This day in .....

29 October 1998 – In South Africa, the Truth and Reconciliation Commission presents its report, which condemns both sides for committing atrocities.

Truth and Reconciliation Commission (South Africa)

Restorative justice tribunal in post-apartheid South Africa

For other official truth and reconciliation commissions, see Truth and Reconciliation Commission (disambiguation).

The Truth and Reconciliation Commission (TRC) was a court-like restorative justice^[1] body assembled in South Africa in 1996 after the end of apartheid.^[a] Authorised by Nelson Mandela and chaired by Desmond Tutu, the commission invited witnesses who were identified as victims of gross human rights violations to give statements about their experiences, and selected some for public hearings. Perpetrators of violence could also give testimony and request amnesty from both civil and criminal prosecution.

The Institute for Justice and Reconciliation was established in 2000 as the successor organisation of the TRC.

1. ^ "What is Restorative Justice?". Suffolk University: College of Arts & Sciences, Center for Restorative Justice. Retrieved 3 February 2023.
2. ^ Gade, Christian .B.N. (2013). "Restorative Justice and the South African Truth and Reconciliation Process" (PDF). South African Journal of Philosophy. 32 (1): 10–35. doi:10.1080/02580136.2013.810412. S2CID 2424224. Retrieved 3 February 2023.

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30 October 1961 – Due to "violations of Vladimir Lenin's precepts", it is decreed that Joseph Stalin's body be removed from its place of honour inside Lenin's tomb and buried near the Kremlin Wall with a plain granite marker.

Lenin's Mausoleum

Architectural structure in Red Square, Moscow, Russia

"Lenin's Tomb" redirects here. For the book by David Remnick, see Lenin's Tomb: The Last Days of the Soviet Empire. For the British political weblog, see Lenin's Tomb (blog).

Lenin's Mausoleum (from 1953 to 1961 Lenin's and Stalin's Mausoleum) (Russian: Мавзолей Ленина, tr. Mavzoley Lenina, IPA: [məvzɐˈlʲej ˈlʲenʲɪnə]), also known as Lenin's Tomb, is a mausoleum located at Red Square in Moscow, Russia. It serves as the resting place of Soviet leader Vladimir Lenin, whose preserved body has been on public display since shortly after his death in 1924, with rare exceptions in wartime. The outdoor tribune over the mausoleum's entrance was used by Soviet leaders to observe military parades. The structure, designed by Alexey Shchusev, incorporates some elements from ancient mausoleums such as the Step Pyramid, the Tomb of Cyrus the Great and, to some degree, the Temple of the Inscriptions.

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31 October 2011 – The global population of humans reaches seven billion. This day is now recognized by the United Nations as the Day of Seven Billion.

Day of Seven Billion

Day on which the human population reached 7 billion (October 31, 2011)

Estimated (to 2011) and projected (from 2012) populations of the world and its inhabited continents. The shaded regions correspond to range of projections by the United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs;^[1] for example, the chart showed that the world population would reach 8 billion people between 2021 and 2035

The Day of Seven Billion, October 31, 2011, is the day that was officially designated by the United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA) as the approximate day on which the world's population reached seven billion people.^[2] United Nations Secretary General Ban Ki-moon spoke at the United Nations building in New York City on this new milestone in the size of world population and the issues that it will raise, along with promoting the UNFPA's new program named 7 Billion Actions,^[3] which will seek to "build global awareness around the opportunities and challenges associated with a world of seven billion people" and inspire individuals and organizations to take action.^[4] It was succeeded by the Day of Eight Billion on November 15, 2022.

1. ^ World Population Prospects, the 2010 Revision
2. ^ World Population Prospects, the 2008 Revision Frequently Asked Questions Population Division of the Department of Economic and Social Affairs of the United Nations Secretariat updated November 10, 2010. Retrieved January 26, 2011
3. ^ "Day of 7 Billion". UNFPA. Archived from the original on November 2, 2013. Retrieved October 16, 2011.
4. ^ "About 7 Billion Actions". 7 Billion Actions. Archived from the original on October 24, 2011. Retrieved October 16, 2011.

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1 November 1952 – Nuclear weapons testing: The United States successfully detonates Ivy Mike, the first thermonuclear device, at the Eniwetok atoll.

Ivy Mike

1952 American nuclear test

Ivy Mike was the codename given to the first full-scale test of a thermonuclear device, in which part of the explosive yield comes from nuclear fusion.^[1][2][3] Ivy Mike was detonated on November 1, 1952, by the United States on the island of Elugelab in Enewetak Atoll, in the now independent island nation of the Marshall Islands, as part of Operation Ivy. It was the first full test of the Teller–Ulam design, a staged fusion device.^[4]

Due to its physical size and fusion fuel type (cryogenic liquid deuterium), the "Mike" device was not suitable for use as a deliverable weapon. It was intended as a "technically conservative" proof of concept experiment to validate the concepts used for multi-megaton detonations.^[4]

Samples from the explosion had traces of the isotopes plutonium-246, plutonium-244, and the predicted elements einsteinium and fermium.^[5]

1. ^ "OPERATION GREENHOUSE - 1951". ATOMIC SHADOWS. Retrieved January 9, 2020.
2. ^ The first small-scale thermonuclear test was the George explosion of Operation Greenhouse.
3. ^ United States Nuclear Tests: July 1945 through September 1992 (PDF) (DOE/NV-209 REV15), Las Vegas, NV: Department of Energy, Nevada Operations Office, December 1, 2000, archived from the original (PDF) on June 15, 2010, retrieved December 18, 2013
4. ^ ^{a b} Wellerstein, Alex (January 8, 2016). "A Hydrogen Bomb by Any Other Name". The New Yorker. Retrieved January 19, 2020.
5. ^ Cite error: The named reference Distillations was invoked but never defined (see the help page).

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2 November 1947 – In California, designer Howard Hughes performs the maiden (and only) flight of the Hughes H-4 Hercules (also known as the "Spruce Goose"), the largest fixed-wing aircraft ever built.

Hughes H-4 Hercules

American World War II heavy flying boat

"HK-1" redirects here. For other uses, see HK-1 (disambiguation).

The Hughes H-4 Hercules (commonly known as the Spruce Goose; registration NX37602) is a prototype strategic airlift flying boat designed and built by the Hughes Aircraft Company. Intended as a transatlantic flight transport for use during World War II, it was not completed in time to be used in the war. The aircraft made only one brief flight, on November 2, 1947, and the project never advanced beyond the single example produced.

Built from wood (Duramold process) because of wartime restrictions on the use of aluminum and concerns about weight, the aircraft was nicknamed the Spruce Goose by critics, although it was made almost entirely of birch.^[1][2] The Birch Bitch was a more accurate but less socially acceptable moniker that was allegedly used by the mechanics who worked on the plane.^[3] The Hercules is the largest flying boat ever built, and it had the largest wingspan of any aircraft ever flown until the twin-fuselaged Scaled Composites Stratolaunch first flew on April 13, 2019.^[4][5] The aircraft remains in good condition. After having been displayed to the public in Long Beach, California, from 1980 to 1992, it is now on display at the Evergreen Aviation & Space Museum in McMinnville, Oregon, United States.^[6]

1. ^ Parker, Dana T. Building Victory: Aircraft Manufacturing in the Los Angeles Area in World War II, pp. 49–58, Cypress, CA, 2013. ISBN 978-0-9897906-0-4.
2. ^ "Hughes HK-1 (H-4) 'Spruce Goose'." The Aviation Zone. Retrieved October 6, 2010.
3. ^ "When the ‘Spruce Goose’ Took Flight." Flying Mag. Retrieved December 9, 2023.
4. ^ Spruce Goose. Archived September 27, 2015, at the Wayback Machine Evergreen Aviation & Space Museum. Retrieved December 14, 2011.
5. ^ "Stratolaunch airborne in first flight of world's largest aircraft". Flightglobal.com. April 13, 2019. Retrieved April 13, 2019.
6. ^ Parker, Dana T. Building Victory: Aircraft Manufacturing in the Los Angeles Area in World War II, p. 55, Cypress, CA, 2013. ISBN 978-0-9897906-0-4.

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3 November 1936 – Franklin D. Roosevelt is re-elected President of the United States.

Franklin D. Roosevelt

President of the United States from 1933 to 1945

"FDR" redirects here. For other uses, see FDR (disambiguation) and Franklin D. Roosevelt (disambiguation).

Franklin Delano Roosevelt^[a] (January 30, 1882 – April 12, 1945), commonly known by his initials FDR, was an American statesman and politician who served as the 32nd president of the United States from 1933 until his death in 1945. He was a member of the Democratic Party and is the only U.S. president to have served more than two terms. His initial two terms were centered on combating the Great Depression, while his third and fourth saw him shift his focus to America's involvement in World War II.

A member of the Delano family and Roosevelt family, after attending university, Roosevelt began to practice law in New York City. He was elected a member of the New York State Senate from 1911 to 1913 and was then the assistant secretary of the Navy under President Woodrow Wilson during World War I. Roosevelt was James M. Cox's running mate on the Democratic Party's ticket in the 1920 U.S. presidential election, but Cox lost to Republican nominee Warren G. Harding. In 1921, Roosevelt contracted a paralytic illness that permanently paralyzed his legs. Partly through the encouragement of his wife, Eleanor Roosevelt, he returned to public office as governor of New York from 1929 to 1933, during which he promoted programs to combat the Great Depression. In the 1932 presidential election, Roosevelt defeated Republican president Herbert Hoover in a landslide.

During his first 100 days as president, Roosevelt spearheaded unprecedented federal legislation and directed the federal government during most of the Great Depression, implementing the New Deal in response to the most significant economic crisis in American history. He also built the New Deal coalition, realigning American politics into the Fifth Party System and defining American liberalism throughout the mid-20th century. He created numerous programs to provide relief to the unemployed and farmers while seeking economic recovery with the National Recovery Administration and other programs. He also instituted major regulatory reforms related to finance, communications, and labor, and presided over the end of Prohibition. In 1936, Roosevelt won a landslide reelection with the economy having improved from 1933, but the economy relapsed into a deep recession in 1937 and 1938. He was unable to expand the Supreme Court in 1937, the same year the conservative coalition was formed to block the implementation of further New Deal programs and reforms. Major surviving programs and legislation implemented under Roosevelt include the Securities and Exchange Commission, the National Labor Relations Act, the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation, and Social Security. In 1940, he ran successfully for reelection, one entire term before the official implementation of term limits.

With World War II looming after 1938 in addition to the Japanese invasion of China and the aggression of Nazi Germany, Roosevelt gave strong diplomatic and financial support to China, the United Kingdom, and the Soviet Union, while the U.S. remained officially neutral. Following the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941, he obtained a declaration of war on Japan.

After Germany and Italy declared war on the U.S. on December 11, 1941, the U.S. Congress approved a declaration of war in return. He worked closely with other national leaders in leading the Allies against the Axis powers. Roosevelt supervised the mobilization of the American economy to support the war effort and implemented a Europe first strategy. He also initiated the development of the first atomic bomb and worked with the other Allied leaders to lay the groundwork for the United Nations and other post-war institutions, even coining the term "United Nations".^[2] Roosevelt won reelection in 1944 but died in 1945 after his physical health seriously and steadily declined during the war years. Since then, several of his actions have come under criticism, including his ordering of the internment of Japanese Americans, German and Italian Americans, and refusal to accept Jewish refugees from Germany or Italy. Nonetheless, historical rankings consistently place him as one of the greatest American presidents.

1. ^ "Roosevelt". The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language (5th ed.). HarperCollins.
2. ^ "When was the term United Nations first used?". United Nations. Retrieved December 14, 2023.

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4 November 1921 – Japanese Prime Minister Hara Takashi is assassinated in Tokyo.

Hara Takashi

Prime Minister of Japan from 1918 to 1921

"Takashi Hara" redirects here. For the artist, see Takashi Hara (artist).

In this Japanese name, the surname is Hara. The baptismal name is Takashi.

Hara Takashi (原 敬, 15 March 1856 – 4 November 1921) was a Japanese politician who served as the Prime Minister of Japan from 1918 until his assassination.

Hara held several minor ambassadorial roles before rising through the ranks of the Rikken Seiyūkai and being elected to the House of Representatives. Hara served as Home Minister in several cabinets under Saionji Kinmochi and Yamamoto Gonnohyōe between 1906 and 1913. Hara was appointed Prime Minister following the Rice Riots of 1918 and positioned himself as a moderate, participating in the Paris Peace Conference, founding the League of Nations, and relaxing oppressive policies in Japanese Korea. Hara's premiership oversaw the Siberian intervention and the suppression of the March 1st Movement in Japanese-occupied Korea. Hara was assassinated by Nakaoka Kon'ichi, a far-right nationalist, on 4 November 1921.

Hara was the first commoner and first Christian appointed to be Prime Minister of Japan, informally known as Hara Kei, and given the moniker of "commoner prime minister" (平民宰相, heimin saishō).

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5 November 1895 – George B. Selden is granted the first U.S. patent for an automobile.

George B. Selden

American patent lawyer and inventor of a version of the automobile

This article is about George B. Selden, an American patent lawyer and inventor of a version of the automobile. For an American investigative journalist and media critic, see George Seldes.

For other people named George Selden, see George Selden (disambiguation).

George Baldwin Selden (September 14, 1846 – January 17, 1922) was an American patent lawyer and inventor from New York who was granted a U.S. patent for an automobile in 1895.^[1][2][3]

1. ^ Flink, p. 51 Probably the most absurd action in the history of patent law was the granting of United States patent number 549,160 on November 5, 1895, to George B. Selden. a Rochester, New York, patent lawyer and inventor, for an "improved road engine" powered by "a liquid-hydrocarbon engine of the compression type."
2. ^ Flink, p. 51 His own patent application was filed in 1879. He then used evasive legal tactics to delay the patent's acceptance until conditions seemed favorable for commercial exploitation.
3. ^ Borth, Christy. Masters of Mass Production, pp. 38, 152, Bobbs-Merrill Co., Indianapolis, IN, 1945.

