensued as the VC attempted to encircle and destroy the Australians, who were resupplied several hours later by two UH-1B Iroquois from No. 9 Squadron RAAF. With the help of strong artillery fire, D Company held off a regimental assault before a relief force of M113 armoured personnel carriers and infantry from Nui Dat reinforced them that night. Australian forces then pulled back to evacuate their casualties and formed a defensive position; when they swept through the area next day, the VC had withdrawn and the operation ended on 21 August.

    Although 1 ATF initially viewed Long Tan as a defeat, the action was later re-assessed as a strategic victory since it prevented the VC moving against Nui Dat. The VC also considered it a victory, due to the political success of an effective ambush and securing of the area around the village. Whether the battle impaired the capabilities of the VC is disputed.

     
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    19 August 1945August Revolution: Viet Minh led by Ho Chi Minh take power in Hanoi, Vietnam.

    Ho Chi Minh

    Hồ Chí Minh[a][b] ( Nguyễn Sinh Cung;[c][d][e][3][4] 19 May 1890 – 2 September 1969),[f] colloquially known as Uncle Ho (Bác Hồ) or just Uncle (Bác),[g][7] and by other aliases[h] and sobriquets,[i] was a Vietnamese communist revolutionary, nationalist, and politician. He served as prime minister of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam from 1945 to 1955 and as president from 1945 until his death, in 1969. Ideologically a Marxist–Leninist, he was the Chairman and First Secretary of the Workers' Party of Vietnam, the predecessor of the current Communist Party of Vietnam.

    Hồ Chí Minh was born in Nghệ An province in the French protectorate of Annam. From 1911, he left French Indochina to continue his revolutionary activities. He was also one of the founding members of the French Communist Party. In 1930, he founded the Communist Party of Vietnam and in 1941, he returned to Vietnam and founded the Việt Minh independence movement, an umbrella group. Then, Hồ led the August Revolution against the Japanese in August 1945, which resulted in the independence of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam. After the French returned to power the following month, Hồ's government retreated to the Việt Bắc region and began guerrilla warfare. The Việt Minh defeated the French Union in 1954 at the Battle of Điện Biên Phủ, ending the First Indochina War, and resulting in the division of Vietnam, with the Việt Minh in control of North Vietnam, and anti-communists in control of South Vietnam. He was a key figure in the People's Army of Vietnam during the Vietnam War, which lasted from 1955 to 1975. Hồ officially stepped down from power in 1965 due to health problems and died in 1969. North Vietnam was ultimately victorious against South Vietnam and its allies. Vietnam was officially unified in 1976. Saigon, the former capital of South Vietnam, was renamed Ho Chi Minh City in his honor.

    The details of Hồ Chí Minh's life before he came to power in Vietnam are uncertain. He is known to have used between 50[10]: 582  and 200 pseudonyms.[11] Information on his birth and early life is ambiguous and subject to academic debate. At least four existing official biographies vary on names, dates, places, and other hard facts while unofficial biographies vary even more widely.[12]

    Aside from being a politician, Hồ was a writer, poet, and journalist. He wrote several books, articles, and poems in Chinese, Vietnamese, and French.

    1. ^ "Ho Chi Minh". Random House Webster's Unabridged Dictionary.
    2. ^ Vũ Ngự Chiêu (23 October 2011). "Vài vấn nạn lịch sử thế kỷ XX: Hồ Chí Minh – Nhà ngoại giao, 1945–1946". Hợp Lưu Magazine (in Vietnamese). Archived from the original on 7 January 2019. Retrieved 10 December 2013. Note: See the document in French, from Centre des archives d'Outre-mer [CAOM] (Aix)/Gouvernement General de l'Indochine [GGI]/Fonds Residence Superieure d'Annam [RSA]/carton R1, and the note in English at the end of the cited article
    3. ^ Trần Quốc Vượng. "Lời truyền miệng dân gian về Hồ Chí Minh". BBC Vietnamese. Retrieved 10 December 2013.
    4. ^ Nguyễn Vĩnh Châu. "Phỏng vấn sử gia Vũ Ngự Chiêu về những nghiên cứu lịch sử liên quan đến Hồ Chí Minh". Hợp Lưu Magazine. Archived from the original on 3 December 2013. Retrieved 10 December 2013.
    5. ^ Nguyễn Xuân Tùng (18 September 2014). "Giới thiệu những tư liệu về Di chúc của Chủ tịch Hồ Chí Minh" [Introduction to documents related to President Ho Chi Minh's will] (in Vietnamese). Ministry of Justice (Vietnam). Retrieved 1 October 2021.
    6. ^ Ngo, Tam T. T. (2018). "The Uncle Hồ religion in Vietnam". In Dean, Kenneth; van der Veer, Peter (eds.). The Secular in South, East, and Southeast Asia. Springer. p. 219. ISBN 978-3-319-89369-3.
    7. ^ "Uncle Ho's legacy lives on in Vietnam". BBC News. 6 June 2012. Retrieved 25 April 2022.
    8. ^ Watanabe, Musa (25 July 2014). "Father of modern Vietnam, Ho Chi Minh". The OpenLab at New York City College of Technology. Retrieved 17 April 2023.
    9. ^ Woolf, Chris (18 September 2017). "The little-known story of Vietnamese communist leader Ho Chi Minh's admiration for the US". The World.
    10. ^ Duiker, William J. Ho Chi Minh: A Life. New York: Hyperion, 2000.
    11. ^ Duncanson 1957, p. 85.
    12. ^ Pike 1976.


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    20 August 1988 – Iran–Iraq War: A ceasefire is agreed after almost eight years of war.

