This day in .....

25 May 1925 – Scopes Trial: John T. Scopes is indicted for teaching human evolution in Tennessee.

John T. Scopes

American schoolteacher and Scopes Trial figure (1900–1970)

John Thomas Scopes (August 3, 1900 – October 21, 1970) was a teacher in Dayton, Tennessee, who was charged on May 5, 1925, with violating Tennessee's Butler Act, which prohibited the teaching of human evolution in Tennessee schools. He was tried in a case known as the Scopes Trial, and was found guilty and fined $100 (equivalent to $1,669 in 2022).

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26 May 1868 – The Impeachment of Andrew Johnson ends with his acquittal by one vote.

Impeachment of Andrew Johnson

1868 impeachment of Andrew Johnson, 17th US president

The impeachment of Andrew Johnson was initiated on February 24, 1868, when the United States House of Representatives passed a resolution to impeach Andrew Johnson, the 17th president of the United States, for "high crimes and misdemeanors". The alleged high crimes and misdemeanors were afterwards specified in eleven articles of impeachment adopted by the House on March 2 and 3, 1868. The primary charge against Johnson was that he had violated the Tenure of Office Act. Specifically, that he had acted to remove from office Edwin Stanton and to replace him with Brevet Major General Lorenzo Thomas as secretary of war ad interim. The Tenure of Office had been passed by Congress in March 1867 over Johnson's veto with the primary intent of protecting Stanton from being fired without the Senate's consent. Stanton often sided with the Radical Republican faction and did not have a good relationship with Johnson.

Johnson was the first United States president to be impeached. After the House formally adopted the articles of impeachment, they forwarded them to the United States Senate for adjudication. The trial in the Senate began on March 5, with Chief Justice Salmon P. Chase presiding. On May 16, the Senate voted against convicting Johnson on one of the articles, with its 35–19 vote in favor of conviction falling one vote short of the necessary two-thirds majority. A 10-day recess of the Senate trial was called before reconvening to convict him on additional articles. On May 26, the Senate voted against convicting the president on two more articles by margins identical to the first vote. After this, the trial was adjourned sine die without votes being held on the remaining eight articles of impeachment.

The impeachment and trial of Andrew Johnson had important political implications for the balance of federal legislative-executive power. It maintained the principle that Congress should not remove the president from office simply because its members disagreed with him over policy, style, and administration of the office. It also resulted in diminished presidential influence on public policy and overall governing power, fostering a system of governance which future-President Woodrow Wilson referred to in the 1880s as "Congressional Government".

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27 May 1996 – First Chechen War: Russian President Boris Yeltsin meets with Chechnyan rebels for the first time and negotiates a cease-fire.

First Chechen War

1994–96 invasion of the Chechen Republic of Ichkeria by the Russian Federation

The First Chechen War, also referred to as the First Russo-Chechen War, was a struggle for independence waged by the Chechen Republic of Ichkeria against the Russian Federation from December 1994 to August 1996. This conflict was preceded by the battle of Grozny in November 1994, during which Russia covertly sought to overthrow the new Chechen government. Following the intense Battle of Grozny in 1994-1995, which concluded as a pyrrhic victory for the Russian federal forces, their subsequent efforts to establish control over the remaining lowlands and mountainous regions of Chechnya were met with fierce resistance from Chechen guerrillas who often conducted surprise raids.

Despite Russia's considerable military advantages, the recapture of Grozny in 1996 significantly demoralised Russian troops. This development led Boris Yeltsin's government to announce a ceasefire with the Chechens in 1996 and ultimately culminated in the signing of a peace treaty in 1997.

The official Russian estimate of Russian military deaths was 5,732, but according to other estimates, the number of Russian military deaths was as high as 14,000.^[24] According to various estimates, the number of Chechen military deaths was approximately 3,000, the number of Chechen civilian deaths was between 30,000 and 100,000. Over 200,000 Chechen civilians may have been injured, more than 500,000 people were displaced, and cities and villages were reduced to rubble across the republic.^[25]

1. ^ "TURKISH VOLUNTEERS IN CHECHNYA". Jamestown.
2. ^ Amjad M. Jaimoukha (2005). The Chechens: A Handbook. Psychology Press. p. 237. ISBN 978-0-415-32328-4.
3. ^ Politics of Conflict: A Survey, p. 68, at Google Books
4. ^ Energy and Security in the Caucasus, p. 66, at Google Books
5. ^ "Radical Ukrainian Nationalism and the War in Chechnya". Jamestown. -UNSO’s “Argo” squad -Viking Brigade
6. ^ Cooley, John K. (2002). Unholy Wars: Afghanistan, America and International Terrorism (3rd ed.). London: Pluto Press. p. 195. ISBN 978-0-7453-1917-9. A Turkish Fascist youth group, the "Grey Wolves," was recruited to fight with the Chechens.
7. ^ Goltz, Thomas (2003). Chechnya Diary: A War Correspondent's Story of Surviving the War in Chechnya. New York: Thomas Dunne Books. p. 22. ISBN 978-0-312-26874-9. I called a well-informed diplomat pal and arranged to meet him at a bar favored by the pan-Turkic crowd known as the Gray Wolves, who were said to be actively supporting the Chechens with men and arms.
   ...the Azerbaijani Gray Wolf leader, Iskander, Hamidov...
8. ^ Isingor, Ali (6 September 2000). "Istanbul: Gateway to a holy war". CNN. Archived from the original on 17 October 2014.
9. ^ "Grey Wolves in Syria". Egypt Today. 11 May 2017. Archived from the original on 21 July 2023. Retrieved 21 July 2023.{{cite news}}: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link)
10. ^ Galeotti, Mark (2014). Russia's War in Chechnya 1994–2009. Osprey Publishing. ISBN 978-1-78200-279-6.
11. ^ "Breaking the Conflict Trap: Civil War and Development Policy" (PDF). World Bank Document. Retrieved 29 September 2022.
12. ^ Lutz, Raymond R. (April 1997). "Russian Strategy In Chechnya: a Case Study in Failure". Archived from the original on 27 October 2016. Retrieved 9 December 2017.
13. ^ "Radical Ukrainian Nationalism and the War in Chechnya". Jamestown. The Jamestown Foundation.
14. ^ Кривошеев, Г. Ф., ed. (2001). Россия и СССР в войнах XX века. Потери вооруженных сил (in Russian). Олма-Пресс. p. 581. ISBN 5-224-01515-4.
15. ^ Кривошеев, Г. Ф., ed. (2001). Россия и СССР в войнах XX века. Потери вооруженных сил (in Russian). Олма-Пресс. p. 582. ISBN 5-224-01515-4.
16. ^ "Первая чеченская война – 20 лет назад". 11 December 2014.
17. ^ ^{a b} Saradzhyan, Simon (2005-03-09). "Army Learned Few Lessons From Chechnya". Moscow Times.
18. ^ ^{a b} "The War in Chechnya". MN-Files. Mosnews.com. 2007-02-07. Archived from the original on March 2, 2008.
19. ^ Russia’s Wars: Listing Equipment Losses During The First Chechen War (1994–1996)
20. ^ Andrei, Sakharov (4 November 1999). "The Second Chechen War". Reliefweb. Retrieved 31 July 2023.
21. ^ "Human Rights Violations in Chechnya". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 2002-12-28. Retrieved 2013-11-23.
22. ^ Felgenhauer, Pavel. "The Russian Army in Chechnya". Crimes of War. Archived from the original on 9 February 2011. Retrieved 7 October 2022.
23. ^ Cherkasov, Alexander. "Book of Numbers, Book of Losses, Book of the Final Judgment". Polit.ru. Retrieved 2 January 2016.
24. ^ Cite error: The named reference jamestown was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
25. ^ "The War That Continues to Shape Russia, 25 Years Later". The New York Times. 2019-12-10. Retrieved 2020-09-08.

Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

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28 May 1974 – Northern Ireland's power-sharing Sunningdale Agreement collapses following a general strike by loyalists.

Sunningdale Agreement

1973 attempt to end the Troubles by reorganizing the Northern Irish government

The Sunningdale Agreement was an attempt to establish a power-sharing Northern Ireland Executive and a cross-border Council of Ireland. The agreement was signed at Northcote House in Sunningdale Park, located in Sunningdale, Berkshire, on 9 December 1973.^[1] Unionist opposition, violence and a general strike caused the collapse of the agreement in May 1974.

1. ^ "1973: Sunningdale Agreement signed". BBC News. 9 December 1973. Archived from the original on 7 March 2008. Retrieved 24 May 2010.

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29 May 1868 – Mihailo Obrenović III, Prince of Serbia is assassinated.

Mihailbrenović,_Prince_of_Serbia

 

30 May 1814 – The First Treaty of Paris is signed, returning the French frontiers to their 1792 extent, and restoring the House of Bourbon to power.

Treaty of Paris (1814)

1814 peace treaty which ended the War of the Sixth Coalition

For other treaties of Paris, see Treaty of Paris (disambiguation).

The Treaty of Paris, signed on 30 May 1814, ended the war between France and the Sixth Coalition, part of the Napoleonic Wars, following an armistice signed on 23 April between Charles, Count of Artois, and the allies.^[1] The treaty set the borders for France under the House of Bourbon and restored territories to other nations. It is sometimes called the First Peace of Paris, as another one followed in 1815.

1. ^ Büsch 1992, p. 72.

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31 May 1859 – The clock tower at the Houses of Parliament, which houses Big Ben, starts keeping time.

Big Ben

Clock tower in London, England

For other uses, see Big Ben (disambiguation).

Big Ben is the nickname for the Great Bell of the Great Clock of Westminster,^[1][2] at the north end of the Palace of Westminster in London, England,^[3] and the name is frequently extended to refer also to the clock and the clock tower.^[4] The official name of the tower in which Big Ben is located was originally the Clock Tower, but it was renamed Elizabeth Tower in 2012 to mark the Diamond Jubilee of Elizabeth II.

The tower was designed by Augustus Pugin in a neo-Gothic style. When completed in 1859, its clock was the largest and most accurate four-faced striking and chiming clock in the world.^[5] The tower stands 316 feet (96 m) tall, and the climb from ground level to the belfry is 334 steps. Its base is square, measuring 40 feet (12 m) on each side. Dials of the clock are 22.5 feet (6.9 m) in diameter. All four nations of the UK are represented on the tower on shields featuring a rose for England, thistle for Scotland, shamrock for Ireland, and leek for Wales.

Big Ben is the largest of the tower's five bells and weighs 13.5 long tons (13.7 tonnes; 15.1 short tons).^[3] It was the largest bell in the United Kingdom for 23 years. The origin of the bell's nickname is open to question; it may be named after Sir Benjamin Hall, who oversaw its installation, or heavyweight boxing champion Benjamin Caunt. Four quarter bells chime at 15, 30 and 45 minutes past the hour and just before Big Ben tolls on the hour. The clock uses its original Victorian mechanism, but an electric motor can be used as a backup.

The tower is a British cultural icon recognised all over the world. It is one of the most prominent symbols of the United Kingdom and parliamentary democracy,^[6] and it is often used in the establishing shot of films set in London.^[7] The clock tower has been part of a Grade I listed building since 1970 and a UNESCO World Heritage Site since 1987.^[8] The tower was repaired and renovated for four years between 2017 and 2021, during which the bells remained silent with few exceptions.^[9]

1. ^ Andersson, Jasmine (29 October 2022). "When do the clocks go back? Big Ben prepares for first change in five years". BBC News. Retrieved 30 October 2022.
2. ^ "West Dial re-connected to the Great Clock". UK Parliament. 28 April 2022. Retrieved 30 October 2022.
3. ^ ^{a b} "The Story of Big Ben". Whitechapel Bell Foundry. Archived from the original on 17 February 2018. Retrieved 4 May 2022.
4. ^ Fowler, p. 95.
5. ^ Excell, Jon (5 July 2016). "Why is Big Ben falling silent?". BBC News.
6. ^ "Palace of Westminster and Westminster Abbey including Saint Margaret's Church". UNESCO.
7. ^ "Big Ben in films and popular culture". The Daily Telegraph. 8 November 2016. Archived from the original on 11 January 2022.
8. ^ Centre, UNESCO World Heritage. "UNESCO World Heritage Centre - World Heritage List". UNESCO World Heritage Centre. Retrieved 8 November 2022.
9. ^ Fowler, Susanne (12 April 2021). "What Does It Take to Hear Big Ben Again? 500 Workers and a Hiding Place". The New York Times. Retrieved 15 April 2021.

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1 June 1980 – Cable News Network (CNN) begins broadcasting.

CNN

American news channel

This article is about the channel. For other uses, see CNN (disambiguation).

