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This day in .....

Discussion in 'Break Room' started by NewsBot, Apr 6, 2008.

  1. NewsBot

    NewsBot The Admin that posts the news.

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    29 January 1886Karl Benz patents the first successful gasoline-driven automobile.

    Carl Benz

    Carl (or Karl) Friedrich Benz (German: [kaʁl ˈfʁiːdʁɪç ˈbɛnts] ; born Karl Friedrich Michael Vaillant; 25 November 1844 – 4 April 1929) was a German engine designer and automotive engineer. His Benz Patent Motorcar from 1885 is considered the first practical modern automobile and first car put into series production.[1] He received a patent for the motorcar in 1886, the same year he first publicly drove the Benz Patent-Motorwagen.[2]

    His company Benz & Cie., based in Mannheim, was the world's first automobile plant and largest of its day.[3] In 1926, it merged with Daimler Motoren Gesellschaft to form Daimler-Benz, which produces the Mercedes-Benz among other brands.

    Benz is widely regarded as "the father of the car",[4][5] as well as the "father of the automobile industry".[6]

    1. ^ "Der Streit um den "Geburtstag" des modernen Automobils" [The fight over the birth of the modern automobile] (in German). German Patent and Trade Mark Office. 22 December 2014. Archived from the original on 2 January 2017. Retrieved 16 October 2023.
    2. ^ "Karl Benz drives the first automobile, July 3, 1886". 3 July 2019.
    3. ^ "Benz Patent Motor Car: The first automobile (1885–1886)". Daimler.com. Retrieved 6 July 2021.
    4. ^ "Karl Benz: Father of the Automobile". YouTube.
    5. ^ "The Father of automobile gave us Mercedes Benz and Merc gave us fascinating facts. Check out a few here! - ET Auto".
    6. ^ Fanning, Leonard M. (1955). Carl Benz: Father of the Automobile Industry. New York: Mercer Publishing.
     
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    30 January 1835 – In the first assassination attempt against a President of the United States, Richard Lawrence attempts to shoot president Andrew Jackson, but fails and is subdued by a crowd, including several congressmen as well as Jackson himself.

    Andrew Jackson

    Andrew Jackson (March 15, 1767 – June 8, 1845) was an American lawyer, planter, general, and statesman who served as the seventh president of the United States from 1829 to 1837. Before his presidency, he gained fame as a general in the U.S. Army and served in both houses of the U.S. Congress. Often praised as an advocate for ordinary Americans and for his work in preserving the union of states, Jackson has also been criticized for his racial policies, particularly his treatment of Native Americans.

    Jackson was born in the colonial Carolinas before the American Revolutionary War. He became a frontier lawyer and married Rachel Donelson Robards. He briefly served in the U.S. House of Representatives and the U.S. Senate, representing Tennessee. After resigning, he served as a justice on the Tennessee Superior Court from 1798 until 1804. Jackson purchased a property later known as the Hermitage, becoming a wealthy planter who owned hundreds of African-American slaves during his lifetime. In 1801, he was appointed colonel of the Tennessee militia and was elected its commander. He led troops during the Creek War of 1813–1814, winning the Battle of Horseshoe Bend and negotiating the Treaty of Fort Jackson that required the indigenous Creek population to surrender vast tracts of present-day Alabama and Georgia. In the concurrent war against the British, Jackson's victory at the Battle of New Orleans in 1815 made him a national hero. He later commanded U.S. forces in the First Seminole War, which led to the annexation of Florida from Spain. Jackson briefly served as Florida's first territorial governor before returning to the Senate. He ran for president in 1824. He won a plurality of the popular and electoral vote, but no candidate won the electoral majority. With the help of Henry Clay, the House of Representatives elected John Quincy Adams in a contingent election. Jackson's supporters alleged that there was a "corrupt bargain" between Adams and Clay and began creating their own political organization that would eventually become the Democratic Party.

    Jackson ran again in 1828, defeating Adams in a landslide. In 1830, he signed the Indian Removal Act. This act, which has been described as ethnic cleansing, displaced tens of thousands of Native Americans from their ancestral homelands east of the Mississippi and resulted in thousands of deaths. Jackson faced a challenge to the integrity of the federal union when South Carolina threatened to nullify a high protective tariff set by the federal government. He threatened the use of military force to enforce the tariff, but the crisis was defused when it was amended. In 1832, he vetoed a bill by Congress to reauthorize the Second Bank of the United States, arguing that it was a corrupt institution. After a lengthy struggle, the Bank was dismantled. In 1835, Jackson became the only president to pay off the national debt. He survived the first assassination attempt on a sitting president. In one of his final presidential acts, he recognized the Republic of Texas.

    After leaving office, Jackson supported the presidencies of Martin Van Buren and James K. Polk, as well as the annexation of Texas. Jackson's legacy remains controversial, and opinions are frequently polarized. Supporters characterize him as a defender of democracy and the Constitution, while critics point to his reputation as a demagogue who ignored the law when it suited him. Jackson's presidency has consistently been ranked as above average, although his reputation has declined since the late 20th century.
    Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

     
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    30 January 1835 – In the first assassination attempt against a President of the United States, Richard Lawrence attempts to shoot president Andrew Jackson, but fails and is subdued by a crowd, including several congressmen as well as Jackson himself.

    Andrew Jackson

    Andrew Jackson (March 15, 1767 – June 8, 1845) was an American lawyer, planter, general, and statesman who served as the seventh president of the United States from 1829 to 1837. Before his presidency, he gained fame as a general in the U.S. Army and served in both houses of the U.S. Congress. Often praised as an advocate for ordinary Americans and for his work in preserving the union of states, Jackson has also been criticized for his racial policies, particularly his treatment of Native Americans.

    Jackson was born in the colonial Carolinas before the American Revolutionary War. He became a frontier lawyer and married Rachel Donelson Robards. He briefly served in the U.S. House of Representatives and the U.S. Senate, representing Tennessee. After resigning, he served as a justice on the Tennessee Superior Court from 1798 until 1804. Jackson purchased a property later known as the Hermitage, becoming a wealthy planter who owned hundreds of African-American slaves during his lifetime. In 1801, he was appointed colonel of the Tennessee militia and was elected its commander. He led troops during the Creek War of 1813–1814, winning the Battle of Horseshoe Bend and negotiating the Treaty of Fort Jackson that required the indigenous Creek population to surrender vast tracts of present-day Alabama and Georgia. In the concurrent war against the British, Jackson's victory at the Battle of New Orleans in 1815 made him a national hero. He later commanded U.S. forces in the First Seminole War, which led to the annexation of Florida from Spain. Jackson briefly served as Florida's first territorial governor before returning to the Senate. He ran for president in 1824. He won a plurality of the popular and electoral vote, but no candidate won the electoral majority. With the help of Henry Clay, the House of Representatives elected John Quincy Adams in a contingent election. Jackson's supporters alleged that there was a "corrupt bargain" between Adams and Clay and began creating their own political organization that would eventually become the Democratic Party.

    Jackson ran again in 1828, defeating Adams in a landslide. In 1830, he signed the Indian Removal Act. This act, which has been described as ethnic cleansing, displaced tens of thousands of Native Americans from their ancestral homelands east of the Mississippi and resulted in thousands of deaths. Jackson faced a challenge to the integrity of the federal union when South Carolina threatened to nullify a high protective tariff set by the federal government. He threatened the use of military force to enforce the tariff, but the crisis was defused when it was amended. In 1832, he vetoed a bill by Congress to reauthorize the Second Bank of the United States, arguing that it was a corrupt institution. After a lengthy struggle, the Bank was dismantled. In 1835, Jackson became the only president to pay off the national debt. He survived the first assassination attempt on a sitting president. In one of his final presidential acts, he recognized the Republic of Texas.

    After leaving office, Jackson supported the presidencies of Martin Van Buren and James K. Polk, as well as the annexation of Texas. Jackson's legacy remains controversial, and opinions are frequently polarized. Supporters characterize him as a defender of democracy and the Constitution, while critics point to his reputation as a demagogue who ignored the law when it suited him. Jackson's presidency has consistently been ranked as above average, although his reputation has declined since the late 20th century.
    Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

     
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    31 January 1950 – President Truman orders the development of thermonuclear weapons.

    Thermonuclear weapon

    A basic diagram of a thermonuclear weapon.
    Note: some designs use spherical secondaries.
    1. fission primary stage
    2. fusion secondary stage
    1. High-explosive lenses
    2. Uranium-238 ("tamper") lined with beryllium reflector
    3. Vacuum ("levitated core")
    4. Tritium "boost" gas (blue) within plutonium or uranium hollow core
    5. Radiation channel filled with polystyrene foam
    6. Uranium ("pusher/tamper")
    7. Lithium-6 deuteride (fusion fuel)
    8. Plutonium ("spark plug")
    9. Radiation case (confines thermal X-rays by reflection)

    A thermonuclear weapon, fusion weapon or hydrogen bomb (H bomb) is a second-generation nuclear weapon design. Its greater sophistication affords it vastly greater destructive power than first-generation nuclear bombs, a more compact size, a lower mass, or a combination of these benefits. Characteristics of nuclear fusion reactions make possible the use of non-fissile depleted uranium as the weapon's main fuel, thus allowing more efficient use of scarce fissile material such as uranium-235 (235
    U
    ) or plutonium-239 (239
    Pu
    ). The first full-scale thermonuclear test was carried out by the United States in 1952 and the concept has since been employed by most of the world's nuclear powers in the design of their weapons.[1]

    Modern fusion weapons essentially consist of two main components: a nuclear fission primary stage (fueled by 235
    U
    or 239
    Pu
    ) and a separate nuclear fusion secondary stage containing thermonuclear fuel: heavy isotopes of hydrogen (deuterium and tritium) as the pure element or in modern weapons lithium deuteride. For this reason, thermonuclear weapons are often colloquially called hydrogen bombs or H-bombs.[note 1]

    A fusion explosion begins with the detonation of the fission primary stage. Its temperature soars past 100 million kelvin, causing it to glow intensely with thermal X-rays. These X-rays flood the void (the "radiation channel" often filled with polystyrene foam) between the primary and secondary assemblies placed within an enclosure called a radiation case, which confines the X-ray energy and resists its outward pressure. The distance separating the two assemblies ensures that debris fragments from the fission primary (which move much more slowly than X-ray photons) cannot disassemble the secondary before the fusion explosion runs to completion.

    The secondary fusion stage—consisting of outer pusher/tamper, fusion fuel filler and central plutonium spark plug—is imploded by the X-ray energy impinging on its pusher/ tamper. This compresses the entire secondary stage and drives up the density of the plutonium spark plug. The density of the plutonium fuel rises to such an extent that the spark plug is driven into a supercritical state and it begins a nuclear fission chain reaction. The fission products of this chain reaction heat the highly compressed and thus super dense, thermonuclear fuel surrounding the spark plug to around 300 million kelvin, igniting fusion reactions between fusion fuel nuclei. In modern weapons fueled by lithium deuteride, the fissioning plutonium spark plug also emits free neutrons that collide with lithium nuclei and supply the tritium component of the thermonuclear fuel.

    The secondary's relatively massive tamper (which resists outward expansion as the explosion proceeds) also serves as a thermal barrier to keep the fusion fuel filler from becoming too hot, which would spoil the compression. If made of uranium, enriched uranium or plutonium, the tamper captures fast fusion neutrons and undergoes fission itself, increasing the overall explosive yield. Additionally, in most designs the radiation case is also constructed of a fissile material that undergoes fission driven by fast thermonuclear neutrons. Such bombs are classified as two stage weapons and most current Teller–Ulam designs are such fission-fusion-fission weapons. Fast fission of the tamper and radiation case is the main contribution to the total yield and is the dominant process that produces radioactive fission product fallout.[2][3]

    Before Ivy Mike, the first U.S. test of a fusion weapon design, Operation Greenhouse in 1951 was the first American nuclear test series to test principles that led to the development of thermonuclear weapons. Sufficient fission was achieved to boost the associated fusion device and enough was learned to achieve a full-scale device within a year. The design of all modern thermonuclear weapons in the United States is known as the Teller–Ulam configuration for its two chief contributors, Edward Teller and Stanisław Ulam, who developed it in 1951[4] for the United States, with certain concepts developed with the contribution of physicist John von Neumann. Similar devices were developed by the Soviet Union, United Kingdom, France, China and India.[5] The thermonuclear Tsar Bomba was the most powerful bomb ever detonated.[6]

    As thermonuclear weapons represent the most efficient design for weapon energy yield in weapons with yields above 50 kilotons of TNT (210 TJ), virtually all the nuclear weapons of this size deployed by the five nuclear-weapon states under the Non-Proliferation Treaty today are thermonuclear weapons using the Teller–Ulam design.[7]

    1. ^ Cite error: The named reference NPR_TOTN was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    2. ^ Gsponer, Andre (2005). Fourth Generation Nuclear Weapons: Military effectiveness and collateral effects. Independent Scientific Research Institute. arXiv:physics/0510071. ISRI-05-03.
    3. ^ Gsponer, Andre (2005). The B61-based "Robust Nuclear Earth Penetrator:" Clever retrofit or headway towards fourth-generation nuclear weapons?. Independent Scientific Research Institute. arXiv:physics/0510052. ISRI-03-08.
    4. ^ Cite error: The named reference Teller was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    5. ^ Cite error: The named reference :8 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    6. ^ Magazine, Smithsonian; Machemer, Theresa. "Russia Declassifies Video From 1961 of Largest Hydrogen Bomb Ever Detonated". Smithsonian Magazine.
    7. ^ Sublette, Carey (3 July 2007). "Nuclear Weapons FAQ Section 4.4.1.4 The Teller–Ulam Design". Nuclear Weapons FAQ. Retrieved 17 July 2011. "So far as is known all high yield nuclear weapons today (>50 kt or so) use this design."


    Cite error: There are <ref group=note> tags on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=note}} template (see the help page).

     
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    1 February 1950 – The first prototype of the MiG-17 makes its maiden flight.

    Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-17

    The Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-17 (Russian: Микоян и Гуревич МиГ-17; NATO reporting name: Fresco)[1] is a high-subsonic fighter aircraft produced in the Soviet Union from 1952 and was operated by air forces internationally. The MiG-17 was license-built in China as the Shenyang J-5 and Poland as the PZL-Mielec Lim-6. The MiG-17 is still being used by the North Korean air force in the present day and has seen combat in the Middle East and Asia.