    Iran–Iraq War

    The Iran–Iraq War was an armed conflict between Iran and Iraq that lasted from September 1980 to August 1988. Active hostilities began with the Iraqi invasion of Iran and lasted for eight years, until the acceptance of United Nations Security Council Resolution 598 by both sides. Iraq's primary rationale for the attack against Iran cited the need to prevent Ruhollah Khomeini—who had spearheaded the Iranian Revolution in 1979—from exporting the new Iranian ideology to Iraq. There were also fears among the Iraqi leadership of Saddam Hussein that Iran, a theocratic state with a population predominantly composed of Shia Muslims, would exploit sectarian tensions in Iraq by rallying Iraq's Shia majority against the Baʽathist government, which was officially secular and dominated by Sunni Muslims. Iraq also wished to replace Iran as the power player in the Persian Gulf, which was not seen as an achievable objective prior to the Islamic Revolution because of Pahlavi Iran's economic and military superiority as well as its close relationships with the United States and Israel.

    The Iran–Iraq War followed a long-running history of territorial border disputes between the two states, as a result of which Iraq planned to retake the eastern bank of the Shatt al-Arab that it had ceded to Iran in the 1975 Algiers Agreement. Iraqi support for Arab separatists in Iran increased following the outbreak of hostilities; Saddam disputedly may have wished to annex Iran's Arab-majority Khuzestan province. While the Iraqi leadership had hoped to take advantage of Iran's post-revolutionary chaos and expected a decisive victory in the face of a severely weakened Iran, the Iraqi military only made progress for three months, and by December 1980, the Iraqi invasion had stalled. The Iranian military began to gain momentum against the Iraqis and regained all lost territory by June 1982. After pushing Iraqi forces back to the pre-war border lines, Iran rejected United Nations Security Council Resolution 514 and launched an invasion of Iraq. The subsequent Iranian offensive within Iraqi territory lasted for five years, with Iraq taking back the initiative in mid-1988 and subsequently launching a series of major counter-offensives that ultimately led to the conclusion of the war in a stalemate.

    The eight years of war-exhaustion, economic devastation, decreased morale, military stalemate, inaction by the international community towards the use of weapons of mass destruction by Iraqi forces on Iranian soldiers and civilians, as well as increasing Iran–United States military tensions all culminated in Iran's acceptance of a ceasefire brokered by the United Nations Security Council. In total, around 500,000 people were killed during the Iran–Iraq War, with Iran bearing the larger share of the casualties, excluding the tens of thousands of civilians killed in the concurrent Anfal campaign that targeted Iraqi Kurdistan. The end of the conflict resulted in neither reparations nor border changes, and the combined financial losses suffered by both combatants is believed to have exceeded US$1 trillion.[51] There were a number of proxy forces operating for both countries: Iraq and the pro-Iraqi Arab separatist militias in Iran were most notably supported by the National Council of Resistance of Iran; whereas Iran re-established an alliance with the Iraqi Kurds, being primarily supported by the Kurdistan Democratic Party and the Patriotic Union of Kurdistan. During the conflict, Iraq received an abundance of financial, political, and logistical aid from the United States, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union, France, Italy, Yugoslavia, and the overwhelming majority of Arab countries. While Iran was comparatively isolated to a large degree, it received a significant amount of aid from Syria, Libya, China, North Korea, Israel, Pakistan, and South Yemen.

    The conflict has been compared to World War I in terms of the tactics used by both sides, including large-scale trench warfare with barbed wire stretched across fortified defensive lines, manned machine-gun posts, bayonet charges, Iranian human wave attacks, Iraq's extensive use of chemical weapons, and deliberate attacks on civilian targets. The discourses on martyrdom formulated in the Iranian Shia Islamic context led to the widespread usage of human wave attacks and thus had a lasting impact on the dynamics of the conflict.[52]