Television channel

The Cable News Network (CNN) is a multinational news channel and website headquartered in Atlanta, Georgia, U.S.^[2][3][4] Founded in 1980 by American media proprietor Ted Turner and Reese Schonfeld as a 24-hour cable news channel, and presently owned by the Manhattan-based media conglomerate Warner Bros. Discovery (WBD),^[5] CNN was the first television channel to provide 24-hour news coverage and the first all-news television channel in the United States.^{[6][7][8][9][10]}

As of February 2023, CNN had 80 million television households as subscribers in the US.^[11] According to Nielsen, in June 2021 CNN ranked third in viewership among cable news networks, behind Fox News and MSNBC, averaging 580,000 viewers throughout the day, down 49% from a year earlier, amid sharp declines in viewers across all cable news networks.^[12] While CNN ranked 14th among all basic cable networks in 2019,^[13][14] then jumped to 7th during a major surge for the three largest cable news networks (completing a rankings streak of Fox News at number 5 and MSNBC at number 6 for that year),^[15] it settled back to number 11 in 2021^[16] and had further declined to number 21 in 2022.^[17]

Globally, CNN programming has aired through CNN International, seen by viewers in over 212 countries and territories;^[18] since May 2019, however, the US domestic version has absorbed international news coverage in order to reduce programming costs. The American version, sometimes referred to as CNN (US), is also available in Canada, some islands of the Caribbean and in Japan, where it was first broadcast on CNNj in 2003, with simultaneous translation in Japanese.^[19]

1. ^ ^{a b c} Barr, Jeremy; Izadi, Elahe; Ellison, Sarah; Farhi, Paul (February 2, 2022). "CNN president Jeff Zucker resigns, citing undisclosed relationship with colleague". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on February 2, 2022. Retrieved February 2, 2022.
2. ^ Alfonso, Fernando (May 30, 2020). "CNN Center in Atlanta damaged during protests". CNN. Archived from the original on May 30, 2020. Retrieved January 16, 2021.
3. ^ "CNN Center". CNN. Archived from the original on January 21, 2021. Retrieved January 16, 2021.
4. ^ "About Us". CNN. Archived from the original on January 15, 2021. Retrieved January 16, 2021.
5. ^ "Time Warner: Turner Broadcasting". Archived from the original on January 22, 2011.
6. ^ Kiesewetter, John (May 28, 2000). "In 20 years, CNN has changed the way we view the news". Cincinnati Enquirer. Archived from the original on October 11, 2017. Retrieved January 24, 2009.
7. ^ "Charles Bierbauer, CNN senior Washington correspondent, discusses his 19-year career at CNN. (May 8, 2000)". CNN. Archived from the original on September 29, 2012. Retrieved October 12, 2013.
8. ^ "Reese's Pieces: Mr. Schonfeld, Forgotten Founder of CNN, Is a Man of Many Projects". Observer. January 29, 2001. Archived from the original on September 26, 2020. Retrieved March 1, 2022.
9. ^ Stelter, Brian (July 28, 2020). "Reese Schonfeld, CNN's founding president, has died at 88". CNN. Archived from the original on July 29, 2020. Retrieved July 31, 2020.
10. ^ "CNN changed news – for better and worse". Taipei Times. May 31, 2005. Archived from the original on June 3, 2015. Retrieved January 24, 2009.
11. ^ "CNN Worldwide Fact Sheet". Archived from the original on March 25, 2021. Retrieved March 15, 2023.
12. ^ Johnson, Ted (June 29, 2021). "Fox News Tops June And Q2 Viewership, But Plunge In Ratings Continues Across All Major Cable News Networks". Deadline. Archived from the original on July 7, 2021. Retrieved July 6, 2021.
13. ^ Andreeva, Nellie; Johnson, Ted (December 27, 2019). "Cable Ratings 2019: Fox News Tops Total Viewers, ESPN Wins 18–49 Demo As Entertainment Networks Slide". Deadline. Archived from the original on January 14, 2020. Retrieved January 16, 2020.
14. ^ Schneider, Michael (December 26, 2019). "Most-Watched Television Networks: Ranking 2019's Winners and Losers". Variety. Archived from the original on January 6, 2020. Retrieved January 16, 2020.
15. ^ Schneider, Michael (December 28, 2020). "Most-Watched Television Networks: Ranking 2020's Winners and Losers". Variety. Archived from the original on December 28, 2020. Retrieved May 2, 2022.
16. ^ Schneider, Michael (December 30, 2021). "Most-Watched Television Networks: Ranking 2021's Winners and Losers". Variety. Archived from the original on January 12, 2022.
17. ^ Schneider, Michael (December 29, 2022). "Most-Watched Television Networks: Ranking 2022's Winners and Losers". Variety. Archived from the original on January 18, 2023. Retrieved January 19, 2023.
18. ^ "CNN is Viewers Cable Network of Choice for Democratic and Republican National Convention Coverage" (Press release). Time Warner. August 18, 2000. Retrieved February 20, 2010.^{[permanent dead link]}
19. ^ "CNN Partners". CNN Asia Pacific. Archived from the original on July 29, 2012. Retrieved May 4, 2020.

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1 June 1980 – Cable News Network (CNN) begins broadcasting.

CNN

American news channel

This article is about the channel. For other uses, see CNN (disambiguation).

Television channel

The Cable News Network (CNN) is a multinational news channel and website headquartered in Atlanta, Georgia, U.S.^[2][3][4] Founded in 1980 by American media proprietor Ted Turner and Reese Schonfeld as a 24-hour cable news channel, and presently owned by the Manhattan-based media conglomerate Warner Bros. Discovery (WBD),^[5] CNN was the first television channel to provide 24-hour news coverage and the first all-news television channel in the United States.^{[6][7][8][9][10]}

As of February 2023, CNN had 80 million television households as subscribers in the US.^[11] According to Nielsen, in June 2021 CNN ranked third in viewership among cable news networks, behind Fox News and MSNBC, averaging 580,000 viewers throughout the day, down 49% from a year earlier, amid sharp declines in viewers across all cable news networks.^[12] While CNN ranked 14th among all basic cable networks in 2019,^[13][14] then jumped to 7th during a major surge for the three largest cable news networks (completing a rankings streak of Fox News at number 5 and MSNBC at number 6 for that year),^[15] it settled back to number 11 in 2021^[16] and had further declined to number 21 in 2022.^[17]

Globally, CNN programming has aired through CNN International, seen by viewers in over 212 countries and territories;^[18] since May 2019, however, the US domestic version has absorbed international news coverage in order to reduce programming costs. The American version, sometimes referred to as CNN (US), is also available in Canada, some islands of the Caribbean and in Japan, where it was first broadcast on CNNj in 2003, with simultaneous translation in Japanese.^[19]

1. ^ ^{a b c} Barr, Jeremy; Izadi, Elahe; Ellison, Sarah; Farhi, Paul (February 2, 2022). "CNN president Jeff Zucker resigns, citing undisclosed relationship with colleague". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on February 2, 2022. Retrieved February 2, 2022.
2. ^ Alfonso, Fernando (May 30, 2020). "CNN Center in Atlanta damaged during protests". CNN. Archived from the original on May 30, 2020. Retrieved January 16, 2021.
3. ^ "CNN Center". CNN. Archived from the original on January 21, 2021. Retrieved January 16, 2021.
4. ^ "About Us". CNN. Archived from the original on January 15, 2021. Retrieved January 16, 2021.
5. ^ "Time Warner: Turner Broadcasting". Archived from the original on January 22, 2011.
6. ^ Kiesewetter, John (May 28, 2000). "In 20 years, CNN has changed the way we view the news". Cincinnati Enquirer. Archived from the original on October 11, 2017. Retrieved January 24, 2009.
7. ^ "Charles Bierbauer, CNN senior Washington correspondent, discusses his 19-year career at CNN. (May 8, 2000)". CNN. Archived from the original on September 29, 2012. Retrieved October 12, 2013.
8. ^ "Reese's Pieces: Mr. Schonfeld, Forgotten Founder of CNN, Is a Man of Many Projects". Observer. January 29, 2001. Archived from the original on September 26, 2020. Retrieved March 1, 2022.
9. ^ Stelter, Brian (July 28, 2020). "Reese Schonfeld, CNN's founding president, has died at 88". CNN. Archived from the original on July 29, 2020. Retrieved July 31, 2020.
10. ^ "CNN changed news – for better and worse". Taipei Times. May 31, 2005. Archived from the original on June 3, 2015. Retrieved January 24, 2009.
11. ^ "CNN Worldwide Fact Sheet". Archived from the original on March 25, 2021. Retrieved March 15, 2023.
12. ^ Johnson, Ted (June 29, 2021). "Fox News Tops June And Q2 Viewership, But Plunge In Ratings Continues Across All Major Cable News Networks". Deadline. Archived from the original on July 7, 2021. Retrieved July 6, 2021.
13. ^ Andreeva, Nellie; Johnson, Ted (December 27, 2019). "Cable Ratings 2019: Fox News Tops Total Viewers, ESPN Wins 18–49 Demo As Entertainment Networks Slide". Deadline. Archived from the original on January 14, 2020. Retrieved January 16, 2020.
14. ^ Schneider, Michael (December 26, 2019). "Most-Watched Television Networks: Ranking 2019's Winners and Losers". Variety. Archived from the original on January 6, 2020. Retrieved January 16, 2020.
15. ^ Schneider, Michael (December 28, 2020). "Most-Watched Television Networks: Ranking 2020's Winners and Losers". Variety. Archived from the original on December 28, 2020. Retrieved May 2, 2022.
16. ^ Schneider, Michael (December 30, 2021). "Most-Watched Television Networks: Ranking 2021's Winners and Losers". Variety. Archived from the original on January 12, 2022.
17. ^ Schneider, Michael (December 29, 2022). "Most-Watched Television Networks: Ranking 2022's Winners and Losers". Variety. Archived from the original on January 18, 2023. Retrieved January 19, 2023.
18. ^ "CNN is Viewers Cable Network of Choice for Democratic and Republican National Convention Coverage" (Press release). Time Warner. August 18, 2000. Retrieved February 20, 2010.^{[permanent dead link]}
19. ^ "CNN Partners". CNN Asia Pacific. Archived from the original on July 29, 2012. Retrieved May 4, 2020.

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2 June 1835 – P. T. Barnum and his circus start their first tour of the United States.

P. T. Barnum

American showman and politician (1810–1891)

"Barnum" redirects here. For other uses with the name Barnum, see Barnum (disambiguation).

Phineas Taylor Barnum (/ˈbɑːrnəm/; July 5, 1810 – April 7, 1891) was an American showman, businessman and politician remembered for promoting celebrated hoaxes and founding the Barnum & Bailey Circus^[1] with James Anthony Bailey.

He was also an author, publisher and philanthropist, although he said of himself: "I am a showman by profession ... and all the gilding shall make nothing else of me."^[2] According to Barnum's critics, his personal aim was "to put money in his own coffers."^[2] The adage "there's a sucker born every minute"^[3] has frequently been attributed to him, although no evidence exists that he had indeed coined the phrase.

Barnum became a small-business owner in his early twenties and founded a weekly newspaper before moving to New York City in 1834. He embarked on an entertainment career, first with a variety troupe called "Barnum's Grand Scientific and Musical Theater", and soon after by purchasing Scudder's American Museum, which he renamed after himself. He used the museum as a platform to promote hoaxes and human curiosities such as the Fiji mermaid and General Tom Thumb.^[4] In 1850, he promoted the American tour of Swedish opera singer Jenny Lind, paying her an unprecedented $1,000 (equivalent to $35,176 in 2022) per night for 150 nights. He suffered economic reversals in the 1850s from unwise investments, as well as years of litigation and public humiliation, but he embarked on a lecture tour as a temperance speaker to emerge from debt. His museum added America's first aquarium and expanded its wax-figure department.

Barnum served two terms in the Connecticut legislature in 1865 as a Republican for Fairfield, Connecticut. He spoke before the legislature concerning the ratification of the Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution, which abolished slavery and involuntary servitude: "A human soul, 'that God has created and Christ died for,' is not to be trifled with. It may tenant the body of a Chinaman, a Turk, an Arab, or a Hottentot—it is still an immortal spirit."^[5] He was elected in 1875 as mayor of Bridgeport, Connecticut, where he worked to improve the water supply, bring gas lighting to streets and enforce liquor and prostitution laws. He was also instrumental in the inception of Bridgeport Hospital in 1878 and was its first president.^[6] However, the circus business, begun when he was 60 years old, was the source of much of his enduring fame. He established "P.T. Barnum's Grand Traveling Museum, Menagerie, Caravan & Hippodrome" in 1870, a traveling circus, menagerie and museum of "freaks" that adopted many names over the years.

Barnum was married to Charity Hallett from 1829 until her death in 1873, and they had four children. In 1874, a few months after his wife's death, he married Nancy Fish, his friend's daughter and 40 years his junior. They were married until 1891 when Barnum died of a stroke at his home. He was buried in Mountain Grove Cemetery, Bridgeport, which he designed himself.^[7]

1. ^ North American Theatre Online: Phineas T. Barnum
2. ^ ^{a b} Kunhardt, Kunhardt & Kunhardt 1995, p. vi
3. ^ Shapiro, Fred R. The Yale Book of Quotations. New Haven: Yale UP, 2006. p. 44
4. ^ Kunhardt, Kunhardt & Kunhardt 1995, p. 73
5. ^ Barnum, Phineas (1888). The life of P. T. Barnum. Buffalo, N.Y.: The Courier Company. p. 237 – via Ebook and Texts Archive – American Libraries.
6. ^ Cite error: The named reference kunhardt2 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
7. ^ Rogak, Lisa (2004). Stones and Bones of New England: A guide to unusual, historic, and otherwise notable cemeteries. Globe Pequat. ISBN 978-0-7627-3000-1.

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3 June 1940 – World War II: The Luftwaffe bombs Paris.

Paris in World War II

Surrender of Paris

Paris started mobilizing for war in September 1939, when Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union attacked Poland, but the war seemed far away until 10 May, 1940, when the Germans attacked France and quickly defeated the French army. The French government departed Paris on 10 June, and the Germans occupied the city on 14 June. During the occupation, the French government moved to Vichy, and Paris was governed by the German military and by French officials approved by the Germans. For Parisians, the occupation was a series of frustrations, shortages and humiliations. A curfew was in effect from nine in the evening until five in the morning; at night, the city went dark. Rationing of food, tobacco, coal and clothing was imposed from September 1940. Every year the supplies grew more scarce and the prices higher. A million Parisians left the city for the provinces, where there was more food and fewer Germans. The French press and radio contained only German propaganda.