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6 November 1860 – Abraham Lincoln is elected the 16th President of the United States

1860 United States presidential election

19th quadrennial U.S. presidential election

The 1860 United States presidential election was the 19th quadrennial presidential election, held on Tuesday, November 6, 1860. In a four-way contest, the Republican Party ticket of Abraham Lincoln and Hannibal Hamlin^[2] won a national popular plurality, a popular majority in the North where states already had abolished slavery, and a national electoral majority comprising only Northern electoral votes. Lincoln's election thus served as the main catalyst of the states that would become the Confederacy seceding from the Union. This marked the first time that a Republican was elected president. It was also the first presidential election in which both major party candidates were registered in the same home state; the others have been in 1904, 1920, 1940, 1944, and 2016.

The United States had become increasingly sectionally divided during the 1850s, primarily over extending slavery into the western territories. The incumbent president, James Buchanan, like his predecessor, Franklin Pierce, was a Northern Democrat with Southern sympathies. Buchanan also adamantly promised not to seek re-election. From the mid-1850s, the anti-slavery Republican Party became a major political force, driven by Northern voter opposition to the Kansas–Nebraska Act and the Supreme Court's 1857 decision in Dred Scott v. Sandford. From the election of 1856, the Republican Party had replaced the defunct Whig Party as the major opposition to the Democrats. A group of former Whigs and Know Nothings formed the Constitutional Union Party, which sought to avoid disunion by resolving divisions over slavery with some new compromise.

The 1860 Republican National Convention in Chicago nominated Abraham Lincoln, a moderate former one-term Whig Representative from Illinois. Its platform promised not to interfere with slavery in the South but opposed extension of slavery into the territories. The 1860 Democratic National Convention adjourned in Charleston, South Carolina, without agreeing on a nominee, but a second convention in Baltimore, Maryland, nominated Illinois Senator Stephen A. Douglas. Douglas's support for the concept of popular sovereignty, which called for each territory's settlers to decide locally on the status of slavery, alienated many radical pro-slavery Southern Democrats, who wanted the territories, and perhaps other lands, open to slavery. With President Buchanan's support, Southern Democrats held their own convention, nominating Vice President John C. Breckinridge of Kentucky. The 1860 Constitutional Union Convention, which hoped to avoid the slavery issue entirely, nominated a ticket led by former Tennessee Senator John Bell.

Lincoln's main opponent in the North was Douglas, who won the popular vote in Missouri, electoral votes in New Jersey, and the second highest popular vote total nationally. Douglas was the only candidate in the 1860 election to win electoral votes in both free and slave states. In the South, Bell won three states and Breckinridge swept the remaining 11. Lincoln's election motivated seven Southern states, all voting for Breckinridge, to secede before the inauguration in March. The American Civil War began less than two months after Lincoln's inauguration, with the Battle of Fort Sumter; afterwards four further states seceded. Lincoln would go on to win re-election in the 1864 United States presidential election. The election was the first of six consecutive Republican victories. Despite Lincoln's commanding victory, this was the first election in American history in which the winner has failed to win his home county, with Lincoln narrowly losing Sangamon County, Illinois to Douglas. However, he would win Gasconade County, Missouri, which as of the 2020 United States presidential election, has voted Republican ever since, marking the beginning of the longest active voting streak for any party at the county level.

1. ^ "National General Election VEP Turnout Rates, 1789-Present". United States Election Project. CQ Press.
2. ^ Burlingame, Michael (October 4, 2016). "Abraham Lincoln: Campaign and Elections". Archived from the original on April 2, 2017. Retrieved July 13, 2021.

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7 November 1929 – In New York City, the Museum of Modern Art opens to the public.

Museum of Modern Art

This article is about the museum in New York City. For other uses, see Museum of Modern Art (disambiguation) and Moma (disambiguation).

Not to be confused with the Metropolitan Museum of Art.

Art museum in New York City, U.S.

The Museum of Modern Art (MoMA) is an art museum located in Midtown Manhattan, New York City, on 53rd Street between Fifth and Sixth Avenues. The institution was conceived in 1929 by Abby Aldrich Rockefeller, Lillie P. Bliss, and Mary Quinn Sullivan. Initially located in the Heckscher Building on Fifth Avenue, it opened just days after the Wall Street Crash. The museum, America's first devoted exclusively to modern art, was led by A. Conger Goodyear as president and Abby Rockefeller as treasurer, with Alfred H. Barr Jr. as its first director. Under Barr's leadership, the museum's collection rapidly expanded, beginning with an inaugural exhibition of works by European modernists. Despite financial challenges, including opposition from John D. Rockefeller Jr., the museum moved to several temporary locations in its early years, and John D. Rockefeller Jr. eventually donated the land for its permanent site.

During the 1930s and 1950s, MoMA gained international recognition with landmark exhibitions, such as Barr's influential "Cubism and Abstract Art" in 1936, a retrospective of Pablo Picasso's works organized in 1939-40 and the "Indian Art of the United States" exhibition in 1941. Abby Rockefeller's son, Nelson, became the museum's president in 1939, playing a key role in its expansion and publicity. His brother, David Rockefeller, joined the board in 1948 and continued the family's close association with the museum. Significant events during this period included a major fire in 1958, which destroyed a painting by Claude Monet and led to the evacuation of other artworks. The museum's architectural evolution also continued, with a redesign of the sculpture garden by Philip Johnson and relocation to its current home designed by Philip L. Goodwin and Edward Durell Stone, which opened in 1939.

In later decades, the controversial decision to withdraw funding from the antiwar poster "And Babies" in 1969, and the subsequent protests, highlighted the museum's involvement in contemporary sociopolitical issues. It was also among several institutions to aid CIA in its efforts to engage in cultural propaganda during the Cold War.^[2] Major expansions in the 1980s and the early 21st century, including the selection of Japanese architect Yoshio Taniguchi for a significant renovation, nearly doubled MoMA's space for exhibitions and programs. The 2000s saw the formal merger with the P.S. 1 Contemporary Art Center, and in 2019, another major renovation added significant gallery space.

In 2022, MoMA was the 17th most-visited art museum in the world and the 4th most-visited museum in the United States. MoMA's collection spans the late 19th-century to the present, and includes over 200,000 works of architecture and design, drawing, painting, sculpture, photography, prints, illustrated and artist's books, film, as well as electronic media.^[3] The museum is considered one of the most influential cultural institutions globally devoted to modern and contemporary art.^[4] At the same time, MoMA has long faced criticism for developing and perpetuating Eurocentric narratives of modernism and for its insufficient focus on expanding access to socioeconomically underprivileged groups.^[5][6][7] The museum has been involved in controversies regarding its labor practices, and the institution's labor union, founded in 1971, has been described as the first of its kind in the U.S.^[8] The MoMA Library includes about 300,000 books and exhibition catalogs, more than 1,000 periodical titles and more than 40,000 files of ephemera about individual artists and groups.^[9] The archives hold primary source material related to the history of modern and contemporary art.^[10]

1. ^ The Art Newspaper, List of most-visited museums in 2022, published 28 March 2023
2. ^ Dasal, Jennifer (September 24, 2020). "How MoMA and the CIA Conspired to Use Unwitting Artists to Promote American Propaganda During the Cold War". Artnet News. Retrieved December 16, 2023.
3. ^ "About the Collection". The Museum of Modern Art. Retrieved January 19, 2024.
4. ^ Kleiner, Fred S.; Christin J. Mamiya (2005). "The Development of Modernist Art: The Early 20th Century". Gardner's Art through the Ages: The Western Perspective. Thomson Wadsworth. p. 796. ISBN 978-0-4950-0478-3. Archived from the original on May 10, 2016. The Museum of Modern Art in New York City is consistently identified as the institution most responsible for developing modernist art ... the most influential museum of modern art in the world.
5. ^ Reilly, Maura (October 31, 2019). "MoMA's Revisionism Is Piecemeal and Problem-Filled: Feminist Art Historian Maura Reilly on the Museum's Rehang". ARTnews.com. Retrieved December 16, 2023. According to Barr, "modern art" was a synchronic, linear progression of "isms" in which one (heterosexual, white) male "genius" from Europe or the U.S. influenced another who inevitably trumped or subverted his previous master, thereby producing an avant-garde progression. Barr's story was so ingrained in the institution that it was never questioned as problematic. The fact that very few women, artists of color, and those not from Europe or North America—in other words, all "Other" artists—were not on display was not up for discussion.
6. ^ Cotter, Holland (October 10, 2019). "MoMA Reboots With 'Modernism Plus'". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved December 16, 2023. After decades of stonewalling multiculturalism, MoMA is now acknowledging it, even investing in it, most notably in a permanent collection rehang that features art — much of it recently acquired — from Africa, Asia, South America, and African America, and a significant amount of work by women.
7. ^ McGrath, Jack (October 18, 2019). "What the New MoMA Misunderstands About Pablo Picasso and Faith Ringgold". Frieze. Retrieved December 16, 2023. Despite MoMA's progressive intentions, however, questions remain about what revamped purpose its expansion announces – especially on the levels of education, curatorial method and economic positionality.
8. ^ Greenberger, Alex (October 16, 2019). "'Art Workers Don't Kiss Ass': Looking Back on the Formation of MoMA's Pioneering Union in the 1970s". ARTnews.com. Retrieved December 16, 2023.
9. ^ "Library". MoMA. Archived from the original on February 5, 2016.
10. ^ "About the Archives". MoMA. Archived from the original on February 13, 2016.

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8 November 1973 – The right ear of John Paul Getty III is delivered to a newspaper outlet along with a ransom note, convincing his father to pay US$2.9 million.

John Paul Getty III

American oil heir (1956–2011)

John Paul Getty III (/ˈɡɛti/; born Eugene Paul Getty II; November 4, 1956 – February 5, 2011)^[1] was the grandson of American oil tycoon J. Paul Getty, who was once the richest man in the world. While living in Rome in 1973, he was kidnapped by the 'Ndrangheta and held for a $17 million ransom. His grandfather was reluctant to pay, but, after John Paul Getty III's severed ear was received by a newspaper, the grandfather negotiated a payment of $2.2 million, and Getty was released five months after being kidnapped. Getty subsequently developed an addiction to drugs and alcohol, leading to an overdose and stroke which left him severely disabled for the rest of his life.

1. ^ Eszterhas, Joe (March 21, 2018). "J. Paul Getty III: Exclusive 1974 Interview with Kidnapped Oil Heir". Rolling Stone. Retrieved April 1, 2021.

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9 November 1979 – Cold War: Nuclear false alarm: The NORAD computers and the Alternate National Military Command Center in Fort Ritchie, Maryland detected purported massive Soviet nuclear strike. After reviewing the raw data from satellites and checking the early-warning radars, the alert is cancelled.

North American Aerospace Defense Command

Redirect to:

• NORAD

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10 November 1293 – Raden Wijaya is crowned as the first monarch of Majapahit kingdom of Java, taking the throne name Kertarajasa Jayawardhana.

Raden Wijaya

13th-century Javanese emperor, the founder and the first monarch of Majapahit empire

Raden Wijaya or Raden Vijaya (also known as Nararya Sangramawijaya, regnal name Kertarajasa Jayawardhana) (reigned 1293–1309) was a Javanese emperor, and the founder and first monarch of the Majapahit Empire.^[1] The history of his founding of Majapahit was written in several records, including Pararaton and Negarakertagama.^[2] His rule was marked by the victory against the army and the Mongol navy of Kublai Khan's Yuan dynasty.^[3]

1. ^ Slamet Muljana, 2005, Runtuhnya Kerajaan Hindu-Jawa dan Timbulnya Negara-negara Islam di Nusantara, Yogyakarta: LKiS, ISBN 9798451163.
2. ^ Web Editorial Team, Direktori Majapahit. "Masa Kejayaan (1293-1389)". Direktori Majapahit (in Indonesian). Retrieved 20 December 2023.
3. ^ Adryamarthanino, Verelladevanka., Endrawati, Tri. (18 October 2022). "Cara Raden Wijaya Menghadapi Kedatangan Pasukan Mongol di Singasari". Kompas (in Indonesian). Retrieved 20 December 2023.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)

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11 November 1966 – NASA launches Gemini 12.

Gemini 12

1966 NASA crewed spaceflight

Gemini 12 (officially Gemini XII)^[3] was a 1966 crewed spaceflight in NASA's Project Gemini. It was the 10th and final crewed Gemini flight (Gemini 1 and Gemini 2 were uncrewed missions), the 18th crewed American spaceflight, and the 26th spaceflight of all time, including X-15 flights over 100 kilometers (54 nmi). Commanded by Gemini VII veteran James A. Lovell, the flight featured three periods of extravehicular activity (EVA) by rookie Edwin "Buzz" Aldrin, lasting a total of 5 hours and 30 minutes. It also achieved the fifth rendezvous and fourth docking with an Agena target vehicle.

Gemini XII marked a successful conclusion of the Gemini program, achieving the last of its goals by successfully demonstrating that astronauts can effectively work outside of spacecraft. This was instrumental in paving the way for the Apollo program to achieve its goal of landing a man on the Moon by the end of the 1960s.

1. ^ ^{a b} "Gemini XII" (PDF). Gemini Program Mission Report. NASA. 1967. Retrieved 2008-11-10.
2. ^ McDowell, Jonathan. "SATCAT". Jonathan's Space Pages. Retrieved March 23, 2014.
3. ^ Hacker, Barton C.; Grimwood, James M. (September 1974). "Chapter 11 Pillars of Confidence". On the Shoulders of Titans: A History of Project Gemini. NASA History Series. Vol. SP-4203. NASA. p. 239. Archived from the original on 2010-01-13. Retrieved 2013-09-26. With Gemini IV, NASA changed to Roman numerals for Gemini mission designations.

