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This day in .....

Discussion in 'Break Room' started by NewsBot, Apr 6, 2008.

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    16 August 1946Mass riots in Kolkata begin; more than 4,000 people would be killed in 72 hours.

    Direct Action Day

    Direct Action Day (16 August 1946) was the day the All-India Muslim League decided to take "direct action" for a separate Muslim homeland after the British exit from India. Also known as the 1946 Calcutta Killings, it was a day of nationwide communal riots.[5] It led to large-scale violence between Muslims and Hindus in the city of Calcutta (now known as Kolkata) in the Bengal province of British India.[3] The day also marked the start of what is known as The Week of the Long Knives.[6][7] While there is a certain degree of consensus on the magnitude of the killings (although no precise casualty figures are available), including their short-term consequences, controversy remains regarding the exact sequence of events, the various actors' responsibility and the long-term political consequences.[8]

    There is still extensive controversy regarding the respective responsibilities of the two main communities, the Hindus and the Muslims, in addition to individual leaders' roles in the carnage. The dominant British view tends to blame both communities equally and to single out the calculations of the leaders and the savagery of the followers, amongst whom there were criminal elements.[9] In the Indian National Congress' version of the events, the blame tends to be laid squarely on the Muslim League and in particular on the Chief Minister of Bengal, Huseyn Shaheed Suhrawardy.[10] The view from the Muslim League is that Congress and the Hindus in fact used the opportunity offered by Direct Action Day to teach the Muslims in Calcutta a lesson and to kill them in great numbers.[citation needed] Thus, the riots opened the way to a partition of Bengal between a Hindu-dominated Western Bengal including Calcutta and a Muslim-dominated Eastern Bengal (now Bangladesh).[8]

    The All-India Muslim League and the Indian National Congress were the two largest political parties in the Constituent Assembly of India in the 1940s. The Muslim League had demanded since its 1940 Lahore Resolution for the Muslim-majority areas of India in the northwest and the east to be constituted as 'independent states'. The 1946 Cabinet Mission to India for planning of the transfer of power from the British Raj to the Indian leadership proposed a three-tier structure: a centre, groups of provinces and provinces. The "groups of provinces" were meant to accommodate the Muslim League's demand. Both the Muslim League and the Congress in principle accepted the Cabinet Mission's plan.[11] However, the Muslim League suspected the Congress's acceptance to be insincere.

    Consequently, in July 1946, the Muslim League withdrew its agreement to the plan and announced a general strike (hartal) on 16 August, terming it Direct Action Day, to assert its demand for a separate homeland for Muslims in certain northwestern and eastern provinces in colonial India.[12][13] Calling for Direct Action Day, Muhammad Ali Jinnah, the leader of the All India Muslim League, said that he wanted "either a divided India or a destroyed India".[14][15]

    Against a backdrop of communal tension, the protest triggered massive riots in Calcutta.[16][17] More than 4,000 people died and 100,000 residents were left homeless in Calcutta within 72 hours.[3][4] The violence sparked off further religious riots in the surrounding regions of Noakhali, Bihar, United Provinces (modern day Uttar Pradesh), Punjab (including massacres in Rawalpindi) and the North Western Frontier Province.[18] The events sowed the seeds for the eventual Partition of India.

    1. ^ Sarkar, Tanika; Bandyopadhyay, Sekhar (2017). Calcutta: The Stormy Decades. Taylor & Francis. p. 441. ISBN 978-1-351-58172-1.
    2. ^ Wavell, Archibald P. (1946). Report to Lord Pethick-Lawrence. British Library Archives: IOR.
    3. ^ a b c Burrows, Frederick (1946). Report to Viceroy Lord Wavell. The British Library IOR: L/P&J/8/655 f.f. 95, 96–107.
    4. ^ a b Sarkar, Tanika; Bandyopadhyay, Sekhar (2017). Calcutta: The Stormy Decades. Taylor & Francis. p. 8. ISBN 978-1-351-58172-1.
    5. ^ Zehra, Rosheena (16 August 2016). "Direct Action Day: When Massive Communal Riots Made Kolkata Bleed". TheQuint. Retrieved 31 August 2021.
    6. ^ Sengupta, Debjani (2006). "A City Feeding on Itself: Testimonies and Histories of 'Direct Action' Day" (PDF). In Narula, Monica (ed.). Turbulence. Serai Reader. Vol. 6. The Sarai Programme, Center for the Study of Developing Societies. pp. 288–295. OCLC 607413832.
    7. ^ L/I/1/425. The British Library Archives, London.
    8. ^ a b "The Calcutta Riots of 1946 | Sciences Po Mass Violence and Resistance – Research Network". www.sciencespo.fr. 4 April 2019.
    9. ^ Tuker, 1950
    10. ^ Harun-or-Rashid (2003) [First published 1987]. The Foreshadowing of Bangladesh: Bengal Muslim League and Muslim Politics, 1906–1947 (Revised and enlarged ed.). The University Press Limited. pp. 242, 244–245. ISBN 984-05-1688-4.
    11. ^ Kulke & Rothermund 2004, pp. 318–319.
    12. ^ Nariaki, Nakazato (2000). "The politics of a Partition Riot: Calcutta in August 1946". In Sato Tsugitaka (ed.). Muslim Societies: Historical and Comparative Aspects. Routledge. p. 112. ISBN 978-0-415-33254-5.
    13. ^ Bourke-White, Margaret (1949). Halfway to Freedom: A Report on the New India in the Words and Photographs of Margaret Bourke-White. Simon and Schuster. p. 15.
    14. ^ Guha, Ramachandra (23 August 2014). "Divided or Destroyed – Remembering Direct Action Day". The Telegraph (Opinion).
    15. ^ Tunzelmann, Alex von (2012). Indian Summer: The Secret History of the End of an Empire. Simon and Schuster. ISBN 978-1-4711-1476-2.
    16. ^ Das, Suranjan (May 2000). "The 1992 Calcutta Riot in Historical Continuum: A Relapse into 'Communal Fury'?". Modern Asian Studies. 34 (2): 281–306. doi:10.1017/S0026749X0000336X. JSTOR 313064. S2CID 144646764.
    17. ^ Das, Suranjan (2012). "Calcutta Riot, 1946". In Islam, Sirajul; Jamal, Ahmed A. (eds.). Banglapedia: National Encyclopedia of Bangladesh (Second ed.). Asiatic Society of Bangladesh.
    18. ^ Talbot, Ian; Singh, Gurharpal (2009), The Partition of India, Cambridge University Press, p. 67, ISBN 978-0-521-67256-6, (Signs of 'ethnic cleansing') were also present in the wave of violence that rippled out from Calcutta to Bihar, where there were high Muslim casualty figures, and to Noakhali deep in the Ganges-Brahmaputra delta of Bengal. Concerning the Noakhali riots, one British officer spoke of a 'determined and organized' Muslim effort to drive out all the Hindus, who accounted for around a fifth of the total population. Similarly, the Punjab counterparts to this transition of violence were the Rawalpindi massacres of March 1947. The level of death and destruction in such West Punjab villages as Thoa Khalsa was such that communities couldn't live together in its wake.
     
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    17 August 2005 – Over 500 bombs are set off by terrorists at 300 locations in 63 out of the 64 districts of Bangladesh.

    2005 Bangladesh bombings

    On 17 August 2005, around 500 bomb explosions occurred at 300 locations in 63 out of the 64 districts of Bangladesh. The bombs exploded within a half-hour period starting from 11:30 am. A terrorist organization, Jama'atul Mujahideen Bangladesh (JMB) claimed responsibility for the bombings. The group, led by Shaykh Abdur Rahman and Siddiqur Rahman (also known as Bangla Bhai). Another terrorist group, named Harkat-ul-Jihad al-Islami, was associated with JMB in executing the co-ordinated attack. Following the bombings, both groups were banned by the BNP Government of Bangladesh.

     
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    18 August 2005 – A massive power blackout hits the Indonesian island of Java, affecting almost 100 million people, one of the largest and most widespread power outages in history.

    2005 Java–Bali blackout

    Provinces affected by the blackout. Not all areas within the political borders are affected.

    The 2005 Java–Bali Blackout was a power outage across Java and Bali on 18 August 2005, affecting some 100 million people.[1]

    1. ^ Donnan, Shawn (19 August 2005). "Indonesian outage leaves 100m without electricity". Financial Times. London. Retrieved 21 June 2009.
     
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    19 August 2009 – A series of bombings in Baghdad, Iraq, kills 101 and injures 565 others.

    August 2009 Baghdad bombings

    The August 2009 Baghdad bombings were three coordinated car bomb attacks and a number of mortar strikes in the Iraqi capital, Baghdad, on 19 August 2009. The explosives were detonated simultaneously across the capital at approximately 10:45 in the morning, killing at least 101 people and wounding at least 565, making it the deadliest attack since the 14 August 2007 Yazidi communities bombings in northern Iraq which killed almost 800 people. The bombings targeted both government and privately-owned buildings.

    1. ^ Richard Spencer (19 August 2009). "Iraq al Qaeda bombings kill almost 100 as multiple targets hit in Baghdad". The Daily Telegraph. Archived from the original on 23 August 2009. Retrieved 19 August 2009.
    2. ^ "Fresh violence strikes Baghdad". Al Jazeera. 20 August 2009. Archived from the original on 20 August 2009. Retrieved 20 August 2009.
    3. ^ Cite error: The named reference CNN was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    4. ^ Cite error: The named reference WP27Oct09 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
     
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    20 August 1977Voyager program: NASA launches the Voyager 2 spacecraft.

    Voyager 2

    Heliocentric positions of the five interstellar probes (squares) and other bodies (circles) until 2020, with launch and flyby dates. Markers denote positions on 1 January of each year, with every fifth year labelled.
    Plot 1 is viewed from the north ecliptic pole, to scale.
    Plots 2 to 4 are third-angle projections at 20% scale.
    In the SVG file, hover over a trajectory or orbit to highlight it and its associated launches and flybys.

    Voyager 2 is a space probe launched by NASA on August 20, 1977, to study the outer planets and interstellar space beyond the Sun's heliosphere. As a part of the Voyager program, it was launched 16 days before its twin, Voyager 1, on a trajectory that took longer to reach gas giants Jupiter and Saturn but enabled further encounters with ice giants Uranus and Neptune.[5] Voyager 2 remains the only spacecraft to have visited either of the ice giant planets, and was the third of five spacecraft to achieve Solar escape velocity, which will allow it to leave the Solar System.

    Voyager 2 successfully fulfilled its primary mission of visiting the Jovian system in 1979, the Saturnian system in 1981, Uranian system in 1986, and the Neptunian system in 1989. The spacecraft is now in its extended mission of studying the interstellar medium. It is at a distance of 136.3 AU (20.4 billion km; 12.7 billion mi) from Earth as of March 2024.[6]

    The probe entered the interstellar medium on November 5, 2018, at a distance of 119.7 AU (11.1 billion mi; 17.9 billion km) from the Sun[7] and moving at a velocity of 15.341 km/s (34,320 mph)[8] relative to the Sun. Voyager 2 has left the Sun's heliosphere and is traveling through the interstellar medium, though still inside the Solar System, joining Voyager 1, which had reached the interstellar medium in 2012.[9][10][11][12] Voyager 2 has begun to provide the first direct measurements of the density and temperature of the interstellar plasma.[13]

    Voyager 2 remains in contact with Earth through the NASA Deep Space Network.[14] Communications are the responsibility of Australia's DSS 43 communication antenna, located near Canberra.[15]

    1. ^ "Voyager: Mission Information". NASA. 1989. Archived from the original on February 20, 2017. Retrieved January 2, 2011.
    2. ^ "Voyager 2". US National Space Science Data Center. Archived from the original on January 31, 2017. Retrieved August 25, 2013.
    3. ^ "Voyager 2". N2YO. Archived from the original on August 2, 2014. Retrieved August 25, 2013.
    4. ^ "Voyager 2". NASA's Solar System Exploration website. Archived from the original on April 20, 2017. Retrieved December 4, 2022.
    5. ^ Cite error: The named reference ESBS was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    6. ^ "Voyager – Mission Status". Jet Propulsion Laboratory. National Aeronautics and Space Administration. Archived from the original on January 1, 2018. Retrieved July 9, 2023.
    7. ^ Cite error: The named reference where was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    8. ^ "Voyager – Mission Status". voyager.jpl.nasa.gov. Archived from the original on January 1, 2018. Retrieved September 14, 2018.
    9. ^ University of Iowa (November 4, 2019). "Voyager 2 reaches interstellar space – Iowa-led instrument detects plasma density jump, confirming spacecraft has entered the realm of the stars". EurekAlert!. Archived from the original on April 13, 2020. Retrieved November 4, 2019.
    10. ^ Chang, Kenneth (November 4, 2019). "Voyager 2's Discoveries From Interstellar Space – In its journey beyond the boundary of the solar wind's bubble, the probe observed some notable differences from its twin, Voyager 1". The New York Times. Archived from the original on April 13, 2020. Retrieved November 5, 2019.
    11. ^ Gill, Victoria (December 10, 2018). "Nasa's Voyager 2 probe 'leaves the Solar System'". BBC News. Archived from the original on December 15, 2019. Retrieved December 10, 2018.
    12. ^ Brown, Dwayne; Fox, Karen; Cofield, Calia; Potter, Sean (December 10, 2018). "Release 18–115 – NASA's Voyager 2 Probe Enters Interstellar Space". NASA. Archived from the original on June 27, 2023. Retrieved December 10, 2018.
    13. ^ "At last, Voyager 1 slips into interstellar space – Atom & Cosmos". Science News. September 12, 2013. Archived from the original on September 15, 2013. Retrieved September 17, 2013.
    14. ^ NASA Voyager – The Interstellar Mission Mission Overview Archived May 2, 2011, at the Wayback Machine
    15. ^ Shannon Stirone (February 12, 2021). "Earth to Voyager 2: After a Year in the Darkness, We Can Talk to You Again – NASA's sole means of sending commands to the distant space probe, launched 44 years ago, is being restored on Friday". The New York Times. Archived from the original on December 28, 2021. Retrieved February 14, 2021.
     