Jews in Paris were forced to wear the yellow Star of David badge, and were barred from certain professions and public places. On 16–17 July 1942, 13,152 Jews, including 4,115 children, were rounded up by the French police, on orders of the Germans, and were sent to the Auschwitz concentration camp. The first demonstration against the occupation, by Paris students, took place on 11 November 1940. As the war continued, anti-German clandestine groups and networks were created, some loyal to the French Communist Party, others to General Charles de Gaulle in London. They wrote slogans on walls, organized an underground press, and sometimes attacked German officers. Reprisals by the Germans were swift and harsh.

Following the Allied invasion of Normandy on 6 June, 1944, the French Resistance in Paris launched an uprising on 19 August, seizing the police headquarters and other government buildings. The city was liberated by French and American troops on 25 August; the next day, General de Gaulle led a triumphant parade down the Champs-Élysées on 26 August, and organized a new government. In the following months, ten thousand Parisians who had collaborated with the Germans were arrested and tried, eight thousand convicted, and 116 executed. On 29 April and 13 May 1945, the first post-war municipal elections were held, in which French women voted for the first time.

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4 June 1920 – Hungary loses 71% of its territory and 63% of its population when the Treaty of Trianon is signed in Paris.

Treaty of Trianon

1920 peace treaty on Hungary after World War I

Events leading to World War II

1. Revolutions of 1917–1923
2. Aftermath of World War I 1918–1939
3. Allied intervention in the Russian Civil War 1918–1925
4. Province of the Sudetenland 1918–1920
5. 1918–1920 unrest in Split
6. Soviet westward offensive of 1918–1919
7. Heimosodat 1918–1922
8. Austro-Slovene conflict in Carinthia 1918–1919
9. Hungarian–Romanian War 1918–1919
10. Hungarian–Czechoslovak War 1918–1919
11. 1919 Egyptian Revolution
12. Christmas Uprising 1919
13. Irish War of Independence 1919
14. Comintern World Congresses 1919–1935
15. Treaty of Versailles 1919
16. Shandong Problem 1919–1922
17. Polish–Soviet War 1919–1921
18. Polish–Czechoslovak War 1919
19. Polish–Lithuanian War 1919–1920
20. Silesian Uprisings 1919–1921
21. Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye 1919
22. Turkish War of Independence 1919–1923
23. Venizelos–Tittoni agreement 1919
24. Italian Regency of Carnaro 1919–1920
25. Iraqi Revolt 1920
26. Treaty of Trianon 1920
27. Vlora War 1920
28. Treaty of Rapallo 1920
29. Little Entente 1920–1938
30. Treaty of Tartu (Finland–Russia) 1920–1938
31. Mongolian Revolution of 1921
32. Soviet intervention in Mongolia 1921–1924
33. Uprising in West Hungary 1921-1922
34. Franco-Polish alliance 1921–1940
35. Polish–Romanian alliance 1921–1939
36. Genoa Conference (1922)
37. Treaty of Rapallo (1922)
38. March on Rome 1922
39. Sun–Joffe Manifesto 1923
40. Corfu incident 1923
41. Occupation of the Ruhr 1923–1925
42. Treaty of Lausanne 1923–1924
43. Mein Kampf 1925
44. Second Italo-Senussi War 1923–1932
45. First United Front 1923–1927
46. Dawes Plan 1924
47. Treaty of Rome (1924)
48. Soviet–Japanese Basic Convention 1925
49. German–Polish customs war 1925–1934
50. Treaty of Nettuno 1925
51. Locarno Treaties 1925
52. Anti-Fengtian War 1925–1926
53. Treaty of Berlin (1926)
54. May Coup (Poland) 1926
55. Northern Expedition 1926–1928
56. Nanking incident of 1927
57. Chinese Civil War 1927–1937
58. Jinan incident 1928
59. Huanggutun incident 1928
60. Italo-Ethiopian Treaty of 1928
61. Chinese reunification 1928
62. Lateran Treaty 1928
63. Central Plains War 1929–1930
64. Young Plan 1929
65. Sino-Soviet conflict (1929)
66. Great Depression 1929
67. London Naval Treaty 1930
68. Kumul Rebellion 1931–1934
69. Japanese invasion of Manchuria 1931
70. Pacification of Manchukuo 1931–1942
71. January 28 incident 1932
72. Soviet–Japanese border conflicts 1932–1939
73. Geneva Conference 1932–1934
74. May 15 incident 1932
75. Lausanne Conference of 1932
76. Soviet–Polish Non-Aggression Pact 1932
77. Soviet–Finnish Non-Aggression Pact 1932
78. Proclamation of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia 1932
79. Defense of the Great Wall 1933
80. Battle of Rehe 1933
81. Nazis' rise to power in Germany 1933
82. Reichskonkordat 1933
83. Tanggu Truce 1933
84. Italo-Soviet Pact 1933
85. Inner Mongolian Campaign 1933–1936
86. Austrian Civil War 1934
87. Balkan Pact 1934–1940
88. July Putsch 1934
89. German–Polish declaration of non-aggression 1934–1939
90. Baltic Entente 1934–1939
91. 1934 Montreux Fascist conference
92. Stresa Front 1935
93. Franco-Soviet Treaty of Mutual Assistance 1935
94. Soviet–Czechoslovakia Treaty of Mutual Assistance 1935
95. He–Umezu Agreement 1935
96. Anglo-German Naval Agreement 1935
97. December 9th Movement
98. Second Italo-Ethiopian War 1935–1936
99. February 26 incident 1936
100. Remilitarization of the Rhineland 1936
101. Soviet-Mongolian alliance 1936
102. Spanish Civil War 1936–1939
103. Anglo-Egyptian treaty of 1936
104. Italo-German "Axis" protocol 1936
105. Anti-Comintern Pact 1936
106. Suiyuan campaign 1936
107. Xi'an Incident 1936
108. Second Sino-Japanese War 1937–1945
109. USS Panay incident 1937
110. Anschluss Mar. 1938
111. 1938 Polish ultimatum to Lithuania Mar. 1938
112. Easter Accords April 1938
113. May Crisis May 1938
114. Battle of Lake Khasan July–Aug. 1938
115. Salonika Agreement July 1938
116. Bled Agreement Aug. 1938
117. Undeclared German–Czechoslovak War Sep. 1938
118. Munich Agreement Sep. 1938
119. First Vienna Award Nov. 1938
120. German occupation of Czechoslovakia Mar. 1939
121. Hungarian invasion of Carpatho-Ukraine Mar. 1939
122. German ultimatum to Lithuania Mar. 1939
123. Slovak–Hungarian War Mar. 1939
124. Final offensive of the Spanish Civil War Mar.–Apr. 1939
125. Danzig crisis Mar.–Aug. 1939
126. British guarantee to Poland Mar. 1939
127. Italian invasion of Albania Apr. 1939
128. Soviet–British–French Moscow negotiations Apr.–Aug. 1939
129. Pact of Steel May 1939
130. Battles of Khalkhin Gol May–Sep. 1939
131. Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact Aug. 1939
132. Invasion of Poland Sep. 1939

The Treaty of Trianon (French: Traité de Trianon; Hungarian: Trianoni békeszerződés; Italian: Trattato del Trianon; Romanian: Tratatul de la Trianon) often referred to as the Peace Dictate of Trianon^{[5][6][7][8][9]} or Dictate of Trianon^[10][11] in Hungary, was prepared at the Paris Peace Conference and was signed in the Grand Trianon château in Versailles on 4 June 1920. It formally ended World War I between most of the Allies of World War I^[a] and the Kingdom of Hungary.^{[12][13][14][15]} French diplomats played the major role in designing the treaty, with a view to establishing a French-led coalition of the newly formed states. It regulated the status of the Kingdom of Hungary and defined its borders generally within the ceasefire lines established in November–December 1918 and left Hungary as a landlocked state that included 93,073 square kilometres (35,936 sq mi), 28% of the 325,411 square kilometres (125,642 sq mi) that had constituted the pre-war Kingdom of Hungary (the Hungarian half of the Austro-Hungarian monarchy). The truncated kingdom had a population of 7.6 million, 36% compared to the pre-war kingdom's population of 20.9 million.^[16] Though the areas that were allocated to neighbouring countries had a majority of non-Hungarians, in them lived 3.3 million Hungarians – 31% of the Hungarians – who then became minorities.^{[17][18][19][20]} The treaty limited Hungary's army to 35,000 officers and men, and the Austro-Hungarian Navy ceased to exist. These decisions and their consequences have been the cause of deep resentment in Hungary ever since.^[21]

The principal beneficiaries were the Kingdom of Romania, the Czechoslovak Republic, the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes (later Yugoslavia), and the First Austrian Republic. One of the main elements of the treaty was the doctrine of "self-determination of peoples", and it was an attempt to give the non-Hungarians their own national states.^[22] In addition, Hungary had to pay war reparations to its neighbours. The treaty was dictated by the Allies rather than negotiated, and the Hungarians had no option but to accept its terms.^[22] The Hungarian delegation signed the treaty under protest, and agitation for its revision began immediately.^[18][23]

The current boundaries of Hungary are for the most part the same as those defined by the Treaty of Trianon, with minor modifications until 1924 regarding the Hungarian-Austrian border and the transfer of three villages to Czechoslovakia in 1947.^[24][25]

After World War I, despite the "self-determination of peoples" idea of the Allied Powers, only one plebiscite was permitted (later known as the Sopron plebiscite) to settle disputed borders on the former territory of the Kingdom of Hungary,^[26] settling a smaller territorial dispute between the First Austrian Republic and the Kingdom of Hungary, because some months earlier, the Rongyos Gárda launched a series of attacks to oust the Austrian forces that entered the area. During the plebiscite in late 1921, the polling stations were supervised by British, French, and Italian army officers of the Allied Powers.^[27]

1. ^ "Magyarország népessége".
2. ^ "1910. ÉVI NÉPSZÁMLÁLÁS 1. A népesség főbb adatai községek és népesebb puszták, telepek szerint (1912) | Könyvtár | Hungaricana".
3. ^ "N psz ml l sok Erd ly ter let n 1850 s 1910 k z tt". www.bibl.u-szeged.hu. Archived from the original on 7 February 2019.
4. ^ A. J. P. Taylor, The Habsburg Monarchy 1809–1918, 1948.
5. ^ "Hungarian President János Áder's Speech on the Day of National Unity". Consulate General of Hungary Manchester.
6. ^ Dr. Dobó, Attila; Kollár, Ferenc; Zsoldos, Sándor; Kohári, Nándor (2021). A trianoni békediktátum [The Peace Dictate of Trianon] (PDF) (in Hungarian) (2nd ed.). Magyar Kultúra Emlékívek Kiadó. ISBN 978-615-81078-9-1.
7. ^ Prof. Dr. Gulyás, László (2021). Trianoni kiskáté - 101 kérdés és 101 válasz a békediktátumról (in Hungarian).
8. ^ Makkai, Béla (2019). "Chopping Hungary Up by the 1920 Peace Dictate of Trianon. Causes, Events and Consequences". Polgári Szemle: Gazdasági És Társadalmi Folyóirat. 15 (Spec): 204–225.
9. ^ Gulyás, László; Anka, László; Arday, Lajos; Csüllög, Gábor; Gecse, Géza; Hajdú, Zoltán; Hamerli, Petra; Heka, László; Jeszenszky, Géza; Kaposi, Zoltán; Kolontári, Attila; Köő, Artúr; Kurdi, Krisztina; Ligeti, Dávid; Majoros, István; Maruzsa, Zoltán; Miklós, Péter; Nánay, Mihály; Olasz, Lajos; Ördögh, Tibor; Pelles, Márton; Popély, Gyula; Sokcsevits, Dénes; Suba, János; Szávai, Ferenc; Tefner, Zoltán; Tóth, Andrej; Tóth, Imre; Vincze, Gábor; Vizi, László Tamás (2019–2020). A trianoni békediktátum története hét kötetben - I. kötet: Trianon Nagy Háború alatti előzményei, az Osztrák-Magyar Monarchia bukása 1914-1918 / II. kötet: A katonai megszállástól a magyar békedelegáció elutazásáig 1918-1920 / III. kötet: Apponyi beszédétől a Határkijelölő Bizottságok munkájának befejezéséig / IV. kötet: Térképek a trianoni békediktátum történetéhez / V. kötet: Párhuzamos Trianonok, a Párizs környéki békék: Versailles, Saint-Germain, Neuilly, Sevres, Lausanne / VI. kötet: Dokumentumok, források / VII. kötet: Kronológia és életrajzok [The history of the Peace Dictate of Trianon in seven volumes - Volume I: Trianon's history during the Great War, the fall of the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy 1914-1918 / Volume II: From the military occupation to the departure of the Hungarian peace delegation 1918-1920 / Volume III: From Apponyi's speech to the completion of the work of the Boundary Demarcation Committees / Volume IV: Maps for the history of the Trianon peace decree / Volume V: Parallel Trianons, the peaces around Paris: Versailles, Saint-Germain, Neuilly, Sevres, Lausanne / Volume VI: Documents, sources / Volume VII: Chronology and biographies] (in Hungarian). Egyesület Közép-Európa Kutatására. ISBN 9786158046299.
10. ^ Bank, Barbara; Kovács, Attila Zoltán (2022). Trianon - A diktátum teljes szövege [Trianon - Full text of the dictate] (in Hungarian). Erdélyi Szalon. ISBN 9786156502247.
11. ^ Raffay, Ernő; Szabó, Pál Csaba. A Trianoni diktátum története és következményei [The history and consequences of the Dictate of Trianon] (in Hungarian). Trianon Múzeum.
12. ^ Craig, G. A. (1966). Europe since 1914. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.
13. ^ Grenville, J. A. S. (1974). The Major International Treaties 1914–1973. A history and guides with texts. Methnen London.
14. ^ Lichtheim, G. (1974). Europe in the Twentieth Century. New York: Praeger.
15. ^ "Text of the Treaty, Treaty of Peace Between The Allied and Associated Powers and Hungary And Protocol and Declaration, Signed at Trianon June 4, 1920".
16. ^ "Open-Site:Hungary".
17. ^ Frucht 2004, p. 360.
18. ^ ^{a b} "Trianon, Treaty of". The Columbia Encyclopedia. 2009.
19. ^ Macartney, C. A. (1937). Hungary and her successors: The Treaty of Trianon and Its Consequences 1919–1937. Oxford University Press.
20. ^ Bernstein, Richard (9 August 2003). "East on the Danube: Hungary's Tragic Century". The New York Times.
21. ^ Toomey, Michael (2018). "History, Nationalism and Democracy: Myth and Narrative in Viktor Orbán's 'Illiberal Hungary'". New Perspectives. 26 (1): 87–108. doi:10.1177/2336825x1802600110. S2CID 158970490.
22. ^ ^{a b} van den Heuvel, Martin P.; Siccama, J. G. (1992). The Disintegration of Yugoslavia. Rodopi. p. 126. ISBN 90-5183-349-0.
23. ^ Tucker & Roberts 2005, p. 1183: "Virtually the entire population of what remained of Hungary regarded the Treaty of Trianon as manifestly unfair, and agitation for revision began immediately."
24. ^ Botlik, József (June 2008). "AZ ŐRVIDÉKI (BURGENLANDI) MAGYARSÁG SORSA". vasiszemle.hu. VASI SZEMLE.
25. ^ "Szlovákiai Magyar Adatbank » pozsonyi hídfő". adatbank.sk.
26. ^ Richard C. Hall (2014). War in the Balkans: An Encyclopedic History from the Fall of the Ottoman Empire to the Breakup of Yugoslavia. ABC-CLIO. p. 309. ISBN 9781610690317.
27. ^ Irredentist and National Questions in Central Europe, 1913–1939: Hungary, 2v, Volume 5, Part 1 of Irredentist and National Questions in Central Europe, 1913–1939 Seeds of conflict. Kraus Reprint. 1973. p. 69.

Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

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5 June 1981 – The Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention reports that five people in Los Angeles, California, have a rare form of pneumonia seen only in patients with weakened immune systems, in what turns out to be the first recognized cases of AIDS.

Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report

Weekly epidemiological report published by the U.S. Centers for Disease Control (CDC)

This article is about the weekly publication of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. For other uses of the term "morbidity and mortality", see morbidity and mortality (disambiguation).

Academic journal

The Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report (MMWR) is a weekly epidemiological digest for the United States published by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). It was originally established as Weekly Health Index in 1930, changing its title to Weekly Mortality Index in 1941 and Morbidity and Mortality in 1952. It acquired its current name in 1976. It is the main vehicle for publishing public health information and recommendations that have been received by the CDC from state health departments. Material published in the report is in the public domain and may be reprinted without permission.^[1] As of 2019^[update], the journal's editor-in-chief is Charlotte Kent.^[2]

As noted in the sequel, some single reports have evoked media interest also outside health and medical contexts. However, many reports are parts of series, providing consistent long-term statistics, and also indicating trend changes. Such a standing report section is the "Notifiable Diseases and Mortality Tables", which reports deaths by disease and state, and city for city, for 122 large cities. As another example, there are more than a hundred items about West Nile virus infections since the 1999 outbreak of the disease in the US. In 2001–2005, there were weekly updates of the WNV situation, during the warm seasons.^[3]

1. ^ Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report: About Us, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Retrieved July 24, 2009.
2. ^ Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report Staff, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Retrieved February 1, 2019.
3. ^ MMWR Weekly: Past Volumes (1982–2010)

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6 June 1933 – The first drive-in theater opens in Camden, New Jersey.

Drive-in theater

Cinema format

A drive-in theater or drive-in cinema is a form of cinema structure consisting of a large outdoor movie screen, a projection booth, a concession stand, and a large parking area for automobiles. Within this enclosed area, customers can view movies from the privacy and comfort of their cars. Some drive-ins have small playgrounds for children and a few picnic tables or benches.

The screen can be as simple as a painted white wall, or it can be a steel truss structure with a complex finish. Originally, the movie's sound was provided by speakers on the screen and later by individual speakers hung from the window of each car, which was attached to a small pole by a wire. These speaker systems were superseded by the more practical method of microbroadcasting the soundtrack to car radios. This also has the advantage of the film soundtrack to be heard in stereo on car stereo systems, which are typically of much higher quality and fidelity than the basic small mono speakers used in the old systems.

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7 June 1929 – The Lateran Treaty is ratified, bringing Vatican City into existence.

Lateran Treaty

1929 treaty between Italy under the Fascist regime of Benito Mussolini and the Holy See

The Lateran Treaty (Italian: Patti Lateranensi; Latin: Pacta Lateranensia) was one component of the Lateran Pacts of 1929, agreements between the Kingdom of Italy under King Victor Emmanuel III (with his Prime Minister Benito Mussolini) and the Holy See under Pope Pius XI to settle the long-standing Roman Question. The treaty and associated pacts were named after the Lateran Palace where they were signed on 11 February 1929,^[1] and the Italian parliament ratified them on 7 June 1929. The treaty recognized Vatican City as an independent state under the sovereignty of the Holy See. The Italian government also agreed to give the Roman Catholic Church financial compensation for the loss of the Papal States.^[2] In 1948, the Lateran Treaty was recognized in the Constitution of Italy as regulating the relations between the state and the Catholic Church.^[3] The treaty was significantly revised in 1984, ending the status of Catholicism as the sole state religion.

1. ^ ^{a b} "Vatican City turns 91". Vatican News. 11 February 2020. Retrieved 2 September 2021. The world's smallest sovereign state was born on February 11, 1929, with the signing of the Lateran Treaty between the Holy See and the Kingdom of Italy
2. ^ A History of Western Society (Tenth ed.). Bedford/St. Martin's. 2010. p. 900.
3. ^ Constitution of Italy, article 7.

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8 June 1949 – George Orwell's Nineteen Eighty-Four is published.

Nineteen Eighty-Four

1949 dystopian social science fiction novel by George Orwell

This article is about the 1949 novel by George Orwell. For the year, see 1984. For other uses, see 1984 (disambiguation).

Nineteen Eighty-Four (also published as 1984) is a dystopian social science fiction novel and cautionary tale by English writer George Orwell. It was published on 8 June 1949 by Secker & Warburg as Orwell's ninth and final book completed in his lifetime. Thematically, it centres on the consequences of totalitarianism, mass surveillance and repressive regimentation of people and behaviours within society.^[2][3] Orwell, a democratic socialist, modelled the authoritarian state in the novel on the Soviet Union in the era of Stalinism, and Nazi Germany.^[2][3][4] More broadly, the novel examines the role of truth and facts within societies and the ways in which they can be manipulated.

The story takes place in an imagined future in an unknown year believed to be 1984, when much of the world is in perpetual war. Great Britain, now known as Airstrip One, has become a province of the totalitarian superstate Oceania, which is led by Big Brother, a dictatorial leader supported by an intense cult of personality manufactured by the Party's Thought Police. Through the Ministry of Truth, the Party engages in omnipresent government surveillance, historical negationism, and constant propaganda to persecute individuality and independent thinking.^[5]

The protagonist, Winston Smith, is a diligent mid-level worker at the Ministry of Truth who secretly hates the Party and dreams of rebellion. Smith keeps a forbidden diary. He begins a relationship with a colleague, Julia, and they learn about a shadowy resistance group called the Brotherhood. However, their contact within the Brotherhood turns out to be a Party agent, and Smith and Julia are arrested. He is subjected to months of psychological manipulation and torture by the Ministry of Love and is released once he has come to love Big Brother.

Nineteen Eighty-Four has become a classic literary example of political and dystopian fiction. It also popularised the term "Orwellian" as an adjective, with many terms used in the novel entering common usage, including "Big Brother", "doublethink", "Thought Police", "thoughtcrime", "Newspeak", and "2 + 2 = 5". Parallels have been drawn between the novel's subject matter and real life instances of totalitarianism, mass surveillance, and violations of freedom of expression among other themes.^[6][7][8] Orwell described his book as a "satire",^[9] and a display of the "perversions to which a centralised economy is liable," while also stating he believed "that something resembling it could arrive."^[9] Time included the novel on its list of the 100 best English-language novels which were published from 1923 to 2005,^[10] and it was placed on the Modern Library's 100 Best Novels list, reaching number 13 on the editors' list and number 6 on the readers' list.^[11] In 2003, it was listed at number eight on The Big Read survey by the BBC.^[12]

1. ^ "Classify". OCLC. Archived from the original on 2 February 2019. Retrieved 22 May 2017.
2. ^ ^{a b} Murphy, Bruce (1996). Benét's reader's encyclopedia. New York: Harper Collins. p. 734. ISBN 978-0-06-181088-6. OCLC 35572906.
3. ^ ^{a b} Aaronovitch, David (8 February 2013). "1984: George Orwell's road to dystopia". BBC News. Retrieved 8 February 2013.
4. ^ Orwell, George (1968) [1958]. Bott, George (ed.). Selected Writings. London: Heinemann. p. 103. ISBN 978-0-435-13675-8. Every line of serious work that I have written since 1936 has been written, directly or indirectly, against totalitarianism and for democratic socialism, as I understand it. [italics in original]
5. ^ Chernow, Barbara; Vallasi, George (1993). The Columbia Encyclopedia (5th ed.). Boston: Houghton Mifflin. p. 2030. OCLC 334011745.
6. ^ Crouch, Ian (11 June 2013). "So Are We Living in 1984?". The New Yorker. ISSN 0028-792X. Retrieved 3 December 2019.
7. ^ Seaton, Jean. "Why Orwell's 1984 could be about now". BBC. Retrieved 3 December 2019.
8. ^ Leetaru, Kalev. "As Orwell's 1984 Turns 70 It Predicted Much of Today's Surveillance Society". Forbes. Retrieved 3 December 2019.
9. ^ ^{a b} "The savage satire of '1984' still speaks to us today". The Independent. 7 June 1999. Archived from the original on 7 January 2023. Retrieved 7 January 2023. Orwell said that his book was a satire – a warning certainly, but in the form of satire.
10. ^ Grossman, Lev (8 January 2010). "Is 1984 one of the All-TIME 100 Best Novels?". Time. ISSN 0040-781X. Retrieved 29 December 2022.
11. ^ "100 Best Novels « Modern Library". www.modernlibrary.com. Retrieved 29 December 2022.
12. ^ "BBC – The Big Read – Top 100 Books". www.bbc.co.uk. Retrieved 29 December 2022.

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9 June 1979 – The Ghost Train fire at Luna Park Sydney, Australia, kills seven.

1979 Sydney Ghost Train fire

1979 amusement park fire in Milson's Point, New South Wales, Australia

The Sydney Ghost train fire at Luna Park Sydney in Milsons Point, New South Wales, Australia, killed seven people, six children and one adult, on 9 June 1979. Inadequate fire-fighting measures and low staffing caused the fire to completely destroy the amusement park's ghost train. The ride is believed to have been first constructed in 1931 and transported between Milsons Point and Glenelg, South Australia, during 1934 and 1935.^[1]

The fire was originally blamed on electrical faults, but arson by known figures has also been claimed. The exact cause of the fire could not be determined by a coronial inquiry. The coroner also ruled that, while the actions of Luna Park's management and staff before and during the fire (in particular their choosing not to follow advice on the installation of a sprinkler system in the ride) breached their duty of care, charges of criminal negligence should not be laid. The case was reopened in 1987: no new findings were made, although the police investigation and coronial inquiry were criticised. The fire forced the closure of Luna Park until 1982, when it reopened under a new name and new owners.^[2]

A memorial garden was installed by Luna Park in 1995, but its fixtures were lost during the park's 2003 redevelopment. In replacement, a plaque listing those killed was placed at the location of the ride, but a promised mural to surround the plaque was never painted. A separate memorial park was created by North Sydney Council in 2007, including a sculpture by Michael Leunig.

1. ^ "Our History | Luna Park Sydney". www.lunaparksydney.com. Retrieved 5 June 2021.
2. ^ "Luna Park Ghost Train fire 1979 | The Dictionary of Sydney". dictionaryofsydney.org. Retrieved 5 June 2021.

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10 June 1947 – Saab produces its first automobile.

Saab Automobile

Defunct Swedish car manufacturer (1945-2016)

This article is about the car manufacturer. For the aerospace and defence company, see Saab AB. For other uses, see Saab.

Saab Automobile AB^[1][2] (/sɑːb/) was a car manufacturer that was founded in Sweden in 1945 when its parent company, Saab AB, began a project to design a small automobile. The first production model, the Saab 92, was launched in 1949. In 1968 the parent company merged with Scania-Vabis, and ten years later the Saab 900 was launched, in time becoming Saab's best-selling model. In the mid-1980s the new Saab 9000 model also appeared.