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12 November 1927 – Leon Trotsky is expelled from the Soviet Communist Party, leaving Joseph Stalin in undisputed control of the Soviet Union.

Leon Trotsky

Russian Marxist revolutionary (1879–1940)

"Trotsky" redirects here. For other uses, see Trotsky (disambiguation).

In this name that follows Eastern Slavic naming customs, the patronymic is Davidovich and the family name is Bronstein.

Lev Davidovich Bronstein^[b] (7 November [O.S. 26 October] 1879 – 21 August 1940), better known as Leon Trotsky,^[c] was a Russian revolutionary, Soviet politician, journalist, and political theorist. He was a central figure in the 1905 Revolution,^[4] October Revolution, Russian Civil War, and the establishment of the Soviet Union. Alongside Vladimir Lenin, Trotsky was widely considered the most prominent Soviet figure and was de facto second-in-command during the early years of the Russian Soviet Republic. Ideologically a Marxist and a Leninist, his thought and writings inspired a school of Marxism known as Trotskyism.

Born into a wealthy Jewish family in Yanovka in what was then the Russian Empire, Trotsky was initially a narodnik, but embraced Marxism soon after moving to Nikolayev in 1896. In 1898, he was arrested for revolutionary activities and exiled to Siberia, but in 1902 escaped to London, where he met Lenin and wrote for the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party's paper Iskra. Trotsky initially sided with Julius Martov's Mensheviks against Lenin's Bolsheviks during the party's 1903 split, but was non-factional from 1904. During the 1905 Revolution, Trotsky returned to Russia and became chairman of the Saint Petersburg Soviet. He was again exiled to Siberia, but escaped in 1907 and spent time in London, Vienna, Switzerland, Paris, and New York. After the February Revolution of 1917, which overthrew the tsar, Trotsky returned to Russia and joined the Bolsheviks. As chairman of the Petrograd Soviet, he played an important role in the October Revolution that overthrew the Provisional Government.

In Lenin's first government, Trotsky was appointed the People's Commissar for Foreign Affairs and led the negotiations for the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, by which Russia withdrew from World War I. From 1918 to 1925, he served as the People's Commissar for Military and Naval Affairs, founding the Red Army; establishing conscription, training, and discipline; and leading it to victory in the Russian Civil War. In 1922, Trotsky and Lenin formed an alliance against the emerging Soviet bureaucracy;^[5] Lenin proposed that Trotsky become his Deputy Chairman and preside over economic management^[6] at the Council of People's Commissars, but he declined the post.^[7]

During the New Economic Policy, Trotsky led the party's Left Opposition, which advocated a programme of rapid industrialisation, voluntary collectivisation of agriculture, and expansion of workers' democracy. After Lenin's death in 1924, Trotsky was outmaneuvered by Joseph Stalin and his allies and lost his positions: he was expelled from the Politburo in 1926 and from the party in 1927, internally exiled to Alma Ata in 1928, and deported in 1929. He lived in Turkey, France, and Norway before settling in Mexico in 1937.

In exile, Trotsky wrote extensively and polemically against Stalinism, supporting proletarian internationalism against Stalin's theory of "socialism in one country". Trotsky's own theory of "permanent revolution" posited that the revolution could only survive if extended to advanced capitalist countries. In The Revolution Betrayed (1936), Trotsky argued that the Soviet Union had become a "degenerated workers' state" due to its isolation, and called for an end to Stalin's bureaucratic dictatorship. He founded the Fourth International in 1938 as an alternative to the Comintern. In 1936, Trotsky was sentenced to death in absentia at the first of the Moscow show trials, and in 1940, he was assassinated at his home in Mexico City by NKVD agent Ramón Mercader.

Written out of Soviet history books under Stalin, Trotsky was one of the few of his rivals who never received political rehabilitation from later leaders. In the Western world, he emerged as a hero of the anti-Stalinist left for his defense of a more democratic, internationalist form of socialism^[8] against Stalinist totalitarianism and intellectual contributions to left-wing movements. Whilst some of his wartime measures have proved controversial and have been criticised along with his ideological defence of the Red Terror. Modern scholarship generally ranks his leadership of the Red Army highly among historical figures and he is credited for his major involvement with the military, economic, cultural^[9] and political development of the Soviet Union.

Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

1. ^ Cliff, Tony (2004) [1976]. "Lenin Rearms the Party". All Power to the Soviets: Lenin 1914–1917. Vol. 2. Chicago: Haymarket Books. p. 139. ISBN 9781931859103. Retrieved 17 December 2021. Trotsky was a leader of a small group, the Mezhraionts, consisting of almost four thousand members.
2. ^ Renton 2004, p. 19.
3. ^ "Trotsky". Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary.
4. ^ "A prolific writer and a spellbinding orator, he was a central figure in the Russian Revolution of 1905 and the October Revolution of 1917, the organizer and leader of the Red Army in the Russian Civil War, the heir apparent to Soviet leader Vladimir Lenin, and the arch enemy and then vanquished foe of Joseph Stalin in the succession struggle after Lenin's death".Patenaude, Betrand (21 September 2017). "Trotsky and Trotskyism" in The Cambridge History of Communism: Volume 1, World Revolution and Socialism in One Country 1917–1941. Cambridge University Press. p. 189. ISBN 978-1-108-21041-6.
5. ^ Mccauley 2014, p. 59; Deutscher 2003b, p. 63; Kort 2015, p. 166; Service 2010, p. 301–20; Pipes 1993, p. 469; Volkogonov 1996, p. 242; Lewin 2005, p. 67; Tucker 1973, p. 336; Figes 2017, pp. 796, 797; D'Agostino 2011, p. 67.
6. ^ Getty 2013b, p. 53; Douds 2019b, p. 165.
7. ^ Bullock 1991b, p. 163; Rees & Rosa 1992b, p. 129; Kosheleva 1995b, pp. 80–81.
8. ^ Barnett, Vincent (7 March 2013). A History of Russian Economic Thought. Routledge. p. 101. ISBN 978-1-134-26191-8.
9. ^ Knei-Paz 1979, p. 296; Kivelson & Neuberger 2008, p. 149.

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13 November 1940 – Walt Disney's animated musical film Fantasia is first released

Fantasia (1940 film)

1940 American animated film produced by Walt Disney

Fantasia is a 1940 American animated musical anthology film produced by Walt Disney Productions, with story direction by Joe Grant and Dick Huemer and production supervision by Walt Disney and Ben Sharpsteen. It consists of eight animated segments set to pieces of classical music conducted by Leopold Stokowski, seven of which are performed by the Philadelphia Orchestra. Music critic and composer Deems Taylor acts as the film's Master of Ceremonies who introduces each segment in live action.

Disney settled on the film's concept in 1938 as work neared completion on The Sorcerer's Apprentice, originally an elaborate Silly Symphony cartoon designed as a comeback role for Mickey Mouse, who had declined in popularity. As production costs surpassed what the short could earn, Disney decided to include it in a feature-length film of multiple segments set to classical pieces with Stokowski and Taylor as collaborators. The soundtrack was recorded using multiple audio channels and reproduced with Fantasound, a pioneering sound system developed by Disney and RCA that made Fantasia the first commercial film shown in stereo and a precursor to surround sound.

Fantasia was first released as a theatrical roadshow that was held in 13 cities across the U.S. between 1940 and 1941 by RKO Radio Pictures; the first began at the Broadway Theatre in New York City on November 13, 1940. While acclaimed by critics, it failed to make a profit owing to World War II's cutting off distribution to the European market, the film's high production costs, and the expense of building Fantasound equipment and leasing theatres for the roadshow presentations. Since 1942, the film has been reissued multiple times by RKO Radio Pictures and Buena Vista Distribution with its original footage and audio being deleted, modified, or restored in each version. When adjusted for inflation, Fantasia is the 23rd highest-grossing film of all time in the U.S.

The Fantasia franchise has grown to include video games, Disneyland attractions, and a live concert series. A sequel, Fantasia 2000, co-produced by Walt's nephew Roy E. Disney, was released in 1999. Fantasia has grown in reputation over the years and is now widely acclaimed as one of the greatest animated films of all time; in 1998, the American Film Institute ranked it as the 58th greatest American film in their 100 Years...100 Movies and the fifth greatest animated film in their 10 Top 10 list. In 1990, Fantasia was selected for preservation in the United States National Film Registry by the Library of Congress as being "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant."

1. ^ "Fantasia (U)". British Board of Film Classification. July 21, 1941. Retrieved January 10, 2014.
2. ^ Goldmark & Taylor 2002, p. 88.
3. ^ Cite error: The named reference pitts82 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
4. ^ "Fantasia". Box Office Mojo. IMDb. Retrieved January 10, 2022.
5. ^ "Fantasia". The Numbers. Nash Information Services, LLC. Retrieved January 10, 2022.

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14 November 1770 – James Bruce discovers what he believes to be the source of the Nile.

Nile

Major river in northeastern Africa

For other uses, see Nile (disambiguation).

The Nile^[b] is a major north-flowing river in northeastern Africa. It flows into the Mediterranean Sea. The Nile is the longest river in Africa and has historically been considered the longest river in the world,^[3][4] though this has been contested by research suggesting that the Amazon River is slightly longer.^[5][6] Of the world's major rivers, the Nile is one of the smallest, as measured by annual flow in cubic metres of water.^[7] About 6,650 km (4,130 mi)^[a] long, its drainage basin covers eleven countries: the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Tanzania, Burundi, Rwanda, Uganda, Kenya, Ethiopia, Eritrea, South Sudan, Sudan, and Egypt.^[9] In particular, the Nile is the primary water source of Egypt, Sudan and South Sudan.^[10] Additionally, the Nile is an important economic river, supporting agriculture and fishing.

The Nile has two major tributaries: the White Nile and the Blue Nile. The White Nile is traditionally considered to be the headwaters stream. However, the Blue Nile is the source of most of the water of the Nile downstream, containing 80% of the water and silt. The White Nile is longer and rises in the Great Lakes region. It begins at Lake Victoria and flows through Uganda and South Sudan. The Blue Nile begins at Lake Tana in Ethiopia^[11] and flows into Sudan from the southeast. The two rivers meet at the Sudanese capital of Khartoum.^[12]

The northern section of the river flows north almost entirely through the Nubian Desert to Cairo and its large delta, and the river flows into the Mediterranean Sea at Alexandria. Egyptian civilization and Sudanese kingdoms have depended on the river and its annual flooding since ancient times. Most of the population and cities of Egypt lie along those parts of the Nile valley north of the Aswan Dam. Nearly all the cultural and historical sites of Ancient Egypt developed and are found along river banks. The Nile is, with the Rhône and Po, one of the three Mediterranean rivers with the largest water discharge.^[13]

Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

1. ^ "ⲓⲁⲣⲟ - Wiktionary". en.wiktionary.org. Retrieved 13 June 2020.
2. ^ Reinisch, Leo (1879). Die Nuba-Sprache. Grammatik und Texte. Nubisch-Deutsches und Deutsch-Nubisches Wörterbuch Erster Theil. Zweiter Theil. p. 220.
3. ^ ^{a b} "Nile River". Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived from the original on 29 April 2015.
4. ^ ^{a b c} Liu, Shaochuang; Lu, P; Liu, D; Jin, P; Wang, W (1 March 2009). "Pinpointing the sources and measuring the lengths of the principal rivers of the world". Int. J. Digital Earth. 2 (1): 80–87. Bibcode:2009IJDE....2...80L. doi:10.1080/17538940902746082. S2CID 27548511.
5. ^ Amazon Longer Than Nile River, Scientists Say Archived 15 August 2012 at the Wayback Machine
6. ^ "How Long Is the Amazon River?". Encyclopedia Britannica. Archived from the original on 24 December 2018. Retrieved 24 December 2018.
7. ^ Said, R (6 December 2012). The Geological Evolution of the River Nile. New York: Springer (published 2012). p. 4. ISBN 9781461258414. Retrieved 23 May 2021 – via Google.
8. ^ "Where Does the Amazon River Begin?". National Geographic News. 15 February 2014. Archived from the original on 27 March 2019. Retrieved 25 December 2018.
9. ^ Oloo, Adams (2007). "The Quest for Cooperation in the Nile Water Conflicts: A Case for Eritrea" (PDF). African Sociological Review. 11 (1). doi:10.4314/asr.v11i1.51447. Archived (PDF) from the original on 27 September 2011. Retrieved 25 July 2011.
10. ^ Elsanabary, Mohamed Helmy Mahmoud Moustafa (2012). Teleconnection, Modeling, Climate Anomalies Impact and Forecasting of Rainfall and Streamflow of the Upper Blue Nile River Basin (PhD thesis). Canada: University of Alberta. doi:10.7939/R3377641M. hdl:10402/era.28151.
11. ^ The river's outflow from that lake occurs at 12°02′09″N 37°15′53″E / 12.03583°N 37.26472°E / 12.03583; 37.26472
12. ^ "What's the Blue Nile and the White Nile?". The Times of India. Archived from the original on 8 March 2017. Retrieved 31 July 2017.
13. ^ Margat, Jean F. (2004). Mediterranean Basin Water Atlas. UNESCO. p. 4. ISBN 9782951718159. A basin of varied geometry: Area of the entire Mediterranean Basin, including the whole of the Nile Basin = 4,562,480 km²; Area of the 'conventional' Mediterranean Basin (i.e. counting only part of the Nile Basin in Egypt) = 1,836,480 km² [...] There are few rivers with an abundant flow. Only three rivers have a mean discharge of more than 1000 m³/s: the Nile (at Aswan), the Rhône and the Po.

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15 November 1920 – First assembly of the League of Nations is held in Geneva, Switzerland.

League of Nations

20th-century international organisation, predecessor to the United Nations

Not to be confused with Commonwealth of Nations or Nations League.

This article is about the intergovernmental organisation. For the group in professional wrestling, see League of Nations (professional wrestling).