    The MiG-17 was an advanced modification of the MiG-15 aircraft produced by the Soviet Union during the Korean War. Production of the MiG-17 was too late for use in that conflict and was first used in the Second Taiwan Strait Crisis in 1958. While the MiG-17 was designed to shoot down slower American bombers, it showed surprising success when used by North Vietnamese pilots to combat American fighters and fighter-bombers during the Vietnam War, nearly a decade after its initial design. This was due to the MiG-17 being more agile and maneuverable than the American F-4 Phantom and F-105 Thunderchief, which were focused on speed and long range combat, as well as the fact that MiG-17 was armed with guns, which initial models of the F-4 Phantom lacked.[2]

    1. ^ Parsch, Andreas and Aleksey V. Martynov. "Designations of Soviet and Russian Military Aircraft and Missiles." Non-U.S. Military Aircraft and Missile Designations, revised 18 January 2008. Retrieved: 30 March 2009.
    2. ^ Parsch, Andreas and Aleksey V. Martynov. "Designations of Soviet and Russian Military Aircraft and Missiles: 5.1 "Type" Numbers (1947-1955)." Non-U.S. Military Aircraft and Missile Designations, revised 18 January 2008. Retrieved: 30 March 2009.
     
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    2 February 1971Idi Amin replaces President Milton Obote as leader of Uganda

    Idi Amin

    Idi Amin Dada Oumee (/ˈdi ɑːˈmn, ˈɪdi -/ , UK also /- æˈmn/; 30 August 1928 – 16 August 2003) was a Ugandan military officer and politician who served as the third president of Uganda from 1971 to 1979. He ruled as a military dictator and is considered one of the most brutal despots in modern world history.[2]

    Amin was born to a Kakwa father and Lugbara mother. In 1946, he joined the King's African Rifles (KAR) of the British Colonial Army as a cook. He rose to the rank of lieutenant, taking part in British actions against Somali rebels and then the Mau Mau Uprising in Kenya. Uganda gained independence from the United Kingdom in 1962, and Amin remained in the army, rising to the position of major and being appointed commander of the Uganda Army in 1965. He became aware that Ugandan President Milton Obote was planning to arrest him for misappropriating army funds, so he launched the 1971 Ugandan coup d'état and declared himself president.

    During his years in power, Amin shifted from being a pro-Western ruler enjoying considerable support from Israel to being backed by Libya's Muammar Gaddafi, Zaire's Mobutu Sese Seko, the Soviet Union, and East Germany.[3][4][5] In 1972, Amin expelled Asians, a majority of whom were Indian-Ugandans, leading India to sever diplomatic relations with his regime.[6] In 1975, Amin became the chairman of the Organisation of African Unity (OAU), a Pan-Africanist group designed to promote solidarity among African states.[7] Uganda was a member of the United Nations Commission on Human Rights from 1977 to 1979.[8] The United Kingdom broke diplomatic relations with Uganda in 1977, and Amin declared that he had defeated the British and added "CBE" to his title for "Conqueror of the British Empire".[9]

    As Amin's rule progressed into the late 1970s, there was increased unrest against his persecution of certain ethnic groups and political dissidents, along with Uganda's very poor international standing due to Amin's support for PFLP-EO and RZ hijackers in 1976, leading to Israel's Operation Entebbe. He then attempted to annex Tanzania's Kagera Region in 1978. The Tanzanian president Julius Nyerere ordered his troops to invade Uganda in response. Tanzanian Army and rebel forces successfully captured Kampala in 1979 and ousted Amin from power. Amin went into exile, first in Libya, then Iraq, and finally in Saudi Arabia, where he lived until his death in 2003.[10]

    Amin's rule was characterised by rampant human rights abuses, including political repression, ethnic persecution, extrajudicial killings, as well as nepotism, corruption, and gross economic mismanagement. International observers and human rights groups estimate that between 100,000[11] and 500,000 people were killed under his regime.[9]

    1. ^ Nakajubi, Gloria (15 July 2015). "Ugandan dictator Idi Amin's widow Sarah Kyolaba dies in the UK aged 59". The Independent. Archived from the original on 25 September 2015. Retrieved 21 September 2015.
    2. ^ Boddy-Evans, Alistair. "Biography of Idi Amin, Brutal Dictator of Uganda". ThoughtCo. Archived from the original on 16 July 2019. Retrieved 16 July 2019.
    3. ^ Roland Anthony Oliver, Anthony Atmore (1967). "Africa Since 1800". The Geographical Journal. 133 (2): 272. Bibcode:1967GeogJ.133Q.230M. doi:10.2307/1793302. JSTOR 1793302.
    4. ^ Dale C. Tatum. Who influenced whom?. p. 177.
    5. ^ Gareth M. Winrow. The Foreign Policy of the GDR in Africa, p. 141.
    6. ^ Subramanian, Archana (6 August 2015). "Asian expulsion". The Hindu.
    7. ^ "Idi Amin: A Byword for Brutality". News24. 21 July 2003. Archived from the original on 5 June 2008. Retrieved 13 February 2012.
    8. ^ Gershowitz, Suzanne (20 March 2007). "The Last King of Scotland, Idi Amin, and the United Nations". Archived from the original on 6 June 2009. Retrieved 8 August 2009.
    9. ^ a b Keatley, Patrick (18 August 2003). "Idi Amin". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 27 July 2013. Retrieved 16 March 2020.
    10. ^ "Dictator Idi Amin dies". 16 August 2003. Archived from the original on 9 March 2021. Retrieved 10 May 2020 – via news.bbc.co.uk.
    11. ^ Ullman, Richard H. (April 1978). "Human Rights and Economic Power: The United States Versus Idi Amin". Foreign Affairs. 56 (3): 529–543. doi:10.2307/20039917. JSTOR 20039917. Archived from the original on 18 April 2015. Retrieved 24 October 2018. The most conservative estimates by informed observers hold that President Idi Amin Dada and the terror squads operating under his loose direction have killed 100,000 Ugandans in the seven years he has held power.
     
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    3 February 1998Cavalese cable car disaster: A United States military pilot causes the death of 20 people when his low-flying plane cuts the cable of a cable-car near Trento, Italy.

    1998 Cavalese cable car crash

    The Cavalese cable car crash, also known as the Cermis massacre (Italian: Strage del Cermis), occurred on 3 February 1998, near the Italian town of Cavalese, a ski resort in the Dolomites some 40 kilometres (25 mi) northeast of Trento. Twenty people were killed when a United States Marine Corps EA-6B Prowler aircraft, flying too low and against regulations, cut a cable supporting a cable car of an aerial lift.[1][2]

    The pilot, Captain Richard J. Ashby, and his navigator, Captain Joseph Schweitzer, were put on trial in the United States and found not guilty of involuntary manslaughter and negligent homicide.[3][4] Later they were found guilty of obstruction of justice and conduct unbecoming an officer and a gentleman for having destroyed a videotape recorded from the plane, and were dismissed from the Marine Corps.[5] The disaster, and the subsequent acquittal of the pilots, strained relations between the U.S. and Italy.[6]

    1. ^ "20 die after plane clips tram line". Spokesman-Review. (Spokane, Washington). Associated Press. 4 February 1998. p. A4. Archived from the original on 25 May 2021. Retrieved 3 February 2022.
    2. ^ Tagliabue, John (13 March 1998). "Marine fliers to get hearing in ski accident". Spokesman-Review. (Spokane, Washington). (New York Times). p. A4. Archived from the original on 25 May 2021. Retrieved 3 February 2022.
    3. ^ Vogel, Steve (5 March 1999). "Pilot acquitted in skiers' deaths". Spokesman-Review. (Spokane, Washington). (Washington Post). p. A1. Archived from the original on 25 May 2021. Retrieved 3 February 2022.
    4. ^ Griffin, Anna (5 March 1999). "Marine pilot is found not guilty in ski tragedy". Wilmington Morning Star. (North Carolina). Knight-Ridder/Tribune News Service. p. 1A. Archived from the original on 25 May 2021. Retrieved 3 February 2022.
    5. ^ Cite error: The named reference espresso was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    6. ^ Scaliati, Giuseppe (2006). Dove va la Lega Nord: radici ed evoluzione politica di un movimento populista. Zero in condotta. p. 67. OCLC 66373351.
     
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    4 February 1797 – The Riobamba earthquake strikes Ecuador, causing up to 40,000 casualties.

    1797 Riobamba earthquake

    The 1797 Riobamba earthquake occurred at 12:30 UTC on 4 February. It devastated the city of Riobamba and many other cities in the Interandean valley, causing between 6,000–40,000 casualties. It is estimated that seismic intensities in the epicentral area reached at least XI (Extreme) on the Mercalli intensity scale, and that the earthquake had a magnitude of 7.6–8.3,[1][2] the most powerful historical event known in Ecuador.[3] The earthquake was studied by Prussian geographer Alexander von Humboldt, when he visited the area in 1801–1802.[4]

    1. ^ Céline Beauval; Hugo Yepes; William H. Bakun; José Egred; Alexandra Alvarado; Juan-Carlos Singaucho (2010). "Locations and magnitudes of historical earthquakes in the Sierra of Ecuador (1587–1996)". Geophysical Journal International. 131 (3): 1613-1633. Bibcode:2010GeoJI.181.1613B. doi:10.1111/j.1365-246X.2010.04569.x. S2CID 4617325.
    2. ^ National Geophysical Data Center / World Data Service (NGDC/WDS): NCEI/WDS Global Significant Earthquake Database. NOAA National Centers for Environmental Information (1972). "Significant Earthquake Information". NOAA National Centers for Environmental Information. doi:10.7289/V5TD9V7K. Retrieved 20 August 2010. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
    3. ^ Chunga, K. "Seismic Hazard Assessment for Guayaquil City (Ecuador): Insights from Quaternary Geological Data" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-07-17. Retrieved 22 August 2010.
    4. ^ Lavilla, E.O. (2004). "Under the Southern Cross: Stories around Humboldt and Bonpland's trip to the New Continent" (PDF). Latin American Applied Research. 34: 203–208. Retrieved 22 August 2010.
     
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    5 February 1971 – Astronauts land on the Moon in the Apollo 14 mission.

    Apollo 14

    Apollo 14 (January 31 – February 9, 1971) was the eighth crewed mission in the United States Apollo program, the third to land on the Moon, and the first to land in the lunar highlands. It was the last of the "H missions", landings at specific sites of scientific interest on the Moon for two-day stays with two lunar extravehicular activities (EVAs or moonwalks).

    The mission was originally scheduled for 1970, but was postponed because of the investigation following the failure of Apollo 13 to reach the Moon's surface, and the need for modifications to the spacecraft as a result. Commander Alan Shepard, Command Module Pilot Stuart Roosa, and Lunar Module Pilot Edgar Mitchell launched on their nine-day mission on Sunday, January 31, 1971, at 4:03:02 p.m. EST. En route to the lunar landing, the crew overcame malfunctions that might have resulted in a second consecutive aborted mission, and possibly, the premature end of the Apollo program.

    Shepard and Mitchell made their lunar landing on February 5 in the Fra Mauro formation – originally the target of Apollo 13. During the two walks on the surface, they collected 94.35 pounds (42.80 kg) of Moon rocks and deployed several scientific experiments. To the dismay of some geologists, Shepard and Mitchell did not reach the rim of Cone crater as had been planned, though they came close. In Apollo 14's most famous event, Shepard hit two golf balls he had brought with him with a makeshift club.

    While Shepard and Mitchell were on the surface, Roosa remained in lunar orbit aboard the Command and Service Module, performing scientific experiments and photographing the Moon, including the landing site of the future Apollo 16 mission. He took several hundred seeds on the mission, many of which were germinated on return, resulting in the so-called Moon trees, that were widely distributed in the following years. After liftoff from the lunar surface and a successful docking, the spacecraft was flown back to Earth where the three astronauts splashed down safely in the Pacific Ocean on February 9.

    1. ^ Orloff, Richard W. (September 2004) [First published 2000]. "Table of Contents". Apollo by the Numbers: A Statistical Reference. NASA History Series. Washington, D.C.: NASA. ISBN 0-16-050631-X. LCCN 00061677. NASA SP-2000-4029. Archived from the original on September 6, 2007. Retrieved July 17, 2013.
    2. ^ a b Orloff & Harland 2006, p. 396.
    3. ^ "Apollo 14 Command and Service Module (CSM)". NASA Space Science Data Coordinated Archive. Retrieved November 20, 2019.
    4. ^ "Apollo 14 Lunar Module /ALSEP". NASA Space Science Data Coordinated Archive. Retrieved November 20, 2019.
     
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    6 February 1840 – Signing of the Treaty of Waitangi, establishing New Zealand as a British colony.

    Treaty of Waitangi

    The Treaty of Waitangi (Māori: Te Tiriti o Waitangi), sometimes referred to as Te Tiriti, is a document of central importance to the history of New Zealand, its constitution, and its national mythos. It has played a major role in the treatment of the Māori people in New Zealand by successive governments and the wider population, something that has been especially prominent from the late 20th century. The treaty document is an agreement, not a treaty as recognised in international law,[1] and has no independent legal status, being legally effective only to the extent it is recognised in various statutes.[2] It was first signed on 6 February 1840 by Captain William Hobson as consul for the British Crown and by Māori chiefs (rangatira) from the North Island of New Zealand.

    The treaty was written at a time when the New Zealand Company, acting on behalf of large numbers of settlers and would-be settlers, were establishing a colony in New Zealand, and when some Māori leaders had petitioned the British for protection against French ambitions. It was drafted with the intention of establishing a British Governor of New Zealand, recognising Māori ownership of their lands, forests and other possessions, and giving Māori the rights of British subjects. It was intended by the British Crown to ensure that when Lieutenant Governor Hobson subsequently made the declaration of British sovereignty over New Zealand in May 1840, the Māori people would not feel that their rights had been ignored.[3] Once it had been written and translated, it was first signed by Northern Māori leaders at Waitangi. Copies were subsequently taken around New Zealand and over the following months many other chiefs signed.[4] Around 530 to 540 Māori, at least 13 of them women, signed the Māori language version of the Treaty of Waitangi, despite some Māori leaders cautioning against it.[5][6] Only 39 signed the English version.[7] An immediate result of the treaty was that Queen Victoria's government gained the sole right to purchase land.[8] In total there are nine signed copies of the Treaty of Waitangi, including the sheet signed on 6 February 1840 at Waitangi.[9]

    The text of the treaty includes a preamble and three articles. It is bilingual, with the Māori text translated in the context of the time from the English.