In 1989, the automobile division of Saab-Scania was restructured into an independent company, Saab Automobile AB. The American manufacturer General Motors (GM) took 50 percent ownership. Two well-known models to come out of this period were the Saab 9-3 and the Saab 9-5. Then in 2000, GM exercised its option to acquire the remaining 50 percent. In 2010 GM sold Saab Automobile AB to the Dutch automobile manufacturer Spyker Cars N.V.^[3][4]

After many years establishing a sound engineering reputation and ultimately a luxury price tag, Saab failed to build its customer base beyond its niche following.^[5] After struggling to avoid insolvency throughout 2011, the company petitioned for bankruptcy following the failure of a Chinese consortium to complete a purchase of the company; the purchase had been blocked by the former owner GM, which opposed the transfer of technology and production rights to a Chinese company.^[6] On 13 June 2012, it was announced that a newly formed company called National Electric Vehicle Sweden (NEVS) had bought Saab Automobile's bankrupt estate.^[7] According to "Saab United", the first NEVS Saab 9-3 drove off its pre-production line on 19 September 2013.^[8] Full production restarted on 2 December 2013,^[9] initially the same petrol-powered 9-3 Aero sedans that were built before Saab went bankrupt, and intended to get the car manufacturer's supply chain re-established as it attempted development of a new line of NEVS-Saab products.^[10][11] NEVS lost its license to manufacture automobiles under the Saab name (which the namesake aerospace company still owns) in the summer of 2014 and later produced electric cars based on the Saab 9-3 but under its own new car designation "NEVS".^[12][13]

1. ^ "History and Background: Timeline, Video". US: Saab Group. 1 January 1980. Archived from the original on 23 February 2009. Retrieved 11 February 2009.
2. ^ "The History of Svenska Aeroplan Aktiebolaget or Saab". Saab history. Retrieved 30 January 2010.^{[permanent dead link]}
3. ^ Durrenberger, E. Paul (15 August 2017). Uncertain Times: Anthropological Approaches to Labor in a Neoliberal World. University Press of Colorado. ISBN 978-1-60732-631-1. Archived from the original on 3 September 2023. Retrieved 28 October 2020.
4. ^ "Spyker Cars finalises the purchase of Saab" (PDF) (Press release). Spyker. 23 February 2010. Archived (PDF) from the original on 7 August 2011. Retrieved 17 December 2013.
5. ^ "The People Who Will Miss Saab the Most; With the bankruptcy and impending doom facing Saab, we mourn with the certain, loyal fans that will miss the Swedish auto-maker". US: The Atlantic. 19 December 2011. Archived from the original on 7 November 2019. Retrieved 7 November 2019.
6. ^ "Saab Automobile Files for Bankruptcy" (Press release). Saab Automobile. 19 December 2011. Archived from the original on 7 January 2012. Retrieved 20 December 2011..
7. ^ Zachariasson, Helena (13 June 2012). "Saab har fatt en kopare" [Saab's new owners will hire hundreds]. SVT (in Swedish). SE. Archived from the original on 23 October 2012. Retrieved 20 October 2012.
8. ^ "First Nevs Saab Rolls off Pre-Production Line" (Youtube) (video Posted). Trollhättan: Saab Group. 19 September 2013. Archived from the original on 3 December 2013. Retrieved 6 October 2013.
9. ^ Lönnroth, Valdemar (28 November 2014), "Lööf på plats nar Nevs drar igang produktion" [Lööf in place when Nevs kicks off production], Ttela (in Swedish), SE^{[permanent dead link]}.
10. ^ Gastelu, Gary (2 December 2013). "Saab restarts production". Fox News. Archived from the original on 18 February 2015. Retrieved 21 February 2015.
11. ^ Stoll, John D. (2 December 2013). "Saab Automobile Is Poised to Resume Production". Gasgoo Automotive News. Archived from the original on 21 February 2015. Retrieved 21 February 2015.
12. ^ Saab carmaker NEVS granted creditor protection by court but loses right to use Saab name; Automotive News Europe, 29 August 2014, at europe.autonews.com Archived 15 September 2019 at the Wayback Machine Accessed 8 November 2017
13. ^ "nevs.com: NEVS launches its new trademark". Archived from the original on 14 September 2016.

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11 June 1825 – The first cornerstone is laid for Fort Hamilton in New York City.

Fort Hamilton

U.S. Army installation in Brooklyn, NY

This article is about the fort in Brooklyn, New York. For other uses, see Fort Hamilton (disambiguation).

Fort Hamilton is a United States Army installation in the southwestern corner of the New York City borough of Brooklyn, surrounded by the communities of Bay Ridge and Dyker Heights. It is one of several posts that are part of the region which is headquartered by the Military District of Washington. Its mission is to provide the New York metropolitan area with military installation support for the Army National Guard and the United States Army Reserve. The original fort was completed in 1831, with major additions made in the 1870s and 1900s. However, all defenses except about half of the original fort have been demolished or buried.

1. ^ "Commanders of Fort Hamilton 1831–1987". Official Harbor Defense Museum of Fort Hamilton. Harbor Defense Museum of Fort Hamilton. Retrieved September 17, 2014.

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12 June 1997 – Queen Elizabeth II reopens the Globe Theatre in London.

Globe Theatre

16th/17th-century theatre in London

This article is about the historic theatre. For the modern reconstruction, see Shakespeare's Globe. For other uses, see Globe Theatre (disambiguation).

The Globe Theatre was a theatre in London associated with William Shakespeare. It was built in 1599 at Southwark, close to the south bank of the Thames, by Shakespeare's playing company, the Lord Chamberlain's Men. It was destroyed by fire on 29 June 1613. A second Globe Theatre was built on the same site by June 1614 and stayed open until the London theatre closures of 1642. As well as plays by Shakespeare, early works by Ben Jonson, Thomas Dekker and John Fletcher were first performed here.^[4]

A modern reconstruction of the Globe, named "Shakespeare's Globe", opened in 1997 approximately 750 feet (230 m) from the site of the original theatre.^[5]

1. ^ Cite error: The named reference Cooper2006 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
2. ^ Wilson, Ian (1993). Shakespeare the Evidence. London: Headline. xiii. ISBN 0-7472-0582-5.
3. ^ Bowsher & Miller 2009, p. 87.
4. ^ "Fact Sheet: The First Globe". Teach Shakespeare. Shakespeare's Globe. 4 December 2015. Retrieved 27 January 2023.
5. ^ Measured using Google Earth

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13 June 1982 – Battles of Tumbledown and Wireless Ridge, during the Falklands War.

Battle of Mount Tumbledown

1982 Falklands War

The Battle of Mount Tumbledown was an engagement during the Falklands War. The engagement was an attack by the British Army and the Royal Marines on the heights overlooking Stanley, the Falkland Islands capital. Mount Tumbledown, Mount William and Sapper Hill lie west of the capital. Due to their proximity to the capital, they were of strategic importance during the 1982 War. They were held by the Argentine 5th Naval Infantry Battalion (BIM 5), a reinforced, cold weather trained and equipped Marine battalion.

The assaulting British forces were the 2nd Battalion, Scots Guards, 42 Commando, Royal Marines Mortar platoon and four light tanks of the Blues and Royals. The 1st Battalion, 7th Duke of Edinburgh's Own Gurkha Rifles were held in reserve.

One of a number of night battles that took place during the British advance towards Stanley, the battle led to British troops capturing all the heights above the town, allowing the town's capture and the surrender of the Argentine forces on the islands.

1. ^ ^{a b c d} Freedman, Lawrence (2005). The Official History of the Falklands Campaign: War and diplomacy. Psychology Press. ISBN 978-0-7146-5207-8.

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16 June 1959 – Disneyland Monorail System, the first daily operating monorail system in the Western Hemisphere, opens to the public in Anaheim, California

Disneyland Monorail

Transit line at the Disneyland Resort

This article is about the monorail line at the Disneyland Resort. For monorail lines at other Disney theme parks, see Disney monorail (disambiguation).

The Disneyland Monorail (originally named the Disneyland Alweg Monorail System) is an attraction and transportation line at the Disneyland Resort in Anaheim, California, United States. It was the first daily operating monorail over all.^[1]

1. ^ Strodder, Chris (2017). The Disneyland Encyclopedia (3rd ed.). Santa Monica Press. pp. 336–337. ISBN 978-1595800909.

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15 June 1808 – Joseph Bonaparte becomes King of Spain.

Joseph Bonaparte

King of Naples (1806–08) and Spain (1808–13)

For his grandson, see Joseph Lucien Bonaparte.

"José I Bonaparte" redirects here. For the Argentinian paleontologist, see José Bonaparte.

Joseph-Napoléon Bonaparte (born Giuseppe di Buonaparte, Italian: [dʒuˈzɛppe di ˌbwɔnaˈparte]; Corsican: Ghjuseppe Nabulione Bonaparte; Spanish: José Napoleón Bonaparte; 7 January 1768 – 28 July 1844) was a French statesman, lawyer, diplomat and older brother of Napoleon Bonaparte. During the Napoleonic Wars, the latter made him King of Naples (1806–1808), and then King of Spain (1808–1813). After the fall of Napoleon, Joseph styled himself Comte de Survilliers and emigrated to the United States, where he settled near Bordentown, New Jersey, on an estate overlooking the Delaware River not far from Philadelphia.

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16 June 1976 – Soweto uprising: A non-violent march by 15,000 students in Soweto, South Africa, turns into days of rioting when police open fire on the crowd.

Soweto uprising

1976 student-led protests in South Africa that were violently suppressed

The Soweto uprising (or Soweto riots) was a series of demonstrations and protests led by black school children in South Africa during apartheid that began on the morning of 16 June 1976.^[1]

Students from various schools began to protest in the streets of the Soweto township in response to the introduction of Afrikaans as the medium of instruction in black schools.^[2] It is estimated that 20,000 students took part in the protests. They were met with fierce police brutality, and many were shot and killed. The number of pupils killed in the uprising is usually estimated as 176, but some sources estimate as many as 700 fatalities.^[3][4][5] The riots were a key moment in the fight against apartheid as it sparked renewed opposition against apartheid in South Africa both domestically and internationally. In remembrance of these events, 16 June is a public holiday in South Africa since 1991,^[6] named Youth Day. Internationally, 16 June is known as The Day of the African Child (DAC).^[6][7]

1. ^ "The birth and death of apartheid". Retrieved 17 June 2002.
2. ^ "The Youth Struggle". South African History Online.
3. ^ Boddy-Evans, Alistair. "16 June 1976 Student Uprising in Soweto". africanhistory.about.com.
4. ^ Harrison, David (1987). The White Tribe of Africa.^{[page needed]}
5. ^ (Les Payne of Newsday said at least 850 murders were documented) Elsabe Brink; Gandhi Malungane; Steve Lebelo; Dumisani Ntshangase; Sue Krige, Soweto 16 June 1976, 2001, 9
6. ^ ^{a b} "About Day of the African Child | ACERWC - African Committee of Experts on the Rights and Welfare of the Child". www.acerwc.africa. Retrieved 21 August 2023.
7. ^ "The Day of the African Child demonstrates the importance of defending children's rights in the digital space". www.unicef.org. Retrieved 21 August 2023.

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17 June 1930 – U.S. President Herbert Hoover signs the Smoot–Hawley Tariff Act into law.

Smoot–Hawley Tariff Act

1930 U.S. trade law placing and raising tariffs on tens of thousands of imports

Main articles: Tariffs in United States history, List of tariffs in the United States, and Protectionism in the United States

The Tariff Act of 1930 (codified at 19 U.S.C. ch. 4), commonly known as the Smoot-Hawley Tariff or Hawley-Smoot Tariff,^[1] was a law that implemented protectionist trade policies in the United States. Sponsored by Senator Reed Smoot and Representative Willis C. Hawley, it was signed by President Herbert Hoover on June 17, 1930. The act raised US tariffs on over 20,000 imported goods.^[2]

The tariffs under the act, excluding duty-free imports (see Tariff levels below), were the second highest in United States history, exceeded by only the Tariff of 1828.^[3] The Act prompted retaliatory tariffs by Canada and others.^[4] The Act and tariffs imposed by America's trading partners in retaliation were major factors of the reduction of American exports and imports by 67% during the Depression.^[5] Economists and economic historians have a consensus view that the passage of the Smoot–Hawley Tariff worsened the effects of the Great Depression.^[6] Irwin (2011) argues that its negative impacts have been real but too often have been exaggerated by economic historians.

1. ^ ch. 497, 46 Stat. 590, June 17, 1930, see 19 U.S.C. § 1654
2. ^ Taussig 1931.
3. ^ WWS 543: Class notes, 2/17/10, Paul Krugman, February 16, 2010, Presentation, slide 4
4. ^ Mitchener, Kris James; O'Rourke, Kevin Hjortshøj; Wandschneider, Kirsten (2022). "The Smoot–Hawley Trade War". Economic Journal. 132 (647): 2500–2533. doi:10.1093/ej/ueac006.
5. ^ Eckes, Alfred E., Jr.; Market, O.A. (1995). Opening America's Market: U.S. Foreign Trade Policy Since 1776. Business, society & the state. University of North Carolina Press. pp. 100–103. ISBN 978-0-8078-2213-5.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
6. ^ Whaples, Robert (March 1995). "Where Is There Consensus Among American Economic Historians? The Results of a Survey on Forty Propositions" (PDF). The Journal of Economic History. Cambridge University Press. 55 (1): 144. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.482.4975. doi:10.1017/S0022050700040602. JSTOR 2123771. S2CID 145691938.

