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This day in .....

Discussion in 'Break Room' started by NewsBot, Apr 6, 2008.

  1. NewsBot

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    25 May 1925Scopes Trial: John T. Scopes is indicted for teaching human evolution in Tennessee.

    John T. Scopes

    John Thomas Scopes (August 3, 1900 – October 21, 1970) was a teacher in Dayton, Tennessee, who was charged on May 5, 1925, with violating Tennessee's Butler Act, which prohibited the teaching of human evolution in Tennessee schools. He was tried in a case known as the Scopes Trial, and was found guilty and fined $100 (equivalent to $1,669 in 2022).

     
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    26 May 1868 – The Impeachment of Andrew Johnson ends with his acquittal by one vote.

    Impeachment of Andrew Johnson

    The impeachment of Andrew Johnson was initiated on February 24, 1868, when the United States House of Representatives passed a resolution to impeach Andrew Johnson, the 17th president of the United States, for "high crimes and misdemeanors". The alleged high crimes and misdemeanors were afterwards specified in eleven articles of impeachment adopted by the House on March 2 and 3, 1868. The primary charge against Johnson was that he had violated the Tenure of Office Act. Specifically, that he had acted to remove from office Edwin Stanton and to replace him with Brevet Major General Lorenzo Thomas as secretary of war ad interim. The Tenure of Office Act had been passed by Congress in March 1867 over Johnson's veto with the primary intent of protecting Stanton from being fired without the Senate's consent. Stanton often sided with the Radical Republican faction and did not have a good relationship with Johnson.

    Johnson was the first United States president to be impeached. After the House formally adopted the articles of impeachment, they forwarded them to the United States Senate for adjudication. The trial in the Senate began on March 5, with Chief Justice Salmon P. Chase presiding. On May 16, the Senate voted against convicting Johnson on one of the articles, with its 35–19 vote in favor of conviction falling one vote short of the necessary two-thirds majority. A 10-day recess of the Senate trial was called before reconvening to convict him on additional articles. On May 26, the Senate voted against convicting the president on two more articles by margins identical to the first vote. After this, the trial was adjourned sine die without votes being held on the remaining eight articles of impeachment.

    The impeachment and trial of Andrew Johnson had important political implications for the balance of federal legislative-executive power. It maintained the principle that Congress should not remove the president from office simply because its members disagreed with him over policy, style, and administration of the office. It also resulted in diminished presidential influence on public policy and overall governing power, fostering a system of governance which future-President Woodrow Wilson referred to in the 1880s as "Congressional Government".

     
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    27 May 1996First Chechen War: Russian President Boris Yeltsin meets with Chechnyan rebels for the first time and negotiates a cease-fire.

    First Chechen War

    The First Chechen War, also referred to as the First Russo-Chechen War, was a struggle for independence waged by the Chechen Republic of Ichkeria against the Russian Federation from December 11th, 1994 to August 31st, 1996. This conflict was preceded by the battle of Grozny in November 1994, during which Russia covertly sought to overthrow the new Chechen government. Following the intense Battle of Grozny in 1994–1995, which concluded as a pyrrhic victory for the Russian federal forces, their subsequent efforts to establish control over the remaining lowlands and mountainous regions of Chechnya were met with fierce resistance from Chechen guerrillas who often conducted surprise raids.

    Despite Russia's considerable military advantages, the recapture of Grozny in 1996 significantly demoralised Russian troops. This development led Boris Yeltsin's government to announce a ceasefire with the Chechens in 1996 and ultimately culminated in the signing of a peace treaty in 1997.

    The official Russian estimate of Russian military deaths was 5,732, but according to other estimates, the number of Russian military deaths was as high as 14,000.[25] According to various estimates, the number of Chechen military deaths was approximately 3,000–10,000,[17] the number of Chechen civilian deaths was between 30,000 and 100,000. Over 200,000 Chechen civilians may have been injured, more than 500,000 people were displaced, and cities and villages were reduced to rubble across the republic.[26]

    1. ^ "TURKISH VOLUNTEERS IN CHECHNYA". Jamestown.
    2. ^ Amjad M. Jaimoukha (2005). The Chechens: A Handbook. Psychology Press. p. 237. ISBN 978-0-415-32328-4.
    3. ^ Politics of Conflict: A Survey, p. 68, at Google Books
    4. ^ Energy and Security in the Caucasus, p. 66, at Google Books
    5. ^ "Radical Ukrainian Nationalism and the War in Chechnya". Jamestown. -UNSO's "Argo" squad -Viking Brigade
    6. ^ Cooley, John K. (2002). Unholy Wars: Afghanistan, America and International Terrorism (3rd ed.). London: Pluto Press. p. 195. ISBN 978-0-7453-1917-9. A Turkish Fascist youth group, the "Grey Wolves," was recruited to fight with the Chechens.
    7. ^ Goltz, Thomas (2003). Chechnya Diary: A War Correspondent's Story of Surviving the War in Chechnya. New York: Thomas Dunne Books. p. 22. ISBN 978-0-312-26874-9. I called a well-informed diplomat pal and arranged to meet him at a bar favored by the pan-Turkic crowd known as the Gray Wolves, who were said to be actively supporting the Chechens with men and arms.
      ...the Azerbaijani Gray Wolf leader, Iskander, Hamidov...
    8. ^ Isingor, Ali (6 September 2000). "Istanbul: Gateway to a holy war". CNN. Archived from the original on 17 October 2014.
    9. ^ "Grey Wolves in Syria". Egypt Today. 11 May 2017. Archived from the original on 21 July 2023. Retrieved 21 July 2023.{{cite magazine}}: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link)
    10. ^ Galeotti, Mark (2014). Russia's War in Chechnya 1994–2009. Osprey Publishing. ISBN 978-1-78200-279-6.
    11. ^ "Breaking the Conflict Trap: Civil War and Development Policy" (PDF). World Bank Document. Retrieved 29 September 2022.
    12. ^ Lutz, Raymond R. (April 1997). "Russian Strategy In Chechnya: a Case Study in Failure". Archived from the original on 27 October 2016. Retrieved 9 December 2017.
    13. ^ "Radical Ukrainian Nationalism and the War in Chechnya". Jamestown. The Jamestown Foundation.
    14. ^ Кривошеев, Г. Ф., ed. (2001). Россия и СССР в войнах XX века. Потери вооруженных сил (in Russian). Олма-Пресс. p. 581. ISBN 5-224-01515-4.
    15. ^ Кривошеев, Г. Ф., ed. (2001). Россия и СССР в войнах XX века. Потери вооруженных сил (in Russian). Олма-Пресс. p. 582. ISBN 5-224-01515-4.
    16. ^ Кривошеев, Г. Ф., ed. (2001). Россия и СССР в войнах XX века. Потери вооруженных сил (in Russian). Олма-Пресс. p. 584. ISBN 5-224-01515-4.
    17. ^ a b "Война, проигранная по собственному желанию".
    18. ^ "Первая чеченская война – 20 лет назад". 11 December 2014.
    19. ^ "The War in Chechnya". MN-Files. Mosnews.com. 2007-02-07. Archived from the original on March 2, 2008.
    20. ^ Saradzhyan, Simon (2005-03-09). "Army Learned Few Lessons From Chechnya". Moscow Times.
    21. ^ Andrei, Sakharov (4 November 1999). "The Second Chechen War". Reliefweb. Retrieved 31 July 2023.
    22. ^ Gordon, Michael R. (4 September 1996). "Human Rights Violations in Chechnya". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 2002-12-28. Retrieved 2013-11-23.
    23. ^ Felgenhauer, Pavel. "The Russian Army in Chechnya". Crimes of War. Archived from the original on 9 February 2011. Retrieved 7 October 2022.
    24. ^ Cherkasov, Alexander. "Book of Numbers, Book of Losses, Book of the Final Judgment". Polit.ru. Retrieved 2 January 2016.
    25. ^ Cite error: The named reference jamestown was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    26. ^ "The War That Continues to Shape Russia, 25 Years Later". The New York Times. 2019-12-10. Retrieved 2020-09-08.


    Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

     
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    28 May 1974Northern Ireland's power-sharing Sunningdale Agreement collapses following a general strike by loyalists.

    Sunningdale Agreement

    The Sunningdale Agreement was an attempt to establish a power-sharing Northern Ireland Executive and a cross-border Council of Ireland. The agreement was signed at Northcote House in Sunningdale Park, located in Sunningdale, Berkshire, on 9 December 1973.[1] Unionist opposition, violence and a general strike caused the collapse of the agreement in May 1974.

    1. ^ "1973: Sunningdale Agreement signed". BBC News. 9 December 1973. Archived from the original on 7 March 2008. Retrieved 24 May 2010.
     
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    30 May 1814 – The First Treaty of Paris is signed, returning the French frontiers to their 1792 extent, and restoring the House of Bourbon to power.

    Treaty of Paris (1814)

    The Treaty of Paris, signed on 30 May 1814, ended the war between France and the Sixth Coalition, part of the Napoleonic Wars, following an armistice signed on 23 April between Charles, Count of Artois, and the allies.[1] The treaty set the borders for France under the House of Bourbon and restored territories to other nations. It is sometimes called the First Peace of Paris, as another one followed in 1815.

    1. ^ Büsch 1992, p. 72.
     
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    31 May 1859 – The clock tower at the Houses of Parliament, which houses Big Ben, starts keeping time.

    Big Ben

    The Elizabeth Tower is the clock tower of the Palace of Westminster in London, England.[1] It contains the Great Clock of Westminster, a striking clock with five bells.[2] The tower is nicknamed "Big Ben", which was originally a nickname for the largest bell (named the Great Bell).[3] The tower was officially called the Clock Tower until 2012, when it was renamed to mark the Diamond Jubilee of Elizabeth II.

    The tower was designed by Augustus Pugin in a Perpendicular Gothic Revival style and was completed in 1859. It is elaborately decorated and includes symbols related to the four nations of the United Kingdom, the Tudor dynasty, and a Latin inscription to Queen Victoria.[4] The tower stands 316 feet (96 m) tall, and the climb from ground level to the belfry is 334 steps. Its base is square, measuring 40 feet (12 m) on each side. The dials of the clock are 22.5 feet (6.9 m) in diameter.

    The clock uses its original mechanism and was the largest and most accurate four-faced striking and chiming clock in the world upon its completion.[5] It was designed by Edmund Beckett Denison and George Airy, the Astronomer Royal, and constructed by Edward John Dent and Frederick Dent. It is known for its reliability, and can be adjusted by adding or removing pre-decimal pennies from the pendulum. The Great Bell was cast by the Whitechapel Bell Foundry and weighs 13.5 long tons (13.7 tonnes; 15.1 short tons).[1] Its nickname may be derived from Sir Benjamin Hall, who oversaw its installation, or heavyweight boxing champion Benjamin Caunt. There are four quarter bells, which chime on the quarter hours.

    The Elizabeth Tower is a British cultural icon. It is one of the most prominent symbols of the United Kingdom and parliamentary democracy,[6] and it is often used in the establishing shot of films set in London.[7] The clock tower has been part of a Grade I listed building since 1970 and a UNESCO World Heritage Site since 1987.[8] The fabric was repaired and renovated between 2017 and 2021, during which the bells remained silent with few exceptions.[9]

    1. ^ a b "The Story of Big Ben". Whitechapel Bell Foundry. Archived from the original on 17 February 2018. Retrieved 4 May 2022.
    2. ^ "West Dial re-connected to the Great Clock". UK Parliament. 28 April 2022. Retrieved 30 October 2022.
    3. ^ Fowler, p. 95.
    4. ^ Hartland, Nicole (15 March 2021). "Leek, Thistle, Shamrock and Rose: Symbols of the UK and the Elizabeth Tower". www.parliament.uk. Retrieved 25 October 2023.
    5. ^ Excell, Jon (5 July 2016). "Why is Big Ben falling silent?". BBC News.
    6. ^ "Palace of Westminster and Westminster Abbey including Saint Margaret's Church". UNESCO.
    7. ^ "Big Ben in films and popular culture". The Daily Telegraph. 8 November 2016. Archived from the original on 11 January 2022.
    8. ^ Centre, UNESCO World Heritage. "UNESCO World Heritage Centre - World Heritage List". UNESCO World Heritage Centre. Retrieved 8 November 2022.
    9. ^ Fowler, Susanne (12 April 2021). "What Does It Take to Hear Big Ben Again? 500 Workers and a Hiding Place". The New York Times. Retrieved 15 April 2021.
     