    • Article one of the Māori text grants governance rights to the Crown while the English text cedes "all rights and powers of sovereignty" to the Crown.
    • Article two of the Māori text establishes that Māori will retain full chieftainship over their lands, villages and all their treasures while the English text establishes the continued ownership of the Māori over their lands and establishes the exclusive right of pre-emption of the Crown.
    • Article three gives Māori people full rights and protections as British subjects.

    As some words in the English treaty did not translate directly into the written Māori language of the time, the Māori text is not an exact translation of the English text, particularly in relation to the meaning of having and ceding sovereignty.[10][11] These differences created disagreements in the decades following the signing, eventually contributing to the New Zealand Wars of 1845 to 1872 and continuing through to the Treaty of Waitangi settlements starting in the early 1990s.

    During the second half of the 19th century Māori generally lost control of much of the land they had owned, sometimes through legitimate sale, but often by way of unfair deals, settlers occupying land that had not been sold, or through outright confiscations in the aftermath of the New Zealand Wars. In the period following the New Zealand Wars, the New Zealand government mostly ignored the treaty, and a court judgement in 1877 declared it to be "a simple nullity". Beginning in the 1950s, Māori increasingly sought to use the treaty as a platform for claiming additional rights to sovereignty and to reclaim lost land, and governments in the 1960s and 1970s responded to these arguments, giving the treaty an increasingly central role in the interpretation of land rights and relations between Māori people and the state.

    In 1975 the New Zealand Parliament passed the Treaty of Waitangi Act, establishing the Waitangi Tribunal as a permanent commission of inquiry tasked with interpreting the treaty, investigating breaches of the Principles of the Treaty of Waitangi by the Crown or its agents, and suggesting means of redress.[10] In most cases, recommendations of the tribunal are not binding on the Crown, but settlements with a total value of roughly $1 billion have been awarded to various Māori groups.[10][12] Various legislation passed in the latter part of the 20th century has made reference to the treaty, which has led to ad hoc incorporation of the treaty into law.[13] Increasingly, the treaty is recognised as a founding document in New Zealand's developing unwritten constitution.[14][15][16] The New Zealand Day Act 1973 established Waitangi Day as a national holiday to commemorate the signing of the treaty.

    1. ^ Cox, Noel (2002). "The Treaty of Waitangi and the Relationship Between the Crown and Maori in New Zealand". Brooklyn Journal of International Law. 28 (1): 132. Archived from the original on 4 October 2022. Retrieved 4 October 2022.
    2. ^ "The Status of the Treaty as a Legal Document". Treaty Resource Centre – He Puna Mātauranga o Te Tiriti. Archived from the original on 7 October 2022. Retrieved 4 October 2022.
    3. ^ "Additional Instructions from Lord Normanby to Captain Hobson 1839 – New Zealand Constitutional Law Resources". New Zealand Legal Information Institute. 15 August 1839. Archived from the original on 4 December 2019. Retrieved 5 October 2019.
    4. ^ "Treaty of Waitangi signings in the South Island". Christchurch City Libraries. Archived from the original on 18 February 2015.
    5. ^ "Treaty of Waitangi". Waitangi Tribunal. Archived from the original on 6 July 2016. Retrieved 28 May 2015.
    6. ^ Orange 1987, p. 260.
    7. ^ Newman, Keith (2010) [2010]. Bible & Treaty, Missionaries among the Māori – a new perspective. Penguin. ISBN 978-0143204084. pp 159
    8. ^ Burns, Patricia (1989). Fatal Success: A History of the New Zealand Company. Heinemann Reed. ISBN 0-7900-0011-3.
    9. ^ "Treaty of Waitangi – Te Tiriti o Waitangi". Archives New Zealand. Archived from the original on 11 August 2011. Retrieved 10 August 2011.
    10. ^ a b c "Meaning of the Treaty". Waitangi Tribunal. 2011. Archived from the original on 8 July 2016. Retrieved 12 July 2011.
    11. ^ Newman, Keith (2010) [2010]. Bible & Treaty, Missionaries among the Māori – a new perspective. Penguin. ISBN 978-0143204084. pp 20-116
    12. ^ Cite error: The named reference Settlements was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    13. ^ Palmer 2008, p. 292.
    14. ^ "New Zealand's Constitution". Government House. Archived from the original on 10 December 2017. Retrieved 17 August 2017.
    15. ^ "New Zealand's constitution – past, present and future" (PDF). Cabinet Office. Archived from the original (PDF) on 24 April 2017. Retrieved 17 August 2017.
    16. ^ Palmer 2008, p. 25.
     
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    7 February 1904 – A fire begins in Baltimore, Maryland; it destroys over 1,500 buildings in 30 hours.

    Great Baltimore Fire

    An illustration of the aftermath of the Great Baltimore Fire in February 1904

    The Great Baltimore Fire raged in Baltimore, Maryland from Sunday February 7 to Monday February 8, 1904. In the fire, more than 1,500 buildings were completely leveled, and some 1,000 severely damaged, bringing property loss from the disaster to an estimated $100 million.[1] 1,231 firefighters helped bring the blaze under control, both professional paid truck and engine companies from the Baltimore City Fire Department (B.C.F.D.) and volunteers from the surrounding counties and outlying towns of Maryland, as well as out-of-state units that arrived on the major railroads. It destroyed much of central Baltimore, including over 1,500 buildings covering an area of some 140 acres (57 ha).

    From North Howard Street in the west and southwest, the flames spread north through the retail shopping area as far as Fayette Street and began moving eastward, pushed along by the prevailing winds. Narrowly missing the new 1900 Circuit Courthouse, now the Clarence M. Mitchell Jr. Courthouse, fire passed the historic Battle Monument Square from 1815 to 1827 at North Calvert Street, and the quarter-century-old Baltimore City Hall, built in 1875 on Holliday Street; and finally spread further east to the Jones Falls stream which divided the downtown business district from the old East Baltimore tightly-packed residential neighborhoods of Jonestown (also known as Old Town) and newly named "Little Italy". The fire's wide swath burned as far south as the wharves and piers lining the north side of the old "Basin" (today's "Inner Harbor") of the Northwest Branch of the Baltimore Harbor and Patapsco River facing along Pratt Street.

    It is considered historically the third worst conflagration in an American city, surpassed only by the Great Chicago Fire of 1871, and the San Francisco Earthquake and Fire of 1906. Other major urban disasters that were comparable (but not fires) were the Galveston Hurricane of 1900 and most recently, Hurricane Katrina that hit New Orleans and the Gulf of Mexico coast in August 2005. One reason for the fire's long duration involved the lack of national standards in firefighting equipment. Despite fire engines from nearby cities (such as Philadelphia and Washington, D.C. as well as units from New York City, Virginia, Wilmington, and Atlantic City) responding with horse-drawn pumpers, wagons and other related equipment (primitive by modern-day standards, but only steam engines were motorized in that era) carried by the railroads on flat cars and in box cars, many were unable to help since their hose couplings could not fit Baltimore's fire hydrants.

    Much of the destroyed area was rebuilt in relatively short order, and the city adopted a building code, stressing fireproof materials. Perhaps the greatest legacy of the fire was the impetus it gave to efforts to standardize firefighting equipment in the United States, especially hose couplings.

    1. ^ "The Great Baltimore Fire begins". HISTORY. Retrieved 2020-02-07.
     
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    8 February 1960 – The Hollywood Walk of Fame is established.

    Hollywood Walk of Fame

    The Hollywood Walk of Fame is a landmark which consists of more than 2,773[1] five-pointed terrazzo-and-brass stars embedded in the sidewalks along 15 blocks of Hollywood Boulevard and three blocks of Vine Street in Hollywood, California. The stars are monuments to achievement in the entertainment industry, bearing the names of a mix of actors, directors, producers, musicians, theatrical/musical groups, fictional characters, and others.

    The Walk of Fame is administered by the Hollywood Chamber of Commerce, who hold the trademark rights, and maintained by the self-financing Hollywood Historic Trust. It is a popular tourist attraction, receiving an estimated 10 million annual visitors in 2010.[2][3]

    1. ^ "James Bond star Daniel Craig gets Hollywood Walk of Fame star". bbc.com. British Broadcasting Corporation. October 7, 2021. Retrieved October 7, 2021.
    2. ^ Cite error: The named reference Martin1 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    3. ^ "Licensing for the Walk of Fame | Hollywood Walk of Fame". Hollywood Walk of Fame. Retrieved February 3, 2019.
     
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    9 February 1900 – The Davis Cup competition is established.

    Davis Cup

    The 2018 Davis Cup Final – opening ceremony.

    The Davis Cup is the premier international team event in men's tennis. It is run by the International Tennis Federation (ITF) and is contested annually between teams from over 150 competiting countries, making it the world's largest annual team sporting competition.[1] It is described by the organisers as the "World Cup of Tennis", and the winners are referred to as the World Champions.[2] The competition began in 1900 as a challenge between Great Britain and the United States. By 2023, 155 nations entered teams into the competition.[3]

    The most successful countries over the history of the competition are the United States (winning 32 titles and finishing as runners-up 29 times) and Australia (winning 28 titles, including six with New Zealand as Australasia, and finishing as runners-up 21 times). The current champions are Italy, who beat Australia to win their second title in 2023.

    The women's equivalent of the Davis Cup is the Billie Jean King Cup, formerly known as the Federation Cup (1963–1995) and Fed Cup (1995–2020). Australia, Canada, Russia, the Czech Republic, and the United States are the only countries to have won both Davis Cup and Fed Cup titles in the same year.

    The Davis Cup allowed only amateurs and national registered professional players (from 1968) to compete until 1973, five years after the start of the Open Era.[4]

    As of September 2022, Russia and Belarus are suspended due to the Russian invasion of Ukraine.[5]

    1. ^ "Davis Cup History". ITF. Retrieved 4 February 2024.
    2. ^ "Andy Murray wins Davis Cup for Great Britain". BBC Sport. 23 November 2015. Archived from the original on 28 November 2018. Retrieved 13 February 2018.
    3. ^ "Davis Cup Format". www.daviscup.com. Archived from the original on 5 January 2016. Retrieved 20 January 2016. In 2023, 155 nations entered Davis Cup by Rakuten
    4. ^ "40 Years Ago: Look Out, Cleveland". www.tennis.com. Archived from the original on 31 October 2020. Retrieved 5 December 2019.
    5. ^ "Davis Cup – Rankings". www.daviscup.com. Archived from the original on 1 May 2011. Retrieved 22 March 2022.
     
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    10 February 1984Kenyan soldiers kill an estimated 5000 ethnic Somali Kenyans in the Wagalla massacre.

    Wagalla massacre

    The Wagalla massacre was a massacre of ethnic Somalis by the Kenyan Army on 10 February 1984 in Wajir County, Kenya. Government troops were ordered to stop clan violence in the area, and did so by first detaining some 5,000 locals at an airstrip, denying them food and water for a week, and then shooting them. The massacre was not investigated by Kenya's government until 2011.[1]

    The Massacre In wagalla

    1. ^ Cite error: The named reference probe was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
     
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    15 February 1999Pluto crosses Neptune's orbit, ending a nearly 20-year period when it was closer to the Sun than the gas giant; Pluto is not expected to interact with Neptune's orbit again until 2231.

    Pluto

    Pluto (minor-planet designation: 134340 Pluto) is a dwarf planet in the Kuiper belt, a ring of bodies beyond the orbit of Neptune. It is the ninth-largest and tenth-most-massive known object to directly orbit the Sun. It is the largest known trans-Neptunian object by volume, by a small margin, but is less massive than Eris. Like other Kuiper belt objects, Pluto is made primarily of ice and rock and is much smaller than the inner planets. Pluto has only one sixth the mass of Earth's moon, and one third its volume.

    Pluto has a moderately eccentric and inclined orbit, ranging from 30 to 49 astronomical units (4.5 to 7.3 billion kilometers; 2.8 to 4.6 billion miles) from the Sun. Light from the Sun takes 5.5 hours to reach Pluto at its orbital distance of 39.5 AU (5.91 billion km; 3.67 billion mi). Pluto's eccentric orbit periodically brings it closer to the Sun than Neptune, but a stable orbital resonance prevents them from colliding.

    Pluto has five known moons: Charon, the largest, whose diameter is just over half that of Pluto; Styx; Nix; Kerberos; and Hydra. Pluto and Charon are sometimes considered a binary system because the barycenter of their orbits does not lie within either body, and they are tidally locked. The New Horizons mission was the first spacecraft to visit Pluto and its moons, making a flyby on July 14, 2015, and taking detailed measurements and observations.

    Pluto was discovered in 1930 by Clyde W. Tombaugh, making it by far the first known object in the Kuiper belt. It was immediately hailed as the ninth planet, but it was always the odd object out,[14]: 27  and its planetary status was questioned when it was found to be much smaller than expected. These doubts increased following the discovery of additional objects in the Kuiper belt starting in the 1990s, and particularly the more massive scattered disk object Eris in 2005. In 2006, the International Astronomical Union (IAU) formally redefined the term planet to exclude dwarf planets such as Pluto. Many planetary astronomers, however, continue to consider Pluto and other dwarf planets to be planets.


    Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

    1. ^ "Plutonian". Oxford English Dictionary (Online ed.). Oxford University Press. (Subscription or participating institution membership required.)
    2. ^ Cite error: The named reference TOP2013 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    3. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k Cite error: The named reference Pluto Fact Sheet was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    4. ^ Cite error: The named reference jpl-ssd-horizons was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    5. ^ a b Nimmo, Francis; et al. (2017). "Mean radius and shape of Pluto and Charon from New Horizons images". Icarus. 287: 12–29. arXiv:1603.00821. Bibcode:2017Icar..287...12N. doi:10.1016/j.icarus.2016.06.027. S2CID 44935431.
    6. ^ a b Stern, S.A.; Grundy, W.; McKinnon, W.B.; Weaver, H.A.; Young, L.A. (2017). "The Pluto System After New Horizons". Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics. 2018: 357–392. arXiv:1712.05669. Bibcode:2018ARA&A..56..357S. doi:10.1146/annurev-astro-081817-051935. S2CID 119072504.
    7. ^ a b c d Stern, S.A.; et al. (2015). "The Pluto system: Initial results from its exploration by New Horizons". Science. 350 (6258): 249–352. arXiv:1510.07704. Bibcode:2015Sci...350.1815S. doi:10.1126/science.aad1815. PMID 26472913. S2CID 1220226.
    8. ^ Seligman, Courtney. "Rotation Period and Day Length". Archived from the original on September 29, 2018. Retrieved June 12, 2021.
    9. ^ a b Cite error: The named reference Archinal was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    10. ^ Cite error: The named reference AstDys-Pluto was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    11. ^ Cite error: The named reference jpldata was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    12. ^ Amos, Jonathan (July 23, 2015). "New Horizons: Pluto may have 'nitrogen glaciers'". BBC News. Archived from the original on October 27, 2017. Retrieved July 26, 2015. It could tell from the passage of sunlight and radiowaves through the Plutonian "air" that the pressure was only about 10 microbars at the surface
    13. ^ Cite error: The named reference Physorg April 19, 2011 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    14. ^ Cite error: The named reference T&M was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
     
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    15 February 1999Pluto crosses Neptune's orbit, ending a nearly 20-year period when it was closer to the Sun than the gas giant; Pluto is not expected to interact with Neptune's orbit again until 2231.

    Pluto

    Pluto (minor-planet designation: 134340 Pluto) is a dwarf planet in the Kuiper belt, a ring of bodies beyond the orbit of Neptune. It is the ninth-largest and tenth-most-massive known object to directly orbit the Sun. It is the largest known trans-Neptunian object by volume, by a small margin, but is less massive than Eris. Like other Kuiper belt objects, Pluto is made primarily of ice and rock and is much smaller than the inner planets. Pluto has only one sixth the mass of Earth's moon, and one third its volume.

    Pluto has a moderately eccentric and inclined orbit, ranging from 30 to 49 astronomical units (4.5 to 7.3 billion kilometers; 2.8 to 4.6 billion miles) from the Sun. Light from the Sun takes 5.5 hours to reach Pluto at its orbital distance of 39.5 AU (5.91 billion km; 3.67 billion mi). Pluto's eccentric orbit periodically brings it closer to the Sun than Neptune, but a stable orbital resonance prevents them from colliding.

    Pluto has five known moons: Charon, the largest, whose diameter is just over half that of Pluto; Styx; Nix; Kerberos; and Hydra. Pluto and Charon are sometimes considered a binary system because the barycenter of their orbits does not lie within either body, and they are tidally locked. The New Horizons mission was the first spacecraft to visit Pluto and its moons, making a flyby on July 14, 2015, and taking detailed measurements and observations.

    Pluto was discovered in 1930 by Clyde W. Tombaugh, making it by far the first known object in the Kuiper belt. It was immediately hailed as the ninth planet, but it was always the odd object out,[14]: 27  and its planetary status was questioned when it was found to be much smaller than expected. These doubts increased following the discovery of additional objects in the Kuiper belt starting in the 1990s, and particularly the more massive scattered disk object Eris in 2005. In 2006, the International Astronomical Union (IAU) formally redefined the term planet to exclude dwarf planets such as Pluto. Many planetary astronomers, however, continue to consider Pluto and other dwarf planets to be planets.


    Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

    1. ^ "Plutonian". Oxford English Dictionary (Online ed.). Oxford University Press. (Subscription or participating institution membership required.)
    2. ^ Cite error: The named reference TOP2013 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    3. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k Cite error: The named reference Pluto Fact Sheet was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    4. ^ Cite error: The named reference jpl-ssd-horizons was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    5. ^ a b Nimmo, Francis; et al. (2017). "Mean radius and shape of Pluto and Charon from New Horizons images". Icarus. 287: 12–29. arXiv:1603.00821. Bibcode:2017Icar..287...12N. doi:10.1016/j.icarus.2016.06.027. S2CID 44935431.
    6. ^ a b Stern, S.A.; Grundy, W.; McKinnon, W.B.; Weaver, H.A.; Young, L.A. (2017). "The Pluto System After New Horizons". Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics. 2018: 357–392. arXiv:1712.05669. Bibcode:2018ARA&A..56..357S. doi:10.1146/annurev-astro-081817-051935. S2CID 119072504.
    7. ^ a b c d Stern, S.A.; et al. (2015). "The Pluto system: Initial results from its exploration by New Horizons". Science. 350 (6258): 249–352. arXiv:1510.07704. Bibcode:2015Sci...350.1815S. doi:10.1126/science.aad1815. PMID 26472913. S2CID 1220226.
    8. ^ Seligman, Courtney. "Rotation Period and Day Length". Archived from the original on September 29, 2018. Retrieved June 12, 2021.
    9. ^ a b Cite error: The named reference Archinal was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    10. ^ Cite error: The named reference AstDys-Pluto was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    11. ^ Cite error: The named reference jpldata was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    12. ^ Amos, Jonathan (July 23, 2015). "New Horizons: Pluto may have 'nitrogen glaciers'". BBC News. Archived from the original on October 27, 2017. Retrieved July 26, 2015. It could tell from the passage of sunlight and radiowaves through the Plutonian "air" that the pressure was only about 10 microbars at the surface
    13. ^ Cite error: The named reference Physorg April 19, 2011 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    14. ^ Cite error: The named reference T&M was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
     
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    12 February 1988Cold War: The 1988 Black Sea bumping incident: The U.S. missile cruiser USS Yorktown (CG-48) is intentionally rammed by the Soviet frigate Bezzavetnyy in the Soviet territorial waters, while Yorktown claims innocent passage.

    1988 Black Sea bumping incident

    Soviet frigate Bezzavetny (right) bumping USS Yorktown
    Soviet frigate SKR-6 bumping USS Caron

    The Black Sea bumping incident of 12 February 1988 occurred when American cruiser USS Yorktown tried to exercise the right of innocent passage through Soviet territorial waters in the Black Sea during the Cold War. The cruiser was bumped by the Soviet frigate Bezzavetny with the intention of pushing Yorktown into international waters. This incident also involved the destroyer USS Caron, sailing in company with USS Yorktown and claiming the right of innocent passage, which was intentionally shouldered by a Soviet Mirka-class frigate SKR-6. Yorktown reported minor damage to its hull, with no holing or risk of flooding.[1] Caron was undamaged.[1]

    At the time, the Soviet Union recognized the right of innocent passage for warships in its territorial waters solely in designated sea lanes.[2] The United States believed that there was no legal basis for a coastal nation to limit warship transits to sea lanes only.[3] Subsequently, the U.S. Department of State found that the Russian-language text of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, Article 22, paragraph 1 allowed the coastal state to regulate the right of innocent passage whenever necessary, while the English-language text did not.[1] Following the incident, the Soviet Union agreed to resolve the issue of innocent passage in Soviet territorial waters.[1]

    1. ^ a b c d William J. Aceves. "Diplomacy at Sea: U.S. Freedom of Navigation Operations in the Black Sea". International Law Studies. 68.
    2. ^ Kraska & Pedrozo 2013, pp. 255–256
    3. ^ Kraska & Pedrozo 2013, p. 256
     
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    13 February 1955Israel obtains four of the seven Dead Sea Scrolls.

    Dead Sea Scrolls

    The Dead Sea Scrolls, also called the Qumran Caves Scrolls, are a set of ancient Jewish manuscripts from the Second Temple period. They were discovered over a period of 10 years, between 1946 and 1956, at the Qumran Caves near Ein Feshkha in the West Bank, on the northern shore of the Dead Sea. Dating from the 3rd century BCE to the 1st century CE,[1] the Dead Sea Scrolls are considered to be a keystone in the history of archaeology with great historical, religious, and linguistic significance because they include the oldest surviving manuscripts of entire books later included in the biblical canons, along with extra-biblical and deuterocanonical manuscripts that preserve evidence of the diversity of religious thought in late Second Temple Judaism. At the same time, they cast new light on the emergence of Christianity and of Rabbinic Judaism.[2] Almost all of the 15,000 scrolls and scroll fragments are held in the Shrine of the Book at the Israel Museum, located in the city of Jerusalem. The Israeli government's custody of the Dead Sea Scrolls is disputed by Jordan and the Palestinian Authority on territorial, legal, and humanitarian grounds—they were mostly discovered following the Jordanian annexation of the West Bank and were acquired by Israel after Jordan lost the 1967 Arab–Israeli War[3]—whilst Israel's claims are primarily based on historical and religious grounds, given their significance in Jewish history and in the heritage of Judaism.[4]

    Many thousands of written fragments have been discovered in the Dead Sea area. They represent the remnants of larger manuscripts damaged by natural causes or through human interference, with the vast majority holding only small scraps of text. However, a small number of well-preserved and near-intact manuscripts have survived—fewer than a dozen among those from the Qumran Caves.[1] Researchers have assembled a collection of 981 different manuscripts (discovered in 1946/1947 and in 1956) from 11 caves,[5] which lie in the immediate vicinity of the Hellenistic Jewish settlement at the site of Khirbet Qumran in the eastern Judaean Desert, in the West Bank.[6] The caves are located about 1.5 kilometres (1 mi) west of the northwestern shore of the Dead Sea, whence they derive their name. Archaeologists have long associated the scrolls with the ancient Jewish sect known as the Essenes, although some recent interpretations have challenged this connection and argue that priests in Jerusalem, or Zadokites, or other unknown Jewish groups wrote the scrolls.[7][8]

    Most of the manuscripts are written in Hebrew, with some written in Aramaic (for example the Son of God Text; in different regional dialects, including Nabataean) and a few in Greek.[9] Discoveries from the Judaean Desert add Latin (from Masada) and Arabic (from Khirbet al-Mird).[10] Most of the texts are written on parchment, some on papyrus, and one on copper.[11] Though scholarly consensus dates the Dead Sea Scrolls to between the 3rd century BCE and the 1st century CE,[12] there are manuscripts from associated Judaean Desert sites that are dated to as early as the 8th century BCE and as late as the 11th century CE.[12] Bronze coins found at the same sites form a series beginning with John Hyrcanus, a ruler of the Hasmonean Kingdom (in office 135–104 BCE), and continuing until the period of the First Jewish–Roman War (66–73 CE), supporting the paleography and radiocarbon dating of the scrolls.[13]

    Owing to the poor condition of some of the scrolls, scholars have not identified all of their texts. The identified texts fall into three general groups:

    1. About 40% are copies of texts from Hebrew scriptures.
    2. Approximately another 30% are texts from the Second Temple period that ultimately were not canonized in the Hebrew Bible, like the Book of Enoch, the Book of Jubilees, the Book of Tobit, the Wisdom of Sirach, Psalms 152–155, etc.
    3. The remainder (roughly 30%) are sectarian manuscripts of previously unknown documents that shed light on the rules and beliefs of a particular sect or groups within greater Judaism, like the Community Rule, the War Scroll, the Pesher on Habakkuk, and The Rule of the Blessing.[14]
    1. ^ a b "The Digital Dead Sea Scrolls: Nature and Significance". Israel Museum Jerusalem. Retrieved 4 November 2023.
    2. ^ "Dead Sea Scrolls | Definition, Discovery, History, & Facts | Britannica". www.britannica.com. Retrieved 17 November 2021.
    3. ^ Lash, Mordechay; Goldstein, Yossi; Shai, Itzhaq (2020). "Underground-Archaeological Research in the West Bank, 1947–1968: Management, Complexity, and Israeli Involvement". Bulletin of the History of Archaeology. 30. doi:10.5334/bha-650. S2CID 229403120.
    4. ^ Duhaime, Bernard; Labadie, Camille (18 September 2020). "Intersections and Cultural Exchange: Archaeology, Culture, International Law and the Legal Travels of the Dead Sea Scrolls". Canada's Public Diplomacy. Palgrave Macmillan Series in Global Public Diplomacy. Cham: Springer International Publishing. p. 146. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-62015-2_6. ISBN 978-3-319-62014-5. ISSN 2731-3883. S2CID 236757632. Thus, the Palestinian Authority and Jordan base their claims on territorial aspects (places of discovery of the scrolls), humanitarian (illegal deprivation following the occupation of East Jerusalem by Israel) and legal (they claim to have proof of purchase of several scrolls) while, for its part, Israel's claims are primarily based in religious notions, invoking the sacred history of the Jewish people and recalling that the scrolls discovered in Qumran are, for the majority, the oldest known copies of biblical texts and are therefore of fundamental importance for the historical and religious heritage of Judaism.
    5. ^ "Hebrew University Archaeologists Find 12th Dead Sea Scrolls Cave". The Hebrew University of Jerusalem. Archived from the original on 2 June 2017. Retrieved 7 June 2017.
    6. ^ Donahue, Michelle Z. (10 February 2017). "New Dead Sea Scroll Find May Help Detect Forgeries". nationalgeographic.com. Archived from the original on 15 June 2018. Retrieved 19 November 2017.
    7. ^ Ofri, Ilani (13 March 2009). "Scholar: The Essenes, Dead Sea Scroll 'authors,' never existed". Ha'aretz. Archived from the original on 6 January 2018. Retrieved 26 May 2017.
    8. ^ Golb, Norman (5 June 2009). "On the Jerusalem Origin of the Dead Sea Scrolls" (PDF). University of Chicago Oriental Institute. Archived (PDF) from the original on 10 June 2010. Retrieved 11 May 2010.
    9. ^ Vermes, Geza (1977). The Dead Sea Scrolls. Qumran in Perspective. London: Collins. p. 15. ISBN 978-0002161428.
    10. ^ "Languages and Scripts". Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library. Retrieved 1 November 2023.
    11. ^ McCarthy, Rory (27 August 2008). "From papyrus to cyberspace". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 22 December 2016. Retrieved 17 December 2016.
    12. ^ a b "The Digital Library: Introduction". Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library. Retrieved 1 November 2023.
    13. ^ Leaney, A. R. C. From Judaean Caves: The Story of the Dead Sea Scrolls. p. 27, Religious Education Press, 1961.
    14. ^ Abegg, Jr., Martin; Flint, Peter; Ulrich, Eugene (2002). The Dead Sea Scrolls Bible: The Oldest Known Bible Translated for the First Time into English. San Francisco: Harper. pp. xiv–xvii. ISBN 0060600640. Retrieved 24 November 2023.
     