    1. ^ "Memoires of Afghan volunteers in Iran-Iraq war published (tehrantimes.com)". 7 October 2018.
    2. ^ ""Mohsen, the Japanese" chronicles life of Afghan volunteer fighter in Iran-Iraq war (tehrantimes.com)". 16 December 2020.
    3. ^ IRAN’S SHIA DIPLOMACY: RELIGIOUS IDENTITY AND FOREIGN POLICY IN THE ISLAMIC REPUBLIC
    4. ^ Shaery-Eisenlohr, Roschanack (2011). Shi'ite Lebanon: Transnational Religion and the Making of National Identities. Columbia University Press. ISBN 9780231144278.
    5. ^ Williamson Murray, Kevin M. Woods (2014): The Iran–Iraq War. A Military and Strategic history. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-107-06229-0 p. 223
    6. ^ a b c Iran’s Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps (Project Muse)
    7. ^ Entessar, Nader (2010). Kurdish Politics in the Middle East. Lanham: Lexington Books. p. 48. ISBN 9780739140390. OCLC 430736528. Throughout much of the 1980s, the KDPI received aid from the Ba'thi regime of Saddam Hussein, but Ghassemlou broke with Baghdad in 1988 after Iraq used chemical weapons against Kurds in Halabja and then forced Kurdish villagers to...
    8. ^ Johnson, Rob (24 November 2010). The Iran–Iraq War. Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 978-1137267788 – via Google Books.[permanent dead link]
    9. ^ Murray, Williamson; Woods, Kevin M. (2014). The Iran–Iraq War: A Military and Strategic History. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1107062290 – via Google Books.
    10. ^ van Bruinessen, Martin (15 August 1986). The Naqshbandi Order as a Vehicle of Political Protest among the Kurds (With Some Comparative Notes on Indonesia). New Approaches in Islamic Studies. Jakarta: Indonesian Institute of Sciences. pp. 1–3 – via Academia.edu.
    11. ^ Middleton, Drew (4 October 1982). "Sudanese Brigades Could Provide Key Aid for Iraq; Military Analysis". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 8 December 2019. Retrieved 8 December 2019.
    12. ^ "Iraq-Iran war becoming Arab-Persian war? (The Christian Science Monitor)". The Christian Science Monitor. 5 February 1982. Archived from the original on 8 December 2019. Retrieved 8 December 2019.
    13. ^ "Jordan's call for volunteers to fight Iran misfires (The Christian Science Monitor)". The Christian Science Monitor. 11 February 1982. Archived from the original on 8 December 2019. Retrieved 8 December 2019.
    14. ^ Schenker, David Kenneth (2003). Dancing with Saddam: The Strategic Tango of Jordanian-Iraqi Relations (PDF). The Washington Institute for Near East Policy / Lexington Books. ISBN 0-7391-0649-X. Archived from the original (PDF) on 23 January 2017.
    15. ^ "Jordanian Unit Going To Aid Iraq 6 Hussein Will Join Volunteer Force Fighting Iranians (The Washington Post)". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on 8 December 2019. Retrieved 8 December 2019.
    16. ^ Dictionary of modern Arab history, Kegan Paul International 1998. ISBN 978-0710305053 p. 196.
    17. ^ Iran-Iraq War Timeline. Part 1
    18. ^ Berridge, W. J. "Civil Uprisings in Modern Sudan: The 'Khartoum Springs' of 1964 and 1985", p. 136. Bloomsbury Academic, 2015
    19. ^ Mylroie, Laurie (1989). "Iraq's Changing Role in the Persian Gulf". Current History. 88 (535): 89–99. doi:10.1525/curh.1989.88.535.89. ISSN 0011-3530. JSTOR 45316185. S2CID 249695060.
    20. ^ "The 'beauty' and the horror of the Iran-Iraq war". BBC News. 26 September 2015. Retrieved 21 July 2023.
    21. ^ a b Pollack, p. 186.
    22. ^ a b c d Razoux, Pierre (2015). The Iran-Iraq War. Harvard University Press, 2015. p. 515,540. ISBN 978-0674915718.
    23. ^ Farrokh, Kaveh, 305 (2011)
    24. ^ Pollack, p. 187.
    25. ^ Farrokh, Kaveh, 304 (2011)
    26. ^ "The state of the air combat readiness of Iran ... • corporal_historian_23". Archived from the original on 2 October 2018. Retrieved 9 December 2018.
    27. ^ Pollack, p. 232.
    28. ^ Cordesman, Anthony H. "The Lessons of Modern War: The Iran–Iraq War." Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1990. Chapter 10: "In fact, Iraq had captured so much equipment that it was able to put on an incredible show on the outskirts of Baghdad. Rather than include all of Iraq's gains, it included the equipment that could either be used immediately or be easily reconditioned. Iraqi sources claimed that since March, Iraq had captured a total of 1,298 tanks, 155 armored infantry fighting vehicles, 512 heavy artillery weapons, 6,196 mortars, 5,550 recoilless rifles and light guns, 8,050 rocket propelled grenades, 60,694 rifles, 322 pistols, 6,156 telecommunications devices, 501 items of heavy engineering equipment, 454 trucks, 1,600 light vehicles and trailers, 16,863 items of chemical defense gear, and 16,863 caskets... After its recent defeats, Iran was virtually defenseless in the south. It was down to less than 200 tanks."
    29. ^ a b c d Razoux, Pierre (2015). The Iran-Iraq War. Harvard University Press, 2015. pp. 543–544. ISBN 978-0674915718.
    30. ^ Pollack, p. 3.
    31. ^ a b c d Hiro, Dilip (1991). The Longest War: The Iran–Iraq Military Conflict. New York: Routledge. p. 205. ISBN 978-0-415-90406-3. OCLC 22347651.
    32. ^ a b c Rajaee, Farhang (1997). Iranian Perspectives on the Iran–Iraq War. Gainesville, FL: University Press of Florida. p. 2. ISBN 978-0-8130-1476-0. OCLC 492125659.
    33. ^ a b c Mikaberidze, Alexander (2011). Conflict and Conquest in the Islamic World: A Historical Encyclopedia. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO. p. 418. ISBN 978-1-59884-336-1. OCLC 775759780.
    34. ^ Hammond Atlas of the 20th Century (1999), pp. 134–135.
    35. ^ Dunnigan, A Quick and Dirty Guide to War (1991)
    36. ^ Dictionary of Twentieth Century World History, by Jan Palmowski (Oxford, 1997)
    37. ^ Clodfelter, Micheal, Warfare and Armed Conflict: A Statistical Reference to Casualty and Other Figures, 1618–1991
    38. ^ Chirot, Daniel: Modern Tyrants : the power and prevalence of evil in our age (1994)
    39. ^ "B&J": Jacob Bercovitch and Richard Jackson, International Conflict : A Chronological Encyclopedia of Conflicts and Their Management 1945–1995 (1997), p. 195.
    40. ^ a b Abrahamian, Ervand (2008). A History of Modern Iran. Cambridge; New York: Cambridge University Press. pp. 171–175, 212. ISBN 978-0511984402. OCLC 171111098.
    41. ^ a b c Potter, Lawrence G.; Sick, Gary (2006). Iran, Iraq and the Legacies of War. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. p. 8. ISBN 978-1-4039-7609-3. OCLC 70230312.
    42. ^ a b Zargar, Moosa; Araghizadeh, Hassan; Soroush, Mohammad Reza; Khaji, Ali (December 2012). "Iranian casualties during the eight years of Iraq-Iran conflict". Revista de Saúde Pública. São Paulo: Faculdade de Higiene e Saúde Pública da Universidade de São Paulo. 41 (6): 1065–1066. doi:10.1590/S0034-89102007000600025. ISSN 0034-8910. OCLC 4645489824. PMID 18066475.
    43. ^ a b c Hiro, Dilip (1991). The Longest War: The Iran–Iraq Military Conflict. New York: Routledge. p. 251. ISBN 978-0-415-90406-3. OCLC 22347651.
    44. ^ Rumel, Rudolph. "Centi-Kilo Murdering States: Estimates, Sources, and Calculations". Power Kills. University of Hawai'i. Archived from the original on 11 October 2017. Retrieved 26 March 2019.
    45. ^ a b c Karsh, Efraim (2002). The Iran–Iraq War, 1980–1988. Oxford, England: Osprey Publishing. p. 89. ISBN 978-1-84176-371-2. OCLC 48783766.
    46. ^ Koch, Christian; Long, David E. (1997). Gulf Security in the Twenty-First Century. Abu Dhabi: Emirates Center for Strategic Studies and Research. p. 29. ISBN 978-1-86064-316-3. OCLC 39035954.
    47. ^ Black, Ian (23 September 2010). "Iran and Iraq remember war that cost more than a million lives". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 2 January 2017. Retrieved 14 December 2016.
    48. ^ Rumel, Rudolph. "Lesser Murdering States, Quasi-States, and Groups: Estimates, Sources, and Calculations". Power Kills. University of Hawai'i. Archived from the original on 4 October 2012. Retrieved 16 May 2012.
    49. ^ Sinan, Omar (25 June 2007). "Iraq to hang 'Chemical Ali'". Tampa Bay Times. Associated Press. Archived from the original on 17 October 2015. Retrieved 9 February 2013.
    50. ^ Cite error: The named reference Britannica Iran–Iraq War was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    51. ^ Riedel, Bruce (2012). "Foreword". Becoming Enemies: U.S.-Iran Relations and the Iran-Iraq War, 1979-1988. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. p. ix. ISBN 978-1-4422-0830-8. The Iran–Iraq War was devastating—one of the largest and longest conventional interstate wars since the Korean conflict ended in 1953. A half million lives were lost, perhaps another million were injured, and the economic cost was over a trillion dollars. ... the battle lines at the end of the war were almost exactly where they were at the beginning of hostilities. It was also the only war in modern times in which chemical weapons were used on a massive scale. ... The Iranians call the war the 'imposed war' because they believe the United States imposed it on them and orchestrated the global 'tilt' toward Iraq in the war.
    52. ^ Gölz, "Martyrdom and Masculinity in Warring Iran. The Karbala Paradigm, the Heroic, and the Personal Dimensions of War." Archived 17 May 2019 at the Wayback Machine, Behemoth 12, no. 1 (2019): 35–51, 35.