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    1 June 1980Cable News Network (CNN) begins broadcasting.

    CNN

    Cable News Network (CNN) is a multinational news channel and website headquartered in Atlanta, Georgia, U.S.[2][3][4] Founded in 1980 by American media proprietor Ted Turner and Reese Schonfeld as a 24-hour cable news channel, and presently owned by the Manhattan-based media conglomerate Warner Bros. Discovery (WBD),[5] CNN was the first television channel to provide 24-hour news coverage and the first all-news television channel in the United States.[6][7][8][9][10]

    As of February 2023, CNN had 80 million television households as subscribers in the US.[11] According to Nielsen, in June 2021 CNN ranked third in viewership among cable news networks, behind Fox News and MSNBC, averaging 580,000 viewers throughout the day, down 49% from a year earlier, amid sharp declines in viewers across all cable news networks.[12] While CNN ranked 14th among all basic cable networks in 2019,[13][14] then jumped to 7th during a major surge for the three largest cable news networks (completing a rankings streak of Fox News at number 5 and MSNBC at number 6 for that year),[15] it settled back to number 11 in 2021[16] and had further declined to number 21 in 2022.[17]

    Globally, CNN programming has aired through CNN International, seen by viewers in over 212 countries and territories;[18] since May 2019, however, the US domestic version has absorbed international news coverage in order to reduce programming costs. The American version, sometimes referred to as CNN (US), is also available in Canada, and some islands in the Caribbean. CNN also broadcasts in India where it is called CNN-News18, and in Japan, where it was first broadcast on CNNj in 2003, with simultaneous translation in Japanese.[19]

    1. ^ a b c Barr, Jeremy; Izadi, Elahe; Ellison, Sarah; Farhi, Paul (February 2, 2022). "CNN president Jeff Zucker resigns, citing undisclosed relationship with colleague". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on February 2, 2022. Retrieved February 2, 2022.
    2. ^ Alfonso, Fernando (May 30, 2020). "CNN Center in Atlanta damaged during protests". CNN. Archived from the original on May 30, 2020. Retrieved January 16, 2021.
    3. ^ "CNN Center". CNN. Archived from the original on January 21, 2021. Retrieved January 16, 2021.
    4. ^ "About Us". CNN. Archived from the original on January 15, 2021. Retrieved January 16, 2021.
    5. ^ "Time Warner: Turner Broadcasting". Archived from the original on January 22, 2011.
    6. ^ Kiesewetter, John (May 28, 2000). "In 20 years, CNN has changed the way we view the news". Cincinnati Enquirer. Archived from the original on October 11, 2017. Retrieved January 24, 2009.
    7. ^ "Charles Bierbauer, CNN senior Washington correspondent, discusses his 19-year career at CNN. (May 8, 2000)". CNN. Archived from the original on September 29, 2012. Retrieved October 12, 2013.
    8. ^ "Reese's Pieces: Mr. Schonfeld, Forgotten Founder of CNN, Is a Man of Many Projects". Observer. January 29, 2001. Archived from the original on September 26, 2020. Retrieved March 1, 2022.
    9. ^ Stelter, Brian (July 28, 2020). "Reese Schonfeld, CNN's founding president, has died at 88". CNN. Archived from the original on July 29, 2020. Retrieved July 31, 2020.
    10. ^ "CNN changed news – for better and worse". Taipei Times. May 31, 2005. Archived from the original on June 3, 2015. Retrieved January 24, 2009.
    11. ^ "CNN Worldwide Fact Sheet". Archived from the original on March 25, 2021. Retrieved March 15, 2023.
    12. ^ Johnson, Ted (June 29, 2021). "Fox News Tops June And Q2 Viewership, But Plunge In Ratings Continues Across All Major Cable News Networks". Deadline. Archived from the original on July 7, 2021. Retrieved July 6, 2021.
    13. ^ Andreeva, Nellie; Johnson, Ted (December 27, 2019). "Cable Ratings 2019: Fox News Tops Total Viewers, ESPN Wins 18–49 Demo As Entertainment Networks Slide". Deadline. Archived from the original on January 14, 2020. Retrieved January 16, 2020.
    14. ^ Schneider, Michael (December 26, 2019). "Most-Watched Television Networks: Ranking 2019's Winners and Losers". Variety. Archived from the original on January 6, 2020. Retrieved January 16, 2020.
    15. ^ Schneider, Michael (December 28, 2020). "Most-Watched Television Networks: Ranking 2020's Winners and Losers". Variety. Archived from the original on December 28, 2020. Retrieved May 2, 2022.
    16. ^ Schneider, Michael (December 30, 2021). "Most-Watched Television Networks: Ranking 2021's Winners and Losers". Variety. Archived from the original on January 12, 2022.
    17. ^ Schneider, Michael (December 29, 2022). "Most-Watched Television Networks: Ranking 2022's Winners and Losers". Variety. Archived from the original on January 18, 2023. Retrieved January 19, 2023.
    18. ^ "CNN is Viewers Cable Network of Choice for Democratic and Republican National Convention Coverage" (Press release). Time Warner. August 18, 2000. Retrieved February 20, 2010.[permanent dead link]
    19. ^ "CNN Partners". CNN Asia Pacific. Archived from the original on July 29, 2012. Retrieved May 4, 2020.
     
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    1 June 1980Cable News Network (CNN) begins broadcasting.

    CNN

    Cable News Network (CNN) is a multinational news channel and website headquartered in Atlanta, Georgia, U.S.[2][3][4] Founded in 1980 by American media proprietor Ted Turner and Reese Schonfeld as a 24-hour cable news channel, and presently owned by the Manhattan-based media conglomerate Warner Bros. Discovery (WBD),[5] CNN was the first television channel to provide 24-hour news coverage and the first all-news television channel in the United States.[6][7][8][9][10]

    As of February 2023, CNN had 80 million television households as subscribers in the US.[11] According to Nielsen, in June 2021 CNN ranked third in viewership among cable news networks, behind Fox News and MSNBC, averaging 580,000 viewers throughout the day, down 49% from a year earlier, amid sharp declines in viewers across all cable news networks.[12] While CNN ranked 14th among all basic cable networks in 2019,[13][14] then jumped to 7th during a major surge for the three largest cable news networks (completing a rankings streak of Fox News at number 5 and MSNBC at number 6 for that year),[15] it settled back to number 11 in 2021[16] and had further declined to number 21 in 2022.[17]

    Globally, CNN programming has aired through CNN International, seen by viewers in over 212 countries and territories;[18] since May 2019, however, the US domestic version has absorbed international news coverage in order to reduce programming costs. The American version, sometimes referred to as CNN (US), is also available in Canada, and some islands in the Caribbean. CNN also broadcasts in India where it is called CNN-News18, and in Japan, where it was first broadcast on CNNj in 2003, with simultaneous translation in Japanese.[19]

    1. ^ a b c Barr, Jeremy; Izadi, Elahe; Ellison, Sarah; Farhi, Paul (February 2, 2022). "CNN president Jeff Zucker resigns, citing undisclosed relationship with colleague". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on February 2, 2022. Retrieved February 2, 2022.
    2. ^ Alfonso, Fernando (May 30, 2020). "CNN Center in Atlanta damaged during protests". CNN. Archived from the original on May 30, 2020. Retrieved January 16, 2021.
    3. ^ "CNN Center". CNN. Archived from the original on January 21, 2021. Retrieved January 16, 2021.
    4. ^ "About Us". CNN. Archived from the original on January 15, 2021. Retrieved January 16, 2021.
    5. ^ "Time Warner: Turner Broadcasting". Archived from the original on January 22, 2011.
    6. ^ Kiesewetter, John (May 28, 2000). "In 20 years, CNN has changed the way we view the news". Cincinnati Enquirer. Archived from the original on October 11, 2017. Retrieved January 24, 2009.
    7. ^ "Charles Bierbauer, CNN senior Washington correspondent, discusses his 19-year career at CNN. (May 8, 2000)". CNN. Archived from the original on September 29, 2012. Retrieved October 12, 2013.
    8. ^ "Reese's Pieces: Mr. Schonfeld, Forgotten Founder of CNN, Is a Man of Many Projects". Observer. January 29, 2001. Archived from the original on September 26, 2020. Retrieved March 1, 2022.
    9. ^ Stelter, Brian (July 28, 2020). "Reese Schonfeld, CNN's founding president, has died at 88". CNN. Archived from the original on July 29, 2020. Retrieved July 31, 2020.
    10. ^ "CNN changed news – for better and worse". Taipei Times. May 31, 2005. Archived from the original on June 3, 2015. Retrieved January 24, 2009.
    11. ^ "CNN Worldwide Fact Sheet". Archived from the original on March 25, 2021. Retrieved March 15, 2023.
    12. ^ Johnson, Ted (June 29, 2021). "Fox News Tops June And Q2 Viewership, But Plunge In Ratings Continues Across All Major Cable News Networks". Deadline. Archived from the original on July 7, 2021. Retrieved July 6, 2021.
    13. ^ Andreeva, Nellie; Johnson, Ted (December 27, 2019). "Cable Ratings 2019: Fox News Tops Total Viewers, ESPN Wins 18–49 Demo As Entertainment Networks Slide". Deadline. Archived from the original on January 14, 2020. Retrieved January 16, 2020.
    14. ^ Schneider, Michael (December 26, 2019). "Most-Watched Television Networks: Ranking 2019's Winners and Losers". Variety. Archived from the original on January 6, 2020. Retrieved January 16, 2020.
    15. ^ Schneider, Michael (December 28, 2020). "Most-Watched Television Networks: Ranking 2020's Winners and Losers". Variety. Archived from the original on December 28, 2020. Retrieved May 2, 2022.
    16. ^ Schneider, Michael (December 30, 2021). "Most-Watched Television Networks: Ranking 2021's Winners and Losers". Variety. Archived from the original on January 12, 2022.
    17. ^ Schneider, Michael (December 29, 2022). "Most-Watched Television Networks: Ranking 2022's Winners and Losers". Variety. Archived from the original on January 18, 2023. Retrieved January 19, 2023.
    18. ^ "CNN is Viewers Cable Network of Choice for Democratic and Republican National Convention Coverage" (Press release). Time Warner. August 18, 2000. Retrieved February 20, 2010.[permanent dead link]
    19. ^ "CNN Partners". CNN Asia Pacific. Archived from the original on July 29, 2012. Retrieved May 4, 2020.
     
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    2 June 1835P. T. Barnum and his circus start their first tour of the United States.

    P. T. Barnum

    Phineas Taylor Barnum (/ˈbɑːrnəm/; July 5, 1810 – April 7, 1891) was an American showman, businessman and politician remembered for promoting celebrated hoaxes and founding the Barnum & Bailey Circus[1] with James Anthony Bailey.

    He was also an author, publisher and philanthropist, although he said of himself: "I am a showman by profession ... and all the gilding shall make nothing else of me."[2] According to Barnum's critics, his personal aim was "to put money in his own coffers."[2] The adage "there's a sucker born every minute"[3] has frequently been attributed to him, although no evidence exists that he had indeed coined the phrase.

    Barnum became a small-business owner in his early twenties and founded a weekly newspaper before moving to New York City in 1834. He embarked on an entertainment career, first with a variety troupe called "Barnum's Grand Scientific and Musical Theater", and soon after by purchasing Scudder's American Museum, which he renamed after himself. He used the museum as a platform to promote hoaxes and human curiosities such as the Fiji mermaid and General Tom Thumb.[4] In 1850, he promoted the American tour of Swedish opera singer Jenny Lind, paying her an unprecedented $1,000, equivalent to $35,176 in 2022, per night for 150 nights. He suffered economic reversals in the 1850s from unwise investments, as well as years of litigation and public humiliation, but he embarked on a lecture tour as a temperance speaker to emerge from debt. His museum added America's first aquarium and expanded its wax-figure department.