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    14 February 1613Wedding of Princess Elizabeth and Frederick V of the Palatinate at Whitehall Palace, London

    Wedding of Princess Elizabeth and Frederick V of the Palatinate

    Elizabeth Stuart, Queen of Bohemia, National Portrait Gallery, London, thought to be a wedding portrait, her pearl and diamond necklace may represent the jewels given by the cities of Edinburgh and London
    Portrait of Frederick V of the Palatinate by Michiel Jansz. van Mierevelt, 1613
    King James and Frederick went to Royston to talk things over, now that Elizabeth was nearer in succession to the throne of England
    Anne of Denmark, James VI and I, and Charles, Duke of York, engraving by Simon de Passe
    Frederick V in a tall hat with an aigrette, c. 1620, Crispijn van den Queborn
    Frederick V of the Palatinate wears a medal on a ribbon and a sash, Crispijn van de Passe the elder

    The wedding of Elizabeth Stuart (1596–1662), daughter of James VI and I, and Frederick V of the Palatinate (1596–1632) was celebrated in London in February 1613. There were fireworks, masques (small, choreography-based plays), tournaments, and a mock-sea battle or naumachia. Preparations involved the construction of a "Marriage room", a hall adjacent to the 1607 Banqueting House at Whitehall Palace.[1] The events were described in various contemporary pamphlets and letters.[2]

    1. ^ Edward Francis Rimbault, The Old Cheque-book, Or, Book of Remembrance, of the Chapel Royal (London: Camden Society, 1872) p. 163
    2. ^ Mary Anne Everett Green and S. C. Lomas, Elizabeth, Electress Palatine and Queen of Bohemia (London, 1909): Sara Smart & Mara R. Wade, The Palatine Wedding of 1613: Protestant Alliance and Court Festival (Wiesbaden: Harrossowitz, 2013).
     
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    15 February 1214 – During the Anglo-French War (1213–1214), an English invasion force led by John, King of England, lands at La Rochelle in France.

    Anglo-French War (1213–1214)

    The Anglo-French War was a major medieval conflict that pitted the Kingdom of France against the Kingdom of England and various other states. It was fought in an attempt to curb the rising power of King Philip II of France and regain the Angevin continental possessions King John of England lost to him a decade earlier. It is widely regarded as the very first anti-French coalition war and came to an end at the decisive Battle of Bouvines at which Philip defeated England and its allies.

    The Duchy of Normandy, once a site of conflict between Richard I of England and Philip II, grew to be one of the hot spots of medieval Anglo-French wars as the King of England had to defend a continental holding that was so close to Paris. In 1202, Philip II launched an invasion of Normandy that culminated in the six-month Siege of Château Gaillard, which led to the conquest of the duchy and of neighbouring territories.

    In 1214, when Pope Innocent III assembled an alliance of states against France, John agreed. The allies met Philip near Bouvines and were soundly defeated. The French victory resulted in the conquest of Flanders and put an end to further attempts from John to regain his lost territories.

    This conflict was an episode of a century-long struggle between the House of Capet and the House of Plantagenet over the Angevin domains in France, which started with Henry II's accession to the English throne in 1154 and his rivalry with Louis VII and ended with Louis IX's triumph over Henry III at the Battle of Taillebourg in 1242.

     
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    16 February 1862American Civil War: General Ulysses S. Grant captures Fort Donelson, Tennessee.

    Battle of Fort Donelson

    The Battle of Fort Donelson was fought from February 11–16, 1862, in the Western Theater of the American Civil War. The Union capture of the Confederate fort near the TennesseeKentucky border opened the Cumberland River, an important avenue for the invasion of the South. The Union's success also elevated Brig. Gen. Ulysses S. Grant from an obscure and largely unproven leader to the rank of major general, and earned him the nickname of "Unconditional Surrender" Grant.

    Following his capture of Fort Henry on February 6, Grant moved his army (later to become the Union's Army of the Tennessee[4]) 12 miles (19 km) overland to Fort Donelson, from February 11 to 13, and conducted several small probing attacks. On February 14, Union gunboats under Flag Officer Andrew H. Foote attempted to reduce the fort with gunfire, but were forced to withdraw after sustaining heavy damage from the fort's water batteries.

    On February 15, with the fort surrounded, the Confederates, commanded by Brig. Gen. John B. Floyd, launched a surprise attack, led by his second-in-command, Brig. Gen. Gideon Johnson Pillow, against the right flank of Grant's army. The intention was to open an escape route for retreat to Nashville, Tennessee. Grant was away from the battlefield at the start of the attack, but arrived to rally his men and counterattack. Pillow's attack succeeded in opening the route, but Floyd lost his nerve and ordered his men back to the fort. The following morning, Floyd and Pillow escaped with a small detachment of troops, relinquishing command to Brig. Gen. Simon Bolivar Buckner, who accepted Grant's demand of unconditional surrender later that evening. The battle resulted in virtually all of Kentucky as well as much of Tennessee, including Nashville, falling under Union control.

    1. ^ NPS
    2. ^ a b Gott, pp. 284–88. The Union strength includes both the Army and Navy units.
    3. ^ a b Gott, pp. 284–85, 288.
    4. ^ Woodworth, p. 10.
     
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    17 February 1838Weenen massacre: Hundreds of Voortrekkers along the Blaukraans River, Natal are killed by Zulus.

    Weenen massacre

    The Weenen massacre (Afrikaans: Bloukransmoorde) was the massacre of Khoikhoi, Basuto and Voortrekkers by the Zulu Kingdom on 17 February 1838. The massacres occurred at Doringkop, Bloukrans River, Moordspruit, Rensburgspruit and other sites around the present day town of Weenen in South Africa's KwaZulu-Natal province.[1]

    1. ^ Cite error: The named reference OB was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
     
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    18 February 1943 – World War II: The Nazis arrest the members of the White Rose movement.

    White Rose

    The White Rose (German: Weiße Rose, pronounced [ˈvaɪ̯sə ˈʁoːzə] ) was a non-violent, intellectual resistance group in Nazi Germany which was led by five students and one professor at the University of Munich: Willi Graf, Kurt Huber, Christoph Probst, Alexander Schmorell, Hans Scholl and Sophie Scholl. The group conducted an anonymous leaflet and graffiti campaign that called for active opposition to the Nazi regime. Their activities started in Munich on 27 June 1942; they ended with the arrest of the core group by the Gestapo on 18 February 1943.[1] They, as well as other members and supporters of the group who carried on distributing the pamphlets, faced show trials by the Nazi People's Court (Volksgerichtshof); many of them were imprisoned and executed.

    Hans and Sophie Scholl, as well as Christoph Probst were executed by guillotine four days after their arrest, on 22 February 1943. During the trial, Sophie interrupted the judge multiple times. No defendants were given any opportunity to speak.

    The group wrote, printed and initially distributed their pamphlets in the greater Munich region. Later on, secret carriers brought copies to other cities, mostly in the southern parts of Germany. In July 1943, Allied planes dropped their sixth and final leaflet over Germany with the headline The Manifesto of the Students of Munich. In total, the White Rose authored six leaflets, which were multiplied and spread, in a total of about 15,000 copies. They denounced the Nazi regime's crimes and oppression, and called for resistance. In their second leaflet, they openly denounced the persecution and mass murder of the Jews.[2] By the time of their arrest, the members of the White Rose were just about to establish contacts with other German resistance groups like the Kreisau Circle or the Schulze-Boysen/Harnack group of the Red Orchestra. Today, the White Rose is well known both within Germany and worldwide.

    1. ^ "1942/43: The White Rose Resistance Group". Archived from the original on 19 October 2017.
    2. ^ Zubrin, Robert (2012). Merchants of Despair. New York: Encounter Books. p. 75. ISBN 978-1-59403-476-3.
     
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    19 February 1963 – The publication of Betty Friedan's The Feminine Mystique reawakens the feminist movement in the United States as women's organizations and consciousness raising groups spread.

    The Feminine Mystique

    The Feminine Mystique is a book by Betty Friedan, widely credited with sparking second-wave feminism in the United States.[2] First published by W. W. Norton on February 19, 1963, The Feminine Mystique became a bestseller, initially selling over a million copies.[3][4] Friedan used the book to challenge the widely shared belief that "fulfillment as a woman had only one definition for American women after 1949—the housewife-mother."[4]

    In 1957, Friedan was asked to conduct a survey of her former Smith College classmates for their 15th anniversary reunion; the results, in which she found that many of them were unhappy with their lives as housewives, prompted her to begin research for The Feminine Mystique, conducting interviews with other suburban housewives, as well as researching psychology, media, and advertising. She originally intended to create an article on the topic, not a book, but no magazine would publish the work.[5][6]

    The phrase "feminine mystique" was coined by Friedan to describe the assumptions that women would be fulfilled from their housework, marriage, sexual lives, and children. The prevailing belief was that women who were truly feminine should not want to work, get an education, or have political opinions. Friedan wanted to prove that women were unsatisfied and could not voice their feelings.[7]

    1. ^ Addison, Heather; Goodwin-Kelly, Mary Kate; Roth, Elaine (2009). Motherhood misconceived: representing the maternal in U.S. film. SUNY Press. p. 29. ISBN 978-1-4384-2812-3.
    2. ^ Margalit Fox (5 February 2006). "Betty Friedan, Who Ignited Cause in 'Feminine Mystique,' Dies at 85". The New York Times. Retrieved 19 February 2017.
    3. ^ Coontz, Stephanie (2011). A Strange Stirring: The Feminine Mystique and American Women at the Dawn of the 1960s. New York: Basic Books. pp. 145–149.
    4. ^ a b Friedan, Betty (2013). The Feminine Mystique. W.W.Norton & Company, Inc. pp. xi–xx. ISBN 978-0-393-93465-6.
    5. ^ "Betty Friedan - Obituaries, News". The Independent. 7 February 2006. Retrieved 2011-02-18.[dead link]
    6. ^ Patricia Sullivan (February 5, 2006). "Voice of Feminism's 'Second Wave'". Washington Post. p. 2. Retrieved 2011-02-18.
    7. ^ "The Feminine Mystique | work by Friedan". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 2019-06-03.
     
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    20 February 1872 – The Metropolitan Museum of Art opens in New York City

    Metropolitan Museum of Art

    The Metropolitan Museum of Art, colloquially referred to as the Met,[a] is an art museum in New York City. It is the largest art museum in the Americas and fourth-largest in the world.

    In 2023, the museum welcomed 5,800,000 visitors, making it the most-visited museum in the United States and the second most visited art museum in the world, after the Louvre.[6] [7] In 2000, its permanent collection was said to have over two million works;[1] it currently lists a total of 1.5 million objects.[8] The collection is divided into 17 curatorial departments. The main building at 1000 Fifth Avenue, along the Museum Mile on the eastern edge of Central Park on Manhattan's Upper East Side, is by area one of the world's largest art museums. The first portion of the approximately 2-million-square-foot (190,000 m2) building was built in 1880. A much smaller second location, The Cloisters at Fort Tryon Park in Upper Manhattan, contains an extensive collection of art, architecture, and artifacts from medieval Europe.

    The Metropolitan Museum of Art was founded in 1870 with its mission to bring art and art education to the American people. The museum's permanent collection consists of works of art ranging from the ancient Near East and ancient Egypt, through classical antiquity to the contemporary world. It includes paintings, sculptures, and graphic works from many European Old Masters, as well as an extensive collection of American, modern, and contemporary art. The Met also maintains extensive holdings of African, Asian, Oceanian, Byzantine, and Islamic art. The museum is home to encyclopedic collections of musical instruments, costumes, and decorative arts and textiles, as well as antique weapons and armor from around the world. Several notable interiors, ranging from 1st-century Rome through modern American design, are installed in its galleries.

    1. ^ a b "Metropolitan Museum Launches New and Expanded Web Site" Archived November 28, 2016, at the Wayback Machine, press release, The Met, January 25, 2000.
    2. ^ "Today in Met History: April 13". The Metropolitan Museum of Art. Archived from the original on January 17, 2015. Retrieved January 16, 2015.
    3. ^ "The Metropolitan Museum of Art | About". www.artinfo.com. 2008. Archived from the original on September 26, 2011. Retrieved February 18, 2013.
    4. ^ Cite error: The named reference Met History was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    5. ^ New York Times, March 24, 2024
    6. ^ "New York Times", March 12, 2024, ""Audience Snapshot; Four Years After Shutdown, a Mixed Recovery"
    7. ^
    8. ^ "General Information - The Metropolitan Museum of Art". www.metmuseum.org. Retrieved March 6, 2024.


    Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

     
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    21 February 1878 – The first telephone directory is issued in New Haven, Connecticut.

    Telephone directory

    A "white pages" telephone directory

    A telephone directory, commonly called a telephone book, telephone address book, phonebook, or the white and yellow pages, is a listing of telephone subscribers in a geographical area or subscribers to services provided by the organization that publishes the directory. Its purpose is to allow the telephone number of a subscriber identified by name and address to be found.

    The advent of the Internet, search engines, and smartphones in the 21st century greatly reduced the need for a paper phone book.[1][2] Some communities, such as Seattle and San Francisco, sought to ban their unsolicited distribution as wasteful, unwanted and harmful to the environment.[3][4]

    The slogan "Let Your Fingers Do the Walking" refers to use of phone books.[1]

    1. ^ a b "Phone books used as truck fuel in Fla". The New York Post. 15 June 1992. p. 9.
    2. ^ By 1992 one phone company, which had collected 58,000 tons of old phone books, recycled them by converting them to fuel for some of their trucks.
    3. ^ Yellow Pages ruling endangers SF ban, Heather Knight, San Francisco Chronicle, 15 October 2012; retrieved 19 March 2013
    4. ^ Appeals court rules against Seattle's curbs on yellow pages, Emily Heffter, Seattle Times, 15 October 2012; retrieved 19 March 2013
     
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    22 February 1959Lee Petty wins the first Daytona 500.