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18 June 1940 – The "Finest Hour" speech is delivered by Winston Churchill.

This was their finest hour

1940 speech by Winston Churchill

"This was their finest hour" was a speech delivered by Winston Churchill to the House of Commons of the United Kingdom on 18 June 1940, just over a month after he took over as Prime Minister at the head of an all-party coalition government.

It was the third of three speeches which he gave during the period of the Battle of France, after the "Blood, toil, tears and sweat" speech of 13 May and the "We shall fight on the beaches" speech of 4 June.^[1][2] "This was their finest hour" was made after France had sought an armistice on the evening of 16 June.^[a]

1. ^ Hansard debate, 13 May 1940 "His Majesty's Government"
2. ^ The Churchill Centre: We Shall Fight on the Beaches
3. ^ BBC Written Archives quoted in Gilbert, Martin (27 June 1983). Finest Hour: Winston S. Churchill 1939–1941. Heinemann. p. 566. ISBN 978-0434291878.

Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

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19 June 1961 – Kuwait declares independence from the United Kingdom.

Kuwait

Country in the Middle East

For other uses, see Kuwait (disambiguation).

Kuwait (/kʊˈweɪt/ ^ⓘ;^[7][8] Arabic: الكويت al-Kuwayt, Gulf Arabic pronunciation: [ɪl‿ɪkweːt] or [lɪkweːt]), officially the State of Kuwait (Arabic: دولة الكويت Dawlat al-Kuwayt^ⓘ), is a country in the Middle East. It is situated in the northern edge of Eastern Arabia at the tip of the Persian Gulf, bordering Iraq to the north and Saudi Arabia to the south.^[9] Kuwait also shares maritime borders with Iran. Kuwait has a coastal length of approximately 500 km (311 mi).^[10] Most of the country's population reside in the urban agglomeration of the capital and largest city Kuwait City.^[11] As of 2022^[update], Kuwait has a population of 4.45 million people of which 1.45 million are Kuwaiti citizens while the remaining 3.00 million are foreign nationals from over 100 countries.

Historically, most of present-day Kuwait was part of ancient Mesopotamia.^[12][13][14] Before the discovery of oil, Kuwait was a strategic trade port between Mesopotamia, Persia and India. Oil reserves were discovered in commercial quantities in 1938. In 1946, crude oil was exported for the first time.^[15][16] From 1946 to 1982, the country underwent large-scale modernization, largely based on income from oil production. In the 1980s, Kuwait experienced a period of geopolitical instability and an economic crisis following the stock market crash. In 1990, after oil production disputes with neighbouring Iraq, Kuwait was invaded, and later annexed into one of Iraq's governorates by Iraq under Saddam Hussein.^[17] The Iraqi occupation of Kuwait came to an end on February 26, 1991, after military intervention by a military coalition led by the United States and various other countries.

As an Arab state in the Persian Gulf, Kuwait is an emirate. The emir is the head of state and the Al Sabah is the ruling family which dominates the country's political system. Kuwait's official state religion is Islam, specifically the Maliki school of Sunni Islam. Kuwait is a developing country with a high-income economy, backed by the world's sixth largest oil reserves. Kuwaiti popular culture, in the form of theatre, radio, music, and television soap opera, is regionally influential and exported to neighboring GCC states.^[18] In 2009, Kuwait had the highest Human Development Index in the Arab world.^[19][20] Kuwait is a founding member of the GCC and is also a member of the UN, AL, OPEC and the OIC. In July 2022, Kuwait named the emir's son as the country's new prime minister to replace caretaker premier Sheikh Sabah al-Khalid, who faced a combative parliament as head of cabinet in a feud hindering fiscal reform.

1. ^ "Kuwait's Constitution of 1962, Reinstated in 1992" (PDF). Constitute Project. Retrieved 31 August 2020.
2. ^ ^{a b} "Middle East ::KUWAIT". CIA The World Factbook. 26 May 2022.
3. ^ Cite error: The named reference loc was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
4. ^ "Kuwait". The World Factbook (2023 ed.). Central Intelligence Agency. Retrieved 8 February 2023.
5. ^ ^{a b c d} "World Economic Outlook Database, October 2022". IMF.org. International Monetary Fund. October 2022. Retrieved 23 November 2022.
6. ^ "Human Development Report 2021/2022" (PDF). United Nations Development Programme. 8 September 2022. Retrieved 8 September 2022.
7. ^ "Kuwait – definition of Kuwait in English". Lexico. Archived from the original on 22 August 2017. Retrieved 5 May 2017.
8. ^ "Definition of Kuwait by Merriam-Webster". Merriam-Webster. Archived from the original on 1 May 2017. Retrieved 5 May 2017.
9. ^ "Kuwait". The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency. 10 April 2015.
10. ^ "Coastline - The World Factbook". www.cia.gov.
11. ^ Nations, United. "The World's Cities in 2018. Data Booklet" (PDF). United Nations. Archived from the original (PDF) on 15 July 2019. Retrieved 29 March 2021.
12. ^ Sissakian, Varoujan K.; Adamo, Nasrat; Al-Ansari, Nadhir; Mukhalad, Talal; Laue, Jan (January 2020). "Sea Level Changes in the Mesopotamian Plain and Limits of the Arabian Gulf: A Critical Review". Journal of Earth Sciences and Geotechnical Engineering. 10 (4): 88–110.
13. ^ Louise Pryke (23 April 2018). "In ancient Mesopotamia, sex among the gods shook heaven and earth". The Conversation.
14. ^ Cite error: The named reference Meso was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
15. ^ "Wise cities" in the Mediterranean? : challenges of urban sustainability. Woertz, Eckart, Ajl, Max. Barcelona. 2018. ISBN 978-84-92511-57-0. OCLC 1117436298.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) CS1 maint: others (link)
16. ^ "Contributors". Comparative Studies of South Asia, Africa and the Middle East. 35 (2): 382–384. 2015. doi:10.1215/1089201x-3139815. ISSN 1089-201X.
17. ^ "OPEC pressures Kuwait to moderate quota demand", New Straits Times, 7 June 1989
18. ^ Cite error: The named reference cliv was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
19. ^ "HDI of Kuwait is highest in the Arab world". Brazil-Arab News Agency. 2009.
20. ^ "Kuwait ranks top among Arab states in human development". Kuwait News Agency. 2009.

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20 June 1840 – Samuel Morse receives the patent for the telegraph.

Samuel Morse

American inventor and painter (1791–1872)

For other uses, see Samuel Morse (disambiguation).

Samuel Finley Breese Morse (April 27, 1791 – April 2, 1872) was an American inventor and painter. After having established his reputation as a portrait painter, in his middle age Morse contributed to the invention of a single-wire telegraph system based on European telegraphs. He was a co-developer of Morse code in 1837 and helped to develop the commercial use of telegraphy.

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21 June 1864 – American Civil War: The Battle of Jerusalem Plank Road begins.

Battle of Jerusalem Plank Road

1864 battle of the American Civil War in Petersburg, Virginia

The Battle of Jerusalem Plank Road, also known as the First Battle of the Weldon Railroad, was a battle of the American Civil War fought June 21–23, 1864, near Petersburg, Virginia. It was the first of a series of battles during the Siege of Petersburg aimed at extending the Union siege lines to the west and cutting the rail lines supplying Petersburg. Two infantry corps of the Union Army of the Potomac attempted to sever the railroad, but were attacked and driven off by the Confederate Army of Northern Virginia's Third Corps, principally the division of Brig. Gen. William Mahone. The inconclusive battle left the Weldon Railroad temporarily in Confederate hands, but the Union Army began to extend its fortifications to the west, starting to increase the pressure of the siege.

1. ^ Cite error: The named reference result was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
2. ^ ^{a b} Cite error: The named reference cwsac was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
3. ^ ^{a b} Kennedy, 354. Trudeau, p. 78, lists the Union II Corps casualties as 650 killed and wounded, 1,742 captured; VI Corps casualties as 150. on the Confederate side, Trudeau, p. 80, lists Mahone's casualties as 421, Wilcox's 151.

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22 June 1990 – Cold War: Checkpoint Charlie is dismantled in Berlin.

Checkpoint Charlie

Well-known crossing point in the Berlin Wall; now a museum

52°30′27″N 13°23′25″E / 52.50750°N 13.39028°E / 52.50750; 13.39028

A view of Checkpoint Charlie in 1963, from the American sector

Map of Berlin Wall with location of Checkpoint Charlie

Checkpoint Charlie (or "Checkpoint C") was the best-known Berlin Wall crossing point between East Berlin and West Berlin during the Cold War (1947–1991), as named by the Western Allies.^[1]

East German leader Walter Ulbricht agitated and maneuvered to get the Soviet Union's permission to construct the Berlin Wall in 1961 to stop emigration and defection westward through the Border system, preventing escape across the city sector border from East Berlin into West Berlin. Checkpoint Charlie became a symbol of the Cold War, representing the separation of East and West. Soviet and American tanks briefly faced each other at the location during the Berlin Crisis of 1961. On 26 June 1963, U.S. President John F. Kennedy visited Checkpoint Charlie and looked from a platform onto the Berlin Wall and into East Berlin.^[2]

After the dissolution of the Eastern Bloc and the reunification of Germany, the American guard house at Checkpoint Charlie became a tourist attraction. It is now located in the Allied Museum in the Dahlem neighborhood of Berlin.

1. ^ "A brief history of Checkpoint Charlie". Archived from the original on 19 March 2022. Retrieved 19 March 2022.
2. ^ Andreas Daum, Kennedy in Berlin. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2008, pp. 134‒35.

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23 June 1946 – The 1946 Vancouver Island earthquake strikes Vancouver Island, British Columbia, Canada.

1946 Vancouver Island earthquake

Canadian natural disaster

The 1946 Vancouver Island earthquake struck Vancouver Island on the coast of British Columbia, Canada, on June 23 at 10:15 a.m.^[1] with a magnitude estimated at 7.0 M_s^[2] and 7.5 M_w.^[6] The main shock epicenter occurred in the Forbidden Plateau area northwest of Courtenay. While most of the large earthquakes in the Vancouver area occur at tectonic plate boundaries, the 1946 Vancouver Island earthquake was a crustal event. Shaking was felt from Portland, Oregon, to Prince Rupert, British Columbia. This is one of the most damaging earthquakes in the history of British Columbia, but damage was restricted because there were no heavily populated areas near the epicentre, where severe shaking occurred.

This earthquake is Canada's largest historic onshore earthquake.^[1] However, the greatest earthquake in Canadian history recorded by seismometers was the 1949 Queen Charlotte earthquake, an interplate earthquake that occurred on the ocean bottom just off the rugged coast of Graham Island, which reached magnitude 8.1 on the moment magnitude scale.^[7]

1. ^ ^{a b c d} The M7.3 Vancouver Island Earthquake of 1946 Retrieved on 2008-06-11
2. ^ ^{a b} ISC-OB Event 898434 [IRIS].
3. ^ ANSS: Canada 1946 .
4. ^ International Seismological Centre, On-line Bulletin, Thatcham, United Kingdom [Event 898434].
5. ^ Cite error: The named reference NGDC was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
6. ^ ANSS, "Canada 1946", Comprehensive Catalog, U.S. Geological Survey
7. ^ The Magnitude 8.1 Queen Charlotte Island Earthquake of August 22, 1949 Archived 2008-05-27 at the Wayback Machine Retrieved on 2008-06-11

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24 June 1939 – Siam is renamed Thailand by Plaek Phibunsongkhram, the country's third prime minister.

Plaek Phibunsongkhram

Prime Minister of Thailand, 1938–44 and 1948–57

"Phibunsongkhram" redirects here. For other uses, see Phibunsongkhram (disambiguation).

Field Marshal Plaek Phibunsongkhram (Thai: แปลก พิบูลสงคราม [plɛ̀ːk pʰí.būːn.sǒŋ.kʰrāːm]; alternatively transcribed as Pibulsongkram or Pibulsonggram; 14 July 1897 – 11 June 1964), locally known as Marshal P. (Thai: จอมพล ป.;[tɕɔ̄ːm.pʰōn.pɔ̄ː]), and contemporarily known as Phibun (Pibul) in the West, was a Thai military officer and politician who served as Prime Minister of Thailand from 1938 to 1944 and 1948 to 1957.

Phibunsongkhram was a member of the Army wing of Khana Ratsadon, the first political party in Thailand, and a leader of the Siamese revolution of 1932, which replaced Thailand’s absolute monarchy with a constitutional monarchy. Phibun became the third Prime Minister of Thailand in 1938 while serving as Commander of the Royal Siamese Army. Inspired by the Italian fascism of Benito Mussolini, he established a de facto military dictatorship run along fascist lines, promoted Thai nationalism and Sinophobia, and allied Thailand with Imperial Japan in World War II. Phibun launched a modernization campaign known as the Thai Cultural Revolution that included a series of cultural mandates, which changed the country's name from "Siam" to "Thailand", and promoted the Thai language.

Phibun was ousted as prime minister by the National Assembly in 1944 and replaced by members of the Free Thai Movement, but returned to power after the Siamese coup d'état of 1947, led by the Coup Group. Phibun aligned Thailand with anti-communism in the Cold War, entered the Korean War under the United Nations Command, and abandoned fascism for a façade of democracy. Phibun's second term as prime minister was plagued by political instability and several attempts to launch a coup d'etat against him were made, including the Army General Staff plot in 1948, the Palace Rebellion in 1949, and the Manhattan Rebellion in 1951. Phibun attempted to transform Thailand into an electoral democracy from the mid-1950s onward, but was overthrown in 1957 and went into exile in Japan, where he died in 1964.