The League of Nations (French: Société des Nations [sɔsjete de nɑsjɔ̃]) was the first worldwide intergovernmental organisation whose principal mission was to maintain world peace.^[1] It was founded on 10 January 1920 by the Paris Peace Conference that ended the First World War. The main organization ceased operations on 18 April 1946 when many of its components were relocated into the new United Nations. As the template for modern global governance, the League profoundly shaped the modern world.

The League's primary goals were stated in its Covenant. They included preventing wars through collective security and disarmament and settling international disputes through negotiation and arbitration.^[2] Its other concerns included labour conditions, just treatment of native inhabitants, human and drug trafficking, the arms trade, global health, prisoners of war, and protection of minorities in Europe.^[3] The Covenant of the League of Nations was signed on 28 June 1919 as Part I of the Treaty of Versailles, and it became effective with the rest of the Treaty on 10 January 1920. Australia was granted the right to participate as an autonomous member nation, marking the start of Australian independence on the global stage.^[4] The first meeting of the Council of the League took place on 16 January 1920, and the first meeting of the Assembly of the League took place on 15 November 1920. In 1919, U.S. president Woodrow Wilson won the Nobel Peace Prize for his role as the leading architect of the League.

The diplomatic philosophy behind the League represented a fundamental shift from the preceding hundred years. The League lacked its own armed force and depended on the victorious Allies of World War I (Britain, France, Italy and Japan were the initial permanent members of the Executive Council) to enforce its resolutions, keep to its economic sanctions, or provide an army when needed. The Great Powers were often reluctant to do so. Sanctions could hurt League members, so they were reluctant to comply with them. During the Second Italo-Ethiopian War, when the League accused Italian soldiers of targeting International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement medical tents, Benito Mussolini responded that "the League is very well when sparrows shout, but no good at all when eagles fall out."^[5]

At its greatest extent from 28 September 1934 to 23 February 1935, it had 58 members. After some notable successes and some early failures in the 1920s, the League ultimately proved incapable of preventing aggression by the Axis powers in the 1930s. The credibility of the organization was weakened by the fact that the United States never joined. Japan and Germany left in 1933, Italy left in 1937, and Spain left in 1939. The Soviet Union only joined in 1934 and was expelled in 1939 after invading Finland.^[6][7][8][9] Furthermore, the League demonstrated an irresolute approach to sanction enforcement for fear it might only spark further conflict, further decreasing its credibility. One example of this hesitancy was the Abyssinia Crisis, in which Italy's sanctions were only limited from the outset (coal and oil were not restricted), and later altogether abandoned despite Italy being declared the aggressors in the conflict. The onset of the Second World War in 1939 showed that the League had failed its primary purpose; it was largely inactive until its abolition. The League lasted for 26 years; the United Nations (UN) replaced it in 1946 and inherited several agencies and organisations founded by the League.

Current scholarly consensus views that, even though the League failed to achieve its main goal of world peace, it did manage to build new roads towards expanding the rule of law across the globe; strengthened the concept of collective security, giving a voice to smaller nations; fostered economic stabilization and financial stability, especially in Central Europe in the 1920s; helped to raise awareness of problems like epidemics, slavery, child labour, colonial tyranny, refugee crises and general working conditions through its numerous commissions and committees; and paved the way for new forms of statehood, as the mandate system put the colonial powers under international observation.^[10] Professor David Kennedy portrays the League as a unique moment when international affairs were "institutionalised", as opposed to the pre-First World War methods of law and politics.^[11]

1. ^ Christian, Tomuschat (1995). The United Nations at Age Fifty: A Legal Perspective. Martinus Nijhoff Publishers. p. 77. ISBN 978-90-411-0145-7.
2. ^ "Covenant of the League of Nations". The Avalon Project. Archived from the original on 26 July 2011. Retrieved 30 August 2011.
3. ^ See Article 23, "Covenant of the League of Nations". Archived from the original on 26 July 2011. Retrieved 20 April 2009., Treaty of Versailles. Archived from the original on 19 January 2010. Retrieved 23 January 2010. and Minority Treaties.
4. ^ Rees, Dr Yves (2020). "The women of the League of Nations". www.latrobe.edu.au. Retrieved 28 October 2023.
5. ^ Jahanpour, Farhang. "The Elusiveness of Trust: the experience of Security Council and Iran" (PDF). Transnational Foundation of Peace and Future Research. p. 2. Archived (PDF) from the original on 27 July 2014. Retrieved 27 June 2008.
6. ^ Osakwe, C O (1972). The participation of the Soviet Union in universal international organizations.: A political and legal analysis of Soviet strategies and aspirations inside ILO, UNESCO and WHO. Springer. p. 5. ISBN 978-90-286-0002-7.
7. ^ Pericles, Lewis (2000). Modernism, Nationalism, and the Novel. Cambridge University Press. p. 52. ISBN 978-1-139-42658-9.
8. ^ Ginneken, Anique H. M. van (2006). Historical Dictionary of the League of Nations. Scarecrow Press. p. 174. ISBN 978-0-8108-6513-6.
9. ^ Ellis, Charles Howard (2003). The Origin, Structure & Working of the League of Nations. Lawbook Exchange Ltd. p. 169. ISBN 978-1-58477-320-7.
10. ^ Cite error: The named reference Pedersen2007 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
11. ^ Kennedy 1987.

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16 November 1920 – Qantas, Australia's national airline, is founded as Queensland and Northern Territory Aerial Services Limited.

Qantas

Flag carrier of Australia

This article is about the airline. For other uses, see Qantas (disambiguation).

Qantas Airways Limited (/ˈkwɒntəs/ KWON-təs) is the flag carrier of Australia. It is the largest airline by fleet size, international flights, and international destinations in Australia and Oceania.^[12][13] Qantas is the world's third-oldest continuously operating airline, being founded in November 1920.^[14][15] Qantas is a founding member of the Oneworld airline alliance.^[16]

Qantas is an acronym of the airline's original name, Queensland and Northern Territory Aerial Services, as it originally served Queensland and the Northern Territory. It is popularly nicknamed "The Flying Kangaroo". It is considered the only airline in the world to fly to all seven continents, with it being the only airline operating regular sightseeing flights to Antarctica, along with flights to Africa, Europe, Asia, North America and South America.^[17][18]

Qantas is based in the Sydney suburb of Mascot, adjacent to its main hub at Sydney Airport. As of March 2023^[update], Qantas Group had a 60.8% share of the Australian domestic market.^[19] Various subsidiary airlines operate to regional centres and on some trunk routes within Australia, as well as some short haul international flights under the QantasLink banner. Qantas owns Jetstar, a low-cost airline that operates both international services from Australia and domestic services within Australia and New Zealand. It holds stakes in a number of other Jetstar-branded airlines in Asia, as well as Fiji Airways.

1. ^ "Qantas story takes flight in outback hangar". National Trust. Retrieved 22 July 2023.
2. ^ "Air operators - Civil Aviation Safety Authority". Retrieved 15 April 2024.
3. ^ "QANTAS INKS STRATEGIC MARKETING PARTNERSHIP WITH SINGAPORE TOURISM BOARD AND CHANGI AIRPORT GROUP". Qantas News Room (Press release). Archived from the original on 28 July 2020. Retrieved 8 May 2018.
4. ^ "Qantas Group: Singapore is our largest hub outside of Australia – Blue Swan Daily". blueswandaily.com. 14 March 2018. Archived from the original on 8 May 2018. Retrieved 8 May 2018.
5. ^ Yun, Jessica (24 May 2022). "'Now is the right time': Virgin and Qantas ink deals ahead of travel boom". Sydney Morning Herald. Retrieved 9 November 2022.
6. ^ "Qantas fleet". Qantas. Retrieved 15 November 2022.
7. ^ "Qantas on ch-aviation". ch-aviation. Retrieved 9 November 2023.
8. ^ Cite error: The named reference HQ was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
9. ^ "Our leadership". Qantas Group. Archived from the original on 24 April 2019. Retrieved 24 April 2019.
10. ^ ^{a b c d} Cite error: The named reference QGR2023 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
11. ^ "Qantas Group Announced Major Jobs, Training and Growth Plans". Retrieved 6 June 2023.
12. ^ "Qantas reports record annual loss". BBC News. 28 August 2014. Archived from the original on 23 December 2014. Retrieved 21 February 2015.
13. ^ Butler, Ben (17 March 2020). "Airlines in crisis: Virgin and Qantas under pressure as government hints at support package". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Archived from the original on 3 June 2020. Retrieved 3 May 2020.
14. ^ "Qantas story takes flight in outback hangar". National Trust. Retrieved 15 November 2022.
15. ^ "Oldest Airlines in the World That Are Still Operating". World Atlas. Archived from the original on 6 April 2019. Retrieved 24 November 2018.
16. ^ "Five leading airlines to launch oneworld global alliance" (Press release). Oneworld. 21 September 1998. Archived from the original on 15 July 2011. Retrieved 5 August 2009.
17. ^ "International Flight Network: Qantas".
18. ^ "Qantas to fly Aussies over Antarctica on 12hr scenic expedition". Australian Aviation. 11 August 2020. Retrieved 28 August 2023.
19. ^ "Airline Competition in Australia – Final Report" (PDF). ACCC. Retrieved 6 June 2023.

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16 November 1920 – Qantas, Australia's national airline, is founded as Queensland and Northern Territory Aerial Services Limited.

Qantas

Flag carrier of Australia

This article is about the airline. For other uses, see Qantas (disambiguation).

Qantas Airways Limited (/ˈkwɒntəs/ KWON-təs) is the flag carrier of Australia. It is the largest airline by fleet size, international flights, and international destinations in Australia and Oceania.^[12][13] Qantas is the world's third-oldest continuously operating airline, being founded in November 1920.^[14][15] Qantas is a founding member of the Oneworld airline alliance.^[16]

Qantas is an acronym of the airline's original name, Queensland and Northern Territory Aerial Services, as it originally served Queensland and the Northern Territory. It is popularly nicknamed "The Flying Kangaroo". It is considered the only airline in the world to fly to all seven continents, with it being the only airline operating regular sightseeing flights to Antarctica, along with flights to Africa, Europe, Asia, North America and South America.^[17][18]

Qantas is based in the Sydney suburb of Mascot, adjacent to its main hub at Sydney Airport. As of March 2023^[update], Qantas Group had a 60.8% share of the Australian domestic market.^[19] Various subsidiary airlines operate to regional centres and on some trunk routes within Australia, as well as some short haul international flights under the QantasLink banner. Qantas owns Jetstar, a low-cost airline that operates both international services from Australia and domestic services within Australia and New Zealand. It holds stakes in a number of other Jetstar-branded airlines in Asia, as well as Fiji Airways.

1. ^ "Qantas story takes flight in outback hangar". National Trust. Retrieved 22 July 2023.
2. ^ "Air operators - Civil Aviation Safety Authority". Retrieved 15 April 2024.
3. ^ "QANTAS INKS STRATEGIC MARKETING PARTNERSHIP WITH SINGAPORE TOURISM BOARD AND CHANGI AIRPORT GROUP". Qantas News Room (Press release). Archived from the original on 28 July 2020. Retrieved 8 May 2018.
4. ^ "Qantas Group: Singapore is our largest hub outside of Australia – Blue Swan Daily". blueswandaily.com. 14 March 2018. Archived from the original on 8 May 2018. Retrieved 8 May 2018.
5. ^ Yun, Jessica (24 May 2022). "'Now is the right time': Virgin and Qantas ink deals ahead of travel boom". Sydney Morning Herald. Retrieved 9 November 2022.
6. ^ "Qantas fleet". Qantas. Retrieved 15 November 2022.
7. ^ "Qantas on ch-aviation". ch-aviation. Retrieved 9 November 2023.
8. ^ Cite error: The named reference HQ was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
9. ^ "Our leadership". Qantas Group. Archived from the original on 24 April 2019. Retrieved 24 April 2019.
10. ^ ^{a b c d} Cite error: The named reference QGR2023 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
11. ^ "Qantas Group Announced Major Jobs, Training and Growth Plans". Retrieved 6 June 2023.
12. ^ "Qantas reports record annual loss". BBC News. 28 August 2014. Archived from the original on 23 December 2014. Retrieved 21 February 2015.
13. ^ Butler, Ben (17 March 2020). "Airlines in crisis: Virgin and Qantas under pressure as government hints at support package". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Archived from the original on 3 June 2020. Retrieved 3 May 2020.
14. ^ "Qantas story takes flight in outback hangar". National Trust. Retrieved 15 November 2022.
15. ^ "Oldest Airlines in the World That Are Still Operating". World Atlas. Archived from the original on 6 April 2019. Retrieved 24 November 2018.
16. ^ "Five leading airlines to launch oneworld global alliance" (Press release). Oneworld. 21 September 1998. Archived from the original on 15 July 2011. Retrieved 5 August 2009.
17. ^ "International Flight Network: Qantas".
18. ^ "Qantas to fly Aussies over Antarctica on 12hr scenic expedition". Australian Aviation. 11 August 2020. Retrieved 28 August 2023.
19. ^ "Airline Competition in Australia – Final Report" (PDF). ACCC. Retrieved 6 June 2023.

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17 November 2003 – Actor Arnold Schwarzenegger’s tenure as the governor of California began

Arnold Schwarzenegger

Austrian and American actor and politician (born 1947)

"Schwarzenegger" redirects here. For other people with the name, see Schwarzenegger (surname).