    Lee Petty

    Lee Arnold Petty (March 14, 1914 – April 5, 2000)[2] was an American stock car racing driver who competed during the 1950s and 1960s. He is the patriarch of the Petty racing family. He was one of the early pioneers of NASCAR and one of its first superstars. He was NASCAR's first three-time Cup champion. He is the father of Richard Petty, who went on to become the winningest driver in NASCAR Cup Series history and one of the most successful stock car racing drivers of all time. He is also the grandfather of Kyle Petty and great grandfather of Adam Petty.[3]

    1. ^ Lee Petty Archived March 24, 2019, at the Wayback Machine at the Motorsports Hall of Fame of America
    2. ^ White, Ben (2009). NASCAR Racers. Motorbooks. p. 32. ISBN 978-0-7603-3577-2. Archived from the original on August 5, 2020. Retrieved April 13, 2020.
    3. ^ McGee, Ryan (October 26, 2023). "Top-5s: 75 things for NASCAR's 75th anniversary: Five greatest pre-Modern Era drivers". NASCAR. ESPN. Retrieved October 27, 2023.
     
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    23 February 1947International Organization for Standardization is founded.

    International Organization for Standardization

    The International Organization for Standardization (ISO /ˈs/[3]) is an independent, non-governmental, international standard development organization composed of representatives from the national standards organizations of member countries.[4] Membership requirements are given in Article 3 of the ISO Statutes.[5]

    ISO was founded on 23 February 1947, and (as of January 2024) it has published over 25,000 international standards covering almost all aspects of technology and manufacturing. It has over 800 technical committees (TCs) and subcommittees (SCs) to take care of standards development.[6]

    The organization develops and publishes international standards for easeness on end-user or commoners market, like availablity in technical and nontechnical fields, including everything from manufactured products and technology to food safety, transport, IT, agriculture, and healthcare.[7][8][9][10] More specialized topics like electrical and electronic engineering are instead handled by the International Electrotechnical Commission.[11] It is headquartered in Geneva, Switzerland.[7] The three official languages of ISO are English, French, and Russian.[1]

    1. ^ a b "How to use the ISO Catalogue". International Organization for Standardization. Archived from the original on 4 October 2007.
    2. ^ "ISO members". International Organization for Standardization. Archived from the original on 24 January 2021. Retrieved 17 November 2020.
    3. ^ Dare to dream BIG: Standards empower innovators (EN, ES, FR). ISO. 24 October 2016. Archived from the original on 14 February 2022. Retrieved 14 February 2022.
    4. ^ "ISO Membership Manual". ISO. Archived from the original on 10 April 2022. Retrieved 10 April 2022.
    5. ^ ISO Statutes (PDF) (in English, French, and Russian) (20th ed.). Geneva: International Organization for Standardization. 2022. ISBN 978-92-67-02040-2. Archived (PDF) from the original on 31 March 2022. Retrieved 12 April 2022.
    6. ^ "ISO – About us". ISO. Archived from the original on 5 April 2017. Retrieved 17 February 2023.
    7. ^ a b "About ISO". ISO. Archived from the original on 17 February 2023.
    8. ^ "New 'net zero' standards could transform the climate – unless they're derailed". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on 2 February 2022. Retrieved 18 March 2022.
    9. ^ "Health sector standards". ISO. 6 April 2023. Retrieved 28 January 2024.
    10. ^ "Transport sector standards". ISO. 20 January 2023. Retrieved 28 January 2024.
    11. ^ Editors of Encyclopedia Britannica. 3 June 2021. "International Organization for Standardization". Archived 12 April 2022 at the Wayback Machine. Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 2022-04-26.
     
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    24 February 1918Estonian Declaration of Independence.

    Estonian Declaration of Independence

    The tricolour flags of Estonia were displayed during the first proclamation of the Declaration of Independence on 23 February 1918 in Pärnu

    The Estonian Declaration of Independence, also known as the Manifesto to the Peoples of Estonia (Estonian: Manifest Eestimaa rahvastele), is the founding act which established the independent democratic Republic of Estonia on 24 February 1918. Since then the 24 February has been celebrated as the Estonian Independence Day, the national day of Estonia.

     
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    25 February 1951 – The first Pan American Games are officially opened in Buenos Aires by Argentine President Juan Perón.

    Pan American Games

    The Pan American Games (known colloquially as the Pan Am Games) is a continental multi-sport event in the Americas featuring summer sports, in which thousands of athletes participate in a variety of competitions. The competition is held among athletes from nations of the Americas, every four years in the year before the Summer Olympic Games. It is the second oldest continental games in the world. The only Winter Pan American Games were held in 1990. In 2021, the Junior Pan American Games was held for the first time specifically for young athletes.[1][2][3][4] The Pan American Sports Organization (PASO) is the governing body of the Pan American Games movement, whose structure and actions are defined by the Olympic Charter.[5]

    The most recent event was the XIX Pan American Games, held in Santiago from 20 October to 5 November 2023;[6] the XX Pan American Games will be held in 2027. Since the XV Pan American Games in 2007, host cities are contracted to manage both the Pan American and the Parapan American Games,[5] in which athletes with physical disabilities compete with one another. The Parapan American Games are held immediately following the Pan American Games.

    The Pan American Games Movement consists of international sports federations (IFs), National Olympic Committees (NOCs) that are recognized by PASO, and organizing committees for each specific Pan American Games. As the decision-making body, PASO is responsible for choosing the host city for each Pan American Games. The host city is responsible for organizing and funding a celebration of the Games consistent with the Olympic Charter (since PASO is affiliated with the IOC) and rules. The Pan American Games program, consisting of the sports to be contested at the Games, is determined by PASO. The celebration of the Games encompasses many rituals and symbols, such as the flag and torch, and the opening and closing ceremonies. Over 5,000 athletes compete at the Pan American Games in 36 sports and nearly 400 events. The first, second, and third-place finishers in each event receive gold, silver, and bronze medals, respectively.[7]

    1. ^ "Monterrey busca sede para Juegos Panamericanos Jr" (in Spanish). Radio Centro Deportes. 17 January 2019. Archived from the original on 19 January 2019. Retrieved 18 January 2019.
    2. ^ "México muestra interés para Panamericanos Junior 2021" (in Spanish). Mexican Olympic Committee. 17 January 2019. Archived from the original on 19 January 2019. Retrieved 18 January 2019.
    3. ^ "Panam Sports organizará Panamericanos Júnior y sopesa Panamericanos de Playa". La Vanguardia. Archived from the original on 19 January 2019. Retrieved 18 January 2019.
    4. ^ "PANAM SPORTS BEGINS IMPLEMENTATION OF STRATEGIC PLAN". Pan American Sports Organization. Archived from the original on 19 January 2019. Retrieved 18 January 2019.
    5. ^ a b "Parapan American Games". Americas Paralympic committee. Archived from the original on 30 July 2011. Retrieved 10 July 2011.
    6. ^ "Panamupdates". Panamupdates. Retrieved 21 March 2023.
    7. ^ Cite error: The named reference regulation was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
     
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    26 February 1993World Trade Center bombing: In New York City, a truck bomb parked below the North Tower of the World Trade Center explodes, killing six and injuring over a thousand people

    1993 World Trade Center bombing

    The 1993 World Trade Center bombing was a terrorist attack carried out on February 26, 1993, when a van bomb detonated below the North Tower of the World Trade Center complex in New York City. The 1,336 lb (606 kg) urea nitratehydrogen gas enhanced device[1] was intended to send the North Tower crashing into its twin, the South Tower, taking down both skyscrapers and killing tens of thousands of people. While it failed to do so, it killed six people, including a pregnant woman,[2] and caused over a thousand injuries.[3] About 50,000 people were evacuated from the buildings that day.[4][5]

    The attack was planned by a group of terrorists including Ramzi Yousef, Mahmud Abouhalima, Mohammad A. Salameh, Nidal Ayyad, Abdul Rahman Yasin, and Ahmed Ajaj. In March 1994, four men were convicted of carrying out the bombing: Abouhalima, Ajaj, Ayyad, and Salameh. The charges included conspiracy, explosive destruction of property, and interstate transportation of explosives. In November 1997, two more were convicted: Ramzi Yousef, the organizer behind the bombings, and Eyad Ismoil, who drove the van carrying the bomb.[6]

    Emad Salem, an FBI informant and a key witness in the trial of Ramzi Yousef, Abdul Hakim Murad, and Wali Khan Amin Shah, stated that the bomb itself was built under supervision from the FBI.[7] During his time as an FBI informant, Salem recorded hours of telephone conversations with his FBI handlers. In tapes made after the bombing, Salem alleged that an unnamed FBI supervisor declined to move forward on a plan that would have used a "phony powder" to fool the conspirators into believing that they were working with genuine explosives.[8]

    1. ^ Whitlock, Craig (July 5, 2005). "Homemade, Cheap and dangerous – Terror Cells Favor from Simple Ingredients In Building Bombs". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on October 6, 2008. Retrieved September 9, 2009.
    2. ^ "February 26, 1993 Commemoration". Each year on February 26, victims' families, survivors, downtown residents, and city and state officials gather at the 9/11 Memorial to mark the anniversary of the 1993 World Trade Center bombing with a moment of silence, the tolling of a bell, and a reading of the names of the six victims of the first terror attack at the site.
    3. ^ "FBI 100 First Strike: Global Terror in America". FBI.gov. Archived from the original on September 3, 2011. Retrieved September 8, 2011.
    4. ^ Childers, J. Gilmore; Henry J. DePippo (February 24, 1998). "Senate Judiciary Committee Hearings: Foreign Terrorists in America: Five Years After the World Trade Center". US Senate Judiciary Committee. Archived from the original on December 27, 2007. Retrieved January 8, 2008.
    5. ^ Wright, Lawrence, Looming Tower, Knopf, (2006) p. 178.
    6. ^ 1993 World Trade Center Bombing
    7. ^ "Informant says he built World Trade Center bomb".
    8. ^ "Tapes Depict Proposal to Thwart Bomb Used in Trade Center Blast," Ralph Blumenthal, The New York Times, October 28, 1993, Section A; Page 1; Column 4
     
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    27 February 1973 – The American Indian Movement occupies Wounded Knee in protest of the federal government.

    American Indian Movement

    The American Indian Movement (AIM) is an American Indian grassroots movement which was founded in Minneapolis, Minnesota in July 1968,[1] initially centered in urban areas in order to address systemic issues of poverty, discrimination, and police brutality against American Indians.[2] AIM soon widened its focus from urban issues to many Indigenous Tribal issues that American Indian groups have faced due to settler colonialism in the Americas. These issues have included treaty rights, high rates of unemployment, the lack of American Indian subjects in education, and the preservation of Indigenous cultures.[2][3]

    AIM was organized by American Indian men who had been serving time together in prison. They had been alienated from their traditional backgrounds as a result of the United States' Public Law 959 Indian Relocation Act of 1956, which supported thousands of American Indians who wanted to move from reservations to cities, in an attempt to enable them to have more economic opportunities for work. In addition, Public Law 280, otherwise known as the Indian Termination Act, proposed to terminate the federal government's relations with several tribes which were determined to be far along the path of assimilation.[4] These policies were enacted by the United States Congress under congressional plenary power.[5] As a result, nearly seventy percent of American Indians left their communal homelands on reservations and relocated to urban centers, many in hopes of finding economic sustainability. While many Urban Indians struggled with displacement and such radically different settings, some also began to organize in pan-Indian groups in urban centers. They were described as transnationals.[6] The American Indian Movement formed in such urbanized contexts, at a time of increasing Indian activism.[6]

    From November 1969 to June 1971, AIM participated in the occupation of the abandoned federal penitentiary on Alcatraz Island organized by seven Indian movements, including the Indians of All Tribes and Richard Oakes, a Mohawk activist.[4] In October 1972, AIM and other Indian groups gathered members from across the United States for a protest in Washington, D.C., known as the Trail of Broken Treaties. According to public documents obtained under the Freedom of Information Act (FOIA), advanced coordination occurred between federal Bureau of Indian Affairs staff and the authors of a twenty-point proposal drafted with the help of the AIM for delivery to the United States government officials focused on proposals intended to enhance US–Indian relations.

    In the decades since AIM's founding, the group has led protests advocating indigenous American interests, inspired cultural renewal, monitored police activities, and coordinated employment programs in cities and in rural reservation communities across the United States. They have also allied with indigenous interests outside the United States.

    1. ^ Davey, Katie Jean. "LibGuides: American Indian Movement (AIM): Overview". libguides.mnhs.org. Retrieved 2019-05-07.
    2. ^ a b Churchill, Ward (1990). The Cointel Pro Papers. Cambridge, MA: South End Press. p. 253. ISBN 2002106479.
    3. ^ Matthiessen, Peter (1980). In the Spirit of Crazy Horse. New York: The Viking Press. pp. 37–38. ISBN 0-670-39702-4.
    4. ^ Matthiessen, Peter (1980). In the Spirit of Crazy Horse. New York: The Viking Press. pp. 28–29. ISBN 0-670-39702-4.
    5. ^ Pevar, Stephen L. (2012). The Rights of Indians and Tribes. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. p. 13. ISBN 978-0-19-979535-2.
    6. ^ a b Ramirez, Renya K. (2007). Native Hubs. Durham & London: Duke University Press. p. 177. ISBN 978-0-8223-4030-0.
     
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    28 February 1991 – The first Gulf War ends.

    Gulf War

    The Gulf War was an armed conflict between Iraq and a 42-country coalition led by the United States. The coalition's efforts against Iraq were carried out in two key phases: Operation Desert Shield, which marked the military buildup from August 1990 to January 1991; and Operation Desert Storm, which began with the aerial bombing campaign against Iraq on 17 January 1991 and came to a close with the American-led liberation of Kuwait on 28 February 1991.