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    21 August 1911 – The Mona Lisa is stolen by Vincenzo Peruggia, a Louvre employee.

    Mona Lisa

    The Mona Lisa (/ˌmnə ˈlsə/ MOH-nə LEE-sə; Italian: Gioconda [dʒoˈkonda] or Monna Lisa [ˈmɔnna ˈliːza]; French: Joconde [ʒɔkɔ̃d]) is a half-length portrait painting by Italian artist Leonardo da Vinci. Considered an archetypal masterpiece of the Italian Renaissance,[4][5] it has been described as "the best known, the most visited, the most written about, the most sung about, [and] the most parodied work of art in the world".[6] The painting's novel qualities include the subject's enigmatic expression,[7] monumentality of the composition, the subtle modelling of forms, and the atmospheric illusionism.[8]

    The painting has been traditionally considered to depict the Italian noblewoman Lisa del Giocondo.[9] It is painted in oil on a white Lombardy poplar panel. Leonardo never gave the painting to the Giocondo family.[10] It was believed to have been painted between 1503 and 1506; however, Leonardo may have continued working on it as late as 1517. It was acquired by King Francis I of France and is now the property of the French Republic. It has normally been on display at the Louvre in Paris since 1797.[11]

    The painting's global fame and popularity partly stem from its 1911 theft by Vincenzo Peruggia, who attributed his actions to Italian patriotism—a belief it should belong to Italy. The theft and subsequent recovery in 1914 generated unprecedented publicity for an art theft, and led to the publication of many cultural depictions such as the 1915 opera Mona Lisa, two early 1930s films (The Theft of the Mona Lisa and Arsène Lupin) and the song "Mona Lisa" recorded by Nat King Cole—one of the most successful songs of the 1950s.[12]

    The Mona Lisa is one of the most valuable paintings in the world. It holds the Guinness World Record for the highest known painting insurance valuation in history at US$100 million in 1962,[13] equivalent to $1 billion as of 2023.[14]

    1. ^ "The Mona Lisa's Twin Painting Discovered". All Things Considered. 2 February 2012. National Public Radio. The original Mona Lisa in the Louvre is difficult to see—it's covered with layers of varnish, which has darkened over the decades and the centuries, and even cracked', Bailey says
    2. ^ "Theft of the Mona Lisa". Treasures of the World. PBS. time has aged and darkened her complexion.
    3. ^ Sassoon, Donald (2001). Mona Lisa: The History of the World's Most Famous Painting. HarperCollins. p. 10. ISBN 978-0-00-710614-1. It is actually quite dirty, partly due to age and partly to the darkening of a varnish applied in the sixteenth century.
    4. ^ "The Theft That Made Mona Lisa a Masterpiece". All Things Considered. 30 July 2011. NPR. Retrieved 15 February 2019.
    5. ^ Sassoon, Donald (21 September 2001). "Why I think Mona Lisa became an icon". Times Higher Education.
    6. ^ Lichfield, John (1 April 2005). "The Moving of the Mona Lisa". The Independent. London. Archived from the original on 9 November 2016.
    7. ^ Cohen, Philip (23 June 2004). "Noisy secret of Mona Lisa's". New Scientist. Archived from the original on 23 April 2008. Retrieved 27 April 2008.
    8. ^ "Mona Lisa – Portrait of Lisa Gherardini, wife of Francesco del Giocondo". Louvre. Archived from the original on 30 July 2014. Retrieved 11 March 2012.
    9. ^ "Mona Lisa – Heidelberger find clarifies identity". University Library Heidelberg. Archived from the original on 8 May 2011. Retrieved 15 January 2008.
    10. ^ "Was the 'Mona Lisa' Leonardo's Male Lover?". Artnet News. 22 April 2016. Retrieved 20 May 2021.
    11. ^ Carrier, David (2006). Museum Skepticism: A History of the Display of Art in Public Galleries. Duke University Press. p. 35. ISBN 978-0-8223-3694-5.
    12. ^ Charney, N.; Fincham, D.; Charney, U. (2011). The Thefts of the Mona Lisa: On Stealing the World's Most Famous Painting. Arca Publications. ISBN 978-0-615-51902-9. Retrieved 4 November 2022.
    13. ^ "Highest insurance valuation for a painting". Guinness World Records. Retrieved 25 July 2017.
    14. ^ "Value of 1962 US Dollars today – Inflation Calculator". www.inflationtool.com.
     
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    22 August 2004 – Versions of The Scream and Madonna, two paintings by Edvard Munch, are stolen at gunpoint from a museum in Oslo, Norway.

    Edvard Munch

    Edvard Munch (/mʊŋk/ MUUNK,[1] Norwegian: [ˈɛ̀dvɑɖ ˈmʊŋk] ; 12 December 1863 – 23 January 1944) was a Norwegian painter. His 1893 work, The Scream, has become one of Western art's most acclaimed images.

    His childhood was overshadowed by illness, bereavement and the dread of inheriting a mental condition that ran in the family. Studying at the Royal School of Art and Design in Kristiania (today's Oslo), Munch began to live a bohemian life under the influence of the nihilist Hans Jæger, who urged him to paint his own emotional and psychological state ('soul painting'); from this emerged his distinctive style.

    Travel brought new influences and outlets. In Paris, he learned much from Paul Gauguin, Vincent van Gogh and Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec, especially their use of color. In Berlin, he met the Swedish dramatist August Strindberg, whom he painted, as he embarked on a major series of paintings he would later call The Frieze of Life, depicting a series of deeply-felt themes such as love, anxiety, jealousy and betrayal, steeped in atmosphere.

    The Scream was conceived in Kristiania. According to Munch, he was out walking at sunset, when he 'heard the enormous, infinite scream of nature'. The painting's agonized face is widely identified with the angst of the modern person. Between 1893 and 1910, he made two painted versions and two in pastels, as well as a number of prints. One of the pastels would eventually command the fourth highest nominal price paid for a painting at auction.

    Self-Portrait with Palette (1926). Currently on view at the Clark Art Institute

    As his fame and wealth grew, his emotional state remained insecure. He briefly considered marriage, but could not commit himself. A mental breakdown in 1908 forced him to give up heavy drinking, and he was cheered by his increasing acceptance by the people of Kristiania and exposure in the city's museums. His later years were spent working in peace and privacy. Although his works were banned in Nazi-occupied Europe, most of them survived World War II, securing him a legacy.

     
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    23 August 1973 – A bank robbery gone wrong in Stockholm, Sweden, turns into a hostage crisis; over the next five days the hostages begin to sympathise with their captors, leading to the term "Stockholm syndrome".

    Norrmalmstorg robbery

    The Norrmalmstorg robbery was a bank robbery and hostage crisis that occurred at the Norrmalmstorg Square in Stockholm, Sweden, in August 1973 and was the first crime in Sweden to be covered by live television. It is best known as the origin of the term Stockholm syndrome. [1]

    Jan-Erik Olsson was a convicted criminal who had disappeared while on furlough from prison and then held up the Kreditbanken bank, taking four hostages in the process. During the negotiations that followed, Swedish Minister of Justice Lennart Geijer allowed Olsson's former cellmate and friend Clark Olofsson to be brought from prison to the bank. Although Olofsson was a long-time career criminal, it was deemed unlikely that he was in league with Olsson.[2] In the popular account, the hostages then bonded with their captors and refused to cooperate with police. However, it has also been argued that the hostages were simply distrustful of the police given the latter's willingness to risk the hostages' safety.[3] Police finally mounted a tear-gas attack five days into the crisis, and the robbers surrendered.

    Olsson was sentenced to 10 years for the robbery, and Olofsson was ultimately acquitted. The counter-intuitive actions of the hostages led to a great deal of academic and public interest in the case, including a 2003 Swedish television film titled Norrmalmstorg, a 2018 Canadian film titled Stockholm and a 2022 Swedish Netflix television series Clark.[4]

    1. ^ Cite error: The named reference 40-ar-sedan was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    2. ^ Svensson, Per (2016). Dramat på Norrmalmstorg: 23 till 28 augusti 1973. Albert Bonniers Förlag. ISBN 978-9100169350.
    3. ^ Hill, Jess (2019). See What You Made Me Do: Power, Control and Domestic Abuse. Melbourne: Black Inc. ISBN 978-1760641405. OCLC 1246246503.
    4. ^ "Swedish Crime-Drama Series 'Clark' on Netflix: Everything We Know So Far". Netflix. 14 December 2021.
     
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    24 August 1932Amelia Earhart becomes the first woman to fly across the United States non-stop (from Los Angeles to Newark, New Jersey).

    Amelia Earhart

    Amelia Mary Earhart (/ˈɛərhɑːrt/ AIR-hart; born July 24, 1897; disappeared July 2, 1937; declared dead January 5, 1939) was an American aviation pioneer and writer.[2][Note 1] Earhart was the first female aviator to fly solo across the Atlantic Ocean.[4] She set many other records,[3][Note 2] was one of the first aviators to promote commercial air travel, wrote best-selling books about her flying experiences, and was instrumental in the formation of The Ninety-Nines, an organization for female pilots.[6]

    Born and raised in Atchison, Kansas, and later in Des Moines, Iowa, Earhart developed a passion for adventure at a young age, steadily gaining flying experience from her twenties. In 1928, Earhart became the first female passenger to cross the Atlantic by airplane (accompanying pilot Wilmer Stultz), for which she achieved celebrity status. In 1932, piloting a Lockheed Vega 5B, Earhart made a nonstop solo transatlantic flight, becoming the first woman to achieve such a feat. She received the United States Distinguished Flying Cross for this accomplishment.[7] In 1935, Earhart became a visiting faculty member at Purdue University as an advisor to aeronautical engineering and a career counselor to female students. She was also a member of the National Woman's Party and an early supporter of the Equal Rights Amendment.[8][9] Known as one of the most inspirational American figures in aviation from the late 1920s throughout the 1930s, Earhart's legacy is often compared to the early aeronautical career of pioneer aviator Charles Lindbergh, as well as to figures like First Lady Eleanor Roosevelt for their close friendship and lasting impact on the issue of women's causes from that period.

    During an attempt at becoming the first woman to complete a circumnavigational flight of the globe in 1937 in a Purdue-funded Lockheed Model 10-E Electra, Earhart and navigator Fred Noonan disappeared over the central Pacific Ocean near Howland Island. The two were last seen in Lae, New Guinea, on July 2, 1937, on the last land stop before Howland Island and one of their final legs of the flight. It is generally presumed that she and Noonan died somewhere in the Pacific during the circumnavigation, just three weeks prior to her fortieth birthday.[10] Nearly one year and six months after she and Noonan disappeared, Earhart was officially declared dead. Investigations and significant public interest in their disappearance still continue over 80 years later.[Note 3]

    Decades after her presumed death, Earhart was inducted into the National Aviation Hall of Fame in 1968 and the National Women's Hall of Fame in 1973. She now has several commemorative memorials named in her honor around the United States, including a commemorative US airmail stamp, an urban park, an airport, a residence hall, a museum, a research foundation, a bridge, a cargo ship, an earth-fill dam, four schools, a hotel, a playhouse, a library, multiple roads, and more. She also has a minor planet, planetary corona, and lunar crater named after her. She is ranked ninth on Flying's list of the 51 Heroes of Aviation.[12]

    1. ^ Van Pelt 2005, p. 205.
    2. ^ Morey 1995, p. 11.
    3. ^ a b Oakes 1985.
    4. ^ Pearce 1988, p. 95.
    5. ^ Ferdinando, Lisa. "Clinton Celebrates Pioneer Aviatrix Amelia Earhart." Archived June 14, 2012, at the Wayback Machine Voice of America, March 19, 2012.
    6. ^ Lovell 1989, p. 152.
    7. ^ Goldstein & Dillon 1997, pp. 111, 112.
    8. ^ "Timeline: Equal Rights Amendment, Phase One: 1921–1972." Archived December 8, 2012, at the Wayback Machine feminism101.com. Retrieved: June 4, 2012.
    9. ^ Francis, Roberta W."The History Behind the Equal Rights Amendment." equalrightsamendment.org, July 21, 2011. Retrieved: June 4, 2012.
    10. ^ De Hart, Jane Sherron (1995). Ware, Susan (ed.). "The Perils of Flying Solo: Amelia Earhart and Feminist Individualism". Reviews in American History. 23 (1): 86–90. doi:10.1353/rah.1995.0004. ISSN 0048-7511. JSTOR 2703241. S2CID 201762326. Archived from the original on October 12, 2021. Retrieved March 10, 2021.
    11. ^ "The Mystery of Amelia Earhart." Social Studies School Service, February 10, 2007. Retrieved: July 12, 2017.
    12. ^ Cite error: The named reference FlyingMag was invoked but never defined (see the help page).


    Cite error: There are <ref group=Note> tags on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=Note}} template (see the help page).

     
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    25 August 1967George Lincoln Rockwell, founder of the American Nazi Party, is assassinated by a former member of his group.