    Barnum served two terms in the Connecticut legislature in 1865 as a Republican for Fairfield, Connecticut. He spoke before the legislature concerning the ratification of the Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution, which abolished slavery and involuntary servitude: "A human soul, 'that God has created and Christ died for,' is not to be trifled with. It may tenant the body of a Chinaman, a Turk, an Arab, or a Hottentot—it is still an immortal spirit."[5] He was elected in 1875 as mayor of Bridgeport, Connecticut, where he worked to improve the water supply, bring gas lighting to streets and enforce liquor and prostitution laws. He was instrumental in the inception of Bridgeport Hospital in 1878 and was its first president.[6] The circus business, begun when he was 60 years old, was the source of much of his enduring fame. He established "P.T. Barnum's Grand Traveling Museum, Menagerie, Caravan & Hippodrome" in 1870, a traveling circus, menagerie and museum of "freaks" that adopted many names over the years.

    Barnum was married to Charity Hallett from 1829 until her death in 1873, and they had four children. In 1874, a few months after his wife's death, he married Nancy Fish, his friend's daughter and 40 years his junior. They were married until 1891 when Barnum died of a stroke at his home. He was buried in Mountain Grove Cemetery, Bridgeport, which he designed himself.[7]

    1. ^ North American Theatre Online: Phineas T. Barnum
    2. ^ a b Kunhardt, Kunhardt & Kunhardt 1995, p. vi
    3. ^ Shapiro, Fred R. The Yale Book of Quotations. New Haven: Yale UP, 2006. p. 44
    4. ^ Kunhardt, Kunhardt & Kunhardt 1995, p. 73
    5. ^ Barnum, Phineas (1888). The life of P. T. Barnum. Buffalo, N.Y.: The Courier Company. p. 237 – via Ebook and Texts Archive – American Libraries.
    6. ^ Cite error: The named reference kunhardt2 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    7. ^ Rogak, Lisa (2004). Stones and Bones of New England: A guide to unusual, historic, and otherwise notable cemeteries. Globe Pequat. ISBN 978-0-7627-3000-1.
     
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    3 June 1940World War II: The Luftwaffe bombs Paris.

    Paris in World War II

    German soldiers parade on the Champs Élysées on 14 June 1940 (Bundesarchiv)

    Paris started mobilizing for war in September 1939, when Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union attacked Poland, but the war seemed far away until 10 May, 1940, when the Germans attacked France and quickly defeated the French army. The French government departed Paris on 10 June, and the Germans occupied the city on 14 June. During the occupation, the French government moved to Vichy, and Paris was governed by the German military and by French officials approved by the Germans. For Parisians, the occupation was a series of frustrations, shortages and humiliations. A curfew was in effect from nine in the evening until five in the morning; at night, the city went dark. Rationing of food, tobacco, coal and clothing was imposed from September 1940. Every year the supplies grew more scarce and the prices higher. A million Parisians left the city for the provinces, where there was more food and fewer Germans. The French press and radio contained only German propaganda.

    Jews in Paris were forced to wear the yellow Star of David badge, and were barred from certain professions and public places. On 16–17 July 1942, 13,152 Jews, including 4,115 children, were rounded up by the French police, on orders of the Germans, and were sent to the Auschwitz concentration camp. The first demonstration against the occupation, by Paris students, took place on 11 November 1940. As the war continued, anti-German clandestine groups and networks were created, some loyal to the French Communist Party, others to General Charles de Gaulle in London. They wrote slogans on walls, organized an underground press, and sometimes attacked German officers. Reprisals by the Germans were swift and harsh.

    Following the Allied invasion of Normandy on 6 June, 1944, the French Resistance in Paris launched an uprising on 19 August, seizing the police headquarters and other government buildings. The city was liberated by French and American troops on 25 August; the next day, General de Gaulle led a triumphant parade down the Champs-Élysées on 26 August, and organized a new government. In the following months, ten thousand Parisians who had collaborated with the Germans were arrested and tried, eight thousand convicted, and 116 executed. On 29 April and 13 May 1945, the first post-war municipal elections were held, in which French women voted for the first time.

     
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    4 June 1920Hungary loses 71% of its territory and 63% of its population when the Treaty of Trianon is signed in Paris.

    Treaty of Trianon

    President Mihály Károlyi's speech after the proclamation of the First Hungarian Republic on 16 November, 1918
    film: Béla Linder's pacifist speech for military officers, and declaration of Hungarian self-disarmament on 2 November 1918.
    Protest of the Transylvanian National Council against the occupation of Transylvania by Romania on 22 December 1918
    Newsreel about Treaty of Trianon, 1920
    Demographics of pre-WW1 Empire Austria (red) and Kingdom of Hungary (green) in Europe

    The Treaty of Trianon (French: Traité de Trianon; Hungarian: Trianoni békeszerződés; Italian: Trattato del Trianon; Romanian: Tratatul de la Trianon) often referred to as the Peace Dictate of Trianon[1][2][3][4][5] or Dictate of Trianon[6][7] in Hungary, was prepared at the Paris Peace Conference and was signed in the Grand Trianon château in Versailles on 4 June 1920. It formally ended World War I between most of the Allies of World War I[a] and the Kingdom of Hungary.[8][9][10][11] French diplomats played the major role in designing the treaty, with a view to establishing a French-led coalition of the newly formed states.

    The treaty regulated the status of the Kingdom of Hungary and defined its borders generally within the ceasefire lines established in November–December 1918 and left Hungary as a landlocked state that included 93,073 square kilometres (35,936 sq mi), 28% of the 325,411 square kilometres (125,642 sq mi) that had constituted the pre-war Kingdom of Hungary (the Hungarian half of the Austro-Hungarian monarchy). The truncated kingdom had a population of 7.6 million, 36% compared to the pre-war kingdom's population of 20.9 million.[citation needed] Though the areas that were allocated to neighbouring countries had a majority of non-Hungarians, in them lived 3.3 million Hungarians – 31% of the Hungarians – who then became minorities.[12][13][14][15] The treaty limited Hungary's army to 35,000 officers and men, and the Austro-Hungarian Navy ceased to exist. These decisions and their consequences have been the cause of deep resentment in Hungary ever since.[16]

    The principal beneficiaries were the Kingdom of Romania, the Czechoslovak Republic, the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes (later Yugoslavia), and the First Austrian Republic. One of the main elements of the treaty was the doctrine of "self-determination of peoples", and it was an attempt to give the non-Hungarians their own national states.[17] In addition, Hungary had to pay war reparations to its neighbours.

    The treaty was dictated by the Allies rather than negotiated, and the Hungarians had no option but to accept its terms.[17] The Hungarian delegation signed the treaty under protest, and agitation for its revision began immediately.[13][18]

    The current boundaries of Hungary are for the most part the same as those defined by the Treaty of Trianon, with minor modifications until 1924 regarding the Hungarian-Austrian border and the transfer of three villages to Czechoslovakia in 1947.[19][20]

    After World War I, despite the "self-determination of peoples" idea of the Allied Powers, only one plebiscite was permitted (later known as the Sopron plebiscite) to settle disputed borders on the former territory of the Kingdom of Hungary,[21] settling a smaller territorial dispute between the First Austrian Republic and the Kingdom of Hungary, because some months earlier, the Rongyos Gárda launched a series of attacks to oust the Austrian forces that entered the area. During the Sopron plebiscite in late 1921, the polling stations were supervised by British, French, and Italian army officers of the Allied Powers.[22]

    1. ^ "Hungarian President János Áder's Speech on the Day of National Unity". Consulate General of Hungary Manchester.
    2. ^ Dr. Dobó, Attila; Kollár, Ferenc; Zsoldos, Sándor; Kohári, Nándor (2021). A trianoni békediktátum [The Peace Dictate of Trianon] (PDF) (in Hungarian) (2nd ed.). Magyar Kultúra Emlékívek Kiadó. ISBN 978-615-81078-9-1.
    3. ^ Prof. Dr. Gulyás, László (2021). Trianoni kiskáté - 101 kérdés és 101 válasz a békediktátumról (in Hungarian).
    4. ^ Makkai, Béla (2019). "Chopping Hungary Up by the 1920 Peace Dictate of Trianon. Causes, Events and Consequences". Polgári Szemle: Gazdasági És Társadalmi Folyóirat. 15 (Spec): 204–225.
    5. ^ Gulyás, László; Anka, László; Arday, Lajos; Csüllög, Gábor; Gecse, Géza; Hajdú, Zoltán; Hamerli, Petra; Heka, László; Jeszenszky, Géza; Kaposi, Zoltán; Kolontári, Attila; Köő, Artúr; Kurdi, Krisztina; Ligeti, Dávid; Majoros, István; Maruzsa, Zoltán; Miklós, Péter; Nánay, Mihály; Olasz, Lajos; Ördögh, Tibor; Pelles, Márton; Popély, Gyula; Sokcsevits, Dénes; Suba, János; Szávai, Ferenc; Tefner, Zoltán; Tóth, Andrej; Tóth, Imre; Vincze, Gábor; Vizi, László Tamás (2019–2020). A trianoni békediktátum története hét kötetben - I. kötet: Trianon Nagy Háború alatti előzményei, az Osztrák-Magyar Monarchia bukása 1914-1918 / II. kötet: A katonai megszállástól a magyar békedelegáció elutazásáig 1918-1920 / III. kötet: Apponyi beszédétől a Határkijelölő Bizottságok munkájának befejezéséig / IV. kötet: Térképek a trianoni békediktátum történetéhez / V. kötet: Párhuzamos Trianonok, a Párizs környéki békék: Versailles, Saint-Germain, Neuilly, Sevres, Lausanne / VI. kötet: Dokumentumok, források / VII. kötet: Kronológia és életrajzok [The history of the Peace Dictate of Trianon in seven volumes - Volume I: Trianon's history during the Great War, the fall of the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy 1914-1918 / Volume II: From the military occupation to the departure of the Hungarian peace delegation 1918-1920 / Volume III: From Apponyi's speech to the completion of the work of the Boundary Demarcation Committees / Volume IV: Maps for the history of the Trianon peace decree / Volume V: Parallel Trianons, the peaces around Paris: Versailles, Saint-Germain, Neuilly, Sevres, Lausanne / Volume VI: Documents, sources / Volume VII: Chronology and biographies] (in Hungarian). Egyesület Közép-Európa Kutatására. ISBN 9786158046299.
    6. ^ Bank, Barbara; Kovács, Attila Zoltán (2022). Trianon - A diktátum teljes szövege [Trianon - Full text of the dictate] (in Hungarian). Erdélyi Szalon. ISBN 9786156502247.
    7. ^ Raffay, Ernő; Szabó, Pál Csaba. A Trianoni diktátum története és következményei [The history and consequences of the Dictate of Trianon] (in Hungarian). Trianon Múzeum.
    8. ^ Craig, G. A. (1966). Europe since 1914. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.
    9. ^ Grenville, J. A. S. (1974). The Major International Treaties 1914–1973. A history and guides with texts. Methnen London.
    10. ^ Lichtheim, G. (1974). Europe in the Twentieth Century. New York: Praeger.
    11. ^ "Text of the Treaty, Treaty of Peace Between The Allied and Associated Powers and Hungary And Protocol and Declaration, Signed at Trianon June 4, 1920".
    12. ^ Frucht 2004, p. 360.
    13. ^ a b "Trianon, Treaty of". The Columbia Encyclopedia. 2009.
    14. ^ Macartney, C. A. (1937). Hungary and her successors: The Treaty of Trianon and Its Consequences 1919–1937. Oxford University Press.
    15. ^ Bernstein, Richard (9 August 2003). "East on the Danube: Hungary's Tragic Century". The New York Times.
    16. ^ Toomey, Michael (2018). "History, Nationalism and Democracy: Myth and Narrative in Viktor Orbán's 'Illiberal Hungary'". New Perspectives. 26 (1): 87–108. doi:10.1177/2336825x1802600110. S2CID 158970490.
    17. ^ a b van den Heuvel, Martin P.; Siccama, J. G. (1992). The Disintegration of Yugoslavia. Rodopi. p. 126. ISBN 90-5183-349-0.
    18. ^ Tucker & Roberts 2005, p. 1183: "Virtually the entire population of what remained of Hungary regarded the Treaty of Trianon as manifestly unfair, and agitation for revision began immediately."
    19. ^ Botlik, József (June 2008). "AZ ŐRVIDÉKI (BURGENLANDI) MAGYARSÁG SORSA". vasiszemle.hu. VASI SZEMLE.
    20. ^ "Szlovákiai Magyar Adatbank » pozsonyi hídfő". adatbank.sk.
    21. ^ Richard C. Hall (2014). War in the Balkans: An Encyclopedic History from the Fall of the Ottoman Empire to the Breakup of Yugoslavia. ABC-CLIO. p. 309. ISBN 9781610690317.
    22. ^ Irredentist and National Questions in Central Europe, 1913–1939: Hungary, 2v, Volume 5, Part 1 of Irredentist and National Questions in Central Europe, 1913–1939 Seeds of conflict. Kraus Reprint. 1973. p. 69.


    Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

     
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    5 June 1981 – The Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention reports that five people in Los Angeles, California, have a rare form of pneumonia seen only in patients with weakened immune systems, in what turns out to be the first recognized cases of AIDS.

    Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report

    The Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report (MMWR) is a weekly epidemiological digest for the United States published by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). It was originally established as Weekly Health Index in 1930, changing its title to Weekly Mortality Index in 1941 and Morbidity and Mortality in 1952. It acquired its current name in 1976. It is the main vehicle for publishing public health information and recommendations that have been received by the CDC from state health departments. Material published in the report is in the public domain and may be reprinted without permission.[1] As of 2019, the journal's editor-in-chief is Charlotte Kent.[2]

    As noted in the sequel, some single reports have evoked media interest also outside health and medical contexts. However, many reports are parts of series, providing consistent long-term statistics, and also indicating trend changes. Such a standing report section is the "Notifiable Diseases and Mortality Tables", which reports deaths by disease and state, and city for city, for 122 large cities. As another example, there are more than a hundred items about West Nile virus infections since the 1999 outbreak of the disease in the US. In 2001–2005, there were weekly updates of the WNV situation, during the warm seasons.[3]

     
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    6 June 1933 – The first drive-in theater opens in Camden, New Jersey.

    Drive-in theater

    A drive-in with an inflatable movie screen in Brussels, Belgium
    Bass Hill drive-in cinema, Sydney, Australia

    A drive-in theater or drive-in cinema is a form of cinema structure consisting of a large outdoor movie screen, a projection booth, a concession stand, and a large parking area for automobiles. Within this enclosed area, customers can view movies from the privacy and comfort of their cars. Some drive-ins have small playgrounds for children and a few picnic tables or benches.

    The screen can be as simple as a painted white wall, or it can be a steel truss structure with a complex finish. Originally, the movie's sound was provided by speakers on the screen and later by individual speakers hung from the window of each car, which was attached to a small pole by a wire. These speaker systems were superseded by the more practical method of microbroadcasting the soundtrack to car radios. This also has the advantage of the film soundtrack to be heard in stereo on car stereo systems, which are typically of much higher quality and fidelity than the basic small mono speakers used in the old systems.

     
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    7 June 1929 – The Lateran Treaty is ratified, bringing Vatican City into existence.

    Lateran Treaty

    The Lateran Treaty (Italian: Patti Lateranensi; Latin: Pacta Lateranensia) was one component of the Lateran Pacts of 1929, agreements between the Kingdom of Italy under King Victor Emmanuel III (with his Prime Minister Benito Mussolini) and the Holy See under Pope Pius XI to settle the long-standing Roman Question. The treaty and associated pacts were named after the Lateran Palace where they were signed on 11 February 1929,[1] and the Italian parliament ratified them on 7 June 1929. The treaty recognised Vatican City as an independent state under the sovereignty of the Holy See. The Italian government also agreed to give the Roman Catholic Church financial compensation for the loss of the Papal States.[2] In 1948, the Lateran Treaty was recognized in the Constitution of Italy as regulating the relations between the state and the Catholic Church.[3] The treaty was significantly revised in 1984, ending the status of Catholicism as the sole state religion.

    1. ^ a b "Vatican City turns 91". Vatican News. 11 February 2020. Retrieved 2 September 2021. The world's smallest sovereign state was born on February 11, 1929, with the signing of the Lateran Treaty between the Holy See and the Kingdom of Italy
    2. ^ A History of Western Society (Tenth ed.). Bedford/St. Martin's. 2010. p. 900.
    3. ^ Constitution of Italy, Article 7.
     
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    8 June 1949 – George Orwell's Nineteen Eighty-Four is published.

    Nineteen Eighty-Four

    Nineteen Eighty-Four (also published as 1984) is a dystopian novel and cautionary tale by English writer George Orwell. It was published on 8 June 1949 by Secker & Warburg as Orwell's ninth and final book completed in his lifetime. Thematically, it centres on the consequences of totalitarianism, mass surveillance, and repressive regimentation of people and behaviours within society.[3][4] Orwell, a democratic socialist, modelled the authoritarian state in the novel on the Soviet Union in the era of Stalinism and Nazi Germany.[5] More broadly, the novel examines the role of truth and facts within societies and the ways in which they can be manipulated.

    The story takes place in an imagined future in an unspecified year believed to be 1984, when much of the world is in perpetual war. Great Britain, now known as Airstrip One, has become a province of the totalitarian superstate Oceania, which is led by Big Brother, a dictatorial leader supported by an intense cult of personality manufactured by the Party's Thought Police. The Party engages in omnipresent government surveillance and, through the Ministry of Truth, historical negationism and constant propaganda to persecute individuality and independent thinking.[6]

    The protagonist, Winston Smith, is a diligent mid-level worker at the Ministry of Truth who secretly hates the Party and dreams of rebellion. Smith keeps a forbidden diary. He begins a relationship with a colleague, Julia, and they learn about a shadowy resistance group called the Brotherhood. However, their contact within the Brotherhood turns out to be a Party agent, and Smith and Julia are arrested. He is subjected to months of psychological manipulation and torture by the Ministry of Love and is released once he has come to love Big Brother.

    Nineteen Eighty-Four has become a classic literary example of political and dystopian fiction. It also popularised the term "Orwellian" as an adjective, with many terms used in the novel entering common usage, including "Big Brother", "doublethink", "Thought Police", "thoughtcrime", "Newspeak", and "2 + 2 = 5". Parallels have been drawn between the novel's subject matter and real life instances of totalitarianism, mass surveillance, and violations of freedom of expression among other themes.[7][8][9] Orwell described his book as a "satire",[10] and a display of the "perversions to which a centralised economy is liable," while also stating he believed "that something resembling it could arrive."[10] Time included the novel on its list of the 100 best English-language novels published from 1923 to 2005,[11] and it was placed on the Modern Library's 100 Best Novels list, reaching number 13 on the editors' list and number 6 on the readers' list.[12] In 2003, it was listed at number eight on The Big Read survey by the BBC.[13]

    1. ^ "Nineteen Eighty-Four". knowthyshelf.com. 13 August 2015. Retrieved 11 February 2024.
    2. ^ "Classify". OCLC. Archived from the original on 2 February 2019. Retrieved 22 May 2017.
    3. ^ Murphy, Bruce (1996). Benét's reader's encyclopedia. New York: Harper Collins. p. 734. ISBN 978-0-06-181088-6. OCLC 35572906.
    4. ^ Aaronovitch, David (8 February 2013). "1984: George Orwell's road to dystopia". BBC News. Archived from the original on 24 January 2018. Retrieved 8 February 2013.
    5. ^ Lynskey, Dorian. "George Orwell's 1984: Why it still matters". BBC News. Archived from the original on 12 October 2023. Retrieved 7 October 2023 – via YouTube.
    6. ^ Chernow, Barbara; Vallasi, George (1993). The Columbia Encyclopedia (5th ed.). Boston: Houghton Mifflin. p. 2030. OCLC 334011745.
    7. ^ Crouch, Ian (11 June 2013). "So Are We Living in 1984?". The New Yorker. Archived from the original on 10 September 2023. Retrieved 3 December 2019.
    8. ^ Seaton, Jean. "Why Orwell's 1984 could be about now". BBC. Archived from the original on 10 May 2020. Retrieved 3 December 2019.
    9. ^ Leetaru, Kalev. "As Orwell's 1984 Turns 70 It Predicted Much of Today's Surveillance Society". Forbes. Archived from the original on 27 March 2023. Retrieved 3 December 2019.
    10. ^ a b "The savage satire of '1984' still speaks to us today". The Independent. 7 June 1999. Archived from the original on 7 January 2023. Retrieved 7 January 2023. Orwell said that his book was a satire – a warning certainly, but in the form of satire.
    11. ^ Grossman, Lev (8 January 2010). "Is 1984 one of the All-TIME 100 Best Novels?". Time. Archived from the original on 20 August 2017. Retrieved 29 December 2022.
    12. ^ "100 Best Novels « Modern Library". www.modernlibrary.com. Archived from the original on 2 October 2010. Retrieved 29 December 2022.
    13. ^ "BBC – The Big Read – Top 100 Books". BBC. Archived from the original on 31 October 2012. Retrieved 29 December 2022.
     
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    9 June 1979 – The Ghost Train fire at Luna Park Sydney, Australia, kills seven.

    1979 Sydney Ghost Train fire

    The Sydney Ghost Train fire at Luna Park Sydney in Milsons Point, New South Wales, Australia killed seven people (six children and one adult) on 9 June 1979. Inadequate fire-fighting measures and low staffing caused the fire to completely destroy the amusement park's ghost train.[1]

    The fire was originally blamed on electrical faults, but arson by known figures has also been claimed. The exact cause of the fire could not be determined by a coronial inquiry. The coroner also ruled that, while the actions of Luna Park's management and staff before and during the fire (in particular their decision not to follow advice on the installation of a fire sprinkler system in the ride) breached their duty of care, charges of criminal negligence should not be laid. The case was reopened in 1987 but no new findings were made, although the original police investigation and coronial inquiry were criticised.

    A memorial garden was installed by Luna Park in 1995, but its fixtures were lost during the park's 2003 redevelopment. In replacement, a plaque listing those killed was installed at the site of the ride, but a promised mural to surround the plaque was never painted. In 2007, North Sydney Council created a separate memorial park, which included a sculpture by Michael Leunig.

    1. ^ Cite error: The named reference Marshall110 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
     
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    10 June 1947Saab produces its first automobile.

    Saab Automobile

    Saab Automobile AB[1][2] (/sɑːb/) was a car manufacturer that was founded in Sweden in 1945 when its parent company, Saab AB, began a project to design a small automobile. The first production model, the Saab 92, was launched in 1949. In 1968 the parent company merged with Scania-Vabis, and ten years later the Saab 900 was launched, in time becoming Saab's best-selling model. In the mid-1980s the new Saab 9000 model also appeared.