    On 2 August 1990, Iraq, governed by dictator Saddam Hussein, launched an invasion of neighboring Kuwait and fully occupied the country within two days. Initially, Iraq ran the occupied territory under a puppet government known as the "Republic of Kuwait" before proceeding with an outright annexation in which Kuwaiti sovereign territory was split, with the "Saddamiyat al-Mitla' District" being carved out of the country's northern portion and the "Kuwait Governorate" covering the rest. Varying speculations have been made regarding intents behind the Iraqi invasion, most notably including Iraq's inability to repay a US$14 billion debt the country had borrowed from Kuwait to finance its prior war with Iran. Kuwait's demands for repayment were coupled with its surge in petroleum production levels, which kept revenues down for Iraq and further weakened its economic prospects; throughout much of the 1980s, Kuwait's oil production was above its mandatory quota under OPEC, which kept international oil prices down. Iraq interpreted the Kuwaiti refusal to decrease oil production as an act of aggression towards the Iraqi economy, leading up to the hostilities.

    The invasion of Kuwait was immediately met with international condemnation, including Resolution 660 by the United Nations Security Council (UNSC), and economic sanctions were unanimously imposed on Iraq in its Resolution 661. British prime minister Margaret Thatcher and American president George H. W. Bush deployed troops and equipment into Saudi Arabia and openly urged other countries to send their own forces. An array of countries joined the American-led coalition, forming the largest military alliance since World War II. The bulk of the coalition's military power was from the United States, with Saudi Arabia, the United Kingdom, and Egypt as the largest lead-up contributors, in that order; Saudi Arabia and the Kuwaiti government-in-exile paid out around US$32 billion of the US$60 billion cost to mobilize the coalition against Iraq.

    UNSC Resolution 678 adopted on 29 November 1990 offered Iraq one final chance until 15 January 1991 to implement Resolution 660 and withdraw from Kuwait; it further empowered states after the deadline to use "all necessary means" to force Iraq out of Kuwait. Initial efforts to dislodge the Iraqis from Kuwait began with an aerial and naval bombardment on 17 January 1991, which continued for five weeks. As the Iraqi military struggled against the coalition attacks, Iraq began to fire missiles at Israel. The coalition did not include Israel, however the Iraqi leadership expected the missile barrage to provoke an independent Israeli military response, which would prompt the coalition's Muslim-majority countries to withdraw on account of tense relations between Arab nations and Israel. The provocation was unsuccessful; Israel did not retaliate and Iraq continued to remain at odds with most Muslim-majority countries. Iraqi missile barrages against coalition targets in Saudi Arabia were also largely unsuccessful, and on 24 February 1991, the coalition launched a major ground assault into Iraqi-occupied Kuwait. The offensive was a decisive victory for the coalition, who liberated Kuwait and promptly began to advance past the Iraq–Kuwait border into Iraqi territory. A hundred hours after the beginning of the ground campaign, the coalition ceased its advance into Iraq and declared a ceasefire. Aerial and ground combat was confined to Iraq, Kuwait, and areas straddling the Iraq–Saudi Arabia border.

    The conflict marked the introduction of live news broadcasts from the front lines of the battle, principally by the American network CNN. It has also earned the nickname Video Game War, after the daily broadcast of images from cameras onboard American bombers during Operation Desert Storm. The Gulf War has gained notoriety for including three of the largest tank battles in American military history.

    1. ^ "DESERT SHIELD AND DESERT STORM A CHRONOLOGY AND TROOP LIST FOR THE 1990–1991 PERSIAN GULF CRISIS" (PDF). apps.dtic.mil. Archived (PDF) from the original on 12 April 2019. Retrieved 18 December 2018.
    2. ^ Persian Gulf War, the Sandhurst-trained Prince
      Khaled bin Sultan al-Saud was co-commander with General Norman Schwarzkopf
      www.casi.org.uk/discuss Archived 3 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine
    3. ^ General Khaled was Co-Commander, with US General Norman Schwarzkopf, of the allied coalition that liberated Kuwait www.thefreelibrary.com Archived 30 April 2011 at the Wayback Machine
    4. ^ Knights, Michael (2005). Cradle of Conflict: Iraq and the Birth of Modern U.S. Military Power. United States Naval Institute. p. 20]. ISBN 978-1-59114-444-1.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
    5. ^ a b "Persian Gulf War". MSN Encarta. Archived from the original on 1 November 2009.
    6. ^ 18 M1 Abrams, 11 M60, 2 AMX-30
    7. ^ CheckPoint, Ludovic Monnerat. "Guerre du Golfe: le dernier combat de la division Tawakalna".
    8. ^ Scales, Brig. Gen. Robert H.: Certain Victory. Brassey's, 1994, p. 279.
    9. ^ Halberstadt 1991. p. 35
    10. ^ Atkinson, Rick. Crusade, The untold story of the Persian Gulf War. Houghton Mifflin Company, 1993. pp. 332–3
    11. ^ Captain Todd A. Buchs, B. Co. Commander, Knights in the Desert. Publisher/Editor Unknown. p. 111.
    12. ^ Malory, Marcia. "Tanks During the First Gulf War – Tank History". Archived from the original on 3 March 2016. Retrieved 5 July 2016.
    13. ^ M60 vs T-62 Cold War Combatants 1956–92 by Lon Nordeen & David Isby
    14. ^ "TAB H – Friendly-fire Incidents". Archived from the original on 1 June 2013. Retrieved 5 July 2016.
    15. ^ NSIAD-92-94, "Operation Desert Storm: Early Performance Assessment of Bradley and Abrams". Archived 21 February 2014 at the Wayback Machine US General Accounting Office, 10 January 1992. Quote: "According to information provided by the Army's Office of the Deputy Chief of Staff for Operations and Plans, 20 Bradleys were destroyed during the Gulf war. Another 12 Bradleys were damaged, but four of these were quickly repaired. Friendly fire accounted for 17 of the destroyed Bradleys and three of the damaged ones
    16. ^ Iraqi Invasion of Kuwait; 1990 (Air War) Archived 6 October 2014 at the Wayback Machine. Acig.org. Retrieved on 12 June 2011
    17. ^ a b c d e Bourque (2001), p. 455.
    18. ^ "Appendix – Iraqi Death Toll | The Gulf War | FRONTLINE | PBS". www.pbs.org. Retrieved 24 July 2021.
    19. ^ Tucker-Jones, Anthony (31 May 2014). The Gulf War: Operation Desert Storm 1990–1991. Pen and Sword. ISBN 978-1-4738-3730-0. Archived from the original on 5 December 2022. Retrieved 22 April 2022.
    20. ^ "Human Rights Watch". Archived from the original on 22 April 2022. Retrieved 22 April 2022.
    21. ^ "Appendix A: Chronology - February 1991". Naval History and Heritage Command. Retrieved 4 February 2024.
    22. ^ "Iraq air force wants Iran to give back its planes". Reuters. 10 August 2007.
    23. ^ "The Use of Terror during Iraq's invasion of Kuwait". The Jewish Agency for Israel. Archived from the original on 24 January 2005. Retrieved 22 June 2010.
    24. ^ "Kuwait: missing people: a step in the right direction". Red Cross. Archived from the original on 7 March 2016. Retrieved 5 March 2014.
    25. ^ "The Wages of War: Iraqi Combatant and Noncombatant Fatalities in the 2003 Conflict". Project on Defense Alternatives. Retrieved 9 May 2009.
     
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    1 March 1845 – United States President John Tyler signs a bill authorizing the United States to annex the Republic of Texas.

    John Tyler

    John Tyler (March 29, 1790 – January 18, 1862) was an American politician who served as the tenth president of the United States from 1841 to 1845, after briefly holding office as the tenth vice president in 1841. He was elected vice president on the 1840 Whig ticket with President William Henry Harrison, succeeding to the presidency following Harrison's death 31 days after assuming office. Tyler was a stalwart supporter and advocate of states' rights, including regarding slavery, and he adopted nationalistic policies as president only when they did not infringe on the states' powers. His unexpected rise to the presidency posed a threat to the presidential ambitions of Henry Clay and other Whig politicians and left Tyler estranged from both of the nation's major political parties at the time.

    Tyler was born into a prominent slaveholding Virginia family. He became a national figure at a time of political upheaval. In the 1820s, the Democratic-Republican Party, at the time the nation's only political party, split into several factions. Initially a Democrat, Tyler opposed President Andrew Jackson during the nullification crisis as he saw Jackson's actions as infringing on states' rights and criticized Jackson's expansion of executive power during the Bank War. This led Tyler to ally with the Whig Party. He served as a Virginia state legislator and governor, U.S. representative, and U.S. senator. Tyler was a regional Whig vice-presidential nominee in the 1836 presidential election; they lost. He was the sole nominee on the 1840 Whig presidential ticket as William Henry Harrison's running mate. Under the campaign slogan "Tippecanoe and Tyler Too", the Harrison–Tyler ticket defeated incumbent president Martin Van Buren.

    President Harrison died just one month after taking office, and Tyler became the first vice president to succeed to the presidency. Amid uncertainty as to whether a vice president succeeded a deceased president, or merely took on his duties, Tyler immediately took the presidential oath of office, setting a lasting precedent. He signed into law some of the Whig-controlled Congress's bills, but he was a strict constructionist and vetoed the party's bills to create a national bank and raise tariff rates. He believed that the president, rather than Congress, should set policy, and he sought to bypass the Whig establishment led by Senator Henry Clay. Most of Tyler's cabinet resigned shortly into his term and the Whigs expelled him from the party, dubbing him "His Accidency". Tyler was the first president to have his veto of legislation overridden by Congress. He faced a stalemate on domestic policy, although he had several foreign-policy achievements, including the Webster–Ashburton Treaty with Britain and the Treaty of Wanghia with China. Tyler firmly believed in manifest destiny and saw the annexation of Texas as economically advantageous to the United States, signing a bill to offer Texas statehood just before leaving office and returning to his plantation.

    When the American Civil War began in 1861, Tyler at first supported the Peace Conference. When it failed, he sided with the Confederacy. He presided over the opening of the Virginia Secession Convention and served as a member of the Provisional Congress of the Confederate States. Tyler subsequently won election to the Confederate House of Representatives but died before it assembled. Some scholars have praised Tyler's political resolve, but historians have generally given his presidency a low ranking. Tyler did make progress in combining the American and British navies to stop oceanic African slave trafficking under the Webster–Ashburton Treaty. That treaty also peacefully settled the border between Maine and Canada. Today, Tyler is seldom remembered in comparison to other presidents and maintains only a limited presence in American cultural memory.[1]


    Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

    1. ^ Cite error: The named reference legacy was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
     
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    2 March 1992 – Start of the war in Transnistria.

    Transnistria War

    The Transnistria War (Romanian: Războiul din Transnistria; Russian: Война в Приднестровье, romanizedVoyna v Pridnestrovye) was an armed conflict that broke out on 2 November 1990 in Dubăsari (Russian: Дубосса́ры, romanizedDubossary) between pro-Transnistria (Pridnestrovian Moldavian Republic, PMR) forces, including the Transnistrian Republican Guard, militia and neo-Cossack units, which were supported by elements of the Russian 14th Army, and pro-Moldovan forces, including Moldovan troops and police.

    Fighting intensified on 1 March 1992 and, alternating with ad hoc ceasefires, lasted throughout the spring and early summer of 1992 until a ceasefire was declared on 21 July 1992, which has held. The conflict is sometimes known as the Moldo-Russian war (Romanian: Războiul moldo-rus) in Moldova and Romania.[33]


    Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

    1. ^ Adam, Vlad (2017). Romanian involvement in the Transnistrian War (Thesis). Leiden University. pp. 1–31.
    2. ^ De La Pedraja, René (2018). The Russian Military Resurgence: Post-Soviet Decline and Rebuilding, 1992–2018. McFarland. pp. 93–94. ISBN 9781476634494. This response was too much for the commander of the 14th Army General Yuri Netkachev, who ordered Russian troops to drive out the Moldovan forces. The 14th Army had always supported the separatists since the very beginning, but this direct support was the first open participation in combat. ... The participation of the 14th Army was indispensable for the victory of the separatists, ... Moldovan forces were concentrated in a forest near Bender, and Lebed decided to stop their advance by relying on his powerful artillery. At 0300 on 3 July massive barrages rained down on the unsuspecting Moldovans ...
    3. ^ de Waal, Thomas (2018). Uncertain Ground: Engaging with Europe's De Facto States and Breakaway Territories (PDF). Carnegie Endowment for International Peace. p. 39. Neither side had a proper military force. The intervention of the Russian Fourteenth Army and its commander General Alexander Lebed on behalf of the Transdniestrians was decisive.
    4. ^ Kosienkowski, Marcin; Schreiber, William (8 May 2012). Moldova: Arena of International Influences. Lexington Books. ISBN 9780739173923. Retrieved 4 September 2022.
    5. ^ "Павел Крянгэ: «За всю войну я не получил ни одного письменного приказа!". KP.Md. 3 March 2010. Retrieved 19 March 2022.
    6. ^ a b http://lex.justice.md/viewdoc.php?action=view&view=doc&id=304089&lang=2[bare URL]
    7. ^ http://www.pmr.idknet.com/wiki/index.php/ Archived 25 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine[bare URL]
    8. ^ "Конфликт глубокой заморозки" [Deep freeze conflict]. Mk.ru. August 2012. Retrieved 19 March 2022.
    9. ^ http://war.freemd.info/?id=escalation Archived 4 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine[bare URL]
    10. ^ "Приднестровье без Шевцова". Zavtra.ru. Retrieved 19 March 2022.
    11. ^ scris de M.A. "Transnistria: Monument pentru generalul criminal Lebed | Ziua Veche". Ziuaveche.ro. Retrieved 19 March 2022.
    12. ^ a b Tarasiuk, Taras; Umland, Andreas (29 September 2021). "Unexpected Friendships: Cooperation of Ukrainian Ultra-Nationalists with Russian and Pro-Kremlin Actors". Illiberalism Studies Program. Archived from the original on 18 August 2023. Retrieved 5 May 2023.
    13. ^ Munteanu, Anatole (10 July 2009). "Кампания в Тигине". artofwar.ru (in Russian). Archived from the original on 27 August 2016. Retrieved 21 August 2022.
    14. ^ a b Richard Humphries. Transnistria: relic of a bygone era, The Japan Times, 8 October 2001. Retrieved 6 August 2014
    15. ^ "Ethnicity and power in the contemporary world" Chapter 5, "Dynamics of the Moldova Trans-Dniester ethnic conflict (late 1980s to early 1990s)" Archived 10 March 2009 at the Wayback Machine, Kumar Rupesinghe and Valery A. Tishkov, United Nations University Press, 1996
    16. ^ "Mircea Snegur: "Ne-am achitat cu România cu un MiG 29"". 14 October 2011.
    17. ^ "Borderland Europe: Transforming Transnistria?". Archived from the original on 25 March 2007. Retrieved 6 June 2019.
    18. ^ "RUSSIA". www.hrw.org.
    19. ^ Necșuțu, Mădălin (22 January 2021). "BIRN fact-check: what must be done for Russian forces to leave Transnistria?". Balkan Insight.
    20. ^ Hughes, James and Sasse, Gwendolyn: Ethnicity and territory in the former Soviet Union: regions in conflict. Taylor & Francis, 2002, page 107. ISBN 0-7146-8210-1
    21. ^ Voskresenskaya, Ludmila (6 April 2014). "6 апреля казаки в Краснодаре провели поминовение погибших во время военного конфликта в Приднестровье (ФОТО)" (in Russian). Radio Pridnestrovie. Archived from the original on 10 September 2014.
    22. ^ Gladkovskaya, V. "Участие казаков России в Приднестровском конфликте". olvia.idknet.com (in Russian). Archived from the original on 26 July 2014. Retrieved 21 July 2022.
    23. ^ Коноплёв, Роман (2 February 2014). "Приднестровье и Молдова. Можно ли уйти из СССР?". Roman Konoplev – via Google Books.
    24. ^ Bejan, Ștefan (21 August 2017). ""Noi trebuie să ne închinăm rușilor și să uităm de români". Interviu cu primul lider al găgăuzilor din Moldova". moldNova (in Romanian). Archived from the original on 23 August 2017.
    25. ^ The radical right in Central and Eastern Europe since 1989 by Sabrina Ramet, Pennsylvania University Press. 1999 ISBN 0-271-01810-0 (page 290 and continuing from there)
    26. ^ Tkachuk, Maryna (19 August 2011). ""Краще згинути вовком, нiж жити псом"" ["Better to die as a wolf than live as a dog"]. Ukraina Moloda (in Ukrainian). Retrieved 25 December 2023.
    27. ^ "Monumentul eroilor căzuți în războiul transnistrean". Monument.md. 29 August 1998. Archived from the original on 22 July 2011. Retrieved 5 September 2011.
    28. ^ Accente, Nr. 36, 14 March 2002
    29. ^ Dnestrovskaya Pravda, no. 84-85, page 2, 24 November 2001
    30. ^ Cite error: The named reference nr2.ru was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    31. ^ ВОЗРОЖДЕННОМУ В ПРИДНЕСТРОВЬЕ ЧЕРНОМОРСКОМУ КАЗАЧЬЕМУ ВОЙСКУ – 15 ЛЕТ Archived 3 May 2007 at the Wayback Machine Olvia Press. 18 December 2006. Retrieved 18 December 2006; See also: "В Приднестровье отмечают 15-летие Черноморского казачьего войск," Archived 22 February 2014 at the Wayback Machine«Новый Регион – Приднестровье», 14 December 2006.
    32. ^ Uppsala Conflict Data Program, Moldova: Dniestr (entire conflict), Government of Moldova – PMR, http://www.ucdp.uu.se/gpdatabase/gpcountry.php?id=108&regionSelect=9-Eastern_Europe# Archived 4 April 2016 at the Wayback Machine, viewed 3 May 2013
    33. ^ Ursu, Valentina (1 March 2020). "Oazu Nantoi: "Conflictul nu este intern. Pacificatorii ruși au menirea de a nu admite rezolvarea acestui conflict"". Radio Europa Liberă Moldova (in Romanian).
     
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    3 March 1938Oil is discovered in Saudi Arabia.

    History of the oil industry in Saudi Arabia

    Dammam No. 7, the first commercial oil well in Saudi Arabia, struck oil on March 3,[1] 1938.
    Saudi Arabia crude oil production 1950-2012

    Saudi Arabian oil was first discovered by the Americans in commercial quantities at Dammam oil well No. 7 in 1938 in what is now modern day Dhahran.

    1. ^ Society, National Geographic (20 February 2014). "Oil Discovered in Saudi Arabia". nationalgeographic.org. Retrieved 13 April 2018.
     
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    4 March 1665 – English King Charles II declares war on the Netherlands marking the start of the Second Anglo-Dutch War.

    Second Anglo-Dutch War

    The Second Anglo-Dutch War, or Second Dutch War,[b] began on 4 March 1665, and concluded with the signing of the Treaty of Breda on 31 July 1667. One in a series of naval conflicts between England and the Dutch Republic, its causes were a combination of political differences and commercial disputes.

    Despite several major battles, neither the English Royal Navy or the Dutch States Navy was able to score a decisive victory, and by the end of 1666 the war had reached a stalemate. Although peace talks began, neither side was willing to make significant concessions until the Dutch Raid on the Medway in June 1667 forced Charles II to make terms.

    The treaty eliminated a number of long-standing issues, and in the long-term made it possible for the two countries to unite against the expansionist policies pursued by Louis XIV of France. In the short-term however, Charles' desire to avenge this setback led to the Third Anglo-Dutch War in 1672.


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    5 March 1616Nicolaus Copernicus's book On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres is added to the Index of Forbidden Books 73 years after it was first published.

    Index Librorum Prohibitorum

    The Master Title page of Index Librorum Prohibitorum (In Venice, 1564).

    The Index Librorum Prohibitorum (English: Index of Forbidden Books) was a changing list of publications deemed heretical or contrary to morality by the Sacred Congregation of the Index (a former Dicastery of the Roman Curia); Catholics were forbidden to print or read them, subject to the local bishop.[1] Catholic states could enact laws to adapt or adopt the list and enforce it.

    The Index was active from 1560 to 1966.[2][3][4][page needed] It banned thousands of book titles and blacklisted publications, including the works of Europe's intellectual elites.[5][6][7]

    The Index condemned religious and secular texts alike, grading works by the degree to which they were deemed to be repugnant or dangerous to the church at the time.[8] The aim of the list was to protect church members from reading theologically, culturally, or politically disruptive books. At times such books included works by saints, such as theologian Robert Bellarmine[9] and philosopher Antonio Rosmini-Serbati,[10] astronomers, such as Johannes Kepler's Epitome astronomiae Copernicanae (published in three volumes from 1618 to 1621), which was on the Index from 1621 to 1835; works by philosophers, such as Immanuel Kant's Critique of Pure Reason (1781); and editions and translations of the Bible that had not been approved. Editions of the Index also contained the rules of the Church relating to the reading, selling, and preemptive censorship of books.[11]

    1. ^ Grendler, Paul F. "Printing and censorship" in The Cambridge History of Renaissance Philosophy, Charles B. Schmitt, ed. (Cambridge University Press, 1988, ISBN 978-0-52139748-3) pp. 45–46
    2. ^ The 20th and final edition of the Index appeared in 1948; the Index was formally abolished on 14 June 1966 by Pope Paul VI. "Notification regarding the abolition of the Index of books". 14 June 1966.
    3. ^ The Church in the Modern Age, (Volume 10) by Hubert Jedin, John Dolan, Gabriel Adriányi 1981 ISBN 082450013X, p. 168
    4. ^ Kusukawa, Sachiko (1999). "Galileo and Books". Starry Messenger.
    5. ^ Lenard, Max (2006). "On the origin, development and demise of the Index librorum prohibitorum". Journal of Access Services. 3 (4): 51–63. doi:10.1300/J204v03n04_05. S2CID 144325885.
    6. ^ Anastaplo, George. "Censorship". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 5 April 2022.
    7. ^ Hilgers, Joseph (1908). "Censorship of Books". The Catholic Encyclopedia. Vol. 3. Robert Appleton Company. Retrieved 5 April 2022.
    8. ^ Lyons, Martyns (2011). A Living History. Los Angeles. pp. Chapter 2.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
    9. ^ Giannini, Massimo Carlo. "Robert Bellarmine: Jesuit, Intellectual, Saint". Pontifical Gregorian University. Retrieved 30 August 2023.
    10. ^ "Cardinal Saraiva calls new blessed Antonio Rosmini "giant of the culture"". Catholic News Agency.
    11. ^ Index Librorum Prohibitorum, 1559, Regula Quarta ("Rule 4")
     
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    6 March 1992 – The Michelangelo computer virus begins to affect computers.

    Michelangelo (computer virus)

    The Michelangelo virus is a computer virus first discovered on 4 February 1991 in Australia.[1] The virus was designed to infect DOS systems, but did not engage the operating system or make any OS calls. Michelangelo, like all boot sector viruses, operated at the BIOS level. Each year, the virus remained dormant until March 6, the birthday of Renaissance artist Michelangelo. There is no reference to the artist in the virus, and it is doubtful that the virus's developer(s) intended a connection between the virus and the artist. The name was chosen by researchers who noticed the coincidence of the activation date. The actual significance of the date to the author is unknown. Michelangelo is a variant of the already endemic Stoned virus.[citation needed]

    On March 6, if the PC is an AT or a PS/2, the virus overwrites the first one hundred sectors of the hard disk with nulls. The virus assumes a geometry of 256 cylinders, 4 heads, 17 sectors per track. Although all the user's data would still be on the hard disk, it would be irretrievable for the average user.[citation needed]

    On hard disks, the virus moves the original master boot record to cylinder 0, head 0, sector 7.

    On floppy disks, if the disk is 360 KB, the virus moves the original boot sector to cylinder 0, head 1, sector 3.

    On other disks, the virus moves the original boot sector to cylinder 0, head 1, sector 14.

    • This is the last directory of the 1.2 MB disks.
    • This is the second-to-last directory of the 1.44 MB disks.
    • The directory does not exist on 720 KB disks.

    Although designed to infect DOS systems, the virus can easily disrupt other operating systems installed on the system since, like many viruses of its era, the Michelangelo infects the master boot record of a hard drive. Once a system became infected, any floppy disk inserted into the system (and written to; in 1992 a PC system could not detect that a floppy had been inserted, so the virus could not infect the floppy until some access to the disk is made) becomes immediately infected as well. And because the virus spends most of its time dormant, activating only on March 6, it is conceivable that an infected computer could go for years without detection – as long as it wasn't booted on that date while infected.

    The virus first came to widespread international attention in January 1992, when it was revealed that a few computer and software manufacturers had accidentally shipped products, for example Intel's LANSpool print server, infected with the virus. Although the infected machines numbered only in the hundreds, the resulting publicity spiraled into "expert" claims, partially led by anti-virus company founder John McAfee,[2][3] of thousands or even millions of computers infected by Michelangelo. However, on March 6, 1992, only 10,000 to 20,000 cases of data loss were reported.[citation needed]

    In subsequent years, users were advised not to run PCs on March 6, waiting until March 7, or else reset the PC date to March 7 at some time on March 5 (to skip March 6). Eventually, the news media lost interest, and the virus was quickly forgotten. Despite the scenario given above, in which an infected computer could evade detection for years, by 1997 no cases were being reported in the wild.[citation needed]

     
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    7 March 1986Challenger Disaster: Divers from the USS Preserver locate the crew cabin of Challenger on the ocean floor.

    Space Shuttle Challenger disaster

    On January 28, 1986, the Space Shuttle Challenger broke apart 73 seconds into its flight, killing all seven crew members aboard. The spacecraft disintegrated 46,000 feet (14 km) above the Atlantic Ocean, off the coast of Cape Canaveral, Florida, at 11:39 a.m. EST (16:39 UTC). It was the first fatal accident involving an American spacecraft while in flight.[1][2]

    The mission, designated STS-51-L, was the 10th flight for the orbiter and the 25th flight of the Space Shuttle fleet. The crew was scheduled to deploy a communications satellite and study Halley's Comet while they were in orbit, in addition to taking schoolteacher Christa McAuliffe into space under the Teacher In Space program. The latter task resulted in a higher-than-usual media interest in and coverage of the mission; the launch and subsequent disaster were seen live in many schools across the United States.

    The cause of the disaster was the failure of the primary and secondary redundant O-ring seals in a joint in the shuttle's right solid rocket booster (SRB). The record-low temperatures on the morning of the launch had stiffened the rubber O-rings, reducing their ability to seal the joints. Shortly after liftoff, the seals were breached, and hot pressurized gas from within the SRB leaked through the joint and burned through the aft attachment strut connecting it to the external propellant tank (ET), then into the tank itself. The collapse of the ET's internal structures and the rotation of the SRB that followed threw the shuttle stack, traveling at a speed of Mach 1.92, into a direction that allowed aerodynamic forces to tear the orbiter apart. Both SRBs detached from the now-destroyed ET and continued to fly uncontrollably until the range safety officer destroyed them.

    The crew compartment, human remains, and many other fragments from the shuttle were recovered from the ocean floor after a three-month search-and-recovery operation. The exact timing of the deaths of the crew is unknown, but several crew members are thought to have survived the initial breakup of the spacecraft. The orbiter had no escape system, and the impact of the crew compartment at terminal velocity with the ocean surface was too violent to be survivable.

    The disaster resulted in a 32-month hiatus in the Space Shuttle program. President Ronald Reagan created the Rogers Commission to investigate the accident. The commission criticized NASA's organizational culture and decision-making processes that had contributed to the accident. Test data since 1977 demonstrated a potentially catastrophic flaw in the SRBs' O-rings, but neither NASA nor SRB manufacturer Morton Thiokol had addressed this known defect. NASA managers also disregarded engineers' warnings about the dangers of launching in cold temperatures and did not report these technical concerns to their superiors.

    As a result of this disaster, NASA established the Office of Safety, Reliability, and Quality Assurance, and arranged for deployment of commercial satellites from expendable launch vehicles rather than from a crewed orbiter. To replace Challenger, the construction of a new Space Shuttle orbiter, Endeavour, was approved in 1987, and the new orbiter first flew in 1992. Subsequent missions were launched with redesigned SRBs and their crews wore pressurized suits during ascent and reentry.

    1. ^ Lotito, Jennifer. "3 Leadership Lessons From The Challenger Space Shuttle Disaster". Forbes. Archived from the original on January 28, 2024. Retrieved January 28, 2024.
    2. ^ "Challenger explosion was 38 years ago today; Naples' readers recall event". Naples Daily News. Archived from the original on January 28, 2024. Retrieved January 28, 2024.
     

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