Arnold Alois Schwarzenegger (born July 30, 1947) is an Austrian and American actor, businessman, filmmaker, former politician, and former professional bodybuilder known for his roles in high-profile action movies. He served as the 38th governor of California from 2003 to 2011 and was among Time's 100 most influential people in the world in 2004 and 2007.^[5][6]

Schwarzenegger began lifting weights at age 15 and won the Mr. Universe title aged 20, and subsequently the Mr. Olympia title seven times. He is widely regarded as one of the greatest bodybuilders of all time,^[7][8] and has written many books and articles about it.^[9] The Arnold Sports Festival, considered the second-most important bodybuilding event after Mr. Olympia, is named after him.^[10] He appeared in the bodybuilding documentary Pumping Iron (1977). After retiring from bodybuilding, he gained worldwide fame as a Hollywood action star, with his breakthrough in the sword and sorcery epic Conan the Barbarian (1982),^[11] a box-office hit with a sequel in 1984.^[12] After playing the title character in the science fiction film The Terminator (1984), he starred in Terminator 2: Judgment Day (1991) and three other sequels. His other successful action films included Commando (1985), The Running Man (1987), Predator (1987), Total Recall (1990), and True Lies (1994), in addition to comedy films such as Twins (1988), Kindergarten Cop (1990) and Jingle All the Way (1996).^[13] He is the founder of the film production company Oak Productions.^[14]

As a registered Republican, Schwarzenegger chaired the President's Council on Physical Fitness and Sports during most of the George H. W. Bush administration. On October 7, 2003, he was elected Governor of California in a special recall election to replace then-Governor Gray Davis. He received 48.6% of the vote, 17 points ahead of Democrat runner-up Cruz Bustamante. He was sworn in on November 17 to serve the remainder of Davis' term, and was reelected in the 2006 California gubernatorial election with an increased vote share of 55.9% to serve a full term.^[15] In 2011 he reached his term limit as governor and returned to acting.

Schwarzenegger was nicknamed the "Austrian Oak" in his bodybuilding days, "Arnie" or "Schwarzy" during his acting career,^[16] and "the Governator" (a portmanteau of "Governor" and "Terminator") during his political career. He married Maria Shriver, a niece of President John F. Kennedy, in 1986. They separated in 2011 after he admitted to having fathered a child with their housemaid in 1997; their divorce was finalized in 2021.^[17]

Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

1. ^ Finkelmeyer, Todd (November 11, 2009). "Campus Connection: Superior list of famous alumni?". The Cap Times. Archived from the original on January 25, 2023. Retrieved January 25, 2023.
2. ^ Leeds, Jeff; Bates, James (August 22, 2003). "A degree of fame for each". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved January 25, 2023.
3. ^ ^{a b c} "Arnold Schwarzenegger Pro Bodybuilding Profile". Bodybuilding.com. October 11, 2015.
4. ^ ^{a b} "Arnold Schwarzenegger's competitive bodybuilding history 1963–1966". GMV Productions. Archived from the original on May 6, 2012. Retrieved July 24, 2012.
5. ^ Sullivan, Andrew (April 26, 2004). "The 2004 TIME 100". Time. ISSN 0040-781X. Retrieved April 1, 2022.
6. ^ Kennedy, Robert F. Jr. (May 3, 2007). "The 2007 TIME 100". Time. ISSN 0040-781X. Retrieved April 1, 2022.
7. ^ Heffernan, Conor (August 11, 2016). "Who is the Best Bodybuilder Ever? An In-Depth Analysis". Physicalculturestudy.com. Retrieved May 24, 2022.
8. ^ Robson, David (April 10, 2015). "Who Is The Greatest Mr. Olympia Winner Of All Time? A Critical Review Of Past Mr. Olympia Champions!". Bodybuilding.com. Retrieved May 24, 2022.
9. ^ Gentilcore, Tony (March 2, 2018). "Lift Heavy To Build Muscle Like Arnold Schwarzenegger". Powerlifting.com. Archived from the original on July 15, 2018. Retrieved May 30, 2018.
10. ^ "50 years of the Mr Olympia". Muscle Insider. Archived from the original on October 6, 2018. Retrieved January 30, 2019.
11. ^ Hibberd, James (May 16, 2023). "Arnold Schwarzenegger Gets Candid on Career, Failures, Aging: 'My Plan Is to Live Forever'". The Hollywood Reporter. Retrieved May 31, 2023.
12. ^ Cite error: The named reference katzfilm was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
13. ^ Ebert, Roger (June 17, 1988). "Red Heat movie review & film summary (1988)". RogerEbert.com. Retrieved March 2, 2021.
14. ^ Keslassy, Elsa (October 14, 2019). "Alibaba's Youku Boards 'Stan Lee's Superhero Kindergarten' With Arnold Schwarzenegger". Variety. Retrieved October 19, 2020.
15. ^ Kurtzman, Laura (January 5, 2007). "Schwarzenegger Sworn in for Second Term". The Washington Post. Associated Press. Archived from the original on November 4, 2012. Retrieved April 23, 2008.
16. ^ "Arnold Schwarzenegger at University of Houston Commencement: 'None of Us Can Make It Alone'". Time. May 15, 2017. Retrieved March 2, 2021.
17. ^ "Arnold Schwarzenegger and Maria Shriver Officially Divorced". TMZ. December 28, 2021. Retrieved December 29, 2021.

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17 November 2003 – Actor Arnold Schwarzenegger’s tenure as the governor of California began

Arnold Schwarzenegger

Austrian and American actor and politician (born 1947)

"Schwarzenegger" redirects here. For other people with the name, see Schwarzenegger (surname).

Arnold Alois Schwarzenegger (born July 30, 1947) is an Austrian and American actor, businessman, filmmaker, former politician, and former professional bodybuilder known for his roles in high-profile action movies. He served as the 38th governor of California from 2003 to 2011 and was among Time's 100 most influential people in the world in 2004 and 2007.^[5][6]

Schwarzenegger began lifting weights at age 15 and won the Mr. Universe title aged 20, and subsequently the Mr. Olympia title seven times. He is widely regarded as one of the greatest bodybuilders of all time,^[7][8] and has written many books and articles about it.^[9] The Arnold Sports Festival, considered the second-most important bodybuilding event after Mr. Olympia, is named after him.^[10] He appeared in the bodybuilding documentary Pumping Iron (1977). After retiring from bodybuilding, he gained worldwide fame as a Hollywood action star, with his breakthrough in the sword and sorcery epic Conan the Barbarian (1982),^[11] a box-office hit with a sequel in 1984.^[12] After playing the title character in the science fiction film The Terminator (1984), he starred in Terminator 2: Judgment Day (1991) and three other sequels. His other successful action films included Commando (1985), The Running Man (1987), Predator (1987), Total Recall (1990), and True Lies (1994), in addition to comedy films such as Twins (1988), Kindergarten Cop (1990) and Jingle All the Way (1996).^[13] He is the founder of the film production company Oak Productions.^[14]

As a registered Republican, Schwarzenegger chaired the President's Council on Physical Fitness and Sports during most of the George H. W. Bush administration. On October 7, 2003, he was elected Governor of California in a special recall election to replace then-Governor Gray Davis. He received 48.6% of the vote, 17 points ahead of Democrat runner-up Cruz Bustamante. He was sworn in on November 17 to serve the remainder of Davis' term, and was reelected in the 2006 California gubernatorial election with an increased vote share of 55.9% to serve a full term.^[15] In 2011 he reached his term limit as governor and returned to acting.

Schwarzenegger was nicknamed the "Austrian Oak" in his bodybuilding days, "Arnie" or "Schwarzy" during his acting career,^[16] and "the Governator" (a portmanteau of "Governor" and "Terminator") during his political career. He married Maria Shriver, a niece of President John F. Kennedy, in 1986. They separated in 2011 after he admitted to having fathered a child with their housemaid in 1997; their divorce was finalized in 2021.^[17]

Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

1. ^ Finkelmeyer, Todd (November 11, 2009). "Campus Connection: Superior list of famous alumni?". The Cap Times. Archived from the original on January 25, 2023. Retrieved January 25, 2023.
2. ^ Leeds, Jeff; Bates, James (August 22, 2003). "A degree of fame for each". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved January 25, 2023.
3. ^ ^{a b c} "Arnold Schwarzenegger Pro Bodybuilding Profile". Bodybuilding.com. October 11, 2015.
4. ^ ^{a b} "Arnold Schwarzenegger's competitive bodybuilding history 1963–1966". GMV Productions. Archived from the original on May 6, 2012. Retrieved July 24, 2012.
5. ^ Sullivan, Andrew (April 26, 2004). "The 2004 TIME 100". Time. ISSN 0040-781X. Retrieved April 1, 2022.
6. ^ Kennedy, Robert F. Jr. (May 3, 2007). "The 2007 TIME 100". Time. ISSN 0040-781X. Retrieved April 1, 2022.
7. ^ Heffernan, Conor (August 11, 2016). "Who is the Best Bodybuilder Ever? An In-Depth Analysis". Physicalculturestudy.com. Retrieved May 24, 2022.
8. ^ Robson, David (April 10, 2015). "Who Is The Greatest Mr. Olympia Winner Of All Time? A Critical Review Of Past Mr. Olympia Champions!". Bodybuilding.com. Retrieved May 24, 2022.
9. ^ Gentilcore, Tony (March 2, 2018). "Lift Heavy To Build Muscle Like Arnold Schwarzenegger". Powerlifting.com. Archived from the original on July 15, 2018. Retrieved May 30, 2018.
10. ^ "50 years of the Mr Olympia". Muscle Insider. Archived from the original on October 6, 2018. Retrieved January 30, 2019.
11. ^ Hibberd, James (May 16, 2023). "Arnold Schwarzenegger Gets Candid on Career, Failures, Aging: 'My Plan Is to Live Forever'". The Hollywood Reporter. Retrieved May 31, 2023.
12. ^ Cite error: The named reference katzfilm was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
13. ^ Ebert, Roger (June 17, 1988). "Red Heat movie review & film summary (1988)". RogerEbert.com. Retrieved March 2, 2021.
14. ^ Keslassy, Elsa (October 14, 2019). "Alibaba's Youku Boards 'Stan Lee's Superhero Kindergarten' With Arnold Schwarzenegger". Variety. Retrieved October 19, 2020.
15. ^ Kurtzman, Laura (January 5, 2007). "Schwarzenegger Sworn in for Second Term". The Washington Post. Associated Press. Archived from the original on November 4, 2012. Retrieved April 23, 2008.
16. ^ "Arnold Schwarzenegger at University of Houston Commencement: 'None of Us Can Make It Alone'". Time. May 15, 2017. Retrieved March 2, 2021.
17. ^ "Arnold Schwarzenegger and Maria Shriver Officially Divorced". TMZ. December 28, 2021. Retrieved December 29, 2021.

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18 November 1626 – The new St Peter's Basilica is consecrated.

St. Peter's Basilica

Church in Vatican City

For other uses, see St. Peter's Basilica (disambiguation).

Church in Vatican City

The Papal Basilica of Saint Peter in the Vatican (Italian: Basilica Papale di San Pietro in Vaticano), or simply Saint Peter's Basilica (Latin: Basilica Sancti Petri), is a church of the Italian High Renaissance located in Vatican City, an independent microstate enclaved within the city of Rome, Italy. It was initially planned in the 15th century by Pope Nicholas V and then Pope Julius II to replace the ageing Old St. Peter's Basilica, which was built in the fourth century by Roman emperor Constantine the Great. Construction of the present basilica began on 18 April 1506 and was completed on 18 November 1626.^[2]

Designed principally by Donato Bramante, Michelangelo, and Carlo Maderno, with piazza and fittings by Gian Lorenzo Bernini, St. Peter's is one of the most renowned works of Italian Renaissance architecture^[3] and is the largest church in the world by interior measure.^{[note 1]} While it is neither the mother church of the Catholic Church nor the cathedral of the Diocese of Rome (these equivalent titles being held by the Archbasilica of Saint John Lateran in Rome), St. Peter's is regarded as one of the holiest Catholic shrines. It has been described as "holding a unique position in the Christian world",^[4] and as "the greatest of all churches of Christendom."^[3][5]

Catholic tradition holds that the basilica is the burial site of Saint Peter, chief among Jesus's apostles and also the first Bishop of Rome (Pope). Saint Peter's tomb is directly below the high altar of the basilica, also known as the Altar of the Confession.^[6] For this reason, many popes, cardinals and bishops have been interred at St. Peter's since the Early Christian period.

St. Peter's is famous as a place of pilgrimage and for its liturgical functions. The pope presides at a number of liturgies throughout the year both within the basilica or the adjoining St. Peter's Square; these liturgies draw audiences numbering from 15,000 to over 80,000 people.^[7] St. Peter's has many historical associations, with the early Christian Church, the Papacy, the Protestant Reformation and Catholic Counter-Reformation and numerous artists, especially Michelangelo. As a work of architecture, it is regarded as the greatest building of its age.^[8] St. Peter's is one of the four churches in the world that hold the rank of Major papal basilica, all four of which are in Rome, and is also one of the Seven Pilgrim Churches of Rome. Contrary to popular misconception, it is not a cathedral because it is not the seat of a bishop; the cathedra of the pope as bishop of Rome is at the Archbasilica of Saint John Lateran.^[9]

1. ^ "St. Peter's Basilica - Dome" (in Italian). Vatican City State. Archived from the original on 19 July 2020. Retrieved 12 July 2020.
2. ^ Baumgarten 1913
3. ^ ^{a b} Banister Fletcher, the renowned architectural historian calls it "the greatest creation of the Renaissance" and "... the greatest of all churches of Christendom" in Fletcher 1921, p. 588.
4. ^ James Lees-Milne describes St. Peter's Basilica as "a church with a unique position in the Christian world" in Lees-Milne 1967, p. 12.
5. ^ "St. Peter's Basilica (Basilica di San Pietro) in Rome, Italy". reidsitaly.com. Archived from the original on 23 February 2015. Retrieved 22 February 2015.
6. ^ Giuliani, Giovanni (1995). "Altar of the Confession". Guide to Saint Peter's Basilica. Archived from the original on 3 September 2023. Retrieved 17 August 2021.
7. ^ "Papal Mass". Papal Audience. Archived from the original on 24 February 2021. Retrieved 28 February 2012.
8. ^ Cite error: The named reference BF was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
9. ^ Noreen (19 November 2012). "St. Peter's Basilica in Vatican Is Not The Official Church Of The Pope". Today I Found Out. Archived from the original on 15 February 2019. Retrieved 14 February 2019.