    American Nazi Party

    The American Nazi Party (ANP) is an American far-right and neo-Nazi political party founded by George Lincoln Rockwell and headquartered in Arlington, Virginia. The organization was originally named the World Union of Free Enterprise National Socialists (WUFENS), a name to denote opposition to state ownership of property, the same year—it was renamed the American Nazi Party in order to attract 'maximum media attention'.[1] Since the late 1960s, a number of small groups have used the name "American Nazi Party" with most being independent of each other and disbanding before the 21st century. The party is based largely upon the ideals and policies of Adolf Hitler's Nazi Party in Germany during the Nazi era, and embraced its uniforms and iconography.[7][A]

    Shortly after Rockwell's murder in 1967, the organization appointed Rockwell's second in command, Deputy Commander Matt Koehl as the new leader. The American Nazi Party, now under Koehl's command, was subject to ideological disagreements between members in the 1970s and 1980s. "In 1982, Martin Kerr, a leader at the Franklin Road headquarters, announced that the organization was changing its name to the New Order and moving to the Midwest", effective January 1, 1983.[10] Due to recruitment issues along with financial and legal trouble, Koehl was forced to relocate the group's headquarters from the DC area, eventually finding his way to scattered locations in Wisconsin and Michigan. After Koehl's death in 2014, a long-time member and officer of the New Order, Martin Kerr assumed leadership and maintains the New Order website and organization.[11]

    A former member of the original American Nazi Party, Rocky Suhayda, founded his own organization using the American Nazi Party name and has been active since at least 2008.[12] Suhayda claims Rockwell as its founder despite no direct legal or financial link between it and Rockwell's legacy organization.[13] The one connection between the original American Nazi Party and Rocky Suhayda's group besides ideology is that they sell reprints of Rockwell's 1960s-era magazine The Stormtrooper on their website.

    1. ^ a b Rockwell, George Lincoln. From Ivory Tower to Privy Wall: On The Art of Propaganda Archived August 3, 2014, at the Wayback Machine c.1966
    2. ^ Holley, Peter (August 6, 2016). "Top Nazi leader: Trump will be a 'real opportunity' for white nationalists". The Washington Post.
    3. ^ Michigan, NSM (2016). "A Brief History of American National Socialism" (PDF). National Socialist Movement. Archived from the original (PDF) on December 26, 2016. Retrieved March 27, 2018.
    4. ^ "Nazis in Arlington: George Rockwell and the ANP". Boundary Stones: WETA's Washington DC History Blog. Retrieved March 26, 2018.
    5. ^ “The Stormtrooper Magazine [American Nazi Party publication],” Social Welfare History Image Portal, accessed June 17, 2020, https://images.socialwelfare.library.vcu.edu/items/show/266.
    6. ^ a b c Green & Stabler 2015, p. 390.
    7. ^ Potok, Mark (August 29, 2001). "The Nazi International". Southern Poverty Law Center. Retrieved May 13, 2016.
    8. ^ Wolter & Masters 2004, p. 65.
    9. ^ Van Ells, Mark D. (2007). "Americans for Hitler – The Bund". America in WWII. Vol. 3. pp. 44–49. Retrieved May 13, 2016.
    10. ^ "Death of an Arlington Nazi". www.northernvirginiamag.com. December 30, 2010. Retrieved March 26, 2018.
    11. ^ "Longtime Neo-Nazi Matthias "Matt" Koehl Dies". Southern Poverty Law Center. Retrieved April 24, 2022.
    12. ^ "A Guide to the American Nazi Party Recruiting Materials, c. 1966 American Nazi Party Recruiting Materials Ms2015-060". August 12, 2016. Archived from the original on August 12, 2016. Retrieved March 26, 2018.
    13. ^ Loeser Consulting. "American Nazi Party (USA), Historical Flags of Our Ancestors – Flags of Extremism – Part 1 (a–m)". www.loeser.us. Retrieved March 26, 2018.


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    26 August 1883 – The 1883 eruption of Krakatoa begins its final, paroxysmal, stage.

    1883 eruption of Krakatoa

    Lithograph of the eruption c. 1888

    The 1883 eruption of Krakatoa (Indonesian: Letusan Krakatau 1883) in the Sunda Strait occurred from 20 May until 21 October 1883, peaking in the late morning hours of 27 August when over 70% of the island of Krakatoa and its surrounding archipelago were destroyed as it collapsed into a caldera.

    The eruption was one of the deadliest and most destructive volcanic events in recorded history. The explosion was heard 3,110 kilometres (1,930 mi) away in Perth, Western Australia, and Rodrigues near Mauritius, 4,800 kilometres (3,000 mi) away.[3] The acoustic pressure wave circled the globe more than three times.[4]: 63  At least 36,417 deaths are attributed to the eruption and the tsunamis it created.

    Significant additional effects were felt worldwide in the days and weeks after the volcano's eruption. Additional seismic activity was reported until February 1884, but any reports after October 1883 were dismissed by Rogier Verbeek's subsequent investigation into the eruption.

    1. ^ a b c "Krakatau". Global Volcanism Program. Smithsonian Institution. Retrieved 3 May 2021.
    2. ^ Self, Stephen (1992). "Krakatau revisited: The course of events and interpretation of the 1883 eruption". GeoJournal. 28 (2). Springer Science+Business Media. doi:10.1007/BF00177223. S2CID 189890473. Retrieved 20 May 2022.
    3. ^ Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Krakatoa" . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 15 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 923.
    4. ^ Symons, G.J. (ed) The Eruption of Krakatoa and Subsequent Phenomena (Report of the Krakatoa Committee of the Royal Society). London, 1888. Internet Archive. 1888.
     
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    27 August 2011Hurricane Irene strikes the United States east coast, killing 47 and causing an estimated $15.6 billion in damage

    Hurricane Irene

    Hurricane Irene was a large and destructive tropical cyclone which affected much of the Caribbean and East Coast of the United States during late August 2011. The ninth named storm, first hurricane, and first major hurricane of the 2011 Atlantic hurricane season, Irene originated from a well-defined Atlantic tropical wave that began showing signs of organization east of the Lesser Antilles. Due to development of atmospheric convection and a closed center of circulation, the system was designated as Tropical Storm Irene on August 20, 2011. After intensifying, Irene made landfall in St. Croix as a strong tropical storm later that day. Early on August 21, the storm made a second landfall in Puerto Rico. While crossing the island, Irene strengthened into a Category 1 hurricane. The storm paralleled offshore of Hispaniola, continuing to slowly intensify in the process. Shortly before making four landfalls in the Bahamas, Irene peaked as a 120 mph (190 km/h) Category 3 hurricane.

    Thereafter, the storm slowly leveled off in intensity as it struck the Bahamas and then curved northward after passing east of Grand Bahama. Continuing to weaken, Irene was downgraded to a Category 1 hurricane before making landfall on the Outer Banks of North Carolina on August 27, becoming the first hurricane to make landfall in the United States since Hurricane Ike in 2008. Later that day, the storm re-emerged into the Atlantic from southeastern Virginia. Although Irene remained a hurricane over water, it weakened to a tropical storm while making yet another landfall in the Little Egg Inlet in southeastern New Jersey on August 27. A few hours later, Irene made its ninth and final landfall in Brooklyn, New York City. Early on August 29, Irene transitioned into an extratropical cyclone while striking Vermont, after remaining inland as a tropical cyclone for less than 12 hours.

    Throughout its path, Irene caused widespread destruction and at least 49 deaths. Damage estimates throughout the United States are estimated near $13.5 billion, making Irene one of the costliest hurricanes on record in the country. In addition, monetary losses in the Caribbean and Canada were $830 million and $130 million respectively for a total of nearly $14.2 billion in damage.[1][2]

    1. ^ Fieser, Erza (August 25, 2011). "Hurricane Irene barrels toward US as Caribbean islands take stock of damage". The Christian Science Monitor. Archived from the original on August 26, 2011. Retrieved September 20, 2011.
    2. ^ Telling the Weather Story (PDF) (Report). Insurance Bureau of Canada. June 4, 2012. Archived (PDF) from the original on June 9, 2015. Retrieved July 19, 2015.
     
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    28 August 1963March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom: Rev. Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. gives his I Have a Dream speech.

    I Have a Dream

    Martin Luther King Jr. delivering the speech at the 1963 Washington, D.C., Civil Rights March.

    "I Have a Dream" is a public speech that was delivered by American civil rights activist and Baptist minister[2] Martin Luther King Jr. during the March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom on August 28, 1963. In the speech, King called for civil and economic rights and an end to racism in the United States. Delivered to over 250,000 civil rights supporters from the steps of the Lincoln Memorial in Washington, D.C., the speech was one of the most famous moments of the civil rights movement and among the most iconic speeches in American history.[3][4]

    Beginning with a reference to the Emancipation Proclamation, which declared millions of slaves free in 1863,[5] King said "one hundred years later, the Negro still is not free".[6] Toward the end of the speech, King departed from his prepared text for a partly improvised peroration on the theme "I have a dream", prompted by Mahalia Jackson's cry: "Tell them about the dream, Martin!"[7] In this part of the speech, which most excited the listeners and has now become its most famous, King described his dreams of freedom and equality arising from a land of slavery and hatred.[8]

    Jon Meacham writes that, "With a single phrase, King joined Jefferson and Lincoln in the ranks of men who've shaped modern America".[9] The speech was ranked the top American speech of the 20th century in a 1999 poll of scholars of public address.[10] The speech has also been described as having "a strong claim to be the greatest in the English language of all time".[11]

    1. ^ "Special Collections, March on Washington, Part 17". Open Vault. at WGBH. August 28, 1963. Archived from the original on December 26, 2018. Retrieved September 15, 2016.
    2. ^ Cite error: The named reference MKNYT was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    3. ^ Hansen, D. D. (2003). The Dream: Martin Luther King Jr. and the Speech that Inspired a Nation. New York: Harper Collins. p. 177. OCLC 473993560.
    4. ^ Tikkanen, Amy (August 29, 2017). "I Have a Dream". Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived from the original on October 20, 2018. Retrieved May 7, 2019.
    5. ^ Echols, James (2004), I Have a Dream: Martin Luther King Jr. and the Future of Multicultural America.
    6. ^ Alexandra Alvarez, "Martin Luther King's 'I Have a Dream': The Speech Event as Metaphor", Journal of Black Studies 18(3); doi:10.1177/002193478801800306.
    7. ^ See Taylor Branch, Parting the Waters: America in the King Years 1954–1963.
    8. ^ Cite error: The named reference Mills was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    9. ^ Meacham, Jon (August 26, 2013). "One Man". Time. p. 26.
    10. ^ Lucas, Stephen; Medhurst, Martin (December 15, 1999). "I Have a Dream Speech Leads Top 100 Speeches of the Century". University of Wisconsin–Madison. Archived from the original on February 10, 2016. Retrieved July 18, 2006.
    11. ^ O'Grady, Sean (April 3, 2018). "Martin Luther King's 'I Have a Dream' speech is the greatest oration of all time". The Independent. Archived from the original on January 28, 2021. Retrieved December 19, 2020.
     
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    29 August 1997Netflix is launched as an internet DVD rental service.

    Netflix

    Netflix is an American subscription video on-demand over-the-top streaming service. The service primarily distributes original and acquired films and television shows from various genres, and it is available internationally in multiple languages.[6]

    Launched on January 16, 2007, nearly a decade after Netflix, Inc. began its pioneering DVD‑by‑mail movie rental service, Netflix is the most-subscribed video on demand streaming media service, with 260.28 million paid memberships in more than 190 countries as of January 2024.[5][7] By 2022, "Netflix Original" productions accounted for half of its library in the United States and the namesake company had ventured into other categories, such as video game publishing of mobile games via its flagship service. As of October 2023, Netflix is the 24th most-visited website in the world with 23.66% of its traffic coming from the United States, followed by the United Kingdom at 5.84% and Brazil at 5.64%.[8][9]

    1. ^ "Netflix is now available in Hindi". Netflix (Press release). August 9, 2020. Archived from the original on March 5, 2024. Retrieved August 21, 2020.
    2. ^ "APA KABAR INDONESIA? Avriel like Essence". Netflix (Press release). October 18, 2018. Archived from the original on April 11, 2023. Retrieved October 9, 2021.
    3. ^ "Where is Netflix available?". Netflix. Archived from the original on July 7, 2017.
    4. ^ Cite error: The named reference Russia suspension was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    5. ^ a b "Netflix Packs on More Than 13 Million Subscribers in Q4, Well Above Expectations". January 23, 2024. Archived from the original on January 23, 2024. Retrieved January 23, 2024.
    6. ^ "Netflix - Overview - Profile". ir.netflix.net. Archived from the original on December 3, 2023. Retrieved June 1, 2023.
    7. ^ Lauren Forristal (July 19, 2023). "Netflix gains nearly 6M subscribers as paid sharing soars". TechCrunch. Archived from the original on September 1, 2023. Retrieved July 19, 2023.
    8. ^ "Top Websites Ranking". Similarweb. Archived from the original on February 10, 2022. Retrieved December 1, 2021.
    9. ^ "netflix.com". similarweb.com. Archived from the original on October 2, 2023. Retrieved December 11, 2023.
     
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    29 August 1997Netflix is launched as an internet DVD rental service.