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    22 August 1902Cadillac Motor Company is founded.

    Cadillac

    Cadillac Motor Car Division, or simply Cadillac, (/ˈkædɪlæk/) is a division of the American automobile manufacturer General Motors (GM) that designs and builds luxury vehicles. Its major markets are the United States, Canada and China. Cadillac models are distributed in 34 additional markets worldwide. Historically, Cadillac automobiles were at the top of the luxury field within the United States, but have been outsold by European luxury brands including BMW and Mercedes since the 2000s.[3] In 2019, Cadillac sold 390,458 vehicles worldwide, a record for the brand.[4]

    Cadillac is among the first automotive brands in the world, fourth in the United States only to Autocar Company (1897) and fellow GM marques Oldsmobile (1897) and Buick (1899). It was named after Antoine de la Mothe Cadillac (1658–1730), who founded Detroit, Michigan. The Cadillac crest is based on his coat of arms.

    By the time General Motors purchased the company in 1909, Cadillac had already established itself as one of America's premier luxury car makers. The complete interchangeability of its precision parts had allowed it to lay the foundation for the modern mass production of automobiles. It was at the forefront of technological advances, introducing full electrical systems, the clashless manual transmission and the steel roof. The brand developed three engines, with its V8 setting the standard for the American automotive industry.

    Cadillac had the first U.S. car to win the Royal Automobile Club of the United Kingdom's Dewar Trophy by successfully demonstrating the interchangeability of its component parts during a reliability test in 1908; this spawned the firm's slogan "Standard of the World". It won the trophy again in 1912 for incorporating electric starting and lighting in a production automobile.[5]

    1. ^ a b General Motors buys Cadillac on History.com
    2. ^ "Form 10-K Annual Report Pursuant to Section 13 or 15(d) of the Securities Exchange Act of 1934 for the Fiscal Year Ended December 31, 2012 Commission File Number 001-34960 General Motors Company". General Motors. General Motors Company. February 15, 2013. Archived from the original (PDF) on August 6, 2013. Retrieved August 6, 2013.
    3. ^ Keith Bradsher (January 13, 2000). "Luxury Wheel Turns to Europe; On U.S. Premium Car Sales, the Continent Sets the Pace". The New York Times. Retrieved August 1, 2023. European-brand luxury cars as a group managed for the first time last year to accomplish what once seemed impossible: beating American luxury brands in sales in their home market
    4. ^ "GM Reports Earnings and Provides 2020 Outlook" (Press release). General Motors. February 5, 2020. Retrieved February 5, 2020.
    5. ^ General Motors (1954). "Cars That Built GM: An Album of Historic General Motors Cars" (PDF). p. 10,12,14,16. Retrieved June 12, 2014.
     
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    23 August 1914 – World War I: Japan declares war on Germany.

    Japan during World War I

    Japan participated in World War I from 1914 to 1918 as a member of the Allies and played an important role against the Imperial German Navy. Politically, the Japanese Empire seized the opportunity to expand its sphere of influence in China, and to gain recognition as a great power in postwar geopolitics.