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19 November 2004 – The worst brawl in NBA history results in several players being suspended. Several players and fans are charged with assault.

The Malice at the Palace

Redirect to:

• Malice at the Palace

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20 November 1992 – In England, a fire breaks out in Windsor Castle, badly damaging the castle and causing over £50 million worth of damage.

1992 Windsor Castle fire

Fire at historic royal castle

On 20 November 1992, a fire broke out in Windsor Castle, the largest inhabited castle in the world and one of the official residences of the British Monarch. The castle suffered extensive damage and was fully repaired within the next five years at a cost of £36.5 million, in a project led by the conservation architects Donald Insall Associates. It led to Queen Elizabeth II paying tax on her income, and to Buckingham Palace, the former monarch's other official residence, being opened to the public to help pay for the restoration work. This event was part of what Queen Elizabeth II called her annus horribilis.

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21 November 1953 – The Natural History Museum, London announces that the "Piltdown Man" skull, initially believed to be one of the most important fossilized hominid skulls ever found, is a hoax.

Piltdown Man

Paleoanthropological hoax

For the musical group, see The Piltdown Men.

The Piltdown Man was a paleoanthropological fraud in which bone fragments were presented as the fossilised remains of a previously unknown early human. Although there were doubts about its authenticity virtually from the beginning (in 1912), the remains were still broadly accepted for many years, and the falsity of the hoax was only definitively demonstrated in 1953. An extensive scientific review in 2016 established that amateur archaeologist Charles Dawson was responsible for the fraudulent evidence.^[1]

In 1912, Charles Dawson claimed that he had discovered the "missing link" between early apes and man. In February 1912, Dawson contacted Arthur Smith Woodward, Keeper of Geology at the Natural History Museum, stating he had found a section of a human-like skull in Pleistocene gravel beds near Piltdown, East Sussex.^[2] That summer, Dawson and Smith Woodward purportedly discovered more bones and artifacts at the site, which they connected to the same individual. These finds included a jawbone, more skull fragments, a set of teeth, and primitive tools.

Smith Woodward reconstructed the skull fragments and hypothesised that they belonged to a human ancestor from 500,000 years ago. The discovery was announced at a Geological Society meeting and was given the Latin name Eoanthropus dawsoni ("Dawson's dawn-man"). The questionable significance of the assemblage remained the subject of considerable controversy until it was conclusively exposed in 1953 as a forgery. It was found to have consisted of the altered mandible and some teeth of an orangutan deliberately combined with the cranium of a fully developed, though small-brained, modern human.

The Piltdown hoax is prominent for two reasons: the attention it generated around the subject of human evolution, and the length of time, 41 years, that elapsed from its alleged initial discovery to its definitive exposure as a composite forgery.

1. ^ Webb, Jonathan (10 August 2016). "Piltdown review points decisive finger at forger Dawson". BBC. Archived from the original on 23 July 2018. Retrieved 19 November 2018.
2. ^ Spencer, Frank (1990). The Piltdown papers, 1908–1955: the correspondence and other documents relating to the Piltdown forgery. Natural History Museum Publications. ISBN 978-0198585237.

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22 November 1956 – The Summer Olympics, officially known as the games of the XVI Olympiad, are opened in Melbourne, Australia.

1956 Summer Olympics

Multi-sport event in Melbourne, Australia

The 1956 Summer Olympics, officially known as the Games of the XVI Olympiad, were an international multi-sport event held in Melbourne, Victoria, Australia, from 22 November to 8 December 1956, with the exception of the equestrian events, which were held in Stockholm, Sweden, in June 1956.

These Games were the first to be staged in the Southern Hemisphere and Oceania, as well as the first to be held outside Europe and North America. Melbourne is the most southerly city ever to host the Olympics. Due to the Southern Hemisphere's seasons being different from those in the Northern Hemisphere, the 1956 Games did not take place at the usual time of year, because of the need to hold the events during the warmer weather of the host's spring/summer (which corresponds to the Northern Hemisphere's autumn/winter), resulting in the only summer games ever to be held in November and December. Australia hosted the Games for a second time in 2000 in Sydney, New South Wales, and will host them again in 2032 in Brisbane, Queensland.

The Olympic equestrian events could not be held in Melbourne due to Australia's strict quarantine regulations,^[2] so they were held in Stockholm five months earlier. This was the second time the Olympics were not held entirely in one country, the first being the 1920 Summer Olympics in Antwerp, Belgium, with some events taking place in Ostend, Belgium and Amsterdam, Netherlands. Despite uncertainties and various complications encountered during the preparations, the 1956 Games went ahead in Melbourne as planned and turned out to be a success. Started during the 1956 Games was the "Parade of Athletes" at the closing ceremonies.

Nine teams boycotted the Games for various reasons.^[3] Four teams (Egypt, Iraq, Cambodia and Lebanon) boycotted in response to the Suez Crisis, in which Egypt was invaded by Israel, France and the United Kingdom.^[4][5] Four teams (the Netherlands, Spain, Liechtenstein and Switzerland) boycotted in response to the Soviet invasion of Hungary,^[5][6] and the People's Republic of China's boycott was in response to a dispute with the Republic of China over the right to represent China.^[7][8]

The Soviet Union won the most gold medals, and the most medals overall.

One of the most notable events of the games was a controversial water polo match between the Soviet Union and the defending champions, Hungary. The Soviet Union had recently suppressed an anti-Soviet revolution in Hungary and violence broke out between the teams during the match, resulting in numerous injuries. When Hungary's Ervin Zádor suffered bleeding after being punched by Soviet Union's Valentin Prokopov, spectators attempted to join the violence, but they were blocked by police. The match was cancelled, with Hungary being declared the winner because they were in the lead.

1. ^ ^{a b} "Factsheet – Opening Ceremony of the Games of the Olympiad" (PDF) (Press release). International Olympic Committee. 13 September 2013. Archived (PDF) from the original on 14 August 2016. Retrieved 22 December 2018.
2. ^ Tarbotton, David (12 November 2016). "Melbourne 1956 makes history as equestrian events take place in Sweden". Australian Olympic Committee. Retrieved 2 August 2021.
3. ^ "Melbourne 1956 Summer Olympics - Athletes, Medals & Results". 24 April 2018.
4. ^ Kaufman, Burton I.; Kaufman, Diane (6 October 2009). The A to Z of the Eisenhower Era. Lanham, Maryland: Scarecrow Press. p. 176. ISBN 978-0810870635.
5. ^ ^{a b} Kennedy, Lesley (24 August 2023) [July 26, 2021]. "6 Times the Olympics Were Boycotted". HISTORY. Archived from the original on 30 November 2023.
6. ^ Velkey, Robert (22 November 2016). "Hungary Hails Veteran Athletes Who Boycotted The 1956 Melbourne Olymipc Games Out Of Solidarity With Hungary". Hungary Today. Archived from the original on 9 May 2023.
7. ^ The Times, "The Latest Threat to the Olympics - And its all over a name", 10 July 1976
8. ^ Chinese Olympics Committee website

Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

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23 November 1808 – French and Poles defeat the Spanish at Battle of Tudela.

Battle of Tudela

1808 battle of the Peninsular War

Peninsular war: Spain

200km
125miles

Toulouse

12

Vitoria

11

Tordesillas

10

Burgos

9

Salamanca

8

Ciudad

7

Talavera

6

Corunna

5

Tudela

4

Bailén

3

Valencia

2

Madrid

1

  

  current battle

  Wellington in command

  Wellington not in command

The Battle of Tudela (23 November 1808) saw an Imperial French army led by Marshal Jean Lannes attack a Spanish army under General Castaños. The battle resulted in the complete victory of the Imperial forces over their adversaries. The combat occurred near Tudela in Navarre, Spain during the Peninsular War, part of a wider conflict known as the Napoleonic Wars.^[2]

1. ^ ^{a b c d e} Bodart 1908, p. 391.
2. ^ Esdaile 2003, p. 135.

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24 November 1963 – Lee Harvey Oswald, the assassin of President John F. Kennedy, is killed by Jack Ruby.

Lee Harvey Oswald

Assassin of John F. Kennedy (1939–1963)

"Kennedy's assassin" redirects here. For the assassin of Robert F. Kennedy, see Sirhan Sirhan.

Lee Harvey Oswald (October 18, 1939 – November 24, 1963) was a U.S. Marine veteran who assassinated John F. Kennedy, the 35th president of the United States, on November 22, 1963.

Oswald was placed in juvenile detention at the age of 12 for truancy, during which time he was assessed by a psychiatrist as "emotionally disturbed", due to a lack of normal family life. After attending 12 schools in his youth, he quit repeatedly, and finally when he was 17, joined the Marines. Oswald was court-martialed twice while in the Marines, and jailed. He was honorably released from active duty in the Marine Corps into the Marine Corps Reserve, then flew to Europe and defected to the Soviet Union in October 1959. He lived in Minsk, Belarusian Soviet Socialist Republic, married a Russian woman named Marina, and had a daughter. In June 1962, he returned to the United States with his wife, and eventually settled in Dallas, Texas, where their second daughter was born.

Oswald shot and killed Kennedy on November 22, 1963, from a sixth-floor window of the Texas School Book Depository as Kennedy traveled by motorcade through Dealey Plaza in Dallas. About 45 minutes after assassinating Kennedy, Oswald shot and killed Dallas police officer J. D. Tippit on a local street. He then slipped into a movie theater, where he was arrested for Tippit's murder. Oswald was charged with the assassination of Kennedy, but he denied responsibility for the killing, claiming that he was a "patsy". Two days later, Oswald was fatally shot by local nightclub owner Jack Ruby on live television in the basement of Dallas Police Headquarters.

In September 1964, the Warren Commission concluded that Oswald had acted alone when assassinating Kennedy. This conclusion, though controversial, was supported by investigations from the Dallas Police Department, the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI), the United States Secret Service, and the House Select Committee on Assassinations (HSCA).^{[n 1][1][2]}

Despite forensic, ballistic, and eyewitness evidence supporting the official findings, public opinion polls have shown that most Americans still do not believe that the official version tells the whole truth of the events,^[3] and the assassination spawned numerous conspiracy theories.

Cite error: There are <ref group=n> tags on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=n}} template (see the help page).

1. ^ "John F Kennedy, Dallas Police Department Collection – The Portal to Texas History". May 26, 2023.
2. ^ Tunheim, John R. (March 1, 1999). Final Report of the Kennedy Assassination Records Review Board. DIANE Publishing. p. 1. ISBN 978-0-7881-7722-4.
3. ^ "Gallop: Most Americans Believe Oswald Conspired With Others to Kill JFK". Gallup.com. April 11, 2001. Retrieved December 24, 2012.

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25 November 1947 – Red Scare: The "Hollywood Ten" are blacklisted by Hollywood movie studios.

Hollywood blacklist

Mid-20th century banning of suspected Communists from US entertainment

This article is about political blacklists in the 1940s and 1950s. For the 1950 short documentary film about this, see The Hollywood Ten. For the survey of unproduced screenplays, see Black List (survey).

The Hollywood blacklist was an entertainment industry blacklist put in effect in the mid-20th century in the United States during the early years of the Cold War, in Hollywood and elsewhere. Actors, screenwriters, directors, musicians, and other American entertainment professionals were barred from work by the studios.

Professionals were blacklisted based on their membership in, alleged membership in, or sympathy with the Communist Party USA, or on the basis of their refusal to assist Congressional investigations into the party's activities. Even during the period of its strictest enforcement, from the late 1940s through to the late 1950s, the blacklist was rarely made explicit or easily verifiable, as it was the result of numerous individual decisions by the studios and was not the result of official legal action. Nevertheless, the blacklist quickly and directly damaged or ended the careers and income of scores of individuals working in the film industry.

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26 November 1942 – Casablanca, the movie starring Humphrey Bogart and Ingrid Bergman, premieres in New York City.

Casablanca (film)

1942 American romance film

"Here's looking at you, kid" redirects here. For other uses, see Here's Looking At You Kid.

Casablanca is a 1942 American romantic drama film directed by Michael Curtiz and starring Humphrey Bogart, Ingrid Bergman, and Paul Henreid. Filmed and set during World War II, it focuses on an American expatriate (Bogart) who must choose between his love for a woman (Bergman) and helping her husband (Henreid), a Czechoslovak resistance leader, escape from the Vichy-controlled city of Casablanca to continue his fight against the Germans. The screenplay is based on Everybody Comes to Rick's, an unproduced stage play by Murray Burnett and Joan Alison. The supporting cast features Claude Rains, Conrad Veidt, Sydney Greenstreet, Peter Lorre, and Dooley Wilson.

Warner Bros. story editor Irene Diamond convinced producer Hal B. Wallis to purchase the film rights to the play in January 1942. Brothers Julius and Philip G. Epstein were initially assigned to write the script. However, despite studio resistance, they left to work on Frank Capra's Why We Fight series early in 1942. Howard Koch was assigned to the screenplay until the Epsteins returned a month later. Principal photography began on May 25, 1942, ending on August 3; the film was shot entirely at Warner Bros. Studios in Burbank, California, with the exception of one sequence at Van Nuys Airport in Los Angeles.

Although Casablanca was an A-list film with established stars and first-rate writers, no one involved with its production expected it to stand out among the many pictures produced by Hollywood yearly.^[7] Casablanca was rushed into release to take advantage of the publicity from the Allied invasion of North Africa a few weeks earlier.^[8] It had its world premiere on November 26, 1942, in New York City and was released nationally in the United States on January 23, 1943. The film was a solid if unspectacular success in its initial run.