    In 1989, the automobile division of Saab-Scania was restructured into an independent company, Saab Automobile AB. The American manufacturer General Motors (GM) took 50 percent ownership. Two well-known models to come out of this period were the Saab 9-3 and the Saab 9-5. Then in 2000, GM exercised its option to acquire the remaining 50 percent. In 2010 GM sold Saab Automobile AB to the Dutch automobile manufacturer Spyker Cars N.V.[3][4]

    Saab 900

    After many years establishing a sound engineering reputation and ultimately a luxury price tag, Saab failed to build its customer base beyond its niche following.[5] After struggling to avoid insolvency throughout 2011, the company petitioned for bankruptcy following the failure of a Chinese consortium to complete a purchase of the company; the purchase had been blocked by the former owner GM, which opposed the transfer of technology and production rights to a Chinese company.[6] On 13 June 2012, it was announced that a newly formed company called National Electric Vehicle Sweden (NEVS) had bought Saab Automobile's bankrupt estate.[7] According to "Saab United", the first NEVS Saab 9-3 drove off its pre-production line on 19 September 2013.[8] Full production restarted on 2 December 2013,[9] initially the same petrol-powered 9-3 Aero sedans that were built before Saab went bankrupt, and intended to get the car manufacturer's supply chain re-established as it attempted development of a new line of NEVS-Saab products.[10][11] NEVS lost its license to manufacture automobiles under the Saab name (which the namesake aerospace company still owns) in the summer of 2014 and later produced electric cars based on the Saab 9-3 but under its own new car designation "NEVS".[12][13]

    1. ^ "History and Background: Timeline, Video". US: Saab Group. 1 January 1980. Archived from the original on 23 February 2009. Retrieved 11 February 2009.
    2. ^ "The History of Svenska Aeroplan Aktiebolaget or Saab". Saab history. Retrieved 30 January 2010.[permanent dead link]
    3. ^ Durrenberger, E. Paul (15 August 2017). Uncertain Times: Anthropological Approaches to Labor in a Neoliberal World. University Press of Colorado. ISBN 978-1-60732-631-1. Archived from the original on 3 September 2023. Retrieved 28 October 2020.
    4. ^ "Spyker Cars finalises the purchase of Saab" (PDF) (Press release). Spyker. 23 February 2010. Archived (PDF) from the original on 7 August 2011. Retrieved 17 December 2013.
    5. ^ "The People Who Will Miss Saab the Most; With the bankruptcy and impending doom facing Saab, we mourn with the certain, loyal fans that will miss the Swedish auto-maker". US: The Atlantic. 19 December 2011. Archived from the original on 7 November 2019. Retrieved 7 November 2019.
    6. ^ "Saab Automobile Files for Bankruptcy" (Press release). Saab Automobile. 19 December 2011. Archived from the original on 7 January 2012. Retrieved 20 December 2011..
    7. ^ Zachariasson, Helena (13 June 2012). "Saab har fatt en kopare" [Saab's new owners will hire hundreds]. SVT (in Swedish). SE. Archived from the original on 23 October 2012. Retrieved 20 October 2012.
    8. ^ "First Nevs Saab Rolls off Pre-Production Line" (Youtube) (video Posted). Trollhättan: Saab Group. 19 September 2013. Archived from the original on 3 December 2013. Retrieved 6 October 2013.
    9. ^ Lönnroth, Valdemar (28 November 2014), "Lööf på plats nar Nevs drar igang produktion" [Lööf in place when Nevs kicks off production], Ttela (in Swedish), SE[permanent dead link].
    10. ^ Gastelu, Gary (2 December 2013). "Saab restarts production". Fox News. Archived from the original on 18 February 2015. Retrieved 21 February 2015.
    11. ^ Stoll, John D. (2 December 2013). "Saab Automobile Is Poised to Resume Production". Gasgoo Automotive News. Archived from the original on 21 February 2015. Retrieved 21 February 2015.
    12. ^ Saab carmaker NEVS granted creditor protection by court but loses right to use Saab name; Automotive News Europe, 29 August 2014, at europe.autonews.com Archived 15 September 2019 at the Wayback Machine Accessed 8 November 2017
    13. ^ "nevs.com: NEVS launches its new trademark". Archived from the original on 14 September 2016.
     
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    11 June 1825 – The first cornerstone is laid for Fort Hamilton in New York City.

    Fort Hamilton

    Fort Hamilton is a United States Army installation in the southwestern corner of the New York City borough of Brooklyn, surrounded by the communities of Bay Ridge and Dyker Heights. It is one of several posts that are part of the region which is headquartered by the Military District of Washington. Its mission is to provide the New York metropolitan area with military installation support for the Army National Guard and the United States Army Reserve. The original fort was completed in 1831, with major additions made in the 1870s and 1900s. However, all defenses except about half of the original fort have been demolished or buried.

    1. ^ "Commanders of Fort Hamilton 1831–1987". Official Harbor Defense Museum of Fort Hamilton. Harbor Defense Museum of Fort Hamilton. Retrieved September 17, 2014.
     
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    12 June 1997 – Queen Elizabeth II reopens the Globe Theatre in London.

    Globe Theatre

    The Globe Theatre was a theatre in London associated with William Shakespeare. It was built in 1599 at Southwark, close to the south bank of the Thames, by Shakespeare's playing company, the Lord Chamberlain's Men. It was destroyed by fire on 29 June 1613. A second Globe Theatre was built on the same site by June 1614 and stayed open until the London theatre closures of 1642. As well as plays by Shakespeare, early works by Ben Jonson, Thomas Dekker and John Fletcher were first performed here.[4]

    A modern reconstruction of the Globe, named "Shakespeare's Globe", opened in 1997 approximately 750 feet (230 m) from the site of the original theatre.[5]

    1. ^ Cite error: The named reference Cooper2006 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    2. ^ Wilson, Ian (1993). Shakespeare the Evidence. London: Headline. xiii. ISBN 0-7472-0582-5.
    3. ^ Bowsher & Miller 2009, p. 87.
    4. ^ "Fact Sheet: The First Globe". Teach Shakespeare. Shakespeare's Globe. 4 December 2015. Retrieved 27 January 2023.
    5. ^ Measured using Google Earth
     
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    13 June 1982 – Battles of Tumbledown and Wireless Ridge, during the Falklands War.

    Battle of Mount Tumbledown

    The Battle of Mount Tumbledown was an engagement during the Falklands War. The engagement was an attack by the British Army and the Royal Marines on the heights overlooking Stanley, the Falkland Islands capital. Mount Tumbledown, Mount William and Sapper Hill lie west of the capital. Due to their proximity to the capital, they were of strategic importance during the 1982 War. They were held by the Argentine 5th Naval Infantry Battalion (BIM 5), a reinforced, cold weather trained and equipped Marine battalion.

    The assaulting British forces were the 2nd Battalion, Scots Guards, 42 Commando, Royal Marines Mortar platoon and four light tanks of the Blues and Royals. The 1st Battalion, 7th Duke of Edinburgh's Own Gurkha Rifles were held in reserve.

    One of a number of night battles that took place during the British advance towards Stanley, the battle led to British troops capturing all the heights above the town, allowing the town's capture and the surrender of the Argentine forces on the islands.

    1. ^ a b c d Freedman, Lawrence (2005). The Official History of the Falklands Campaign: War and diplomacy. Psychology Press. ISBN 978-0-7146-5207-8.
     
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    16 June 1959Disneyland Monorail System, the first daily operating monorail system in the Western Hemisphere, opens to the public in Anaheim, California

    Disneyland Monorail

    The Disneyland Monorail (originally named the Disneyland Alweg Monorail System) is an attraction and transportation line at the Disneyland Resort in Anaheim, California, United States. It was the first daily operating monorail over all.[1]

    1. ^ Strodder, Chris (2017). The Disneyland Encyclopedia (3rd ed.). Santa Monica Press. pp. 336–337. ISBN 978-1595800909.
     
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    15 June 1808Joseph Bonaparte becomes King of Spain.

    Joseph Bonaparte

    Joseph-Napoléon Bonaparte (born Giuseppe di Buonaparte, Italian: [dʒuˈzɛppe di ˌbwɔnaˈparte]; Corsican: Ghjuseppe Nabulione Bonaparte; Spanish: José Napoleón Bonaparte; 7 January 1768 – 28 July 1844) was a French statesman, lawyer, diplomat and older brother of Napoleon Bonaparte. During the Napoleonic Wars, the latter made him King of Naples (1806–1808), and then King of Spain (1808–1813). After the fall of Napoleon, Joseph styled himself Comte de Survilliers and emigrated to the United States, where he settled near Bordentown, New Jersey, on an estate overlooking the Delaware River not far from Philadelphia.

     
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    16 June 1976Soweto uprising: A non-violent march by 15,000 students in Soweto, South Africa, turns into days of rioting when police open fire on the crowd.

    Soweto uprising

    The Soweto uprising (or Soweto riots) was a series of demonstrations and protests led by black school children in South Africa during apartheid that began on the morning of 16 June 1976.[1]

    Students from various schools began to protest in the streets of the Soweto township in response to the introduction of Afrikaans, considered by many blacks as the "language of the oppressor", as the medium of instruction in black schools.[2] It is estimated that 20,000 students took part in the protests. They were met with fierce police brutality, and many were shot and killed. The number of pupils killed in the uprising is usually estimated as 176, but some sources estimate as many as 700 fatalities.[3][4][5] The riots were a key moment in the fight against apartheid as it sparked renewed opposition against apartheid in South Africa both domestically and internationally. In remembrance of these events, 16 June is a public holiday in South Africa since 1991,[6] named Youth Day. Internationally, 16 June is known as The Day of the African Child (DAC).[6][7]

    1. ^ "The birth and death of apartheid". Retrieved 17 June 2002.
    2. ^ "The Youth Struggle". South African History Online.
    3. ^ Boddy-Evans, Alistair. "16 June 1976 Student Uprising in Soweto". africanhistory.about.com.
    4. ^ Harrison, David (1987). The White Tribe of Africa.[page needed]
    5. ^ (Les Payne of Newsday said at least 850 murders were documented) Elsabe Brink; Gandhi Malungane; Steve Lebelo; Dumisani Ntshangase; Sue Krige, Soweto 16 June 1976, 2001, 9
    6. ^ a b "About Day of the African Child | ACERWC - African Committee of Experts on the Rights and Welfare of the Child". www.acerwc.africa. Retrieved 21 August 2023.
    7. ^ "The Day of the African Child demonstrates the importance of defending children's rights in the digital space". www.unicef.org. Retrieved 21 August 2023.
     
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    17 June 1930 – U.S. President Herbert Hoover signs the Smoot–Hawley Tariff Act into law.

    Smoot–Hawley Tariff Act

    The Tariff Act of 1930 (codified at 19 U.S.C. ch. 4), commonly known as the Smoot–Hawley Tariff or Hawley–Smoot Tariff,[1] was a law that implemented protectionist trade policies in the United States. Sponsored by Senator Reed Smoot and Representative Willis C. Hawley, it was signed by President Herbert Hoover on June 17, 1930. The act raised US tariffs on over 20,000 imported goods.[2]

    The tariffs under the act, excluding duty-free imports (see Tariff levels below), were the second highest in United States history, exceeded by only the Tariff of 1828.[3] The Act prompted retaliatory tariffs by Canada and others.[4] The Act and tariffs imposed by America's trading partners in retaliation were major factors of the reduction of American exports and imports by 67% during the Depression.[5] Economists and economic historians have a consensus view that the passage of the Smoot–Hawley Tariff worsened the effects of the Great Depression.[6] Irwin (2011) argues that its negative impacts have been real but too often have been exaggerated by economic historians.

    1. ^ ch. 497, 46 Stat. 590, June 17, 1930, see 19 U.S.C. § 1654
    2. ^ Taussig 1931.
    3. ^ WWS 543: Class notes, 2/17/10, Paul Krugman, February 16, 2010, Presentation, slide 4
    4. ^ Mitchener, Kris James; O'Rourke, Kevin Hjortshøj; Wandschneider, Kirsten (2022). "The Smoot–Hawley Trade War". Economic Journal. 132 (647): 2500–2533. doi:10.1093/ej/ueac006.
    5. ^ Eckes, Alfred E. Jr.; Market, O.A. (1995). Opening America's Market: U.S. Foreign Trade Policy Since 1776. Business, society & the state. University of North Carolina Press. pp. 100–103. ISBN 978-0-8078-2213-5.
    6. ^ Whaples, Robert (March 1995). "Where Is There Consensus Among American Economic Historians? The Results of a Survey on Forty Propositions" (PDF). The Journal of Economic History. 55 (1). Cambridge University Press: 144. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.482.4975. doi:10.1017/S0022050700040602. JSTOR 2123771. S2CID 145691938.
     
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    18 June 1940 – The "Finest Hour" speech is delivered by Winston Churchill.

    This was their finest hour

    "This was their finest hour" was a speech delivered by Winston Churchill to the House of Commons of the United Kingdom on 18 June 1940, just over a month after he took over as Prime Minister at the head of an all-party coalition government.

    It was the third of three speeches which he gave during the period of the Battle of France, after the "Blood, toil, tears and sweat" speech of 13 May and the "We shall fight on the beaches" speech of 4 June.[1][2] "This was their finest hour" was made after France had sought an armistice on the evening of 16 June.[a]

    1. ^ Hansard debate, 13 May 1940 "His Majesty's Government"
    2. ^ The Churchill Centre: We Shall Fight on the Beaches
    3. ^ BBC Written Archives quoted in Gilbert, Martin (27 June 1983). Finest Hour: Winston S. Churchill 1939–1941. Heinemann. p. 566. ISBN 978-0434291878.


    Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

     
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    19 June 1961Kuwait declares independence from the United Kingdom.