    Japan's military, taking advantage of the great distances and Imperial Germany's preoccupation with the war in Europe, seized German possessions in the Pacific and East Asia, but there was no large-scale mobilization of the economy.[1] Foreign Minister Katō Takaaki and Prime Minister Ōkuma Shigenobu wanted to use the opportunity to expand Japanese influence in China. They enlisted Sun Yat-sen (1866–1925), then in exile in Japan, but they had little success.[2] The Imperial Japanese Navy, a nearly autonomous bureaucratic institution, made its own decision to undertake expansion in the Pacific area. It captured Germany's Micronesian territories north of the equator, and ruled the islands until they were transitioned to civilian control in 1921. The operation gave the Navy a rationale for enlarging its budget to double the Army budget and expanding the fleet. The Navy then gained significant political influence over national and international affairs.[3]

    1. ^ Frederick R. Dickinson, War and National Reinvention: Japan in the Great War, 1913–1919 (1999)
    2. ^ Albert A. Altman and Harold Z. Schiffrin, "Sun Yat-Sen and the Japanese, 1914–16", Modern Asian Studies, (July 1972) 6#4 pp 385–400
    3. ^ J. C. Schencking, "Bureaucratic Politics, Military Budgets and Japan's Southern Advance: The Imperial Navy’s Seizure of German Micronesia in the First World War", War in History, (July 1998) 5#3 pp 308–326
     
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    24 August 1991 – Ukraine declares itself independent from the Soviet Union.

    Declaration of Independence of Ukraine

    The Act of Declaration of Independence of Ukraine (Ukrainian: Акт проголошення незалежності України, romanizedAkt proholoshennia nezalezhnosti Ukrainy) was adopted by the Supreme Soviet of the Ukrainian SSR on 24 August 1991.[1]

    The Act reestablished Ukraine's state independence.[2][1] The declaration was affirmed by a majority of Ukrainians in all regions of Ukraine by an independence referendum on 1 December, followed by international recognition starting on the following day. Ukrainian independence led to the dissolution of the Soviet Union by 26 December 1991.

    1. ^ a b A History of Ukraine: The Land and Its Peoples by Paul Robert Magocsi, University of Toronto Press, 2010, ISBN 1442610212 (page 722/723)
    2. ^ Volodymyr Vasylenko. Non-nuclear status of Ukraine: past, present, and future (Без'ядерний статус України: минуле, сучасне, майбутнє). The Ukrainian Week. 31 May 2018
     
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    25 August 1997Egon Krenz, the former East German leader, is convicted of a shoot-to-kill policy at the Berlin Wall.

    Schießbefehl

    Three Border Troops guards in a watch tower on the Inner German border in 1984

    Schießbefehl (German pronunciation: [ˈʃiːsbəˌfeːl] ; German for "order to fire") was the term in the German Democratic Republic (East Germany) for standing orders authorizing the use of lethal force by the Border Troops to prevent Republikflucht (defection) at the Inner German border from 1960 to 1989.

    Schießbefehl recommended guards use firearms to stop unauthorised border crossings in the direction of West Germany and procedure to conceal incidents from the public. Various Schießbefehl orders were issued, and their instructions to prevent East Germans leaving were not officially legal until 1982 and in violation of Article 13 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, with an estimated 300 to 400 people having died at the Inner German border during its existence. After German Reunification in 1990, East German leader Erich Honecker was indicted by the Berlin District Court on charges of mass murder stemming from the Schießbefehl orders, but his failing health and legal disputes over jurisdiction caused his trial to be abandoned.

     
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    26 August 1966 – The South African Border War starts with the battle at Omugulugwombashe.

    South African Border War

    The South African Border War, also known as the Namibian War of Independence, and sometimes denoted in South Africa as the Angolan Bush War, was a largely asymmetric conflict that occurred in Namibia (then South West Africa), Zambia, and Angola from 26 August 1966 to 21 March 1990. It was fought between the South African Defence Force (SADF) and the People's Liberation Army of Namibia (PLAN), an armed wing of the South West African People's Organisation (SWAPO). The South African Border War was closely intertwined with the Angolan Civil War.

    Following several years of unsuccessful petitioning through the United Nations and the International Court of Justice for Namibian independence from South Africa, SWAPO formed the PLAN in 1962 with material assistance from the Soviet Union, China, and sympathetic African states such as Tanzania, Ghana, and Algeria.[18] Fighting broke out between PLAN and the South African authorities in August 1966. Between 1975 and 1988 the SADF staged massive conventional raids into Angola and Zambia to eliminate PLAN's forward operating bases.[19] It also deployed specialist counter-insurgency units such as Koevoet and 32 Battalion, trained to carry out external reconnaissance and track guerrilla movements.[20]

    South African tactics became increasingly aggressive as the conflict progressed.[19] The SADF's incursions produced Angolan casualties and occasionally resulted in severe collateral damage to economic installations regarded as vital to the Angolan economy.[21] Ostensibly to stop these raids, but also to disrupt the growing alliance between the SADF and the National Union for the Total Independence for Angola (UNITA), which the former was arming with captured PLAN equipment,[22] the Soviet Union backed the People's Armed Forces of Liberation of Angola (FAPLA) through a large contingent of military advisers,[23] along with up to four billion dollars' worth of modern defence technology in the 1980s.[24] Beginning in 1984, regular Angolan units under Soviet command were confident enough to confront the SADF.[24] Their positions were also bolstered by thousands of Cuban troops.[24] The state of war between South Africa and Angola briefly ended with the short-lived Lusaka Accords, but resumed in August 1985 as both PLAN and UNITA took advantage of the ceasefire to intensify their own guerrilla activity, leading to a renewed phase of FAPLA combat operations culminating in the Battle of Cuito Cuanavale.[21] The South African Border War was virtually ended by the Tripartite Accord, mediated by the United States, which committed to a withdrawal of Cuban and South African military personnel from Angola and South West Africa, respectively.[25][26] PLAN launched its final guerrilla campaign in April 1989.[27] South West Africa received formal independence as the Republic of Namibia a year later, on 21 March 1990.[9]