Exceeding expectations, Casablanca went on to win the Academy Award for Best Picture, while Curtiz was selected as Best Director and the Epsteins and Koch were honored for Best Adapted Screenplay. Its reputation has gradually grown, to the point that its lead characters,^[9] memorable lines,^[10] and pervasive theme song^[11] have all become iconic, and it consistently ranks near the top of lists of the greatest films in history. In 1989, the United States Library of Congress selected the film as one of the first for preservation in the National Film Registry for being "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant".

1. ^ Ebert, Roger (September 15, 1996). "Great Movies: Casablanca". RogerEbert.com. Archived from the original on August 11, 2015. Retrieved August 14, 2015. Bogart, Bergman and Paul Henreid were stars, and no better cast of supporting actors could have been assembled on the Warners lot than Peter Lorre, Sidney Greenstreet, Claude Rains and Dooley Wilson
2. ^ "Casablanca (U)". Warner Bros. British Board of Film Classification. December 17, 1942. Archived from the original on September 21, 2013. Retrieved September 20, 2013.
3. ^ Schatz, Thomas (1999). Boom and Bust: American Cinema in the 1940s. University of California Press. p. 218. ISBN 978-0-520-22130-7.
4. ^ ^{a b} Warner Bros financial information in "The William Shaefer Ledger". See Appendix 1, Historical Journal of Film, Radio and Television (1995) 15:sup 1, 1–31 p. 23 doi:10.1080/01439689508604551
5. ^ "Casablanca". Box Office Mojo. Retrieved October 14, 2019.
6. ^ "Top Grossers of the Season". Variety. January 5, 1944. p. 54. Archived from the original on March 17, 2017.
7. ^ Ebert, Roger (September 15, 1996). "Casablanca (1942)". Chicago Sun-Times. Archived from the original on February 28, 2010. Retrieved March 18, 2010.
8. ^ Stein, Eliot (May 1995). "Howard Koch, Julius Epstein, Frank Miller Interview". Vincent's Casablanca. Archived from the original on April 30, 2008. Retrieved June 11, 2008. Frank Miller: "There was a scene planned, after the ending, that would have shown Rick and Renault on an Allied ship just prior to the landing at Casablanca, but plans to shoot it were scrapped when the marketing department realized they had to get the film out fast to capitalize on the liberation of North Africa."
9. ^ Smith, Briony; Wallace, Andrew. "The demise of dating: Two writers square off on their favourite fictional dating men". Elle Canada. Archived from the original on September 27, 2013. Retrieved December 1, 2012.
   - "How Hollywood (Fictionally) Won World War Two". Empire. August 4, 2011. Archived from the original on October 3, 2013. Retrieved December 1, 2012.
10. ^ Jones, Emma (February 13, 2012). "Guess the movie quote: How well do you know classic romantic films?: Casablanca". MSN Entertainment Canada. Archived from the original on April 12, 2013. Retrieved December 1, 2012.
    - Doyle, Dee (June 5, 2008). "Best Movie Lines That Have Stuck In Pop Culture". starpulse.com. Archived from the original on January 12, 2013. Retrieved December 1, 2012.
    - "Round up the usual suspects", for example, has been incorporated in the titles of business Archived November 3, 2012, at the Wayback Machine, sociology and political science Archived December 12, 2015, at the Wayback Machine articles.
11. ^ Beckerman, Jim. "Clifton's crazy connection to 'Casablanca'". North Jersey. Retrieved April 15, 2020.
    - "Casablanca As Time Goes By Piano Up For Sale". Sky News. Retrieved April 15, 2020.

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27 November 1095 – Pope Urban II declares the First Crusade at the Council of Clermont.

First Crusade

1096–1099 Christian conquest of the Holy Land

The First Crusade (1096–1099) was the first of a series of religious wars, or Crusades, initiated, supported and at times directed by the Latin Church in the middle ages. The objective was the recovery of the Holy Land from Islamic rule. While Jerusalem had been under Muslim rule for hundreds of years, by the 11th century the Seljuk takeover of the region threatened local Christian populations, pilgrimages from the West, and the Byzantine Empire itself. The earliest initiative for the First Crusade began in 1095 when Byzantine emperor Alexios I Komnenos requested military support from the Council of Piacenza in the empire's conflict with the Seljuk-led Turks. This was followed later in the year by the Council of Clermont, during which Pope Urban II supported the Byzantine request for military assistance and also urged faithful Christians to undertake an armed pilgrimage to Jerusalem.

This call was met with an enthusiastic popular response across all social classes in western Europe. Mobs of predominantly poor Christians numbering in the thousands, led by Peter the Hermit, a French priest, were the first to respond. What has become known as the People's Crusade passed through Germany and indulged in wide-ranging anti-Jewish activities, including the Rhineland massacres. On leaving Byzantine-controlled territory in Anatolia, they were annihilated in a Turkish ambush led by the Seljuk Kilij Arslan I at the Battle of Civetot in October 1096.

In what has become known as the Princes' Crusade, members of the high nobility and their followers embarked in late-summer 1096 and arrived at Constantinople between November and April the following year. This was a large feudal host led by notable Western European princes: southern French forces under Raymond IV of Toulouse and Adhemar of Le Puy; men from Upper and Lower Lorraine led by Godfrey of Bouillon and his brother Baldwin of Boulogne; Italo-Norman forces led by Bohemond of Taranto and his nephew Tancred; as well as various contingents consisting of northern French and Flemish forces under Robert Curthose of Normandy, Stephen of Blois, Hugh of Vermandois, and Robert II of Flanders. In total and including non-combatants, the forces are estimated to have numbered as many as 100,000.

The crusader forces gradually arrived in Anatolia. With Kilij Arslan absent, a Frankish attack and Byzantine naval assault during the Siege of Nicaea in June 1097 resulted in an initial crusader victory. In July, the crusaders won the Battle of Dorylaeum, fighting Turkish lightly armoured mounted archers. After a difficult march through Anatolia, the crusaders began the Siege of Antioch, capturing the city in June 1098. Jerusalem, then under the Fatimids, was reached in June 1099 and the Siege of Jerusalem resulted in the city being taken by assault from 7 June to 15 July 1099, during which its residents were ruthlessly massacred. A Fatimid counterattack was repulsed later that year at the Battle of Ascalon, ending the First Crusade. Afterwards, the majority of the crusaders returned home.

Four Crusader states were established in the Holy Land: the Kingdom of Jerusalem, the County of Edessa, the Principality of Antioch, and the County of Tripoli. The Crusader presence remained in the region in some form until the loss of the last major Crusader stronghold in the Siege of Acre in 1291. After this loss of all Crusader territory in the Levant, there were no further substantive attempts to recover the Holy Land.

Cite error: There are <ref group=upper-alpha> tags or {{efn-ua}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=upper-alpha}} template or {{notelist-ua}} template (see the help page).

1. ^ Asbridge 2012, p. 42, The Call of the Cross.

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28 November 1905 – Irish nationalist Arthur Griffith founds Sinn Féin as a political party with the main aim of establishing a dual monarchy in Ireland.

History of Sinn Féin

Sinn Féin ("We Ourselves", often mistranslated as "Ourselves Alone") is the name of an Irish political party founded in 1905 by Arthur Griffith. It became a focus for various forms of Irish nationalism, especially Irish republicanism. After the Easter Rising in 1916, it grew in membership, with a reorganisation at its Ard Fheis in 1917. Its split in 1922 in response to the Anglo-Irish Treaty which led to the Irish Civil War and saw the origins of Fianna Fáil and Fine Gael, the two parties which have since dominated Irish politics. Another split in the remaining Sinn Féin organisation in the early years of the Troubles in 1970 led to the Sinn Féin of today, which is a republican, left-wing nationalist and secular party.

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29 October 1998 – In South Africa, the Truth and Reconciliation Commission presents its report, which condemns both sides for committing atrocities.

Truth and Reconciliation Commission (South Africa)

Restorative justice tribunal in post-apartheid South Africa

For other official truth and reconciliation commissions, see Truth and Reconciliation Commission (disambiguation).

The Truth and Reconciliation Commission (TRC) was a court-like restorative justice^[1] body assembled in South Africa in 1996 after the end of apartheid.^[a] Authorised by Nelson Mandela and chaired by Desmond Tutu, the commission invited witnesses who were identified as victims of gross human rights violations to give statements about their experiences, and selected some for public hearings. Perpetrators of violence could also give testimony and request amnesty from both civil and criminal prosecution.

The Institute for Justice and Reconciliation was established in 2000 as the successor organisation of the TRC.

1. ^ "What is Restorative Justice?". Suffolk University: College of Arts & Sciences, Center for Restorative Justice. Retrieved 3 February 2023.
2. ^ Gade, Christian .B.N. (2013). "Restorative Justice and the South African Truth and Reconciliation Process" (PDF). South African Journal of Philosophy. 32 (1): 10–35. doi:10.1080/02580136.2013.810412. S2CID 2424224. Retrieved 3 February 2023.

Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

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30 November 1982 – Michael Jackson's sixth solo studio album, Thriller, is released worldwide, ultimately to become the best-selling record album in history.

Thriller (album)

1982 studio album by Michael Jackson

For other albums, see Thriller (disambiguation) § Music.

Thriller is the sixth studio album by the American singer and songwriter Michael Jackson, released on November 29, 1982,^[4][5] by Epic Records. It was produced by Quincy Jones, who had previously worked with Jackson on his 1979 album Off the Wall and who would later produce his 1987 album Bad. Jackson wanted to create an album where "every song was a killer". With the ongoing backlash against disco music at the time, he moved in a new musical direction, resulting in a mix of pop, post-disco, rock, funk, synth-pop, and R&B sounds. Thriller foreshadows the contradictory themes of Jackson's personal life, as he began using a motif of paranoia and darker themes. Paul McCartney appears on "The Girl Is Mine", the first credited appearance of a featured artist on a Michael Jackson album. Recording took place from April to November 1982 at Westlake Recording Studios in Los Angeles, California, with a budget of $750,000.

Thriller became Jackson's first number-one album on the US Billboard Top LPs & Tapes chart, where it spent a record 37 non-consecutive weeks at number one, from February 26, 1983, to April 14, 1984. Seven singles were released: "The Girl Is Mine", "Billie Jean", "Beat It", "Wanna Be Startin' Somethin' ", "Human Nature", "P.Y.T. (Pretty Young Thing)", and "Thriller". They all reached the top 10 on the US Billboard Hot 100 chart, setting a record for the most top 10 singles from an album, with "Beat It" and "Billie Jean" reaching number one. Following Jackson's performance of "Billie Jean" in the Motown 25 television special, where he debuted his signature moonwalk dance, the sales of the album significantly increased, selling one million copies worldwide per week. The "Thriller" music video was premiered to great anticipation in December 1983 and played regularly on MTV, which also increased the sales.

With 32 million copies sold worldwide by the end of 1983, Thriller became the best-selling album of all time, and was ratified by Guinness World Records on February 7, 1984. It was the best-selling album of 1983 worldwide, and in 1984 it became the first album to become the best-selling in the United States for two years. It set industry standards with its songs, music videos, and promotional strategies influencing artists, record labels, producers, marketers, and choreographers. The success gave Jackson an unprecedented level of cultural significance for a black American, breaking racial barriers in popular music, earning him regular airplay on MTV and leading to a meeting with US President Ronald Reagan at the White House. Thriller was among the first albums to use music videos as promotional tools; the videos for "Billie Jean", "Beat It" and "Thriller" are credited for transforming music videos into a serious art form.

Thriller is the best-selling album of all time, with sales over 70 million copies worldwide.^[6][7]It is the best selling non-compilation album and second-best-selling album overall in the United States and was certified 34× platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) in 2021. It won a record-breaking eight Grammy Awards at the 1984 Grammy Awards, including Album of the Year, and Best Pop Vocal Performance, Male. "Beat It" won two Grammys for Record of the Year & Best Rock Vocal Performance, Male, and "Billie Jean" won two Grammys for Best R&B Vocal Performance, Male & Best Rhythm & Blues Song.^[8] Jackson also won a record-breaking eight American Music Awards at the 1984 American Music Awards. The album has been a frequent inclusion in lists of the greatest albums of all time. In 2008, it was inducted into the Grammy Hall of Fame. In the same year, the Library of Congress added it to the National Recording Registry of "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant recordings".

1. ^ Halstead 2007, p. 144.
2. ^ Halstead 2007, p. 256.
3. ^ "New Singles (for the week ending November 11, 1983)" (PDF). Music Week: 30. November 5, 1983. Archived (PDF) from the original on February 13, 2022. Retrieved June 6, 2022.
4. ^ Grein, Paul (November 6, 1982). "Stars Due Out: Platinum acts prominent in labels' November releases" (PDF). Billboard. Vol. 94, no. 44. New York, NY, USA: Billboard Publications, Inc. p. 4. ISSN 0006-2510. Archived from the original (PDF) on January 27, 2021. Epic has set a Nov. 29 release date for "Thriller"
5. ^ Martinez, Michael. "The Rhythm Section: Short cuts" (PDF). Cash Box. 44 (28). New York, NY, USA: 27. ISSN 0008-7289. Archived from the original (PDF) on August 9, 2020. Retrieved November 29, 2022. The much-awaited "Thriller" album on Epic by Michael Jackson, due to ship November 29
6. ^ Torpy, Bill. "Historic album was 'Thriller' at Ga. plant". The Atlanta Journal-Constitution. ISSN 1539-7459. Retrieved March 25, 2024.
7. ^ Mitchell, Gail (July 3, 2009). "Nearly 27 years after its release, "Thriller" still stands as the best-selling studio album in the United States, according to the RIAA, which has certified it 28-times platinum (28 Million). More than 50 million copies have been sold internationally, according to estimates". Billboard. Retrieved March 28, 2024.
8. ^ "Michael Jackson". Recording Academy Grammy Awards. Retrieved August 11, 2023.