    Kuwait

    Kuwait,[a] officially the State of Kuwait,[b] is a country in West Asia. It is situated in the northern edge of Eastern Arabia at the tip of the Persian Gulf, bordering Iraq to the north and Saudi Arabia to the south.[12] Kuwait also shares maritime borders with Iran. Kuwait has a coastal length of approximately 500 km (311 mi).[13] Most of the country's population reside in the urban agglomeration of the capital and largest city Kuwait City.[14] As of 2023, Kuwait has a population of 4.82 million people of which 1.53 million are Kuwaiti citizens while the remaining 3.29 million are foreign nationals from over 100 countries.[15]

    Historically, most of present-day Kuwait was part of ancient Mesopotamia.[16][17][18] Before the discovery of oil, Kuwait was a regional trade port. Oil reserves were discovered in commercial quantities in 1938. In 1946, crude oil was exported for the first time.[19][20] From 1946 to 1982, the country underwent large-scale modernization, largely based on income from oil production. In the 1980s, Kuwait experienced a period of geopolitical instability and an economic crisis following the stock market crash. In 1990, after oil production disputes with neighbouring Iraq, Kuwait was invaded, and later annexed into one of Iraq's governorates by Iraq under Saddam Hussein.[21] The Iraqi occupation of Kuwait came to an end on February 26, 1991, after military intervention by a military coalition led by the United States and various other countries.

    Like some of the other Arab states in the Persian Gulf, Kuwait is an emirate. The emir is the head of state and the Al Sabah is the ruling family which dominates the country's political system. Kuwait's official state religion is Islam, specifically the Maliki school of Sunni Islam. Kuwait is a developing country with a high-income economy, backed by the world's sixth largest oil reserves. Kuwaiti popular culture, in the form of theatre, radio, music, and television soap opera, is exported to neighboring GCC states.[22] Kuwait is a founding member of the GCC and is also a member of the UN, AL, OPEC and the OIC.

    1. ^ "Kuwait's Constitution of 1962, Reinstated in 1992" (PDF). Constitute Project. Retrieved 31 August 2020.
    2. ^ "Which languages are commonly spoken in Kuwait? - TravelAsker". 19 June 2023.
    3. ^ "What Languages Are Spoken in Kuwait?". 28 August 2017.
    4. ^ a b "Middle East ::KUWAIT". CIA The World Factbook. 26 May 2022.
    5. ^ Cite error: The named reference loc was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    6. ^ "Article 4 of Kuwait's Constitution of 1962, Reinstated in 1992" (PDF). Constitution Net. Retrieved 29 October 2023.
    7. ^ "Kuwait". The World Factbook (2024 ed.). Central Intelligence Agency. Retrieved 8 February 2023.
    8. ^ a b c d "World Economic Outlook Database, October 2023 Edition. (Kuwait)". International Monetary Fund. 10 October 2023. Retrieved 12 October 2023.
    9. ^ "Human Development Report 2023/24" (PDF). United Nations Development Programme. 13 March 2024. p. 288. Retrieved 13 March 2024.
    10. ^ "Kuwait – definition of Kuwait in English". Lexico. Archived from the original on 22 August 2017. Retrieved 5 May 2017.
    11. ^ "Definition of Kuwait by Merriam-Webster". Merriam-Webster. Archived from the original on 1 May 2017. Retrieved 5 May 2017.
    12. ^ "Kuwait". The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency. 10 April 2015.
    13. ^ "Coastline - The World Factbook". www.cia.gov.
    14. ^ "The World's Cities in 2018. Data Booklet" (PDF). United Nations. Archived from the original (PDF) on 15 July 2019. Retrieved 29 March 2021.
    15. ^ Jabr, Ahmad (22 February 2024). "Expats still make up two thirds of population as some communities grow". Kuwait Times. Retrieved 25 February 2024.
    16. ^ Sissakian, Varoujan K.; Adamo, Nasrat; Al-Ansari, Nadhir; Mukhalad, Talal; Laue, Jan (January 2020). "Sea Level Changes in the Mesopotamian Plain and Limits of the Arabian Gulf: A Critical Review". Journal of Earth Sciences and Geotechnical Engineering. 10 (4): 88–110.
    17. ^ Louise Pryke (23 April 2018). "In ancient Mesopotamia, sex among the gods shook heaven and earth". The Conversation.
    18. ^ Cite error: The named reference Meso was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    19. ^ Woertz, Eckart; Ajl, Max (2018). "Wise cities" in the Mediterranean? : challenges of urban sustainability. Barcelona: Barcelona Centre for International Affairs. ISBN 978-84-92511-57-0. OCLC 1117436298.
    20. ^ "Contributors". Comparative Studies of South Asia, Africa and the Middle East. 35 (2): 382–384. 2015. doi:10.1215/1089201x-3139815. ISSN 1089-201X.
    21. ^ "OPEC pressures Kuwait to moderate quota demand", New Straits Times, 7 June 1989
    22. ^ Cite error: The named reference cliv was invoked but never defined (see the help page).


    Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

     
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    20 June 1840Samuel Morse receives the patent for the telegraph.

    Samuel Morse

    Samuel Finley Breese Morse (April 27, 1791 – April 2, 1872) was an American inventor and painter. After having established his reputation as a portrait painter, in his middle age Morse contributed to the invention of a single-wire telegraph system based on European telegraphs. He was a co-developer of Morse code in 1837 and helped to develop the commercial use of telegraphy.

     
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    21 June 1864American Civil War: The Battle of Jerusalem Plank Road begins.

    Battle of Jerusalem Plank Road

    The Battle of Jerusalem Plank Road, also known as the First Battle of the Weldon Railroad, took place during the American Civil War fought June 21–23, 1864, near Petersburg, Virginia. It was the first of a series of battles during the Siege of Petersburg aimed at extending the Union siege lines to the west and cutting the rail lines supplying Petersburg. Two infantry corps of the Union Army of the Potomac attempted to sever the railroad, but were attacked and driven off by the Confederate Army of Northern Virginia's Third Corps, principally the division of Brig. Gen. William Mahone. The inconclusive battle left the Weldon Railroad temporarily in Confederate hands, but the Union Army began to extend its fortifications to the west, starting to increase the pressure of the siege.

    1. ^ Cite error: The named reference result was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    2. ^ a b Cite error: The named reference cwsac was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    3. ^ a b Kennedy, 354. Trudeau, p. 78, lists the Union II Corps casualties as 650 killed and wounded, 1,742 captured; VI Corps casualties as 150. on the Confederate side, Trudeau, p. 80, lists Mahone's casualties as 421, Wilcox's 151.
     
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    22 June 1990Cold War: Checkpoint Charlie is dismantled in Berlin.

    Checkpoint Charlie

    A view of Checkpoint Charlie in 1963, from the American sector
    Map of Berlin Wall with location of Checkpoint Charlie

    Checkpoint Charlie (or "Checkpoint C") was the best-known Berlin Wall crossing point between East Berlin and West Berlin during the Cold War (1947–1991), as named by the Western Allies.[1]

    East German leader Walter Ulbricht agitated and maneuvered to get the Soviet Union's permission to construct the Berlin Wall in 1961 to stop emigration and defection westward through the Border system, preventing escape across the city sector border from East Berlin into West Berlin. Checkpoint Charlie became a symbol of the Cold War, representing the separation of East and West. Soviet and American tanks briefly faced each other at the location during the Berlin Crisis of 1961. On 26 June 1963, U.S. President John F. Kennedy visited Checkpoint Charlie and looked from a platform onto the Berlin Wall and into East Berlin.[2]

    After the dissolution of the Eastern Bloc and the reunification of Germany, the American guard house at Checkpoint Charlie became a tourist attraction. It is now located in the Allied Museum in the Dahlem neighborhood of Berlin.52°30′27″N 13°23′25″E / 52.50750°N 13.39028°E / 52.50750; 13.39028

    1. ^ "A brief history of Checkpoint Charlie". Archived from the original on 19 March 2022. Retrieved 19 March 2022.
    2. ^ Andreas Daum, Kennedy in Berlin. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2008, pp. 134‒35.
     
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    23 June 1946 – The 1946 Vancouver Island earthquake strikes Vancouver Island, British Columbia, Canada.

    1946 Vancouver Island earthquake

    The 1946 Vancouver Island earthquake struck Vancouver Island on the coast of British Columbia, Canada, on June 23 at 10:15 a.m.[1] with a magnitude estimated at 7.0 Ms[2] and 7.5 Mw.[6] The main shock epicenter occurred in the Forbidden Plateau area northwest of Courtenay. While most of the large earthquakes in the Vancouver area occur at tectonic plate boundaries, the 1946 Vancouver Island earthquake was a crustal event. Shaking was felt from Portland, Oregon, to Prince Rupert, British Columbia. This is one of the most damaging earthquakes in the history of British Columbia, but damage was restricted because there were no heavily populated areas near the epicentre, where severe shaking occurred.

    This earthquake is Canada's largest historic onshore earthquake.[1] However, the greatest earthquake in Canadian history recorded by seismometers was the 1949 Queen Charlotte earthquake, an interplate earthquake that occurred on the ocean bottom just off the rugged coast of Graham Island, which reached magnitude 8.1 on the moment magnitude scale.[7]

    1. ^ a b c d The M7.3 Vancouver Island Earthquake of 1946 Retrieved on 2008-06-11
    2. ^ a b ISC-OB Event 898434 [IRIS].
    3. ^ ANSS: Canada 1946 .
    4. ^ International Seismological Centre, On-line Bulletin, Thatcham, United Kingdom [Event 898434].
    5. ^ Cite error: The named reference NGDC was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    6. ^ ANSS, "Canada 1946", Comprehensive Catalog, U.S. Geological Survey
    7. ^ The Magnitude 8.1 Queen Charlotte Island Earthquake of August 22, 1949 Archived 2008-05-27 at the Wayback Machine Retrieved on 2008-06-11
     
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    24 June 1939 – Siam is renamed Thailand by Plaek Phibunsongkhram, the country's third prime minister.

    Plaek Phibunsongkhram

    Field Marshal Plaek Phibunsongkhram (Thai: แปลก พิบูลสงคราม [plɛ̀ːk pʰí.būːn.sǒŋ.kʰrāːm]; alternatively transcribed as Pibulsongkram or Pibulsonggram; 14 July 1897 – 11 June 1964), locally known as Marshal P. (Thai: จอมพล ป.;[tɕɔ̄ːm.pʰōn.pɔ̄ː]), and contemporarily known as Phibun (Pibul) in the West, was a Thai military officer and politician who served as Prime Minister of Thailand from 1938 to 1944 and 1948 to 1957.

    Phibunsongkhram was a member of the Army wing of Khana Ratsadon, the first political party in Thailand, and a leader of the Siamese revolution of 1932, which replaced Thailand's absolute monarchy with a constitutional monarchy. Phibun became the third Prime Minister of Thailand in 1938 while serving as Commander of the Royal Siamese Army. Inspired by the Italian fascism of Benito Mussolini, he established a de facto military dictatorship run along fascist lines, promoted Thai nationalism and Sinophobia, and allied Thailand with Imperial Japan in World War II. Phibun launched a modernization campaign known as the Thai Cultural Revolution that included a series of cultural mandates, which changed the country's name from "Siam" to "Thailand", and promoted the Thai language.

    Phibun was ousted as prime minister by the National Assembly in 1944 and replaced by members of the Free Thai Movement, but returned to power after the Siamese coup d'état of 1947, led by the Coup Group. Phibun aligned Thailand with anti-communism in the Cold War, entered the Korean War under the United Nations Command, and abandoned fascism for a façade of democracy. Phibun's second term as prime minister was plagued by political instability and several attempts to launch a coup d'etat against him were made, including the Army General Staff plot in 1948, the Palace Rebellion in 1949, and the Manhattan Rebellion in 1951. Phibun attempted to transform Thailand into an electoral democracy from the mid-1950s onward, but was overthrown in 1957 and went into exile in Japan, where he died in 1964.

    At fifteen years and one month, Phibun's term as Prime Minister of Thailand was the longest to date.

     
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    25 June 1910 – Igor Stravinsky's ballet The Firebird is premiered in Paris, bringing him to prominence as a composer.