At fifteen years and one month, Phibun's term as Prime Minister of Thailand was the longest to date.

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25 June 1910 – Igor Stravinsky's ballet The Firebird is premiered in Paris, bringing him to prominence as a composer.

The Firebird

1910 ballet by Igor Stravinsky

This article is about the ballet to Stravinsky's 1910 music. For other uses of the word, see Firebird.

The Firebird (French: L'Oiseau de feu; Russian: Жар-птица, romanized: Zhar-ptitsa) is a ballet and orchestral concert work by the Russian composer Igor Stravinsky. It was written for the 1910 Paris season of Sergei Diaghilev's Ballets Russes company; the original choreography was by Michel Fokine, who collaborated with Alexandre Benois and others on a scenario based on the Russian fairy tales of the Firebird and the blessing and curse it possesses for its owner. The Firebird was first performed at the Opéra de Paris on 25 June 1910 and was an immediate success, catapulting Stravinsky to international fame, and leading to future Diaghilev-Stravinsky collaborations like Petrushka (1911) and The Rite of Spring (1913).

The ballet opens in Koschei's garden with Prince Ivan chasing the Firebird, whom he captures and takes a feather from. Thirteen princesses enter the garden (all of whom are trapped by the evil Koschei), and Ivan falls in love with one; they perform a short dance. When the princesses are called back into Koschei's palace, Ivan tries to follow, but is stopped by Koschei at the gates. Before the evil king turns Ivan to stone, the prince summons the Firebird with the feather, and she makes Koschei and his subjects do an "Infernal Dance". After they fall asleep from exhaustion, Ivan steals the egg that holds Koschei's soul and destroys it, killing Koschei and freeing the king's subjects. The ballet ends with grand rejoicing among the freed subjects.

In the music, Stravinsky used a system of leitmotifs placed in the harmony he dubbed "leit-harmony" to distinguish mortal and supernatural beings. The composer made a point to use many unique effects in the orchestra, including with ponticello, col legno, flautando, glissando, and fluttertongue. Stravinsky later composed three concert suites: one in 1911, ending with the "Infernal Dance"; one in 1919, which remains the most popular today; and one in 1945, in which Stravinsky reorchestrated much of the work and changed the structure.

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26 June 1927 – The Cyclone roller coaster opens on Coney Island.

Coney Island Cyclone

Wooden roller coaster at Luna Park

"Cyclone (roller coaster)" redirects here. For other roller coasters named "Cyclone", see Cyclone (disambiguation) § Roller coasters.

The Cyclone, also called the Coney Island Cyclone, is a wooden roller coaster at Luna Park in Coney Island, Brooklyn, New York City. Designed by Vernon Keenan, it opened to the public on June 26, 1927. The roller coaster is on a plot of land at the intersection of Surf Avenue and West 10th Street. The Cyclone reaches a maximum speed of 60 miles per hour (97 km/h) and has a total track length of 2,640 feet (800 m), with a maximum height of 85 feet (26 m).

The roller coaster operated for more than four decades before it began to deteriorate, and by the early 1970s the city planned to scrap the ride. On June 18, 1975, Dewey and Jerome Albert, owners of the adjacent Astroland amusement park, entered an agreement with New York City to operate the ride. The roller coaster was refurbished in the 1974 off-season and reopened on July 3, 1975. Astroland Park continued to invest millions of dollars in the Cyclone's upkeep. The roller coaster was declared a New York City designated landmark in 1988 and was placed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1991. After Astroland closed in 2008, Cyclone Coasters president Carol Hill Albert continued to operate it under a lease agreement with the city. In 2011, Luna Park took over the Cyclone.

1. ^ Denson, Charles (2002). Coney Island: Lost and Found. Berkeley, Calif.: Ten Speed Press. ISBN 9781580084550.
2. ^ "National Register Information System". National Register of Historic Places. National Park Service. April 15, 2008.
3. ^ Cite error: The named reference NYCL was invoked but never defined (see the help page).

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27 June 1950 – The United States decides to send troops to fight in the Korean War.

Korean War

1950–1953 North-South Korean war

For other conflicts and wars involving Korea, see List of Korean battles. For the conflict from 1945 to the present, see Korean conflict.

The Korean War was fought between North Korea and South Korea from 1950 to 1953. The war began on 25 June 1950 when North Korea invaded South Korea following clashes along the border and rebellions in South Korea.^[36][37][38] North Korea was supported by China and the Soviet Union while South Korea was supported by the United States and allied countries. The fighting ended with an armistice on 27 July 1953.

In 1910, Imperial Japan annexed Korea, where it ruled for 35 years until its surrender at the end of World War II on 15 August 1945.^[c] The United States and the Soviet Union divided Korea along the 38th parallel into two zones of occupation. The Soviets administered the northern zone, and the Americans administered the southern zone. In 1948, as a result of Cold War tensions, the occupation zones became two sovereign states. A communist state, the Democratic People's Republic of Korea, was established in the north under the totalitarian rule of Kim Il Sung, while a capitalist state, the Republic of Korea, was established in the south under the autocratic leadership of Syngman Rhee. Both governments claimed to be the sole legitimate government of all of Korea, and neither accepted the border as permanent.

After failed attempts of negotiations on unification, North Korean army (Korean People's Army or KPA) forces crossed the border and drove into South Korea on 25 June 1950.^[39][40] The United Nations Security Council denounced North Korea's actions as an invasion and authorized the formation of the United Nations Command and the dispatch of forces to Korea^[41] to repel it.^[42][43] The Soviet Union was boycotting the UN for recognizing Taiwan (Republic of China) as China,^[44] and the People's Republic of China was not recognized by the UN, so neither could support their ally North Korea at the Security Council meeting. Twenty-one countries of the United Nations eventually contributed to the UN force, with the United States providing around 90% of the military personnel.^[45] After the first two months of war, the South Korean army (ROKA) and hastily dispatched American forces were on the point of defeat, retreating to a small area behind a defensive line known as the Pusan Perimeter. In September 1950, a risky amphibious UN counteroffensive was launched at Incheon, cutting off KPA troops and supply lines in South Korea. Those who escaped envelopment and capture were forced back north. UN forces invaded North Korea in October 1950 and moved rapidly towards the Yalu River—the border with China—but on 19 October 1950, Chinese forces of the People's Volunteer Army (PVA) crossed the Yalu and entered the war.^[39] The UN retreated from North Korea after the First Phase Offensive and the Second Phase Offensive. Chinese forces were in South Korea by late December. In these and subsequent battles, Seoul was captured four times, and communist forces were pushed back to positions around the 38th parallel, close to where the war had started. After this, the front stabilized, and the last two years were a war of attrition. The war in the air, however, was never a stalemate. North Korea was subject to a massive U.S. bombing campaign. Jet-powered fighters confronted each other in air-to-air combat for the first time in history, and Soviet pilots covertly flew in defense of their communist allies.

The fighting ended on 27 July 1953 when the Korean Armistice Agreement was signed. The agreement created the Korean Demilitarized Zone (DMZ) to separate North and South Korea, and allowed the return of prisoners. However, no peace treaty was ever signed, and the two Koreas are technically still at war, engaged in a frozen conflict.^[46][47] In April 2018, the leaders of North and South Korea met at the DMZ^[48] and agreed to work toward a treaty to end the Korean War formally.^[49]

The Korean War was among the most destructive conflicts of the modern era, with approximately 3 million war fatalities and a larger proportional civilian death toll than World War II or the Vietnam War. It resulted in the destruction of virtually all of Korea's major cities, with thousands of massacres committed by both sides—including the mass killing of tens of thousands of suspected communists by the South Korean government, and the torture and starvation of prisoners of war by the North Koreans. North Korea became among the most heavily bombed countries in history.^[50] Over the course of the war 1.5 million North Koreans are estimated to have fled North Korea.^[51]