    Despite being largely fought in neighbouring states, the South African Border War had a phenomenal cultural and political impact on South African society.[28] The country's apartheid government devoted considerable effort towards presenting the war as part of a containment programme against regional Soviet expansionism[29] and used it to stoke public anti-communist sentiment.[30] It remains an integral theme in contemporary South African literature at large and Afrikaans-language works in particular, having given rise to a unique genre known as grensliteratuur (directly translated "border literature").[21]

    1. ^ Beckett, Ian; Pimlott, John (2011). Counter-insurgency: Lessons from History. Yorkshire: Pen & Sword Books. pp. 204–219. ISBN 978-1-84884-396-7.
    2. ^ Cann, John (2015). Flight Plan Africa: Portuguese Airpower in Counterinsurgency, 1961–1974. Solihull: Helion & Company. pp. 362–363. ISBN 978-1-909982-06-2.
    3. ^ a b Fryxell, Cole. To Be Born a Nation. p. 13.
    4. ^ a b Lulat, Y. G. M. (1992). United States Relations with South Africa: A Critical Overview from the Colonial Period to the Present. New York: Peter Lang Publishing, Incorporated. pp. 143–146, 210. ISBN 978-0-8204-7907-1.
    5. ^ Dale, Richard (2014). The Namibian War of Independence, 1966–1989: Diplomatic, Economic and Military Campaigns. Jefferson: McFarland & Company, Incorporated Publishers. pp. 74–77, 93–95. ISBN 978-0-7864-9659-4.
    6. ^ Thomas, Scott (1995). The Diplomacy of Liberation: The Foreign Relations of the ANC Since 1960. London: Tauris Academic Studies. pp. 202–210. ISBN 978-1-85043-993-6.
    7. ^ Larmer, Miles (2011). Rethinking African Politics: A History of Opposition in Zambia. Surrey: Ashgate Publishing Ltd. pp. 209–217. ISBN 978-1-4094-8249-9.
    8. ^ Vanneman, Peter (1990). Soviet Strategy in Southern Africa: Gorbachev's Pragmatic Approach. Stanford: Hoover Institution Press. pp. 41–57. ISBN 978-0-8179-8902-6.
    9. ^ a b Hampson, Fen Osler (1996). Nurturing Peace: Why Peace Settlements Succeed Or Fail. Stanford: United States Institute of Peace Press. pp. 53–70. ISBN 978-1-878379-57-3.
    10. ^ Tsokodayi, Cleophas Johannes. Namibia's Independence Struggle: The Role of the United Nations. pp. 1–305.
    11. ^ McMullin, Jaremey (2013). Ex-Combatants and the Post-Conflict State: Challenges of Reintegration. Basingstoke: Palgrave-Macmillan. pp. 81–88. ISBN 978-1-349-33179-6.
    12. ^ George, Edward (2005). The Cuban intervention in Angola. New York: Frank Cass Publishers. pp. 236–246. ISBN 978-0-415-64710-6.
    13. ^ Gwyneth Williams & Brian Hackland (4 January 2016). The Dictionary of Contemporary Politics of Southern Africa (2016 ed.). Routledge Books. pp. 88–89. ISBN 978-1-138-19517-2.
    14. ^ a b Akawa, Martha; Silvester, Jeremy (March 2012). "Waking the dead: civilian casualties in the Namibian liberation struggle" (PDF). Journal for Studies in Humanities and Social Sciences. 1 (1): 117–128. Archived from the original (PDF) on 10 November 2016. Retrieved 4 January 2015.
    15. ^ Reginald Herbold Green. "Namibia: The road to Namibia – Britannica Online Encyclopedia". Britannica.com. Retrieved 15 January 2013.
    16. ^ Corum, James; Johnson, Wray (2003). Airpower in small wars: fighting insurgents and terrorists. Lawrence: University Press of Kansas. p. 315. ISBN 978-0-7006-1240-6.
    17. ^ Polack, Peter (2013). The Last Hot Battle of the Cold War: South Africa vs. Cuba in the Angolan Civil War (illustrated ed.). Oxford: Casemate Publishers. pp. 72, 92–108, 156–171. ISBN 978-1-61200-195-1.
    18. ^ Hooper, Jim (2013) [1988]. Koevoet! Experiencing South Africa's Deadly Bush War. Solihull: Helion and Company. pp. 86–93. ISBN 978-1-86812-167-0.
    19. ^ a b Clayton, Anthony (1999). Frontiersmen: Warfare in Africa since 1950. Philadelphia: UCL Press, Limited. pp. 119–124. ISBN 978-1-85728-525-3.
    20. ^ Stapleton, Timothy (2013). A Military History of Africa. Santa Barbara: ABC-CLIO. pp. 251–257. ISBN 978-0-313-39570-3.
    21. ^ a b c Jacklyn Cock, Laurie Nathan (1989). War and Society: The Militarisation of South Africa. New Africa Books. pp. 124–276. ISBN 978-0-86486-115-3.
    22. ^ Weigert, Stephen (2011). Angola: A Modern Military History. Basingstoke: Palgrave-Macmillan. pp. 71–72. ISBN 978-0-230-11777-8.
    23. ^ Shubin, Vladimir (18 May 2007). "Unsung Heroes: The Soviet Military and the Liberation of Southern Africa". Cold War History. 7 (2): 251–262. doi:10.1080/14682740701284157. S2CID 154318774. Retrieved 19 March 2023.
    24. ^ a b c Blank, Stephen (1991). Responding to Low-Intensity Conflict Challenges. Montgomery: Air University Press. pp. 223–239. ISBN 978-0-16-029332-0.
    25. ^ Gleijeses, Piero (18 May 2007). "Cuba and the Independence of Namibia". Cold War History. 7 (2): 285–303. doi:10.1080/14682740701284215. S2CID 154738164. Retrieved 19 March 2023.
    26. ^ Harris, Geoff (1999). Recovery from Armed Conflict in Developing Countries: An Economic and Political Analysis. Oxfordshire: Routledge Books. pp. 262–264. ISBN 978-0-415-19379-5.
    27. ^ Hearn, Roger (1999). UN Peacekeeping in Action: The Namibian Experience. Commack, New York: Nova Science Publishers. pp. 89–95. ISBN 978-1-56072-653-1.
    28. ^ Du Preez, Max (2011). Pale Native: Memories of a Renegade Reporter. Cape Town: Penguin Random House South Africa. pp. 88–90. ISBN 978-1-77022-060-7.
    29. ^ Mashiri, Mac; Shaw, Timothy (1989). Africa in World Politics: Into the 1990s. Basingstoke: Palgrave-Macmillan. pp. 208–209. ISBN 978-0-333-42931-0.
    30. ^ Baines, Gary (2014). South Africa's 'Border War': Contested Narratives and Conflicting Memories. London: Bloomsbury Academic. pp. 1–4, 138–140. ISBN 978-1-4725-0971-0.
     