    Netflix

    Netflix is an American subscription video on-demand over-the-top streaming service. The service primarily distributes original and acquired films and television shows from various genres, and it is available internationally in multiple languages.[6]

    Launched on January 16, 2007, nearly a decade after Netflix, Inc. began its pioneering DVD‑by‑mail movie rental service, Netflix is the most-subscribed video on demand streaming media service, with 260.28 million paid memberships in more than 190 countries as of January 2024.[5][7] By 2022, "Netflix Original" productions accounted for half of its library in the United States and the namesake company had ventured into other categories, such as video game publishing of mobile games via its flagship service. As of October 2023, Netflix is the 24th most-visited website in the world with 23.66% of its traffic coming from the United States, followed by the United Kingdom at 5.84% and Brazil at 5.64%.[8][9]

    1. ^ "Netflix is now available in Hindi". Netflix (Press release). August 9, 2020. Archived from the original on March 5, 2024. Retrieved August 21, 2020.
    2. ^ "APA KABAR INDONESIA? Avriel like Essence". Netflix (Press release). October 18, 2018. Archived from the original on April 11, 2023. Retrieved October 9, 2021.
    3. ^ "Where is Netflix available?". Netflix. Archived from the original on July 7, 2017.
    4. ^ Cite error: The named reference Russia suspension was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    5. ^ a b "Netflix Packs on More Than 13 Million Subscribers in Q4, Well Above Expectations". January 23, 2024. Archived from the original on January 23, 2024. Retrieved January 23, 2024.
    6. ^ "Netflix - Overview - Profile". ir.netflix.net. Archived from the original on December 3, 2023. Retrieved June 1, 2023.
    7. ^ Lauren Forristal (July 19, 2023). "Netflix gains nearly 6M subscribers as paid sharing soars". TechCrunch. Archived from the original on September 1, 2023. Retrieved July 19, 2023.
    8. ^ "Top Websites Ranking". Similarweb. Archived from the original on February 10, 2022. Retrieved December 1, 2021.
    9. ^ "netflix.com". similarweb.com. Archived from the original on October 2, 2023. Retrieved December 11, 2023.
     
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    30 August 1963 – The Moscow–Washington hotline between the leaders of the U.S. and the Soviet Union goes into operation.

    Moscow–Washington hotline

    The Pentagon in Arlington County, Virginia, U.S. (left) and the Kremlin in Moscow, Russia (right), the two facilities linked by the hotline.

    The Moscow–Washington hotline (formally known in the United States as the Washington–Moscow Direct Communications Link;[1] Russian: Горячая линия Вашингтон – Москва, tr. Goryachaya liniya Vashington–Moskva) is a system that allows direct communication between the leaders of the United States and the Russian Federation (formerly the Soviet Union). This hotline was established in 1963 and links the Pentagon with the Kremlin (historically, with Soviet Communist Party leadership across the square from the Kremlin itself).[1][2] Although in popular culture it is known as the "red telephone", the hotline was never a telephone line, and no red phones were used. The first implementation used Teletype equipment, and shifted to fax machines in 1986.[3] Since 2008, the Moscow–Washington hotline has been a secure computer link over which messages are exchanged by a secure form of email.[4]

    1. ^ a b Stone, Webster (September 18, 1988). "Moscow's Still Holding". New York Times. Archived from the original on June 30, 2015. Retrieved October 28, 2014.
    2. ^ Clavin, Tom (19 Jun 2013). "There Never Was Such a Thing as a Red Phone in the White House". Smithsonian Magazine. Retrieved 2013-07-01.
    3. ^ Graham, Thomas; La Vera, Damien (2002). "The 'Hot Line' Agreements". Cornerstones of Security: Arms Control Treaties in the Nuclear Era. University of Washington Press. pp. 20–28. ISBN 978-0295801414.
    4. ^ Craig, Bell; Richardson, Paul E. (September–October 2009). "The Hot Line {Is a Hollywood Myth}". Russian Life. Vol. 52, no. 5. Archived from the original on 2015-06-30.[dead link]
     
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    31 August 1997Diana, Princess of Wales, her companion Dodi Fayed and driver Henri Paul die in a car crash in Paris.

    Death of Diana, Princess of Wales

    During the early hours of 31 August 1997, Diana, Princess of Wales, died from injuries sustained earlier that night in a fatal car crash in the Pont de l'Alma tunnel in Paris, France. Diana's partner, Dodi Fayed, and the driver of the Mercedes-Benz W140, Henri Paul, were found dead inside the car. Dodi's bodyguard, Trevor Rees-Jones, was seriously injured and was the only survivor of the crash.

    In 1999, a French investigation found that Paul lost control of the vehicle at high speed while intoxicated by alcohol and under the effects of prescription drugs, and concluded that he was solely responsible for the crash. He was the deputy head of security at the Hôtel Ritz Paris and had earlier goaded paparazzi waiting for Diana and Fayed outside the hotel.[3] Anti-depressants and traces of an anti-psychotic in his blood might have worsened Paul's inebriation.[4] In 2008, a jury at the British inquest, Operation Paget, returned a verdict of unlawful killing through grossly negligent driving by Paul and the following paparazzi vehicles.[5] Some media reports claimed that Rees-Jones survived because he was wearing a seat belt, but other investigations revealed that none of the occupants of the car were wearing them.[6]

    Diana was 36 years old when she died.[7] Her death sparked an outpouring of public grief in the United Kingdom and the world,[8] and her televised funeral was watched by an estimated 2.5 billion people.[9] The royal family were criticised in the press for their reaction to Diana's death. Public interest in Diana has remained high and she continues to retain regular press coverage in the decades since her death.


    Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

    1. ^ "Plan of Alma Tunnel" (PDF). Coroner's Inquests into the Deaths of Diana, Princess of Wales and Mr Dodi Al Fayed. Computer Aided Modelling Bureau, Metropolitan Police Service. November 2007. Archived from the original (PDF) on 21 May 2008. Retrieved 22 December 2007.
    2. ^ a b Cite error: The named reference :1 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    3. ^ Director: David Bartlett, Executive Producer: David Upshal. "The Coronation of Elizabeth II/The Death of Diana". Days That Shook the World.
    4. ^ Nundy, Julian; Graves, David. "Diana crash caused by chauffeur, says report". The Daily Telegraph. London. Archived from the original on 13 November 2002.
    5. ^ Rayner, Gordon (7 April 2008). "Diana jury blames paparazzi and Henri Paul for her 'unlawful killing'". Daily Telegraph. Archived from the original on 25 April 2018. Retrieved 12 October 2013.
    6. ^ Sephton, Connor (28 August 2017). "Trevor Rees-Jones: What happened to the sole survivor of Diana's crash". Sky News. Archived from the original on 19 November 2020. Retrieved 28 November 2020.
    7. ^ Johnston, Carla B. (1998). Global News Access: The Impact of New Communications Technologies. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 1. ISBN 978-0-275-95774-2. Archived from the original on 19 February 2020. Retrieved 7 September 2019.
    8. ^ Cite error: The named reference WorldMourns was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    9. ^ Cite error: The named reference TelevisionAudience was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
     
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    1 September 1961 – The Eritrean War of Independence officially begins with the shooting of Ethiopian police by Hamid Idris Awate.

    Eritrean War of Independence

    The Eritrean War of Independence was a war for independence which Eritrean independence fighters waged against successive Ethiopian governments from 1 September 1961 to 24 May 1991.

    Eritrea was an Italian colony from the 1880s until the defeat of the Italians by the Allies of World War II in 1941, Eritrea then briefly became a British protectorate until 1951. The General Assembly of the United Nations held a meeting about the fate of Eritrea, in which the majority of the delegates voted for the federation of Eritrea with Ethiopia (UN Gen. Assembly UN Resolution 390 A),[39] and Eritrea became a constituent state of the Federation of Ethiopia and Eritrea in 1952. The Federation was supposed to last for ten years in which Eritreans could have mini sovereign decisions such as a parliament and some autonomy, but under the Ethiopian crown for further ones. The Assembly also assigned commissioner Anzio Mattienzo to supervise the process. Eritreans were supposed to claim Eritrea as an independent sovereign state after the ten years of federation. However, Eritrea's declining autonomy and growing discontent with Ethiopian rule caused an independence movement led by the Eritrean Liberation Front (ELF) in 1961. Hamid Idris Awate officially began the Eritrean armed struggle for independence on 1 September 1961 on the mountain of Adal, near the town of Agordat in south western Eritrea. Ethiopia annexed Eritrea the next year.[40]

    Following the Ethiopian Revolution in 1974, the Derg abolished the Ethiopian Empire and established a Marxist-Leninist communist state. The Derg enjoyed support from the Soviet Union and other communist nations in fighting against the Eritreans. The ELF was supported diplomatically and militarily by various countries, particularly the People's Republic of China, which supplied the ELF with weapons and training until 1972, when Ethiopia recognized Beijing as the legitimate government of China.[4]

    The Eritrean People's Liberation Front (EPLF) became the main liberation group in 1977, expelling the ELF from Eritrea, then exploiting the Ogaden War to launch a war of attrition against Ethiopia. The Ethiopian government under the Workers' Party of Ethiopia lost Soviet support at the end of the 1980s and were overwhelmed by Ethiopian anti-government groups, allowing the EPLF to defeat Ethiopian forces in Eritrea in May 1991.[41]

    The Ethiopian People's Revolutionary Democratic Front (EPRDF), with the help of the EPLF, defeated the People's Democratic Republic of Ethiopia (PDRE) when it took control of the capital Addis Ababa a month later.[42] In April 1993, the Eritrean people voted almost unanimously in favour of independence in the Eritrean independence referendum, with formal international recognition of an independent, sovereign Eritrea in the same year.

    1. ^ The Pillage of Sustainablility in Eritrea, 1600s–1990s: Rural Communities and the Creeping Shadows of Hegemony, 1998. Page 82.
    2. ^ a b c Fauriol, Georges A; Loser, Eva (1990). Cuba: the international dimension. Transaction Publishers. ISBN 0-88738-324-6.
    3. ^ a b The maverick state: Gaddafi and the New World Order, 1996. Page 71.
    4. ^ a b Schmidt, Elizabeth (2013). Foreign intervention in Africa: From the Cold War to the War on Terror. Cambridge. p. 158. ISBN 9780521882385. China assisted the ELF with weapons and military training until 1972, when Ethiopian recognition of Beijing as the legitimate Chinese government led to China's abandonment of the Eritrean struggle.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
    5. ^ Chinese and African Perspectives on China in Africa 2009, Page 93
    6. ^ Schoultz, Lars (2009). That infernal little Cuban republic: the United States and the Cuban Revolution. The University of North Carolina Press. ISBN 978-0-8078-3260-8.
    7. ^ a b Historical Dictionary of Eritrea, 2010. Page 492
    8. ^ a b Oil, Power and Politics: Conflict of Asian and African Studies, 1975. Page 97.
    9. ^ Eritrea: Even the Stones Are Burning, 1998. Page 110
    10. ^ Eritrea – liberation or capitulation, 1978. Page 103
    11. ^ Ethiopia at Bay: A Personal Account of the Haile Selassie Years, 2006. page 318.
    12. ^ a b Spencer C. Tucker, A Global Chronology of Conflict: From the Ancient World to the Modern Middle East, 2009. page 2402
    13. ^ a b c Connell, Dan; Killion, Tom (2011). Historical Dictionary of Eritrea. Scarecrow Press, Inc. ISBN 978-0-8108-5952-4.
    14. ^ Ethiopia and the United States: History, Diplomacy, and Analysis, 2009. page 84.
    15. ^ [2][3][13][14]
    16. ^ The Political Crisis in Ethiopia and the Role of the United States. U.S. Government Printing Office. 1992. ISBN 9780160372056. Archived from the original on 7 April 2023. Retrieved 19 March 2023.
    17. ^ Ciment, James (27 March 2015). Encyclopedia of Conflicts Since World War II. Routledge. ISBN 9781317471868. Archived from the original on 7 April 2023. Retrieved 19 March 2023.
    18. ^ Ciment, James (27 March 2015). Encyclopedia of Conflicts Since World War II. Routledge. ISBN 9781317471868. Archived from the original on 7 April 2023. Retrieved 19 March 2023.
    19. ^ a b "Ethiopia-Israel". country-data.com. Archived from the original on 30 June 2018. Retrieved 26 October 2014.
    20. ^ U.S. Requests for Ethiopian Bases Pushed Archived 6 May 2016 at the Wayback Machine Toledo Blade, 13 March 1957
    21. ^ "Communism, African-Style". Time. 4 July 1983. Archived from the original on 22 December 2008. Retrieved 6 September 2007.
    22. ^ "Ethiopia Red Star Over the Horn of Africa". Time. 4 August 1986. Archived from the original on 1 October 2007. Retrieved 6 September 2007.
    23. ^ "Ethiopia a Forgotten War Rages On". Time. 23 December 1985. Archived from the original on 16 April 2009. Retrieved 6 September 2007.
    24. ^ [13][21][22][23]
    25. ^ Clapham, Christopher. Transformation and Continuity in Revolutionary Ethiopia. p. 277.
    26. ^ "FOREIGN RELATIONS OF THE UNITED STATES, 1969–1976, VOLUME E–5, PART 1, DOCUMENTS ON SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA, 1969–1972" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 8 March 2022. Retrieved 8 March 2022. Public Domain This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.
    27. ^ "TOTAL WAR IN ERITREA, 1978-84" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 19 January 2022. Retrieved 19 January 2022.
    28. ^ "Eritrea (01/06)". U.S. Department of State. Archived from the original on 19 January 2022. Retrieved 19 January 2022.
    29. ^ Negash, Tekeste. Eritrea and Ethiopia The Federal Experience (PDF). p. 152.
    30. ^ "TOTAL WAR IN ERITREA, 1978-84" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 15 December 2021. Retrieved 27 November 2021.
    31. ^ Tareke, Gebru (2016). The Ethiopian Revolution: War in the Horn of Africa. p. 307. ISBN 978-99944-951-2-2. OCLC 973809792.
    32. ^ Tareke, Gebru (2016). The Ethiopian Revolution: War in the Horn of Africa. p. 132. ISBN 978-99944-951-2-2. OCLC 973809792.
    33. ^ Tareke, Gebru (2016). The Ethiopian Revolution: War in the Horn of Africa. p. 132. ISBN 978-99944-951-2-2. OCLC 973809792.
    34. ^ Tareke, Gebru (2016). The Ethiopian Revolution: War in the Horn of Africa. p. 132. ISBN 978-99944-951-2-2. OCLC 973809792.
    35. ^ De Waal, Alexander (1991). Evil days: thirty years of war and famine in Ethiopia. New York: Human Rights Watch. p. 122. ISBN 1-56432-038-3. OCLC 24504262.
    36. ^ Cousin, Tracey L. "Eritrean and Ethiopian Civil War". ICE Case Studies. Archived from the original on 11 September 2007. Retrieved 3 September 2007.
    37. ^ De Waal, Alexander (1991). Evil days: thirty years of war and famine in Ethiopia. New York: Human Rights Watch. p. 122. ISBN 1-56432-038-3. OCLC 24504262.
    38. ^ Dan Connell (15 July 2019). Historical Dictionary of Eritrea. Rowman & Littlefield. ISBN 978-1-5381-2066-8.
    39. ^ "A/RES/390(V)A-B. Resolution of the United Nations General Assembly, 1950" (PDF). documents-dds-ny.un.org. Retrieved 18 September 2023.
    40. ^ "Eritrea: Report of the United Nations Commission for Eritrea; Report of the Interim Committee of the General Assembly on the Report of the United Nations Commission for Eritrea". undocs.org. United Nations. 2 December 1950. A/RES/390(V). Archived from the original on 18 March 2017. Retrieved 17 March 2017.
    41. ^ "Ethiopia-Eritrea: A Troubled Relationship". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on 26 March 2023. Retrieved 6 June 2019.
    42. ^ Krauss, Clifford (28 May 1991). "Ethiopian Rebels Storm the Capital and Seize Control". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 10 March 2021. Retrieved 6 June 2019.


    Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

     
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    2 September 1987 – In Moscow, the trial begins for 19-year-old pilot Mathias Rust, who flew his Cessna airplane into Red Square in May.

    Mathias Rust

    Mathias Rust (born 1 June 1968)[1] is a German aviator known for his flight that ended with a landing near Red Square in Moscow on 28 May 1987. A teenage amateur pilot, he flew from Helsinki, Finland, to Moscow, without authorization. He was tracked several times by Soviet Air Defence Forces and civilian air traffic controllers, as well as Soviet Air Force interceptor aircraft. The Soviet fighters did not receive permission to shoot him down, and his aeroplane was mistaken for a friendly aircraft several times. Also, 28 May 1987 was Border Guards Day, leaving many guards distracted.[2] He landed on Bolshoy Moskvoretsky Bridge, next to Red Square near the Kremlin in the capital of the USSR.

    Rust said he wanted to create an "imaginary bridge" to the East, and that his flight was intended to reduce tension and suspicion between the two Cold War sides.[3][4] Rust was sentenced to four years in a general-regime labour camp for violation of border crossing and air traffic regulations, and for provoking an emergency situation upon his landing. After 14 months in prison, he was pardoned by Andrei Gromyko, the Chairman of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet, and released.[3][4]

    Rust's flight through a supposedly impenetrable air defence system had a great effect on the Soviet military and resulted in the dismissal of many senior officers, including Minister of Defence Marshal of the USSR Sergei Sokolov and the Commander-in-Chief of the Soviet Air Defence Forces, former World War II fighter pilot ace Chief Marshal Alexander Koldunov. The incident aided Mikhail Gorbachev in the implementation of his reforms, by allowing him to dismiss numerous military officials opposed to his policies.

    1. ^ "Deutsches Rundfunkarchiv: Eine Cessna auf dem Roten Platz – Mathias Rust in Moskau". www.dra.de (in German). Retrieved 18 March 2022.
    2. ^ Cite error: The named reference guardianmay14 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    3. ^ a b LeCompte, Tom (July 2005). "The Notorious Flight of Mathias Rust". Air & Space/Smithsonian. Washington, D.C. Retrieved 4 April 2009.
    4. ^ a b Hadjimatheou, Chloe (7 December 2012). "Mathias Rust: German teenager who flew to Red Square". BBC World Service. Retrieved 17 March 2014.
     
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    3 September 1997Vietnam Airlines Flight 815 (Tupolev Tu-134) crashes on approach into Phnom Penh airport, killing 64.

    Vietnam Airlines Flight 815

    Vietnam Airlines Flight 815 was a scheduled Vietnam Airlines flight which crashed on final approach to Pochentong International Airport in Cambodia on 3 September 1997. The Soviet-built Tupolev Tu-134B-3 airliner crashed approximately 800 metres (2,600 ft; 870 yd) short of the Phnom Penh runway, killing 65 of the 66 people on board. As of February 2024, it remains the deadliest accident in Cambodian history.[1] Upon investigation, the crash was determined to have been the result of improper actions by the pilot.

    As of December 2023, the route between Tan Son Nhat and Phnom Penh has the flight number VN920 and is usually operated with Airbus A321 aircraft.[2] Flight 815 nowadays is designated to a route between Tan Son Nhat and Siem Reap, also operated using Airbus A321 aircraft.[3]

    1. ^ Ranter, Harro. "ASN Aircraft accident Tupolev Tu-134B-3 VN-A120 Phnom Penh-Pochentong Airport (PNH)". Aviation Safety Network. Flight Safety Foundation. Retrieved 2019-05-02.
    2. ^ "VN920 (HVN920) Vietnam Airlines Flight Tracking and History". FlightAware. Retrieved 2023-12-02.
    3. ^ "VN815 (HVN815) Vietnam Airlines Flight Tracking and History". FlightAware. Retrieved 2023-12-02.
     
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    4 September 1977 – The Golden Dragon massacre takes place in San Francisco.

    Golden Dragon massacre

    The Golden Dragon massacre[1] was a gang-related mass shooting that took place on September 4, 1977, inside the Golden Dragon Restaurant at 822 Washington Street in Chinatown, San Francisco, California, United States. The five perpetrators, members of the Joe Boys, a Chinese youth gang, were attempting to kill leaders of the Wah Ching, a rival Chinatown gang. The attack left five people dead and 11 others injured, none of whom were gang members. Seven perpetrators were later convicted and sentenced in connection with the murders. The massacre led to the establishment of the San Francisco Police Department's Asian Gang Task Force, credited with ending gang-related violence in Chinatown by 1983. The restaurant itself closed in 2006.

    1. ^ (traditional Chinese: 金龍酒樓大屠殺; simplified Chinese: 金龙酒楼大屠杀; Jyutping: Gam1lung4 zau2lau4 daai6tou4saat3; pinyin: Jīnlóng Jiǔlóu Dàtúshā)Donat, Hank (2002). "Notorious SF: Golden Dragon Massacre". MisterSF. Retrieved July 14, 2017.
     
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    5 September 1980 – The Gotthard Road Tunnel opens in Switzerland as the world's longest highway tunnel at 10.14 miles (16.32 km) stretching from Göschenen to Airolo.

    Gotthard Road Tunnel

    The Gotthard Road Tunnel in Switzerland runs from Göschenen in the canton of Uri at its northern portal, to Airolo in Ticino to the south, and is 16.9 kilometres (10.5 mi) in length below the St Gotthard Pass, a major pass of the Alps. At time of construction, in 1980, it was the longest road tunnel in the world; it is currently the fifth-longest.[2] Although it is a motorway tunnel, part of the A2 from Basel to Chiasso, it consists of only one bidirectional tube with two lanes. With a maximum elevation of 1,175 metres (3,855 ft)[3] at the tunnel's highest point, the A2 motorway has the lowest maximum elevation of any direct north-south road through the Alps.[4]

    The tunnel rises from the northern portal at Göschenen (1,080 m (3,540 ft)) and the culminating point is reached after approximately 8 kilometres (5.0 mi). After 10.3 kilometres (6.4 mi) from the northern portal there is the border between the cantons of Uri and Ticino; after another 6.7 kilometres (4.2 mi), the tunnel ends at the southern portal near Airolo (1,146 m (3,760 ft)). The journey takes about 13 minutes by car, the maximum speed being 80 km/h (50 mph).

    The Gotthard Road Tunnel is one of the three tunnels that connect the Swiss Plateau to southern Switzerland and run under the Gotthard Massif, the two other being railway tunnels, the Gotthard Tunnel (1882) and the Gotthard Base Tunnel (2016). All three tunnels bypass the Gotthard Pass, an important trade route since the 13th century. The pass road culminates about 1,000 metres (3,300 ft) above the tunnel, at a height of 2,106 metres (6,909 ft), and is only passable in summer.

    1. ^ "Verkehrsentwicklung am Gotthard-Strassentunnel" (in German, French, and Italian). ASTRA – Swiss Federal Roads Office. 2015. Archived from the original on 17 April 2016. Retrieved 7 June 2016.
    2. ^ After Norway's Lærdal Tunnel (24.5 km (15.2 mi)), Australia's WestConnex (21.8 km (13.5 mi)), Japan's Yamate Tunnel (18.2 km (11.3 mi)), and China's Zhongnanshan Tunnel 18 km (11 mi).
    3. ^ Der Tiefbau, Volume 14 (1974)
    4. ^ The other direct north-south roads through the Alps with similar elevations are: Fréjus Road Tunnel (>1,297 m), Mont Blanc Tunnel (1,395 m) and Brenner Pass (1,370 m)
     
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    6 September 1962 – Archaeologist Peter Marsden discovers the first of the Blackfriars Ships dating back to the second century AD in the Blackfriars area of the banks of the River Thames in London.

    Blackfriars shipwrecks

    The Blackfriars shipwrecks were a series of wrecks discovered by archaeologist Peter Marsden in the Blackfriars area of the banks of the River Thames in London, England. The wrecks were discovered while building a riverside embankment wall along the River Thames. Marsden discovered the first on 6 September 1962 and the next two were discovered in 1970. A later discovery added to the previous three wrecks, constituting now what is known as the four Blackfriars wrecks.

     
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    7 September 1191Third Crusade: Battle of Arsuf: Richard I of England defeats Saladin at Arsuf.

    Battle of Arsuf

    The Battle of Arsuf took place on 7 September 1191, as part of the Third Crusade. It saw a multi-national force of Crusaders, led by Richard I of England, defeat a significantly larger army of the Ayyubid Sultanate, led by Saladin.

    Following the Crusaders' capture of Acre, Saladin moved to intercept Richard's advancing army just outside of the city of Arsuf (Arsur in Latin) as it moved along the coast from Acre towards Jaffa. In an attempt to disrupt the cohesion of the Crusader army as they mobilized, the Ayyubid force launched a series of harassing attacks that were ultimately unsuccessful at breaking their formation. As the Crusaders crossed the plain to the north of Arsuf, Saladin committed the whole of his army to a pitched battle. The Crusader army maintained a defensive formation as it marched, with Richard awaiting the ideal moment to mount a counterattack. However, after the Knights Hospitaller launched a charge at the Ayyubids, Richard was forced to commit his entire force to support the attack. The Crusader charge broke the Ayyubid army; Richard was able to restrain his cavalry from a rash pursuit, regrouping them to achieve victory.

    Following the engagement, the Crusaders secured control over the central coast of Palestine, including the city of Jaffa.

    1. ^ Claster, Jill N. Sacred Violence: The European Crusades to the Middle East, 1095–1396. University of Toronto Press, 2009. p. 207: "On September 7, just north of Arsuf, Richard and Saladin met in a pitched battle, the first time they fought face-to-face. The Muslims were not able to withstand Richard's mounted knights, and he won a decisive victory."
    2. ^ a b Boas, p. 78
    3. ^ Bennett, p. 101.
    4. ^ a tenth or a hundredth of the Ayyubid casualties, according to the Itinerarium (trans. 2001 Archived 9 August 2019 at the Wayback Machine Book IV Ch. XIX, p. 185)
    5. ^ 7,000 dead according to the Itinerarium trans. 2001 Archived 9 August 2019 at the Wayback Machine Book IV Ch. XIX, p. 185
     
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    8 September 1988 – Yellowstone National Park is closed for the first time in U.S. history due to ongoing fires.

    Yellowstone fires of 1988

    The Yellowstone fires of 1988 collectively formed the largest wildfire in the recorded history of Yellowstone National Park in the United States. Starting as many smaller individual fires, the flames quickly spread out of control due to drought conditions and increasing winds, combining into several large conflagrations which burned for several months. The fires almost destroyed two major visitor destinations and, on September 8, 1988, the entire park was closed to all non-emergency personnel for the first time in its history.[6] Only the arrival of cool and moist weather in the late autumn brought the fires to an end. A total of 793,880 acres (3,213 km2), or 36 percent of the park, burned at varying levels of severity.[3]

    At the peak of the firefighting effort, more than 9,000 firefighters were assigned to the fires in the park, assisted by dozens of helicopters and fixed-wing aircraft which were used for water and fire retardant drops. With fires raging throughout the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem and other areas in the western United States, the staffing levels of the National Park Service and other land management agencies were inadequate for the situation; more than 4,000 U.S. military personnel were soon brought in to assist in wildfire suppression efforts. The firefighting effort cost $120 million ($300 million in 2024).[4] Structure losses were minimized by concentrating firefighting efforts near major visitor areas, and eventually totaled $3.28 million ($8 million as of 2024).[7] No firefighters died while fighting the Yellowstone fires, though there were two fire-related deaths outside the park.

    Before the late 1960s, fires were generally believed to be detrimental to parks and forests, and management policies were aimed at suppressing fires as quickly as possible. However, as the beneficial ecological role of fire became better understood in the decades prior to 1988, a policy was adopted of allowing natural fires to burn under controlled conditions, which proved highly successful in reducing the area lost annually to wildfires.

    In contrast, in 1988, Yellowstone was overdue for a large fire, and, in the exceptionally dry summer, many smaller "controlled" fires combined. The fires burned discontinuously, leaping from one patch to another, leaving intervening areas untouched. Intense fires swept through some regions, burning everything in their paths. Tens of millions of trees and countless plants were killed by the wildfires, and some regions were left looking blackened and dead. However, more than half of the affected areas were burned by ground fires, which did less damage to hardier tree species. Not long after the fires ended, plant and tree species quickly reestablished themselves, and native plant regeneration has been highly successful.