    The Firebird

    The Firebird (French: L'Oiseau de feu; Russian: Жар-птица, romanized: Zhar-ptitsa) is a ballet and orchestral concert work by the Russian composer Igor Stravinsky. It was written for the 1910 Paris season of Sergei Diaghilev's Ballets Russes company; the original choreography was by Michel Fokine, who collaborated with Alexandre Benois and others on a scenario based on the Russian fairy tales of the Firebird and the blessing and curse it possesses for its owner. It was first performed at the Opéra de Paris on 25 June 1910 and was an immediate success, catapulting Stravinsky to international fame and leading to future Diaghilev–Stravinsky collaborations including Petrushka (1911) and The Rite of Spring (1913).

    The Firebird's mortal and supernatural elements are distinguished with a system of leitmotifs placed in the harmony dubbed "leit-harmony". Stravinsky intentionally used many specialist techniques in the orchestra, including ponticello, col legno, flautando, glissando, and flutter-tonguing. Set in the evil immortal Koschei's castle, the ballet follows Prince Ivan, who battles Koschei with the help of the magical Firebird.

    Stravinsky later created three concert suites based on the work: in 1911, ending with the "Infernal Dance"; in 1919, which remains the most popular today; and in 1945, featuring significant reorchestration and structural changes. Other choreographers have staged the work with Fokine's original choreography or created entirely new productions using the music, some with new settings or themes. Many recordings of the suites have been made; the first was released in 1928, using the 1911 suite. A film version of the popular Sadler's Wells Ballet production, which revived Fokine's original choreography, was produced in 1959.

     
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    26 June 1927The Cyclone roller coaster opens on Coney Island.

    Coney Island Cyclone

    The Cyclone, also called the Coney Island Cyclone, is a wooden roller coaster at Luna Park in Coney Island, Brooklyn, New York City. Designed by Vernon Keenan, it opened to the public on June 26, 1927. The roller coaster is on a plot of land at the intersection of Surf Avenue and West 10th Street. The Cyclone reaches a maximum speed of 60 miles per hour (97 km/h) and has a total track length of 2,640 feet (800 m), with a maximum height of 85 feet (26 m).

    The roller coaster operated for more than four decades before it began to deteriorate, and by the early 1970s the city planned to scrap the ride. On June 18, 1975, Dewey and Jerome Albert, owners of the adjacent Astroland amusement park, entered an agreement with New York City to operate the ride. The roller coaster was refurbished in the 1974 off-season and reopened on July 3, 1975. Astroland Park continued to invest millions of dollars in the Cyclone's upkeep. The roller coaster was declared a New York City designated landmark in 1988 and was placed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1991. After Astroland closed in 2008, Cyclone Coasters president Carol Hill Albert continued to operate it under a lease agreement with the city. In 2011, Luna Park took over the Cyclone.

    1. ^ Denson, Charles (2002). Coney Island: Lost and Found. Berkeley, Calif.: Ten Speed Press. ISBN 9781580084550.
    2. ^ "National Register Information System". National Register of Historic Places. National Park Service. April 15, 2008.
    3. ^ Cite error: The named reference NYCL was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
     
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    27 June 1950 – The United States decides to send troops to fight in the Korean War.

    Korean War

    The Korean War was fought between North Korea and South Korea from 1950 to 1953. The war began on 25 June 1950 when North Korea invaded South Korea. The war ceased with an armistice on 27 July 1953. North Korea was supported by China and the Soviet Union while South Korea was supported by the United States and the United Nations (UN).

    When World War II ended in 1945, Korea, which had been a Japanese colony for 35 years, was temporarily divided by the United States and the Soviet Union along the 38th parallel.[c] Due to Cold War tensions, however, each half became a sovereign state. North Korea was led by Kim Il Sung, and the First Republic of Korea in the south was led by Syngman Rhee. Both claimed to be the sole legitimate government of all of Korea and neither accepted the 38th parallel as permanent.

    Both sides were engaged in border skirmishes, while the South also suppressed an uprising in Jeju abetted by Pyongyang.[35][36][37] On 25 June 1950, the North's Korean People's Army (KPA) crossed below the 38th parallel.[38][39] The United Nations Security Council denounced the invasion and authorized the United Nations Command to repel the KPA.[40][41][42] The Soviet Union and communist China were both absent from the council and unable to oppose the resolution.[d] The UN force would eventually include twenty one countries, with the United States providing around 90% of the military personnel.[44][45]

    After the first two months of war, the South Korean army (ROKA) and its allies were nearly defeated, holding onto only the Pusan Perimeter. In September 1950, however, UN forces landed at Incheon, cutting off KPA troops and supply lines. They invaded North Korea in October 1950 and advanced towards the Yalu River—the border with China. On 19 October 1950, the Chinese People's Volunteer Army (PVA) crossed the Yalu and entered the war.[38] UN forces retreated from North Korea following PVA's first and second offensive. Communist forces captured Seoul again in January 1951 before losing it. Following the abortive Chinese spring offensive, they were pushed back to the 38th parallel, and the final two years turned into a war of attrition.

    The combat ended on 27 July 1953 when the Korean Armistice Agreement was signed. It allowed the exchange of prisoners and created the Korean Demilitarized Zone (DMZ) between North and South Korea. The conflict is among the most destructive wars in the modern era, inflicting around 3 million fatalities and a larger proportion of civilian deaths than World War II or the Vietnam War. Thousands of massacres occurred, including the killing of tens of thousands of suspected communists by the South Korean government and the torture and starvation of prisoners of war by the North Koreans. Virtually all of Korea's major cities were destroyed. North Korea became one of the most heavily bombed countries in history,[46] and an estimated 1.5 million of its people fled the country.[47] No peace treaty was ever signed, making this a frozen conflict.[48][49]

    1. ^ Kim, Heesu (1996). Anglo-American Relations and the Attempts to Settle the Korean Question 1953–1960 (PDF) (Thesis). London School of Economics and Political Science. p. 213. Archived (PDF) from the original on 10 April 2017. Retrieved 9 April 2017.
    2. ^ "Italian Red Cross Hospital". Archived from the original on 22 August 2012. Retrieved 2 June 2012.
    3. ^ "6.25전쟁 당시 대한민국에 도움의 손길 내밀었던 이탈리아". Newsis. 26 August 2016. Archived from the original on 7 July 2023. Retrieved 12 April 2021.
    4. ^ "독일, 62년만에 6.25 전쟁 의료지원국에 포함…총 6개국으로 늘어". 헤럴드경제. 22 June 2018. Retrieved 4 April 2021.
    5. ^ 임, 성호 (19 June 2020). "[6.25전쟁 70년] 이역만리 한국서 수백만명 살리고 의술 전파까지". Yeonhap News. Retrieved 4 April 2021.
    6. ^ Young, Sam Ma (2010). "Israel's Role in the UN during the Korean War" (PDF). Israel Journal of Foreign Affairs. 4 (3): 81–89. doi:10.1080/23739770.2010.11446616. S2CID 219293462. Archived from the original (PDF) on 24 August 2015.
    7. ^ a b Morris-Suzuki, Tessa (29 July 2012). "Post-War Warriors: Japanese Combatants in the Korean War". The Asia-Pacific Journal: Japan Focus. 10 (31).
    8. ^ Whan-woo, Yi (16 September 2019). "Pakistan's Defense Day rekindles Korean War relief aid". The Korea Times. Archived from the original on 27 November 2020. Retrieved 2 May 2020.
    9. ^ "Uruguay's little-known but important role in the Korean War". Korea.net. 10 February 2022. Retrieved 4 September 2022.
    10. ^ Edles, Laura Desfor (1998). Symbol and Ritual in the New Spain: the transition to democracy after Franco. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. p. 32. ISBN 978-0521628853.
    11. ^ Cite error: The named reference rozhlas cz was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    12. ^ a b Edwards, Paul M. (2006). Korean War Almanac. Almanacs of American wars. New York: Infobase Publishing. p. 528. ISBN 978-0816074679. Archived from the original on 4 July 2017.
    13. ^ Kocsis, Piroska (2005). "Magyar orvosok Koreában (1950–1957)" [Hungarian physicians in Korea (1950–1957)]. ArchivNet: XX. századi történeti források (in Hungarian). Budapest: Magyar Országos Levéltár. Archived from the original on 10 May 2017. Retrieved 22 November 2016.
    14. ^ "Romania's "Fraternal Support" to North Korea during the Korean War, 1950–1953". Wilson Centre. December 2011. Archived from the original on 21 February 2013. Retrieved 24 January 2013.
    15. ^ Birtle, Andrew J. (2000). The Korean War: Years of Stalemate. U.S. Army Center of Military History. p. 34. Retrieved 21 August 2021.
    16. ^ Millett, Allan Reed, ed. (2001). The Korean War, Volume 3. Korea Institute of Military History. U of Nebraska Press. p. 692. ISBN 978-0803277960. Retrieved 16 February 2013. Total Strength 602,902 troops
    17. ^ Kane, Tim (27 October 2004). "Global U.S. Troop Deployment, 1950–2003". Reports. The Heritage Foundation. Archived from the original on 28 January 2013. Retrieved 15 February 2013.
      Ashley Rowland (22 October 2008). "U.S. to keep troop levels the same in South Korea". Stars and Stripes. Archived from the original on 12 May 2013. Retrieved 16 February 2013.
      Colonel Tommy R. Mize, United States Army (12 March 2012). "U.S. Troops Stationed in South Korea, Anachronistic?" (PDF). United States Army War College. Defense Technical Information Center. Archived from the original on 8 April 2013. Retrieved 16 February 2013.
      Louis H. Zanardi; Barbara A. Schmitt; Peter Konjevich; M. Elizabeth Guran; Susan E. Cohen; Judith A. McCloskey (August 1991). "Military Presence: U.S. Personnel in the Pacific Theater" (PDF). Reports to Congressional Requesters. United States General Accounting Office. Archived from the original (PDF) on 15 June 2013. Retrieved 15 February 2013.
    18. ^ a b c d e f g USFK Public Affairs Office. "USFK United Nations Command". United States Forces Korea. United States Department of Defense. Archived from the original on 11 July 2016. Retrieved 29 July 2016. Republic of Korea – 590,911
      Colombia – 1,068
      United States – 302,483
      Belgium – 900
      United Kingdom – 14,198
      South Africa – 826
      Canada – 6,146
      Netherlands – 819
      Turkey – 5,453
      Luxembourg – 44
      Australia – 2,282
      Philippines – 1,496
      New Zealand – 1,385
      Thailand – 1,204[clarification needed]
      Ethiopia – 1,271
      Greece – 1,263
      France – 1,119
    19. ^ Rottman, Gordon L. (2002). Korean War Order of Battle: United States, United Nations, and Communist Ground, Naval, and Air Forces, 1950–1953. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 126. ISBN 978-0275978358. Retrieved 16 February 2013. A peak strength of 14,198 British troops was reached in 1952, with over 40,000 total serving in Korea.
      "UK-Korea Relations". British Embassy Pyongyang. Foreign and Commonwealth Office. 9 February 2012. Retrieved 16 February 2013. When war came to Korea in June 1950, Britain was second only to the United States in the contribution it made to the UN effort in Korea. 87,000 British troops took part in the Korean conflict, and over 1,000 British servicemen lost their lives[permanent dead link]
      Jack D. Walker. "A Brief Account of the Korean War". Information. Republic of Korea Ministry of National Defense Institute for Military History. Retrieved 17 February 2013. Other countries to furnish combat troops, with their peak strength, were: United States (302,483), United Kingdom (14,198), Canada (6,146), Turkey (5,455), Australia (2,282), Thailand (2,274), Philippines (1,496), New Zealand (1,389), France (1,185), Colombia (1,068), Ethiopia (1,271), Greece (1,263), Belgium (900), Netherlands (819), Republic of South Africa (826), Luxembourg (52)
    20. ^ "Land of the Morning Calm: Canadians in Korea 1950–1953". Veterans Affairs Canada. Government of Canada. 7 January 2013. Archived from the original on 23 March 2013. Retrieved 22 February 2013. Peak Canadian Army strength in Korea was 8,123 all ranks.
    21. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k Cite error: The named reference ROK Web was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    22. ^ a b c Edwards, Paul M. (2006). Korean War Almanac. Almanacs of American wars. Infobase Publishing. p. 517. ISBN 978-0816074679. Retrieved 22 February 2013.
    23. ^ Ramachandran, D. p (19 March 2017). "The doctor-heroes of war". The Hindu – via www.thehindu.com.
    24. ^ Fact Sheet: America's Wars". U.S. Department of Veteran Affairs, Washington D.C., May 2017.
    25. ^ 19만7056명 첫 全數조사 “젊은사람들 내 뒤에서 ‘얼마나 죽였길래’ 수군수군 이젠 훈장 안 달고 다녀…세상이 야속하고 나 스스로 비참할 뿐”
    26. ^ The Statistics of the Korean War - ROK Ministry of National Defense Institute for Military History, 2014 (E-BOOK) Archived 9 July 2023 at the Wayback Machine (in Korean)
    27. ^ The Statistics of the Korean War - ROK Ministry of National Defense Institute for Military History, 2014 (PDF) Archived 11 January 2021 at the Wayback Machine (in Korean)
    28. ^ Shrader, Charles R. (1995). Communist Logistics in the Korean War. Issue 160 of Contributions in Military Studies. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 90. ISBN 978-0313295096. Retrieved 17 February 2013. NKPA strength peaked in October 1952 at 266,600 men in eighteen divisions and six independent brigades.
    29. ^ Zhang 1995, p. 257.
    30. ^ Xiaobing, Li (2009). A History of the Modern Chinese Army Lexington: University Press of Kentucky. p. 105: "By December 1952, the Chinese forces in Korea had reached a record high of 1.45 million men, including fifty-nine infantry divisions, ten artillery divisions, five antiaircraft divisions, and seven tank regiments. CPVF numbers remained stable until the armistice agreement was signed in July 1953."
    31. ^ a b Kolb, Richard K. (1999). "In Korea we whipped the Russian Air Force". VFW Magazine. 86 (11). Retrieved 17 February 2013. Soviet involvement in the Korean War was on a large scale. During the war, 72,000 Soviet troops (among them 5,000 pilots) served along the Yalu River in Manchuria. At least 12 air divisions rotated through. A peak strength of 26,000 men was reached in 1952.[permanent dead link]
    32. ^ Cite error: The named reference xu was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    33. ^ Cite error: The named reference Cumings p. 35 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    34. ^ Cite error: The named reference Lewy pp. 450-453 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    35. ^ "The creation of an independent South Korea became UN policy in early 1948. Southern communists opposed this, and by autumn partisan warfare had spread throughout Korean provinces below the 38th parallel. The newly formed Republic of Korea Army (ROKA) in the south and the North Korean border constabulary as well as the North's Korean People's Army (KPA) engaged in a limited border war." Millett (PHD), Allan. "Korean War". britannica.com. Archived from the original on 24 April 2016. Retrieved 21 April 2016.
    36. ^ Cumings 2005, pp. 247–53.
    37. ^ Stueck 2002, p. 71.
    38. ^ a b Cite error: The named reference Devine 2007 819-821 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    39. ^ Lee, Steven Hugh (14 June 2014). "The Korean War in History and Historiography". The Journal of American-East Asian Relations. 21 (2): 185–206. doi:10.1163/18765610-02102010. Historian Kim Hakjoon argues that the many telegrams that Moscow and P'yǒngyang exchanged from January to June 1950, and, more important, the secret meetings between Stalin and Kim [Il Sung] in Moscow in April and Mao and Kim in Beijing during May, confirmed that the three Communist leaders were responsible for starting the Korean War on the morning of 25 June 1950.
    40. ^ United Nations Security Council Resolution 83
    41. ^ United Nations Security Council Resolution 82
    42. ^ Derek W. Bowett, United Nations Forces: A Legal Study of United Nations Practice, Stevens, London, 1964, pp. 29–60
    43. ^ "Soviets boycott United Nations Security Council". HISTORY. 9 January 2020. Retrieved 3 July 2023.
    44. ^ Pembroke, Michael (2018). Korea: Where the American Century Began. Hardie Grant Books. p. 141.
    45. ^ "United Nations Command > History > 1950–1953: Korean War (Active Conflict)". www.unc.mil. Retrieved 5 November 2020.
    46. ^ Fisher, Max (3 August 2015). "Americans have forgotten what we did to North Korea". Vox. Retrieved 18 October 2021.
    47. ^ Robinson, Michael E (2007). Korea's Twentieth-Century Odyssey. Honolulu, HI: University of Hawaii Press. pp. 119-120. ISBN 978-0824831745.
    48. ^ He, Kai; Feng, Huiyun (2013). Prospect Theory and Foreign Policy Analysis in the Asia Pacific: Rational Leaders and Risky Behavior. Routledge. p. 50. ISBN 978-1135131197. Archived from the original on 4 July 2017.
    49. ^ Li, Narangoa; Cribb, Robert (2014). Historical Atlas of Northeast Asia, 1590–2010: Korea, Manchuria, Mongolia, Eastern Siberia. Columbia University Press. p. 194. ISBN 978-0231160704. Archived from the original on 4 July 2017.


    Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

     
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    28 June 1997Holyfield–Tyson II: Mike Tyson is disqualified in the third round for biting a piece off Evander Holyfield's ear.

    Evander Holyfield vs. Mike Tyson II

    Evander Holyfield vs. Mike Tyson II, billed as The Sound and the Fury and afterwards infamously referred to as The Bite Fight, was a professional boxing match contested between Evander Holyfield and Mike Tyson on June 28, 1997, for the WBA Heavyweight Championship.[1] It achieved notoriety as one of the most bizarre fights in boxing history after Tyson bit off a part of Holyfield's ear. Tyson was disqualified from the match and lost his boxing license, though it was later reinstated.

    The fight took place at the MGM Grand Garden Arena in Paradise, Nevada. The referee officiating the fight was Mills Lane, who was brought in as a late replacement when Tyson's camp protested the original selection of Mitch Halpern (who officiated the first fight) as the referee.[2]

    1. ^ "Evander Holyfield vs. Mike Tyson (2nd meeting)". boxrec.com. BoxRec. Retrieved March 19, 2024.
    2. ^ Lane late replacement, center of action[usurped], AP via Slam! Boxing, 1997-06-29, Retrieved on March 9, 2007.
     
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    29 June 1952 – The first Miss Universe pageant is held. Armi Kuusela from Finland wins the title of Miss Universe 1952.

    Miss Universe

    Miss Universe is an annual international major beauty pageant that is run by a United States and Thailand-based Miss Universe Organization.[1] Along with Miss World, Miss International, and Miss Earth, it is one of the Big Four beauty pageants.[2]

    The Miss Universe Organization and its brand, along with its sister pageants, Miss USA and Miss Teen USA, is currently owned by JKN Global Group and Legacy Holding Group USA Inc., an American division of Mexican company Legacy Holding through the joint venture company JKN Legacy Inc.[3] Telemundo has the licensing rights to air the pageant through 2023.[4] The pageant's advocacy is "humanitarian issues and is a voice to affect positive change in the world."[5][6]

    The current Miss Universe is Sheynnis Palacios of Nicaragua who was crowned on November 18, 2023 in San Salvador, El Salvador.

    1. ^ Natalie Tadena (July 2, 2015)."Donald Trump's Miss USA Pageant Lands on Reelz Cable Channel" Archived July 27, 2020, at the Wayback Machine. The Wall Street Journal.
    2. ^ Enriquez, Amee (February 2, 2014). "Beauty Pageant Basics". BBC News. Archived from the original on March 8, 2021. Retrieved May 4, 2018.
    3. ^ Bundel, Ani (December 16, 2018). "Miss Universe is the only major beauty pageant worth watching. Here's why". NBC News. Archived from the original on November 8, 2020. Retrieved December 20, 2018.
    4. ^ "Miss Universe Returns To Telemundo After 5-Year Absence". forbes.com. November 3, 2019. Archived from the original on April 21, 2021. Retrieved April 19, 2021.
    5. ^ "About Miss Universe". Miss Universe Website. April 20, 2020. Archived from the original on May 5, 2019. Retrieved April 20, 2020.
    6. ^ Scott, H. Allan (December 16, 2018). "Catriona Gray of Philippines Crowned". Newsweek. Archived from the original on December 1, 2020. Retrieved April 26, 2020.
     
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    30 June 1859 – French acrobat Charles Blondin crosses Niagara Falls on a tightrope.

    Charles Blondin

    Charles Blondin (born Jean François Gravelet, 28 February 1824 – 22 February 1897) was a French tightrope walker and acrobat. He toured the United States and was known for crossing the 1,100 ft (340 m) Niagara Gorge on a tightrope.

    During an event in Dublin in 1860, the rope on which he was walking broke and two workers were killed, although Blondin was not injured.

    He married three times and had eight children. His name became synonymous with tightrope walking.

     
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    1 July 1903 – Start of first Tour de France bicycle race.

    1903 Tour de France

    The 1903 Tour de France was the first cycling race set up and sponsored by the newspaper L'Auto, ancestor of the current daily, L'Équipe. It ran from 1 to 19 July in six stages over 2,428 km (1,509 mi), and was won by Maurice Garin.[1]

    The race was invented to boost the circulation of L'Auto, after its circulation started to plummet from competition with the long-standing Le Vélo. Originally scheduled to start in June, the race was postponed one month, and the prize money was increased, after a disappointing level of applications from competitors. The 1903 Tour de France was the first stage road race, and compared to modern Grand Tours, it had relatively few stages, but each was much longer than those raced today. The cyclists did not have to compete in all six stages, although this was necessary to qualify for the general classification.

    The pre-race favourite, Maurice Garin, won the first stage, and retained the lead throughout. He also won the last two stages, and had a margin of almost three hours over the next cyclist. The circulation of L'Auto increased more than sixfold during and after the race, so the race was considered successful enough to be rerun in 1904, by which time Le Vélo had been forced out of business.

    1. ^ Augendre 2016, p. 108.
     
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    2 July 1494 – The Treaty of Tordesillas is ratified by Spain.

    Treaty of Tordesillas

    The Treaty of Tordesillas,[a] signed in Tordesillas, Spain, on 7 June 1494, and ratified in Setúbal, Portugal, divided the newly discovered lands outside Europe between Portugal and the Crown of Castile, along a meridian 370 leagues[b] west of the Cape Verde islands, off the west coast of Africa. That line of demarcation was about halfway between Cape Verde (already Portuguese) and the islands visited by Christopher Columbus on his first voyage (claimed for Castile and León), named in the treaty as Cipangu and Antillia (Cuba and Hispaniola).

    The lands to the east would belong to Portugal and the lands to the west to Castile, modifying an earlier bull by Pope Alexander VI. The treaty was signed by Spain on 2 July 1494, and by Portugal on 5 September 1494. The other side of the world was divided a few decades later by the Treaty of Zaragoza, signed on 22 April 1529, which specified the antimeridian to the line of demarcation specified in the Treaty of Tordesillas. Portugal and Spain largely respected the treaties, while the indigenous peoples of the Americas did not acknowledge them.[9]

    The treaty was included by UNESCO in 2007 in its Memory of the World Programme. Originals of both treaties are kept at the General Archive of the Indies in Spain and at the Torre do Tombo National Archive in Portugal.[10]

    1. ^ Horst Pietschmann, Atlantic history : history of the Atlantic System 1580–1830, Göttingen : Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 2002, p. 239
    2. ^ Parise, Agustín (2017). Ownership Paradigms in American Civil Law Jurisdictions: Manifestations of the Shifts in the Legislation of Louisiana, Chile, and Argentina (16th–20th Centuries). Brill. p. 68. ISBN 978-9004338203. Retrieved 21 September 2018.
    3. ^ Blair & Robertson (1903).
    4. ^ Davenport (1917), p. 100.
    5. ^ Chardon (1980), pp. 142, 144, & 151.
    6. ^ Harrisse (1897), pp. 85–97, 176–190.
    7. ^ Newlyn Walkup, "Eratosthenes and the mystery of the stades"
    8. ^ Engels, Donald (1985). "The length of Eratosthenes' stade". American Journal of Philology. 106 (3): 298–311. doi:10.2307/295030. JSTOR 295030.
    9. ^ Miller, Robert; LeSage, Lisa; Escarcena, Sebastián (1 August 2011). "The International Law of Discovery, Indigenous Peoples, and Chile". Nebraska Law Review. 89 (4): 829.
    10. ^ Davenport (1917), pp. 85 & 171.


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