  40. NewsBot

    NewsBot The Admin that posts the news.

    Articles:
    1
    26 August 1966 – The South African Border War starts with the battle at Omugulugwombashe.

    South African Border War

    The South African Border War, also known as the Namibian War of Independence, and sometimes denoted in South Africa as the Angolan Bush War, was a largely asymmetric conflict that occurred in Namibia (then South West Africa), Zambia, and Angola from 26 August 1966 to 21 March 1990. It was fought between the South African Defence Force (SADF) and the People's Liberation Army of Namibia (PLAN), an armed wing of the South West African People's Organisation (SWAPO). The South African Border War was closely intertwined with the Angolan Civil War.

    Following several years of unsuccessful petitioning through the United Nations and the International Court of Justice for Namibian independence from South Africa, SWAPO formed the PLAN in 1962 with material assistance from the Soviet Union, China, and sympathetic African states such as Tanzania, Ghana, and Algeria.[18] Fighting broke out between PLAN and the South African authorities in August 1966. Between 1975 and 1988 the SADF staged massive conventional raids into Angola and Zambia to eliminate PLAN's forward operating bases.[19] It also deployed specialist counter-insurgency units such as Koevoet and 32 Battalion, trained to carry out external reconnaissance and track guerrilla movements.[20]

    South African tactics became increasingly aggressive as the conflict progressed.[19] The SADF's incursions produced Angolan casualties and occasionally resulted in severe collateral damage to economic installations regarded as vital to the Angolan economy.[21] Ostensibly to stop these raids, but also to disrupt the growing alliance between the SADF and the National Union for the Total Independence for Angola (UNITA), which the former was arming with captured PLAN equipment,[22] the Soviet Union backed the People's Armed Forces of Liberation of Angola (FAPLA) through a large contingent of military advisers,[23] along with up to four billion dollars' worth of modern defence technology in the 1980s.[24] Beginning in 1984, regular Angolan units under Soviet command were confident enough to confront the SADF.[24] Their positions were also bolstered by thousands of Cuban troops.[24] The state of war between South Africa and Angola briefly ended with the short-lived Lusaka Accords, but resumed in August 1985 as both PLAN and UNITA took advantage of the ceasefire to intensify their own guerrilla activity, leading to a renewed phase of FAPLA combat operations culminating in the Battle of Cuito Cuanavale.[21] The South African Border War was virtually ended by the Tripartite Accord, mediated by the United States, which committed to a withdrawal of Cuban and South African military personnel from Angola and South West Africa, respectively.[25][26] PLAN launched its final guerrilla campaign in April 1989.[27] South West Africa received formal independence as the Republic of Namibia a year later, on 21 March 1990.[9]

    Despite being largely fought in neighbouring states, the South African Border War had a phenomenal cultural and political impact on South African society.[28] The country's apartheid government devoted considerable effort towards presenting the war as part of a containment programme against regional Soviet expansionism[29] and used it to stoke public anti-communist sentiment.[30] It remains an integral theme in contemporary South African literature at large and Afrikaans-language works in particular, having given rise to a unique genre known as grensliteratuur (directly translated "border literature").[21]