    The Yellowstone fires of 1988 were unprecedented in the history of the National Park Service and led to many questions about existing fire management policies. Media accounts of mismanagement were often sensational and inaccurate, sometimes wrongly reporting or implying that most of the park was being destroyed.[citation needed] While there were temporary declines in air quality during the fires, no adverse long-term health effects have been recorded in the ecosystem and, contrary to initial reports, few large mammals were killed by the fires, though there was a subsequent reduction in the number of moose.

    1. ^ Cite error: The named reference Franke2 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    2. ^ Cite error: The named reference Schullery2 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    3. ^ a b "1988 Fires". National Park Service. Archived from the original on October 12, 2022. Retrieved February 16, 2022.
    4. ^ a b c Kaage, Bill. "Yellowstone National Park, 1988: A 25th Anniversary Retrospective". National Park Service. Retrieved February 15, 2022.
    5. ^ The Yellowstone fires caused $120 million in fire suppression costs, and additionally about $3 million in property damage.[4]
    6. ^ Schullery, Paul (1989). "Yellowstone fires: a preliminary report". Northwest Science. 63 (1): 44–54.
    7. ^ "The Greater Yellowstone Fires of 1988" (PDF). National Park Service. January 25, 1989. Retrieved June 13, 2022.
     
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    9 September 1839John Herschel takes the first glass plate photograph.

    John Herschel

    Sir John Frederick William Herschel, 1st Baronet KH FRS (/ˈhɜːrʃəl, ˈhɛər-/;[2] 7 March 1792 – 11 May 1871)[1] was an English polymath active as a mathematician, astronomer, chemist, inventor, and experimental photographer who invented the blueprint[3][4][5] and did botanical work.[6]

    Herschel originated the use of the Julian day system in astronomy. He named seven moons of Saturn and four moons of Uranus – the seventh planet, discovered by his father Sir William Herschel. He made many contributions to the science of photography, and investigated colour blindness and the chemical power of ultraviolet rays. His Preliminary Discourse (1831), which advocated an inductive approach to scientific experiment and theory-building, was an important contribution to the philosophy of science.[7]

    1. ^ a b c Cite error: The named reference ODNB was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    2. ^ "Herschel". Random House Webster's Unabridged Dictionary. Archived from the original on 30 May 2016.
    3. ^ Cite error: The named reference EncycBrit was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    4. ^ Cite error: The named reference columbia was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    5. ^ Cite error: The named reference vernacu was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    6. ^ Cite error: The named reference HersNAH was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    7. ^ Cobb 2012, pp. 409–439.
     
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    10 September 1939 – World War II: The Canadian declaration of war on Germany receives royal assent.

    Canadian declaration of war on Germany

    Prime Minister Mackenzie King's request to King George VI for approval that war be declared against Germany, 10 September 1939

    A declaration of war by Canada against Germany was made by order-in-council signed by George VI, King of Canada, on 10 September 1939, seven days after the United Kingdom and France had also entered a state of war with the Nazi regime. The royal proclamation of the Canadian declaration was published in the Canada Gazette.[1]

    Canadian Prime Minister William Lyon Mackenzie King announced the recommendation for a declaration of war in a radio-broadcast speech, made from Ottawa, on 3 September 1939.[2][3] The matter was then debated in Parliament, though, declaration of war is a matter of the royal prerogative and does not require parliamentary approval.

    1. ^ Stacey, C.P. (1948), "The Canadian Army 1939–1945" (PDF), The Canada Gazette, Ottawa: King's Printer: 1, retrieved 8 February 2023
    2. ^ "Canada Declares its Intentions to Support the United Kingdom". YouTube. CBC News. September 3, 1939. Retrieved 8 April 2023.
    3. ^ 1939 Canada at the Side of Britain, CBC, archived from the original on 20 February 2016, retrieved 11 February 2016
     
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    11 September 2012 – The U.S. embassy in Benghazi, Libya is attacked, resulting in four deaths.

    2012 Benghazi attack

    The 2012 Benghazi attack was a coordinated attack against two United States government facilities in Benghazi, Libya, by members of the Islamic militant group Ansar al-Sharia.

    On September 11, 2012, at 9:40 p.m. local time, members of Ansar al-Sharia attacked the American diplomatic compound in Benghazi resulting in the deaths of both United States Ambassador to Libya J. Christopher Stevens and U.S. Foreign Service Information Management Officer Sean Smith.[1][2]

    At around 4:00 a.m. on September 12, the group launched a mortar attack against a CIA annex approximately one mile (1.6 km) away, killing two CIA contractors Tyrone S. Woods and Glen Doherty[2][3][4] and wounding ten others. Initial analysis by the CIA, repeated by top government officials, indicated that the attack spontaneously arose from a protest.[5] Subsequent investigations showed that the attack was premeditated—although rioters and looters not originally part of the group may have joined in after the attacks began.[6][7] [8][9]

    There is no definitive evidence that al-Qaeda or any other international terrorist organization participated in the Benghazi attack.[10][11][12] The United States immediately increased security worldwide at diplomatic and military facilities and began investigating the Benghazi attack.[13][14] The Libyan Government condemned the attacks and took steps to disband the militias. 30,000 Libyans marched through Benghazi condemning Ansar al-Sharia, which had been formed during the 2011 Libyan civil war to topple Muammar Gaddafi.[15][16][17]

    Despite persistent accusations against President Obama, Hillary Clinton, and Susan Rice, ten investigations—six by Republican-controlled Congressional Committees—did not find that they or any other high-ranking Obama administration officials had acted improperly.[18][19][20][21] Four career State Department officials were criticized for denying requests for additional security at the facility prior to the attack. Eric J. Boswell, the Assistant Secretary of State for Diplomatic Security, resigned under pressure, while three others were suspended.[22] In her role as Secretary of State, Hillary Clinton subsequently took responsibility for the security lapses.[23]

    On August 6, 2013, it was reported that the United States had filed criminal charges against several individuals alleged to have been involved in the attacks, including militia leader Ahmed Abu Khattala.[24] Khattala has been described by both Libyan and United States officials as the Benghazi leader of Ansar al-Sharia. The United States Department of State designated Ansar al-Sharia as a terrorist organization in January 2014.[25][26][27] Khattala was captured in Libya by United States Army Special Operations Forces, who were acting in coordination with the FBI, in June 2014.[28] Another suspect, Mustafa al-Imam, was captured in October 2017.[29][30]

    1. ^ Review of the Terrorist Attacks on U.S. Diplomatic Facilities in Benghazi, Libya, September 11–12, 2012 (PDF) (Report). United States Senate Select Committee on Intelligence. January 15, 2014. Archived from the original (PDF) on January 16, 2014.
    2. ^ a b Kaphle, Anup (June 17, 2014). "Timeline: Here's how the Benghazi attacks played out". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on December 14, 2016. Retrieved September 28, 2016.
    3. ^ "US officials: CIA ran Benghazi consulate". United Press International. November 2, 2012. Archived from the original on November 2, 2012. Retrieved November 2, 2012.
    4. ^ Aaron Blake (January 27, 2014). "Clinton says Benghazi is her biggest regret". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on July 30, 2015. Retrieved August 23, 2017.
    5. ^ Dilanian, Ken (November 21, 2014). "House intel panel debunks many Benghazi theories". Associated Press. Archived from the original on April 1, 2018. Retrieved April 1, 2018.
    6. ^ Rogin, Josh (October 9, 2012). "State Department: No Protest at the Benghazi consulate". Foreign Policy. Archived from the original on November 12, 2014. Retrieved November 11, 2014.(subscription required)
      Herridge, Catherine (December 4, 2013). "CIA witnesses offer more evidence Benghazi attack planned". Fox News. Archived from the original on December 24, 2014. Retrieved November 11, 2014.
      Starr, Barbara (September 27, 2012). "Panetta: Terrorists 'clearly' planned Benghazi attack". CNN. Archived from the original on February 2, 2016. Retrieved November 7, 2015.
    7. ^ Kirkpatrick, David D. (June 17, 2014). "Brazen Figure May Hold Key to Mysteries". The New York Times. Archived from the original on June 23, 2014. Retrieved June 21, 2014.
    8. ^ Kirkpatrick, David D. (October 18, 2012). "Suspect in Libya Attack, in Plain Sight, Scoffs at U.S." The New York Times. Archived from the original on June 21, 2014. Retrieved June 21, 2014.
    9. ^ "Exclusive:Libyan Islamist says he was at U.S. consulate during attack". Reuters. October 18, 2012. Archived from the original on October 3, 2016. Retrieved October 2, 2016.
    10. ^ "N.Y. Times probe finds no al-Qaeda link to Benghazi raid". USATODAY. December 28, 2013. Archived from the original on August 27, 2017. Retrieved August 23, 2017.
    11. ^ "New York Times report casts doubt on al Qaeda involvement in Benghazi". cnn.com. December 30, 2013. Archived from the original on December 3, 2016. Retrieved October 2, 2016.
    12. ^ "In Benghazi, US Intelligence Wasn't Focused On 'Homegrown Militants'". npr.com. February 26, 2014. Archived from the original on August 13, 2018. Retrieved April 3, 2018.
      "Transcript: In Benghazi, US Intelligence Wasn't Focused On 'Homegrown Militants'". npr.com. February 26, 2014. Archived from the original on August 13, 2018. Retrieved April 3, 2018.
    13. ^ "CIA talking points for Susan Rice called Benghazi attack 'spontaneously inspired' by protests". CBS News. November 15, 2012. Archived from the original on November 21, 2012. Retrieved November 21, 2012.
    14. ^ Cite error: The named reference EgyptNotLibya was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    15. ^ Cite error: The named reference BBCMilitiaStormed was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    16. ^ Cite error: The named reference NYTMilitantsBesieged was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    17. ^ Dilanian, Ken (November 21, 2014). "House intel panel debunks many Benghazi theories". AP NEWS. Archived from the original on April 1, 2018. Retrieved April 1, 2018.
    18. ^ Schmidt, Michael S. (November 22, 2014). "G.O.P.-Led Benghazi Panel Bolsters Administration". The New York Times. Archived from the original on February 21, 2019. Retrieved February 20, 2019.
    19. ^ O'Toole, Molly. "Libya Is Obama's Biggest Regret — And Hillary's Biggest Threat". Archived from the original on February 21, 2019. Retrieved February 20, 2019.
    20. ^ O'Toole, Molly. "In Final Report, Benghazi Committee Finds No New Evidence of Clinton Wrongdoing". Archived from the original on February 21, 2019. Retrieved February 20, 2019.
    21. ^ Gearan, Anne; Miller, Greg (December 19, 2012). "Four State Dept. officials disciplined after Benghazi probe". Archived from the original on April 1, 2018. Retrieved April 1, 2018 – via www.washingtonpost.com.
    22. ^ "Transcript of Hillary Clinton's testimony on Benghazi attack". New York Daily News. Archived from the original on July 15, 2014. Retrieved July 14, 2014.
    23. ^ Perez, Evan (August 7, 2013). "First criminal charges filed in Benghazi attack probe". CNN. Archived from the original on September 4, 2013. Retrieved September 5, 2013.
    24. ^ "Terrorist Designations of Three Ansar al-Shari'a Organizations and Leaders". U.S. Department of State. January 10, 2014. Retrieved June 19, 2014.
    25. ^ John King; Chelsea J. Carter (August 7, 2013). "Lawmaker: If CNN can interview suspect in Benghazi attack, why can't FBI?". CNN. Archived from the original on May 8, 2014. Retrieved May 8, 2014.
    26. ^ Wemple, Erik (April 3, 2014). "New York Times stands by Benghazi story". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on May 8, 2014. Retrieved May 8, 2014.
    27. ^ "U.S. captures Benghazi suspect in secret raid". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on October 28, 2014. Retrieved August 23, 2017.
    28. ^ "Mustafa al-Imam Sentenced to 236 Months in Prison for September 2012 Terrorist Attack in Benghazi, Libya". United States Department of State. Retrieved September 15, 2021.
    29. ^ "Man seized over Benghazi attack is Syrian linked to suspected ringleader -Libyan officials". Reuters. Archived from the original on November 11, 2017. Retrieved November 11, 2017.
     
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    12 September 1983 – The USSR vetoes a United Nations Security Council Resolution deploring the Soviet destruction of Korean Air Lines Flight 007.

    Korean Air Lines Flight 007

    Korean Air Lines Flight 007 (KE007/KAL007)[note 2] was a scheduled Korean Air Lines flight from New York City to Seoul via Anchorage, Alaska. On September 1, 1983, the flight was shot down by a Soviet Sukhoi Su-15 interceptor. The Boeing 747 airliner was en route from Anchorage to Seoul, but owing to a navigational mistake made by the crew, the airliner drifted from its original planned route and flew through Soviet prohibited airspace. The Soviet Air Forces treated the unidentified aircraft as an intruding U.S. spy plane, and destroyed it with air-to-air missiles, after firing warning shots. The Korean airliner eventually crashed into the sea near Moneron Island west of Sakhalin in the Sea of Japan. All 269 passengers and crew aboard were killed, including Larry McDonald, a United States representative. The Soviet Union found the wreckage under the sea two weeks later on September 15 and found the flight recorders in October, but this information was kept secret by the Soviet authorities until 1992, after the country's collapse.