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1 December 1988 – World AIDS Day is proclaimed worldwide by the UN member states

World AIDS Day

International day on 1 December

World AIDS Day, designated on 1 December every year since 1988,^[1] is an international day dedicated to raising awareness of the AIDS pandemic caused by the spread of HIV infection and mourning those who've died of the disease. The acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) is a life-threatening condition caused by the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). The HIV virus attacks the immune system of the patient and reduces its resistance to other diseases.^[2] Government and health officials, non-governmental organizations, and individuals around the world observe the day, often with education on AIDS prevention and control.

World AIDS Day is one of the eleven official global public health campaigns marked by the World Health Organization (WHO), along with World Health Day, World Blood Donor Day, World Immunization Week, World Tuberculosis Day, World No Tobacco Day, World Malaria Day, World Hepatitis Day, World Antimicrobial Awareness Week, World Patient Safety Day and World Chagas Disease Day.^[3]

As of 2020^[update], AIDS has killed between 27.2 million and 47.8 million people worldwide, and an estimated 37.7 million people are living with HIV,^[4] making it one of the most important global public health issues in recorded history. Thanks to recent improved access to antiretroviral treatment in many regions of the world, the death rate from AIDS epidemic has decreased by 64% since its peak in 2004 (1.9 million in 2004, compared to 680 000 in 2020).^[4]

1. ^ "About World Aids Day". worldaidsday.org. National Aids Trust. Archived from the original on 20 November 2015. Retrieved 4 December 2014.
2. ^ "World AIDS Day 2020: Date, History, Current Theme, Importance, Significance". NDTV.com. Archived from the original on 1 December 2020. Retrieved 1 December 2020.
3. ^ World Health Organization, WHO campaigns. Archived 31 December 2012 at the Wayback Machine
4. ^ ^{a b} Global HIV & AIDS statistics — Fact sheet UNAIDS. Accessed 4 December 2021.

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2 December 1947 – Jerusalem Riots of 1947: Riots break out in Jerusalem in response to the United Nations Partition Plan for Palestine.

1947 Jerusalem riots

Civil unrest following adoption of the UN Partition Plan

The 1947 Jerusalem Riots occurred following the vote in the UN General Assembly in favour of the 1947 UN Partition Plan on 29 November 1947. 8 Jews were reported killed.

The Arab Higher Committee declared a three-day strike and public protest to begin on 2 December 1947, in protest at the vote. Arabs marching to Zion Square on December 2 were stopped by the British, and the Arabs instead turned towards the commercial center of the City at Mamilla and Jaffa Road, burning many buildings and shops. Violence continued for two more days, with a number of Jewish neighborhoods being attacked.

The New York Times, December 3, 1947, has a three column headline on the front page: "JERUSALEM TORN BY RIOTING; ARABS USE KNIVES, SET FIRES; JEWS REPLY, HAGANAH IN OPEN" with subheads that include: "14 Are Slain In Day" "8 Jews Reported Killed in Palestine Clashes – Mob Loots Shops" etc.^[1][2]

A consequence of the violence was the decision by the Haganah Jewish paramilitary organization to use force to "stop future attacks on Jews".^[3] The Irgun had conducted armed attacks aimed against population of nearby Arab villages and a bombing campaign against Arab civilians. On December 12, Irgun militants placed a bomb at the Damascus Gate that killed 20 people.^[4]

1. ^ "Jerusalem riots.... – RareNewspapers.com".
2. ^ Jerusalem riots.... – RareNewspapers.com
3. ^ Milstein, Uri. History of Israel's War of Independence, Vol II, English Edition: University Press of America 1997. pp. 131ff.
4. ^ Milstein, p. 51.

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3 December 1979 – Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini becomes the first Supreme Leader of Iran.

Supreme Leader of Iran

Head of State of the Islamic Republic of Iran

"Rahbar" redirects here. For other uses, see Rahbar (disambiguation).

The Supreme Leader of Iran (Persian: رهبر معظم ایران, romanized: Rahbar-e Moazam-e Irân (listen^ⓘ)), also referred to as Supreme Leader of the Islamic Revolution^[2] (رهبر معظم انقلاب اسلامی, Rahbar-e Moazam-e Enqelâb-e Eslâmi), but officially called the Supreme Leadership Authority (مقام معظم رهبری, Maqâm Moazam Rahbari), is the head of state and the highest political and religious authority of the Islamic Republic of Iran (above the President). The armed forces, judiciary, state television, and other key government organizations such as the Guardian Council and Expediency Discernment Council are subject to the Supreme Leader.^[3][4] According to the constitution, the Supreme Leader delineates the general policies of the Islamic Republic (article 110), supervising the legislature, the judiciary, and the executive branches (article 57).^[5] The current lifetime officeholder, Seyyed Ali Hosseini Khameneh known as Ali Khamenei, has issued decrees and made the final decisions on the economy, the environment, foreign policy, education, national planning, and other aspects of governance in Iran.^{[6][7][8][9][10][11][12][13]} Khamenei also makes the final decisions on the amount of transparency in elections,^[14] and has dismissed and reinstated presidential cabinet appointees.^[15] The Supreme Leader is legally considered "inviolable", with Iranians being routinely punished for questioning or insulting him.^{[16][17][18][19]}

The office was established by the Constitution of Iran in 1979, pursuant to Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini's concept of the Guardianship of the Islamic Jurist,^[20] and is a lifetime appointment.^[21] Originally the constitution required the Supreme Leader to be Marja'-e taqlid, the highest-ranking cleric in the religious laws of Usuli Twelver Shia Islam. In 1989, however, the constitution was amended and simply asked for Islamic "scholarship" to allow the Supreme Leader to be a lower-ranking cleric.^[22][23] As the Guardian Jurist (Vali-ye faqih), the Supreme Leader, guides the country, protecting it from heresy and imperialist predations, and ensuring the laws of Islam are followed. The style "Supreme Leader" (Persian: رهبر معظم, romanized: rahbar-e mo'azzam) is commonly used as a sign of respect although the Constitution designates them simply as "Leader" (رهبر, rahbar). According to the constitution (Article 111), the Assembly of Experts is tasked with electing (following Ayatollah Khomeini), supervising, and dismissing the Supreme Leader. In practice, the Assembly has never been known to challenge or otherwise publicly oversee any of the Supreme Leader's decisions^[24] (all of its meetings and notes are strictly confidential).^[25] Members of the Assembly are chosen by bodies (the Guardian Council) whose members are appointed by the Supreme Leader or appointed by an individual (Chief Justice of Iran) appointed by the Supreme Leader.

In its history, the Islamic Republic of Iran only has had two Supreme Leaders: Khomeini, who held the position from 1979 until his death in 1989 and Ali Khamenei, who has held the position for more than 30 years since Khomeini's death.

1. ^ "Iran's possible next Supreme Leader being examined: Rafsanjani". Reuters. 13 December 2015. Archived from the original on 16 December 2015. Retrieved 1 July 2016.
2. ^ Article 89-91, Iranian Constitution
3. ^ "Who's in Charge?" by Ervand Abrahamian London Review of Books, 6 November 2008
4. ^ mshabani (23 October 2017). "Did Khamenei block Rouhani's science minister?". Archived from the original on 24 October 2017.
5. ^ "Constitution of the Islamic Republic of Iran (full text)". shora-gc.ir. 2 June 2021. Retrieved 13 October 2022.
6. ^ "Iran's Khamenei hits out at Rafsanjani in rare public rebuke". Middle East Eye. Archived from the original on 2016-04-04. Retrieved 2017-02-15.
7. ^ "Khamenei says Iran must go green - Al-Monitor: the Pulse of the Middle East". Al-Monitor. Archived from the original on 2015-12-22.
8. ^ Louis Charbonneau and Parisa Hafezi (16 May 2014). "Exclusive: Iran pursues ballistic missile work, complicating nuclear talks". Reuters. Archived from the original on 31 July 2017. Retrieved 2 July 2017.
9. ^ "IranWire - Asking for a Miracle: Khamenei's Economic Plan". Archived from the original on 2016-03-07. Retrieved 2016-03-06.
10. ^ kjenson (22 May 2014). "Khamenei outlines 14-point plan to increase population". Archived from the original on 1 August 2017.
11. ^ "Iran: Executive, legislative branch officials endorse privatisation plan". www.payvand.com. Archived from the original on 2017-01-05. Retrieved 2017-02-15.
12. ^ "Khamenei slams Rouhani as Iran's regime adopted UN education agenda". 8 May 2017. Archived from the original on 31 May 2017. Retrieved 3 June 2017.
13. ^ Al-awsat, Asharq (25 September 2017). "Khamenei Orders New Supervisory Body to Curtail Government - ASHARQ AL-AWSAT English Archive". Archived from the original on 10 October 2017. Retrieved 26 September 2017.
14. ^ "Leader outlines elections guidelines, calls for transparency". 15 October 2016. Archived from the original on 12 June 2018. Retrieved 15 February 2017.
15. ^ "BBC NEWS - Middle East - Iranian vice-president 'sacked'". 2009-07-25. Archived from the original on 2018-10-03. Retrieved 2017-02-15.
16. ^ "Iran arrests 11 over SMS Khomeini insults". GlobalPost. Archived from the original on 14 March 2016.
17. ^ "Iran arrests 11 over SMS Khomeini insults: report". The Daily Star. Sep 22, 2014. Archived from the original on 27 Mar 2021. Retrieved 4 February 2017.
18. ^ "Poet to Serve Two Years in Prison For Criticizing Iran's Supreme Leader". Center for Human Rights in Iran. December 30, 2017. Archived from the original on January 12, 2020. Retrieved December 8, 2019.
19. ^ Vahdat, Ahmed (March 19, 2019). "Iranian dissident ordered to copy out books by Ayatollah Khamenei after branding Supreme Leader a despot". The Telegraph. Archived from the original on May 14, 2019. Retrieved May 14, 2019 – via www.telegraph.co.uk.
20. ^ Article 5, Iranian Constitution
21. ^ "Iran's possible next Supreme Leader being examined: Rafsanjani". Reuters. 13 December 2015. Archived from the original on 16 December 2015. Retrieved 1 July 2016.
22. ^ Moin, Baqer, Khomeini, (2001), p.293
23. ^ "Article 109 [Leadership Qualifications]
    (1) Following are the essential qualifications and conditions for the Leader:
    a. Scholarship, as required for performing the functions of the religious leader in different fields.
24. ^ Cite error: The named reference brookings-AoE was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
25. ^ "Iran Announces Second Extension of Voting," Reuters, 23 October 1998. quoted in Wright, Robin (2001). The Last Great Revolution: Turmoil and Transformation in Iran. Knopf Doubleday Group. p. 317 note 26. ISBN 9780307766076. Retrieved 13 October 2022.

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4 December 1956 – The Million Dollar Quartet (Elvis Presley, Jerry Lee Lewis, Carl Perkins, and Johnny Cash) get together at Sun Studio for the first and last time.

Million Dollar Quartet

1956 recording of Elvis Presley, Jerry Lee Lewis, Carl Perkins, and Johnny Cash performing together

For the musical, see Million Dollar Quartet (musical).

"Million Dollar Quartet" is a recording of an impromptu jam session involving Elvis Presley, Jerry Lee Lewis, Carl Perkins, and Johnny Cash made on December 4, 1956, at the Sun Record Studios in Memphis, Tennessee. An article about the session was published in the Memphis Press-Scimitar under the title "Million Dollar Quartet". The recording was first released in Europe in 1981 as The Million Dollar Quartet with 17 tracks. A few years later more tracks were discovered and released as The Complete Million Dollar Session. In 1990, the recordings were released in the United States as Elvis Presley: The Million Dollar Quartet. This session is considered a seminal moment in rock and roll.

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5 December 1931 – Cathedral of Christ the Saviour in Moscow is destroyed on orders from Joseph Stalin.

Cathedral of Christ the Saviour

For other uses, see Cathedral of Christ the Saviour (disambiguation).

"Church of Christ the Saviour" redirects here. For the church in Krym, see Church of Christ the Savior (Krym).

Church in Moscow, Russia

The Cathedral of Christ the Saviour (Russian: Храм Христа́ Спаси́теля, tr. Khram Khristá Spasítelya, IPA: [xram xrʲɪˈsta spɐˈsʲitʲɪlʲə]) is a Russian Orthodox cathedral in Moscow, Russia, on the northern bank of the Moskva River, a few hundred metres southwest of the Kremlin. With an overall height of 103 metres (338 ft),^[4] it is the third tallest Orthodox Christian church building in the world, after the People's Salvation Cathedral in Bucharest, Romania and Saints Peter and Paul Cathedral in Saint Petersburg, Russia.

The current church is the second to stand on this site. The authentic church, built during the 19th century, took more than 40 years to build, and was the scene of the 1882 world premiere of the 1812 Overture composed by Tchaikovsky. It was destroyed in 1931 on the order of the Soviet Politburo. The demolition was supposed to make way for a colossal Palace of the Soviets to house the country's legislature, the Supreme Soviet of the USSR. Construction started in 1937 but was halted in 1941 when Germany invaded the Soviet Union during World War II. Its steel frame was disassembled the following year, and the palace was never built. Following the dissolution of the Soviet Union, the current cathedral was restored on the site between 1995 and 2000.

1. ^ ^{a b c d} "Храм Христа Спасителя".
2. ^ ^{a b c d e} "Основные размеры Храма Христа Спасителя".
3. ^ Sidorov, Dmitri (2000). "National Monumentalization and the Politics of Scale: The Resurrections of the Cathedral of Christ the Savior in Moscow". Annals of the Association of American Geographers. 90 (3): 548–572. doi:10.1111/0004-5608.00208. ISSN 0004-5608. JSTOR 1515528. S2CID 144856387.
4. ^ "ХРАМ ХРИСТА СПАСИТЕЛЯ". www.xxc.ru. Archived from the original on 2 December 2010. Retrieved 5 January 2018.

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