    1. ^ Beckett, Ian; Pimlott, John (2011). Counter-insurgency: Lessons from History. Yorkshire: Pen & Sword Books. pp. 204–219. ISBN 978-1-84884-396-7.
    2. ^ Cann, John (2015). Flight Plan Africa: Portuguese Airpower in Counterinsurgency, 1961–1974. Solihull: Helion & Company. pp. 362–363. ISBN 978-1-909982-06-2.
    3. ^ a b Fryxell, Cole. To Be Born a Nation. p. 13.
    4. ^ a b Lulat, Y. G. M. (1992). United States Relations with South Africa: A Critical Overview from the Colonial Period to the Present. New York: Peter Lang Publishing, Incorporated. pp. 143–146, 210. ISBN 978-0-8204-7907-1.
    5. ^ Dale, Richard (2014). The Namibian War of Independence, 1966–1989: Diplomatic, Economic and Military Campaigns. Jefferson: McFarland & Company, Incorporated Publishers. pp. 74–77, 93–95. ISBN 978-0-7864-9659-4.
    6. ^ Thomas, Scott (1995). The Diplomacy of Liberation: The Foreign Relations of the ANC Since 1960. London: Tauris Academic Studies. pp. 202–210. ISBN 978-1-85043-993-6.
    7. ^ Larmer, Miles (2011). Rethinking African Politics: A History of Opposition in Zambia. Surrey: Ashgate Publishing Ltd. pp. 209–217. ISBN 978-1-4094-8249-9.
    8. ^ Vanneman, Peter (1990). Soviet Strategy in Southern Africa: Gorbachev's Pragmatic Approach. Stanford: Hoover Institution Press. pp. 41–57. ISBN 978-0-8179-8902-6.
    9. ^ a b Hampson, Fen Osler (1996). Nurturing Peace: Why Peace Settlements Succeed Or Fail. Stanford: United States Institute of Peace Press. pp. 53–70. ISBN 978-1-878379-57-3.
    10. ^ Tsokodayi, Cleophas Johannes. Namibia's Independence Struggle: The Role of the United Nations. pp. 1–305.
    11. ^ McMullin, Jaremey (2013). Ex-Combatants and the Post-Conflict State: Challenges of Reintegration. Basingstoke: Palgrave-Macmillan. pp. 81–88. ISBN 978-1-349-33179-6.
    12. ^ George, Edward (2005). The Cuban intervention in Angola. New York: Frank Cass Publishers. pp. 236–246. ISBN 978-0-415-64710-6.
    13. ^ Gwyneth Williams & Brian Hackland (4 January 2016). The Dictionary of Contemporary Politics of Southern Africa (2016 ed.). Routledge Books. pp. 88–89. ISBN 978-1-138-19517-2.
    14. ^ a b Akawa, Martha; Silvester, Jeremy (March 2012). "Waking the dead: civilian casualties in the Namibian liberation struggle" (PDF). Journal for Studies in Humanities and Social Sciences. 1 (1): 117–128. Archived from the original (PDF) on 10 November 2016. Retrieved 4 January 2015.
    15. ^ Reginald Herbold Green. "Namibia: The road to Namibia – Britannica Online Encyclopedia". Britannica.com. Retrieved 15 January 2013.
    16. ^ Corum, James; Johnson, Wray (2003). Airpower in small wars: fighting insurgents and terrorists. Lawrence: University Press of Kansas. p. 315. ISBN 978-0-7006-1240-6.
    17. ^ Polack, Peter (2013). The Last Hot Battle of the Cold War: South Africa vs. Cuba in the Angolan Civil War (illustrated ed.). Oxford: Casemate Publishers. pp. 72, 92–108, 156–171. ISBN 978-1-61200-195-1.
    18. ^ Hooper, Jim (2013) [1988]. Koevoet! Experiencing South Africa's Deadly Bush War. Solihull: Helion and Company. pp. 86–93. ISBN 978-1-86812-167-0.
    19. ^ a b Clayton, Anthony (1999). Frontiersmen: Warfare in Africa since 1950. Philadelphia: UCL Press, Limited. pp. 119–124. ISBN 978-1-85728-525-3.
    20. ^ Stapleton, Timothy (2013). A Military History of Africa. Santa Barbara: ABC-CLIO. pp. 251–257. ISBN 978-0-313-39570-3.
    21. ^ a b c Jacklyn Cock, Laurie Nathan (1989). War and Society: The Militarisation of South Africa. New Africa Books. pp. 124–276. ISBN 978-0-86486-115-3.
    22. ^ Weigert, Stephen (2011). Angola: A Modern Military History. Basingstoke: Palgrave-Macmillan. pp. 71–72. ISBN 978-0-230-11777-8.
    23. ^ Shubin, Vladimir (18 May 2007). "Unsung Heroes: The Soviet Military and the Liberation of Southern Africa". Cold War History. 7 (2): 251–262. doi:10.1080/14682740701284157. S2CID 154318774. Retrieved 19 March 2023.
    24. ^ a b c Blank, Stephen (1991). Responding to Low-Intensity Conflict Challenges. Montgomery: Air University Press. pp. 223–239. ISBN 978-0-16-029332-0.
    25. ^ Gleijeses, Piero (18 May 2007). "Cuba and the Independence of Namibia". Cold War History. 7 (2): 285–303. doi:10.1080/14682740701284215. S2CID 154738164. Retrieved 19 March 2023.
    26. ^ Harris, Geoff (1999). Recovery from Armed Conflict in Developing Countries: An Economic and Political Analysis. Oxfordshire: Routledge Books. pp. 262–264. ISBN 978-0-415-19379-5.
    27. ^ Hearn, Roger (1999). UN Peacekeeping in Action: The Namibian Experience. Commack, New York: Nova Science Publishers. pp. 89–95. ISBN 978-1-56072-653-1.
    28. ^ Du Preez, Max (2011). Pale Native: Memories of a Renegade Reporter. Cape Town: Penguin Random House South Africa. pp. 88–90. ISBN 978-1-77022-060-7.
    29. ^ Mashiri, Mac; Shaw, Timothy (1989). Africa in World Politics: Into the 1990s. Basingstoke: Palgrave-Macmillan. pp. 208–209. ISBN 978-0-333-42931-0.
    30. ^ Baines, Gary (2014). South Africa's 'Border War': Contested Narratives and Conflicting Memories. London: Bloomsbury Academic. pp. 1–4, 138–140. ISBN 978-1-4725-0971-0.
     

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