    The Soviet Union initially denied knowledge of the incident,[2] but later admitted to shooting down the aircraft, claiming that it was on a MASINT spy mission.[3] The Politburo of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union said it was a deliberate provocation by the United States[4] to probe the Soviet Union's military preparedness, or even to provoke a war. The US accused the Soviet Union of obstructing search and rescue operations.[5] The Soviet Armed Forces suppressed evidence sought by the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) investigation, such as the flight recorders,[6] which were released ten years later, after the dissolution of the Soviet Union.[7]

    As a result of the incident, the United States altered tracking procedures for aircraft departing from Alaska, and president Ronald Reagan issued a directive making American satellite-based radio navigation Global Positioning System freely available for civilian use, once it was sufficiently developed, as a common good.[8]

    1. ^ Aviation Safety Database
    2. ^ Young & Launer, pp. xiii, 47
    3. ^ Cite error: The named reference Sputnik was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    4. ^ Pearson, p. 145
    5. ^ Congressional Record, September 20, 1983, pp. S12462–S12464
    6. ^ Soviet news magazine, Izvestia #228, October 16, 1992
    7. ^ Cite error: The named reference tapes was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    8. ^ "United States Updates Global Positioning System Technology". America.gov. February 3, 2006. Archived from the original on October 9, 2013. Retrieved June 17, 2019.


    Cite error: There are <ref group=note> tags on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=note}} template (see the help page).

     
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    12 September 1983 – The USSR vetoes a United Nations Security Council Resolution deploring the Soviet destruction of Korean Air Lines Flight 007.

    Korean Air Lines Flight 007

    Korean Air Lines Flight 007 (KE007/KAL007)[note 2] was a scheduled Korean Air Lines flight from New York City to Seoul via Anchorage, Alaska. On September 1, 1983, the flight was shot down by a Soviet Sukhoi Su-15 interceptor. The Boeing 747 airliner was en route from Anchorage to Seoul, but owing to a navigational mistake made by the crew, the airliner drifted from its original planned route and flew through Soviet prohibited airspace. The Soviet Air Forces treated the unidentified aircraft as an intruding U.S. spy plane, and destroyed it with air-to-air missiles, after firing warning shots. The Korean airliner eventually crashed into the sea near Moneron Island west of Sakhalin in the Sea of Japan. All 269 passengers and crew aboard were killed, including Larry McDonald, a United States representative. The Soviet Union found the wreckage under the sea two weeks later on September 15 and found the flight recorders in October, but this information was kept secret by the Soviet authorities until 1992, after the country's collapse.

    The Soviet Union initially denied knowledge of the incident,[2] but later admitted to shooting down the aircraft, claiming that it was on a MASINT spy mission.[3] The Politburo of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union said it was a deliberate provocation by the United States[4] to probe the Soviet Union's military preparedness, or even to provoke a war. The US accused the Soviet Union of obstructing search and rescue operations.[5] The Soviet Armed Forces suppressed evidence sought by the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) investigation, such as the flight recorders,[6] which were released ten years later, after the dissolution of the Soviet Union.[7]

    As a result of the incident, the United States altered tracking procedures for aircraft departing from Alaska, and president Ronald Reagan issued a directive making American satellite-based radio navigation Global Positioning System freely available for civilian use, once it was sufficiently developed, as a common good.[8]

    1. ^ Aviation Safety Database
    2. ^ Young & Launer, pp. xiii, 47
    3. ^ Cite error: The named reference Sputnik was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    4. ^ Pearson, p. 145
    5. ^ Congressional Record, September 20, 1983, pp. S12462–S12464
    6. ^ Soviet news magazine, Izvestia #228, October 16, 1992
    7. ^ Cite error: The named reference tapes was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    8. ^ "United States Updates Global Positioning System Technology". America.gov. February 3, 2006. Archived from the original on October 9, 2013. Retrieved June 17, 2019.


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    13 September 1962 – An appeals court orders the University of Mississippi to admit James Meredith, the first African-American student admitted to the segregated university.

    James Meredith

    James Howard Meredith (born June 25, 1933) is an American civil rights activist, writer, political adviser, and United States Air Force veteran who became, in 1962, the first African-American student admitted to the racially segregated University of Mississippi after the intervention of the federal government (an event that was a flashpoint in the civil rights movement).[1] Inspired by President John F. Kennedy's inaugural address, Meredith decided to exercise his constitutional rights and apply to the University of Mississippi.[2] His goal was to put pressure on the Kennedy administration to enforce civil rights for African Americans.[2] The admission of Meredith ignited the Ole Miss riot of 1962 where Meredith's life was threatened and 31,000 American servicemen were required to quell the violence – the largest ever invocation of the Insurrection Act of 1807.[3]

    In 1966, Meredith planned a solo 220-mile (350-kilometer) March Against Fear from Memphis, Tennessee, to Jackson, Mississippi; he wanted to highlight continuing racism in the South and encourage voter registration after passage of the Voting Rights Act of 1965. He did not want major civil rights organizations involved. The second day, he was shot by a white gunman and suffered numerous wounds. Leaders of major organizations vowed to complete the march in his name after he was taken to the hospital. While Meredith was recovering, more people from across the country became involved as marchers. He rejoined the march and when Meredith and other leaders entered Jackson on June 26, they were leading an estimated 15,000 marchers, in what was the largest civil rights march in Mississippi. During the march, more than 4,000 African Americans registered to vote, and it was a catalyst to continued community organizing and additional registration.

    In 2002 and again in 2012, the University of Mississippi led year-long series of events to celebrate the 40th and 50th anniversaries of Meredith's integration of the institution. He was among numerous speakers invited to the campus, where a statue of him commemorates his role. The Lyceum-The Circle Historic District at the center of the campus has been designated as a National Historic Landmark for these events.

    1. ^ Dave, Paresh (February 18, 2014). "James Meredith talks about vandals". The Los Angeles Times.
    2. ^ a b Bryant 2006, p. 60.
    3. ^ Doyle, William (2002). An American Insurrection: The Battle of Oxford, Mississippi, 1962. Random House Digital Inc. p. 277. ISBN 9780385499699.
     
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    14 September 1808Finnish War: Russians defeat the Swedes at the Battle of Oravais.

    Battle of Oravais

    The Battle of Oravais (occasionally Orawais; Finnish: Oravaisten taistelu; Swedish: Slaget vid Oravais) from September 14 until September 15 was one of the decisive battles in the Finnish War, fought from 1808 to 1809 between Sweden and the Russian Empire as part of the wider Napoleonic Wars. Taking place in modern-day Vörå in western Finland, it is sometimes regarded as the turning point of the Finnish War: the last chance for Sweden to turn the war to her advantage. It was the bloodiest battle of the conflict, along with the Battle of Sävar, which some historians attribute to the exhaustion, resignation and desperation of the Swedish army: it was losing the war, and defeat led to its loss of Finland to Russia.

    In this battle Nikolay Kamensky, who was in charge of the Russians, displayed outstanding military qualities, showing himself a worthy disciple of Suvorov. Considering the uncertain situation before the battle, he deploys his forces in echelons; but, as soon as the main Swedish force at Oravais is determined, he endeavours to bring everyone onto the battlefield at a crucial moment.[9]

    1. ^ a b Nive 1910, p. 268.
    2. ^ Nive 1910, p. 266.
    3. ^ a b c d e Clodfelter 2017, p. 190.
    4. ^ "Orawais". Clash of Steel, Battle database. Retrieved 24 January 2024.
    5. ^ a b c d e Bodart 1908, p. 390.
    6. ^ van Suchtelen 1835, p. 63.
    7. ^ a b c Montgomery 1842, pp. 18–29.
    8. ^ a b c Hornborg 1955, pp. 155–160.
    9. ^ a b c d e f Оровайс // Sytin Military Encyclopedia. Vol. 17: "Нитроглицерин – Патруль", pp. 167–168
    10. ^ van Suchtelen 1854, pp. 160–161.
    11. ^ a b Generalstaben 1910, pp. 244–245.
    12. ^ a b Каменский 2-й, Николай Михайлович // Russian Biographical Dictionary. Vol. 8 (1897): "Ибак – Ключарев", pp. 423–439


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    15 September 2000 – The Summer Olympics, officially known as the games of the XXVII Olympiad, are opened in Sydney, Australia.

    2000 Summer Olympics

    The 2000 Summer Olympics, officially the Games of the XXVII Olympiad and also known as Sydney 2000 the Millennium Olympic Games or the Games of the New Millennium, was an international multi-sport event held from 15 September to 1 October 2000 in Sydney, New South Wales, Australia. It marked the second time the Summer Olympics were held in Australia, and in the Southern Hemisphere, the first being in Melbourne, in 1956.

    Sydney was selected as the host city for the 2000 Games in 1993. Teams from 199 countries participated in the 2000 Games, which were the first to feature at least 300 events in its official sports program. The Games' cost was estimated to be A$6.6 billion. These were the final Olympic Games under the IOC presidency of Juan Antonio Samaranch before the arrival of his successor Jacques Rogge. The 2000 Games were the last of the two consecutive Summer Olympics to be held in a predominantly English-speaking country following the 1996 Summer Olympics in Atlanta, United States.

    The final medal tally at the 2000 Summer Olympics was led by the United States, followed by Russia and China with host Australia in fourth place overall. Cameroon, Colombia, Latvia, Mozambique, and Slovenia won a gold medal for the first time in their Olympic histories, while Barbados, Kuwait, Kyrgyzstan, North Macedonia, Saudi Arabia, and Vietnam won their first-ever Olympic medals. Australia will host the Summer Olympics again in 2032 at Brisbane, Queensland making it the first Oceanic country to host the Olympics three times.

    The 2000 Games received universal acclaim, with the organization, volunteers, sportsmanship, and Australian public being lauded in the international media. Bill Bryson of The Times called the Sydney Games "one of the most successful events on the world stage", saying that they "couldn't be better".[3] James Mossop of the Electronic Telegraph called the Games "such a success that any city considering bidding for future Olympics must be wondering how it can reach the standards set by Sydney",[4] while Jack Todd of the Montreal Gazette suggested that the "IOC should quit while it's ahead. Admit there can never be a better Olympic Games, and be done with it," as "Sydney was both exceptional and the best".[3] These games would provide the inspiration for London's winning bid for the 2012 Olympic Games in 2005; in preparing for the 2012 Games, Lord Coe declared the 2000 Games the "benchmark for the spirit of the Games, unquestionably", admitting that the London organizing committee "attempted in several ways to emulate what the Sydney Organising Committee did."[5]


    Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

    1. ^ "The Olympic Summer Games Factsheet" (PDF). International Olympic Committee. Archived (PDF) from the original on 6 September 2015. Retrieved 5 August 2012.
    2. ^ a b "Factsheet - Opening Ceremony of the Games of the Olympiad" (PDF) (Press release). International Olympic Committee. 9 October 2014. Archived (PDF) from the original on 14 August 2016. Retrieved 22 December 2018.
    3. ^ a b "How the media viewed the Sydney Olympics". CoolRunning Australia. 20 March 2010. Archived from the original on 16 October 2017. Retrieved 19 April 2015.
    4. ^ Mossop, James (1 October 2000). "Sydney has set the highest standards for future hosts". The Daily Telegraph. London. Archived from the original on 11 January 2022. Retrieved 26 October 2013.
    5. ^ "Sydney 2000 the Olympic Games benchmark, Sebastian Coe says". The Australian. 25 July 2012. Archived from the original on 26 July 2012. Retrieved 13 August 2012.
     
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    16 September 1987 – The Montreal Protocol is signed to protect the ozone layer from depletion

    Montreal Protocol

    The largest Antarctic ozone hole recorded as of September 2006
    Retrospective video on the Montreal Protocol and the collaboration between policy-makers, scientists, and industry leaders to regulate CFCs.

    The Montreal Protocol is an international treaty designed to protect the ozone layer by phasing out the production of numerous substances that are responsible for ozone depletion. It was agreed on 16 September 1987, and entered into force on 1 January 1989. Since then, it has undergone nine revisions, in 1990 (London), 1991 (Nairobi), 1992 (Copenhagen), 1993 (Bangkok), 1995 (Vienna), 1997 (Montreal), 1998 (Australia), 1999 (Beijing) and 2016 (Kigali)[1][2][3] As a result of the international agreement, the ozone hole in Antarctica is slowly recovering. [4] Climate projections indicate that the ozone layer will return to 1980 levels between 2040 (across much of the world) and 2066 (over Antarctica).[5][6][7] Due to its widespread adoption and implementation, it has been hailed as an example of successful international co-operation. Former UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan stated that "perhaps the single most successful international agreement to date has been the Montreal Protocol".[8][9] In comparison, effective burden-sharing and solution proposals mitigating regional conflicts of interest have been among the success factors for the ozone depletion challenge, where global regulation based on the Kyoto Protocol has failed to do so.[10] In this case of the ozone depletion challenge, there was global regulation already being installed before a scientific consensus was established. Also, overall public opinion was convinced of possible imminent risks.[11][12]

    The ozone treaty has been ratified by 198 parties (197 states and the European Union),[13] making them the first universally ratified treaties in United Nations history.[14]

    This truly universal treaty has also been remarkable in the expedience of the policy-making process at the global scale, where only 14 years lapsed between a basic scientific research discovery (1973) and the international agreement signed (1985 and 1987).

    1. ^ Hub, IISD's SDG Knowledge. "Kigali Amendment Enters into Force, Bringing Promise of Reduced Global Warming | News | SDG Knowledge Hub | IISD". Retrieved 7 March 2019.
    2. ^ McGrath, Matt (15 October 2016). "Deal reached on HFC greenhouse gases". BBC.
    3. ^ "Adjustments to the Montreal Protocol". United Nations Environment Programme Ozone Secretariat. Archived from the original on 23 August 2014. Retrieved 24 August 2014.
    4. ^ Ewenfeldt B, "Ozonlagret mår bättre", Arbetarbladet 12-9-2014, p. 10.
    5. ^ "Ozone Layer on Track to Recovery: Success Story Should Encourage Action on Climate". UNEP. UNEP. 10 September 2014. Archived from the original on 13 September 2014. Retrieved 18 September 2014.
    6. ^ Susan Solomon; Anne R. Douglass; Paul A. Newman (July 2014). "The Antarctic ozone hole: An update". Physics Today. 67 (7): 42–48. Bibcode:2014PhT....67g..42D. doi:10.1063/PT.3.2449. hdl:1721.1/99159.
    7. ^ Canada, Environment and Climate Change (20 February 2015). "Ozone layer depletion: Montreal Protocol". aem. Retrieved 22 April 2020.
    8. ^ "The Ozone Hole-The Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer". Theozonehole.com. 16 September 1987.
    9. ^ "Background for International Day for the Preservation of the Ozone Layer - 16 September". un.org. Retrieved 28 May 2017.
    10. ^ Of Montreal and Kyoto: A Tale of Two Protocols Archived 26 August 2014 at the Wayback Machine by Cass R. Sunstein 38 ELR 10566 8/2008
    11. ^ Environmental Politics Climate Change and Knowledge Politics Archived 26 August 2014 at the Wayback Machine Reiner Grundmann, Vol. 16, No. 3, 414–432, June 2007
    12. ^ Technische Problemlösung, Verhandeln und umfassende Problemlösung, (eng. technical trouble shooting, negotiating and generic problem solving capability) Archived 3 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine in Gesellschaftliche Komplexität und kollektive Handlungsfähigkeit (Societys complexity and collective ability to act), ed. Schimank, U. (2000). Frankfurt/Main: Campus, p.154-182 book summary at the Max Planck Gesellschaft Archived 12 October 2014 at the Wayback Machine
    13. ^ "Status of Ratification – The Ozone Secretariat". Ozone.unep.org. Archived from the original on 8 October 2014. Retrieved 10 March 2008.
    14. ^ "UNEP press release: "South Sudan Joins Montreal Protocol and Commits to Phasing Out Ozone-Damaging Substances"". Unep.org. Archived from the original on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 11 July 2012.
     
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    17 September 1965 – The Battle of Chawinda is fought between Pakistan and India

    Battle of Chawinda

    The Battle of Chawinda was a major engagement between Pakistan and India in the Second Kashmir War[b] as part of the Sialkot campaign. It is well known as being one of the largest tank battles in history since the Battle of Kursk, which was fought between the Soviet Union and Nazi Germany in World War II.[14]

    The initial clashes in Chawinda coincided with the Battle of Phillora, and the fighting here intensified once the Pakistani forces at Phillora retreated. The battle came to an end shortly before the United Nations Security Council mandated an immediate ceasefire, which would formally end the hostilities of the 1965 war.[15][16]

    1. ^ Jogindar Singh (1993). Behind the Scene: An Analysis of India's Military Operations, 1947–1971. Lancer Publishers. pp. 217–219. ISBN 1-897829-20-5. Retrieved 12 January 2015.
    2. ^ Chakravorty 1992a.
    3. ^ Abrar Hussain (2005). Men of Steel: 6 Armored Division in the 1965 War. Army Education Publishing House. pp. 36–52. ISBN 969-8125-19-1.
    4. ^ Nawaz 2008, pp. 227–230.
    5. ^ Krishna Rao 1991.
    6. ^ Sources assessing stalemate:
    7. ^ Zaloga 1980, p. 19.
    8. ^ Barua 2005, p. 191
    9. ^ Philip, Snehesh Alex (12 August 2019). "How Pakistani Lt Col Nisar Ahmed won over Indian peers after stalling their advance in 1965". ThePrint. Retrieved 28 November 2020.
    10. ^ Amin, Major A.H. "Battle of Chawinda Comedy of Higher Command Errors". Military historian. Defence journal(pakistan). Archived from the original on 19 July 2011. Retrieved 12 July 2011.
    11. ^ a b Clodfelter, Micheal (2017). Warfare and Armed Conflicts: A Statistical Encyclopedia of Casualty and Other Figures, 1492–2015 (4th ed.). McFarland. p. 600. ISBN 978-1476625850.
    12. ^ a b Chakravorty 1992a, p. 221.
    13. ^ a b Zaloga 1980, p. 35.
    14. ^ Michael E. Haskew (2015). Tank: 100 Years of the World's Most Important Armored Military Vehicle. Voyageur Press. pp. 201–. ISBN 978-0-7603-4963-2.
    15. ^ Pradhan 2007.
    16. ^ "Indo-Pakistan War of 1965". GlobalSecurity.org. Retrieved 2 June 2012.


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    18 September 1997 – The Anti-Personnel Mine Ban Convention is adopted.

    Ottawa Treaty

    The Convention on the Prohibition of the Use, Stockpiling, Production and Transfer of Anti-Personnel Mines and on their Destruction of 1997, known informally as the Ottawa Treaty, the Anti-Personnel Mine Ban Convention, or often simply the Mine Ban Treaty, aims at eliminating anti-personnel landmines (APLs) around the world.[2]

    By August 2022, 164 states had ratified or acceded to the treaty.[3] Major powers, which are also past and current manufacturers of landmines, are not parties to the treaty.[4] These include the United States, China, and Russia.[5][6] Other non-signatories include India and Pakistan.[4]

    1. ^ "Status of the Convention on the Prohibition of the Use, Stockpiling, Production and Transfer of Anti-Personnel Mines and on Their Destruction". Treaties Database of the United Nations Office for Disarmament Affairs.
    2. ^ "Anti-Personnel Landmines Convention – UNODA". Retrieved 30 March 2023.
    3. ^ "The Mine Ban Treaty: How the world decided to bury the use of mines". Arab News. 3 April 2023. Retrieved 16 April 2023.
    4. ^ a b "The Ottawa Convention: Signatories and States-Parties | Arms Control Association". www.armscontrol.org. Retrieved 16 April 2023.
    5. ^ "Status of the Convention on the Prohibition of the Use, Stockpiling, Production and Transfer of Anti-Personnel Mines and on Their Destruction". Treaties Database of the United Nations Office for Disarmament Affairs. Retrieved 21 October 2020.
    6. ^ "Treaty Status". ICBL. Archived from the original on 14 September 2016. Retrieved 21 September 2016.
     
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    18 September 1997 – The Anti-Personnel Mine Ban Convention is adopted.

    Ottawa Treaty

    The Convention on the Prohibition of the Use, Stockpiling, Production and Transfer of Anti-Personnel Mines and on their Destruction of 1997, known informally as the Ottawa Treaty, the Anti-Personnel Mine Ban Convention, or often simply the Mine Ban Treaty, aims at eliminating anti-personnel landmines (APLs) around the world.[2]

    By August 2022, 164 states had ratified or acceded to the treaty.[3] Major powers, which are also past and current manufacturers of landmines, are not parties to the treaty.[4] These include the United States, China, and Russia.[5][6] Other non-signatories include India and Pakistan.[4]

    1. ^ "Status of the Convention on the Prohibition of the Use, Stockpiling, Production and Transfer of Anti-Personnel Mines and on Their Destruction". Treaties Database of the United Nations Office for Disarmament Affairs.
    2. ^ "Anti-Personnel Landmines Convention – UNODA". Retrieved 30 March 2023.
    3. ^ "The Mine Ban Treaty: How the world decided to bury the use of mines". Arab News. 3 April 2023. Retrieved 16 April 2023.
    4. ^ a b "The Ottawa Convention: Signatories and States-Parties | Arms Control Association". www.armscontrol.org. Retrieved 16 April 2023.
    5. ^ "Status of the Convention on the Prohibition of the Use, Stockpiling, Production and Transfer of Anti-Personnel Mines and on Their Destruction". Treaties Database of the United Nations Office for Disarmament Affairs. Retrieved 21 October 2020.
    6. ^ "Treaty Status". ICBL. Archived from the original on 14 September 2016. Retrieved 21 September 2016.
     
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    19 September 1991Ötzi the Iceman is discovered in the Alps on the border between Italy and Austria.

    Ötzi

    Ötzi, also called the Iceman, is the natural mummy of a man who lived between 3350 and 3105 BC. Ötzi's remains were discovered on 19 September 1991, in the Ötztal Alps (hence the nickname "Ötzi", German: [œtsi]) at the border between Austria and Italy. He is Europe's oldest known natural human mummy, offering an unprecedented view of Chalcolithic (Copper Age) Europeans.

    Because of the presence of an arrowhead embedded in his left shoulder and various other wounds, researchers believe Ötzi was killed. The nature of his life and the circumstances of his death are the subject of much investigation and speculation. His remains and personal belongings are on exhibit at the South Tyrol Museum of Archaeology in Bolzano, South Tyrol, Italy.

    1. ^ Farid Chenoune (2005). Carried Away: All About Bags. Harry N. Abrams. ISBN 978-0-86565-158-6.
    2. ^ Joachim Chwaszcza; Brian Bell (1993). Italian Alps, South Tyrol. Houghton Mifflin. ISBN 978-0-395-65772-0.
     
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    20 September 2000 – The United Kingdom's MI6 Secret Intelligence Service building is attacked by individuals using a Russian-built RPG-22 anti-tank missile.

    2000 MI6 attack

    On Wednesday 20 September 2000, the Real Irish Republican Army (RIRA) carried out an attack on MI6's SIS Building headquarters in Vauxhall, Lambeth, London. A Russian-built RPG-22 anti-tank rocket, fired 300 metres (330 yards) away from MI6 headquarters, struck the building on the south side of the eighth floor, causing superficial damage. No fatalities or injuries were recorded.[1]

    Although London had been the target of terrorist attacks before 2000, it had not been subjected to a rocket launcher attack; this was the first time a RPG-22 rocket launcher was seen and used in Great Britain. It was initially thought the Real IRA acquired the launchers from the Provisional IRA's arsenal, but later confirmed it was brought from Yugoslavia.[2] The "audacious" attack caused minimal damage due to the building's bullet-proof and bomb-proof structure, failing to penetrate the inner cladding.[3]

    At the time of the attack, the constituency of South Antrim was preparing for a by-election to be held the following day; it was won by Democratic Unionist William McCrea, who defeated Ulster Unionist David Burnside.

    1. ^ "Attack on MI6 Snarls Central London : Missile Hits the Home Of British Intelligence". The New York Times. 22 September 2000. Retrieved 18 September 2020.
    2. ^ Cite error: The named reference independentmi6 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    3. ^ Cite error: The named reference telegraph was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
     
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    21 September 1942 – The Boeing B-29 Superfortress makes its maiden flight.

    Boeing B-29 Superfortress

    Boeing assembly line at Wichita, Kansas (1944)

    The Boeing B-29 Superfortress is an American four-engined propeller-driven heavy bomber, designed by Boeing and flown primarily by the United States during World War II and the Korean War. Named in allusion to its predecessor, the B-17 Flying Fortress, the Superfortress was designed for high-altitude strategic bombing, but also excelled in low-altitude night incendiary bombing, and in dropping naval mines to blockade Japan. B-29s dropped the atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki, the only aircraft ever to drop nuclear weapons in combat.

    One of the largest aircraft of World War II, the B-29 was designed with state-of-the-art technology, which included a pressurized cabin, dual-wheeled tricycle landing gear, and an analog computer-controlled fire-control system that allowed one gunner and a fire-control officer to direct four remote machine gun turrets. The $3 billion cost of design and production (equivalent to $49 billion in 2022),[3] far exceeding the $1.9 billion cost of the Manhattan Project, made the B-29 program the most expensive of the war.[4][5] The B-29 remained in service in various roles throughout the 1950s, being retired in the early 1960s after 3,970 had been built. A few were also used as flying television transmitters by the Stratovision company. The Royal Air Force flew the B-29 with the service name Washington from 1950 to 1954 when the jet-powered Canberra entered service.

    The B-29 was the progenitor of a series of Boeing-built bombers, transports, tankers, reconnaissance aircraft, and trainers. For example, the re-engined B-50 Superfortress Lucky Lady II became the first aircraft to fly around the world non-stop, during a 94-hour flight in 1949. The Boeing C-97 Stratofreighter airlifter, which was first flown in 1944, was followed in 1947 by its commercial airliner variant, the Boeing Model 377 Stratocruiser. This bomber-to-airliner derivation was similar to the B-17/Model 307 evolution. In 1948, Boeing introduced the KB-29 tanker, followed in 1950 by the Model 377-derivative KC-97. A line of outsized-cargo variants of the Stratocruiser is the Guppy / Mini Guppy / Super Guppy, which remain in service with NASA and other operators. The Soviet Union produced 847 Tupolev Tu-4s, an unlicensed reverse-engineered copy of the B-29. Twenty B-29s remain as static displays, but only two, FIFI and Doc, still fly.[6]

    1. ^ LeMay and Yenne 1988, p. 60.
    2. ^ "Boeing B-29." Boeing. Retrieved: 5 August 2010.
    3. ^ 1634–1699: McCusker, J. J. (1997). How Much Is That in Real Money? A Historical Price Index for Use as a Deflator of Money Values in the Economy of the United States: Addenda et Corrigenda (PDF). American Antiquarian Society. 1700–1799: McCusker, J. J. (1992). How Much Is That in Real Money? A Historical Price Index for Use as a Deflator of Money Values in the Economy of the United States (PDF). American Antiquarian Society. 1800–present: Federal Reserve Bank of Minneapolis. "Consumer Price Index (estimate) 1800–". Retrieved 29 February 2024.
    4. ^ O'Brien, Phillips Payson (2015). How the War Was Won (First ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 47–48. ISBN 978-1-107-01475-6.
    5. ^ "B-29 Superfortress, U.S. Heavy Bomber". The Pacific War Online Encyclopedia. Kent G. Budge. Retrieved 1 April 2018.
    6. ^ Waller, Staff Sgt. Rachel (17 July 2016). "B-29 'Doc' takes to the skies from McConnell". McConnell AFB. Retrieved 3 January 2024.
     

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