1. ^ Kim, Heesu (1996). Anglo-American Relations and the Attempts to Settle the Korean Question 1953–1960 (PDF) (Thesis). London School of Economics and Political Science. p. 213. Archived (PDF) from the original on 10 April 2017. Retrieved 9 April 2017.
2. ^ "Italian Red Cross Hospital". Archived from the original on 22 August 2012. Retrieved 2 June 2012.
3. ^ "6.25전쟁 당시 대한민국에 도움의 손길 내밀었던 이탈리아". Newsis. 26 August 2016. Archived from the original on 7 July 2023. Retrieved 12 April 2021.
4. ^ "독일, 62년만에 6.25 전쟁 의료지원국에 포함…총 6개국으로 늘어". 헤럴드경제. 22 June 2018. Retrieved 4 April 2021.
5. ^ 임, 성호 (19 June 2020). "[6.25전쟁 70년] 이역만리 한국서 수백만명 살리고 의술 전파까지". Yeonhap News. Retrieved 4 April 2021.
6. ^ Young, Sam Ma (2010). "Israel's Role in the UN during the Korean War" (PDF). Israel Journal of Foreign Affairs. 4 (3): 81–89. doi:10.1080/23739770.2010.11446616. S2CID 219293462. Archived from the original (PDF) on 24 August 2015.
7. ^ ^{a b} Morris-Suzuki, Tessa (29 July 2012). "Post-War Warriors: Japanese Combatants in the Korean War". The Asia-Pacific Journal: Japan Focus. 10 (31).
8. ^ Whan-woo, Yi (16 September 2019). "Pakistan's Defense Day rekindles Korean War relief aid". The Korea Times. Archived from the original on 27 November 2020. Retrieved 2 May 2020.
9. ^ "Uruguay's little-known but important role in the Korean War". Korea.net. 10 February 2022. Retrieved 4 September 2022.
10. ^ Edles, Laura Desfor (1998). Symbol and Ritual in the New Spain: the transition to democracy after Franco. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. p. 32. ISBN 978-0521628853.
11. ^ Kulla, Rinna (2013). "Europe's Détente and Yugoslavia's Decline". Les cahiers Irice. 10: 97–106.
12. ^ Cite error: The named reference rozhlas cz was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
13. ^ ^{a b} Edwards, Paul M. (2006). Korean War Almanac. Almanacs of American wars. New York: Infobase Publishing. p. 528. ISBN 978-0816074679. Archived from the original on 4 July 2017.
14. ^ Kocsis, Piroska (2005). "Magyar orvosok Koreában (1950–1957)" [Hungarian physicians in Korea (1950–1957)]. ArchivNet: XX. századi történeti források (in Hungarian). Budapest: Magyar Országos Levéltár. Archived from the original on 10 May 2017. Retrieved 22 November 2016.
15. ^ "Romania's "Fraternal Support" to North Korea during the Korean War, 1950–1953". Wilson Centre. December 2011. Archived from the original on 21 February 2013. Retrieved 24 January 2013.
16. ^ Birtle, Andrew J. (2000). The Korean War: Years of Stalemate. U.S. Army Center of Military History. p. 34. Retrieved 21 August 2021.
17. ^ Millett, Allan Reed, ed. (2001). The Korean War, Volume 3. Korea Institute of Military History. U of Nebraska Press. p. 692. ISBN 978-0803277960. Retrieved 16 February 2013. Total Strength 602,902 troops
18. ^ Kane, Tim (27 October 2004). "Global U.S. Troop Deployment, 1950–2003". Reports. The Heritage Foundation. Archived from the original on 28 January 2013. Retrieved 15 February 2013.
    Ashley Rowland (22 October 2008). "U.S. to keep troop levels the same in South Korea". Stars and Stripes. Archived from the original on 12 May 2013. Retrieved 16 February 2013.
    Colonel Tommy R. Mize, United States Army (12 March 2012). "U.S. Troops Stationed in South Korea, Anachronistic?" (PDF). United States Army War College. Defense Technical Information Center. Archived from the original on 8 April 2013. Retrieved 16 February 2013.
    Louis H. Zanardi; Barbara A. Schmitt; Peter Konjevich; M. Elizabeth Guran; Susan E. Cohen; Judith A. McCloskey (August 1991). "Military Presence: U.S. Personnel in the Pacific Theater" (PDF). Reports to Congressional Requesters. United States General Accounting Office. Archived from the original (PDF) on 15 June 2013. Retrieved 15 February 2013.
19. ^ ^{a b c d e f g} USFK Public Affairs Office. "USFK United Nations Command". United States Forces Korea. United States Department of Defense. Archived from the original on 11 July 2016. Retrieved 29 July 2016. Republic of Korea – 590,911
    Colombia – 1,068
    United States – 302,483
    Belgium – 900
    United Kingdom – 14,198
    South Africa – 826
    Canada – 6,146
    Netherlands – 819
    Turkey – 5,453
    Luxembourg – 44
    Australia – 2,282
    Philippines – 1,496
    New Zealand – 1,385
    Thailand – 1,204^{[clarification needed]}
    Ethiopia – 1,271
    Greece – 1,263
    France – 1,119
20. ^ Rottman, Gordon L. (2002). Korean War Order of Battle: United States, United Nations, and Communist Ground, Naval, and Air Forces, 1950–1953. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 126. ISBN 978-0275978358. Retrieved 16 February 2013. A peak strength of 14,198 British troops was reached in 1952, with over 40,000 total serving in Korea.
    "UK-Korea Relations". British Embassy Pyongyang. Foreign and Commonwealth Office. 9 February 2012. Retrieved 16 February 2013. When war came to Korea in June 1950, Britain was second only to the United States in the contribution it made to the UN effort in Korea. 87,000 British troops took part in the Korean conflict, and over 1,000 British servicemen lost their lives
    Jack D. Walker. "A Brief Account of the Korean War". Information. Republic of Korea Ministry of National Defense Institute for Military History. Retrieved 17 February 2013. Other countries to furnish combat troops, with their peak strength, were: United States (302,483), United Kingdom (14,198), Canada (6,146), Turkey (5,455), Australia (2,282), Thailand (2,274), Philippines (1,496), New Zealand (1,389), France (1,185), Colombia (1,068), Ethiopia (1,271), Greece (1,263), Belgium (900), Netherlands (819), Republic of South Africa (826), Luxembourg (52)
21. ^ "Land of the Morning Calm: Canadians in Korea 1950–1953". Veterans Affairs Canada. Government of Canada. 7 January 2013. Archived from the original on 23 March 2013. Retrieved 22 February 2013. Peak Canadian Army strength in Korea was 8,123 all ranks.
22. ^ ^{a b c d e f g h i j k} Cite error: The named reference ROK Web was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
23. ^ ^{a b c} Edwards, Paul M. (2006). Korean War Almanac. Almanacs of American wars. Infobase Publishing. p. 517. ISBN 978-0816074679. Retrieved 22 February 2013.
24. ^ Ramachandran, D. p (19 March 2017). "The doctor-heroes of war". The Hindu – via www.thehindu.com.
25. ^ The Statistics of the Korean War - ROK Ministry of National Defense Institute for Military History, 2014 (E-BOOK) Archived 9 July 2023 at the Wayback Machine (in Korean)
26. ^ The Statistics of the Korean War - ROK Ministry of National Defense Institute for Military History, 2014 (PDF) Archived 11 January 2021 at the Wayback Machine (in Korean)
27. ^ Fact Sheet: America's Wars". U.S. Department of Veteran Affairs, Washington D.C., May 2017.
28. ^ [https://www.mpva.go.kr/ycnc/selectBbsNttView.do?key=493&bbsNo=130&nttNo=215661&searchCtgry=&searchCnd=all&searchKrwd=&pageIndex=1&integrDeptCode= 19만7056명 첫 全數조사 “젊은사람들 내 뒤에서 ‘얼마나 죽였길래’ 수군수군 이젠 훈장 안 달고 다녀…세상이 야속하고 나 스스로 비참할 뿐”]
29. ^ Zhang 1995, p. 257.
30. ^ Xiaobing, Li (2009). A History of the Modern Chinese Army Lexington: University Press of Kentucky. p. 105: "By December 1952, the Chinese forces in Korea had reached a record high of 1.45 million men, including fifty-nine infantry divisions, ten artillery divisions, five antiaircraft divisions, and seven tank regiments. CPVF numbers remained stable until the armistice agreement was signed in July 1953."
31. ^ Shrader, Charles R. (1995). Communist Logistics in the Korean War. Issue 160 of Contributions in Military Studies. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 90. ISBN 978-0313295096. Retrieved 17 February 2013. NKPA strength peaked in October 1952 at 266,600 men in eighteen divisions and six independent brigades.
32. ^ ^{a b} Kolb, Richard K. (1999). "In Korea we whipped the Russian Air Force". VFW Magazine. 86 (11). Retrieved 17 February 2013. Soviet involvement in the Korean War was on a large scale. During the war, 72,000 Soviet troops (among them 5,000 pilots) served along the Yalu River in Manchuria. At least 12 air divisions rotated through. A peak strength of 26,000 men was reached in 1952.^{[permanent dead link]}
33. ^ Cite error: The named reference xu was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
34. ^ Cite error: The named reference Cumings p. 35 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
35. ^ Cite error: The named reference Lewy pp. 450-453 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
36. ^ "The creation of an independent South Korea became UN policy in early 1948. Southern communists opposed this, and by autumn partisan warfare had engulfed parts of every Korean province below the 38th parallel. The fighting expanded into a limited border war between the South's newly formed Republic of Korea Army (ROKA) and the North Korean border constabulary as well as the North's Korean People's Army (KPA)."Millett (PHD), Allan. "Korean War". britannica.com. Archived from the original on 24 April 2016. Retrieved 21 April 2016.
37. ^ Cumings 2005, pp. 247–53.
38. ^ Stueck 2002, p. 71.
39. ^ ^{a b} Cite error: The named reference Devine 2007 819-821 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
40. ^ Historian Kim Hakjoon argues that, "the many telegrams that Moscow and P’yǒngyang exchanged from January to June 1950, and, more important, the secret meetings between Stalin and Kim [Il Sung] in Moscow in April and Mao and Kim in Beijing during May, confirmed that the three Communist leaders were responsible for starting the Korean War on the morning of 25 June 1950." quoted in Steven Lee, "The Korean War in History and Historiography." Journal of American-East Asian Relations 21, no. 2 (2014): 185–206. doi:10.1163/18765610-02102010 at p 190.
41. ^ United Nations Security Council Resolution 83
42. ^ United Nations Security Council Resolution 82
43. ^ Derek W. Bowett, United Nations Forces: A Legal Study of United Nations Practice, Stevens, London, 1964, pp. 29–60
44. ^ "Soviets boycott United Nations Security Council". HISTORY. 9 January 2020. Retrieved 3 July 2023.
45. ^ Pembroke, Michael (2018). Korea: Where the American Century Began. Hardie Grant Books. p. 141.
46. ^ He, Kai; Feng, Huiyun (2013). Prospect Theory and Foreign Policy Analysis in the Asia Pacific: Rational Leaders and Risky Behavior. Routledge. p. 50. ISBN 978-1135131197. Archived from the original on 4 July 2017.
47. ^ Li, Narangoa; Cribb, Robert (2014). Historical Atlas of Northeast Asia, 1590–2010: Korea, Manchuria, Mongolia, Eastern Siberia. Columbia University Press. p. 194. ISBN 978-0231160704. Archived from the original on 4 July 2017.
48. ^ "Kim becomes first North Korean leader to cross border into South since war". Reuters. 27 April 2018. Retrieved 28 April 2018.
49. ^ "North and South Korean leaders hold historic summit: Live updates". CNN. 26 April 2018. Retrieved 27 April 2018.
50. ^ Fisher, Max (3 August 2015). "Americans have forgotten what we did to North Korea". Vox. Retrieved 18 October 2021.
51. ^ Robinson, Michael E (2007). Korea's Twentieth-Century Odyssey. Honolulu, HI: University of Hawaii Press. pp. 119-120. ISBN 978-0824831745.

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28 June 1997 – Holyfield–Tyson II: Mike Tyson is disqualified in the third round for biting a piece off Evander Holyfield's ear.

Evander Holyfield vs. Mike Tyson II

Boxing competition

Evander Holyfield vs. Mike Tyson II, billed as the Sound and the Fury and afterwards infamously referred to as The Bite Fight, was a professional boxing match contested between Evander Holyfield and Mike Tyson on June 28, 1997, for the WBA Heavyweight Championship. It achieved notoriety as one of the most bizarre fights in boxing history after Tyson bit off a part of Holyfield's ear. Tyson was disqualified from the match and lost his boxing license, though it was later reinstated.

The fight took place at the MGM Grand Garden Arena in Paradise, Nevada. The referee officiating the fight was Mills Lane, who was brought in as a late replacement when Tyson's camp protested the original selection of Mitch Halpern (who officiated the first fight) as the referee.^[1]

1. ^ Lane late replacement, center of action Archived June 29, 2012, at archive.today, AP via Slam! Boxing, 1997-06-29, Retrieved on March 9, 2007.

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29 June 1952 – The first Miss Universe pageant is held. Armi Kuusela from Finland wins the title of Miss Universe 1952.

Miss Universe

Annual international beauty pageant competition

"MUO" redirects here. For other uses, see MUO (disambiguation).

For the most recent competition, see Miss Universe 2022. For the upcoming competition, see Miss Universe 2023. For the next competition, see Miss Universe 2024.

Miss Universe is an annual international major beauty pageant that is run by a United States- and Thailand-based Miss Universe Organization.^[1] Along with Miss World, Miss International, and Miss Earth, Miss Universe is one of the Big Four international beauty pageants.^[2]

The Miss Universe Organization and its brand, along with its sister pageants, Miss USA and Miss Teen USA, is currently owned by JKN Global Group.^[3] Telemundo has the licensing rights to air the pageant through 2023.^[4] The pageant's advocacy is "humanitarian issues and is a voice to affect positive change in the world."^[5][6]

The current Miss Universe is R'Bonney Gabriel of the United States, who was crowned on January 14, 2023, in New Orleans, United States.

1. ^ Natalie Tadena (July 2, 2015)."Donald Trump's Miss USA Pageant Lands on Reelz Cable Channel" Archived July 27, 2020, at the Wayback Machine. The Wall Street Journal.
2. ^ Enriquez, Amee (February 2, 2014). "Beauty Pageant Basics". BBC News. Archived from the original on March 8, 2021. Retrieved May 4, 2018.
3. ^ Bundel, Ani (December 16, 2018). "Miss Universe is the only major beauty pageant worth watching. Here's why". NBC News. Archived from the original on November 8, 2020. Retrieved December 20, 2018.
4. ^ "Miss Universe Returns To Telemundo After 5-Year Absence". forbes.com. November 3, 2019. Archived from the original on April 21, 2021. Retrieved April 19, 2021.
5. ^ "About Miss Universe". Miss Universe Website. April 20, 2020. Archived from the original on May 5, 2019. Retrieved April 20, 2020.
6. ^ Scott, H. Allan (December 16, 2018). "Catriona Gray of Philippines Crowned". Newsweek. Archived from the original on December 1, 2020. Retrieved April 26, 2020.

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30 June 1859 – French acrobat Charles Blondin crosses Niagara Falls on a tightrope.

Charles Blondin

French tightrope walker (1824–1897)

"Blondin" redirects here. For other uses, see Blondin (disambiguation).

Charles Blondin (born Jean François Gravelet, 28 February 1824 – 22 February 1897) was a French tightrope walker and acrobat. He toured the United States and was known for crossing the 1,100 ft (340 m) Niagara Gorge on a tightrope.

During an event in Dublin in 1860, the rope on which he was walking broke and two workers were killed, although Blondin was not injured.

He married three times and had eight children. His name became synonymous with tightrope walking.

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1 July 1903 – Start of first Tour de France bicycle race.

1903 Tour de France

Cycling race

The 1903 Tour de France was the first cycling race set up and sponsored by the newspaper L'Auto, ancestor of the current daily, L'Équipe. It ran from 1 to 19 July in six stages over 2,428 km (1,509 mi), and was won by Maurice Garin.^[1]

The race was invented to boost the circulation of L'Auto, after its circulation started to plummet from competition with the long-standing Le Vélo. Originally scheduled to start in June, the race was postponed one month, and the prize money was increased, after a disappointing level of applications from competitors. The 1903 Tour de France was the first stage road race, and compared to modern Grand Tours, it had relatively few stages, but each was much longer than those raced today. The cyclists did not have to compete in all six stages, although this was necessary to qualify for the general classification.

The pre-race favourite, Maurice Garin, won the first stage, and retained the lead throughout. He also won the last two stages, and had a margin of almost three hours over the next cyclist. The circulation of L'Auto increased more than sixfold during and after the race, so the race was considered successful enough to be rerun in 1904, by which time Le Vélo had been forced out of business.

1. ^ Augendre 2016, p. 108.

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2 July 1494 – The Treaty of Tordesillas is ratified by Spain.

Treaty of Tordesillas

1494 treaty dividing the unclaimed world between Spanish and Portuguese sovereignty

This article is about the 1494 treaty between Portugal and Spain that divided the world as then understood between the two. For the treaty signed in 1524 between Spain and Monaco, see Treaty of Tordesillas (1524).

The Treaty of Tordesillas,^{[note 1]} signed in Tordesillas, Spain, on 7 June 1494, and ratified in Setúbal, Portugal, divided the newly discovered lands outside Europe between the Portuguese Empire and the Spanish Empire (Crown of Castile), along a meridian 370 leagues^{[note 2]} west of the Cape Verde islands, off the west coast of Africa. That line of demarcation was about halfway between the Cape Verde islands (already Portuguese) and the islands visited by Christopher Columbus on his first voyage (claimed for Castile and León), named in the treaty as Cipangu and Antillia (Cuba and Hispaniola).

The lands to the east would belong to Portugal and the lands to the west to Castile, modifying an earlier division proposed by Pope Alexander VI. The treaty was signed by Spain, 2 July 1494, and by Portugal, 5 September 1494. The other side of the world was divided a few decades later by the Treaty of Zaragoza, signed on 22 April 1529, which specified the antimeridian to the line of demarcation specified in the Treaty of Tordesillas.

Despite a considerable lack of information regarding the geography of the New World, Portugal and Spain largely respected the treaty. The other European powers, however, did not sign the treaty and generally ignored it, particularly those that became Protestant after the Reformation. Similarly, the indigenous peoples of the Americas did not acknowledge the treaty, and as the legal foundation for the discovery doctrine,^{[9][page needed]}it has been a source of ongoing tension regarding land ownership into modern times.

The treaty was included by UNESCO in 2007 in its Memory of the World Programme. Originals of both treaties are kept at the General Archive of the Indies in Spain and at the Torre do Tombo National Archive in Portugal.^[10]

1. ^ Horst Pietschmann, Atlantic history : history of the Atlantic System 1580–1830, Göttingen : Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 2002, p. 239
2. ^ Parise, Agustín (2017). Ownership Paradigms in American Civil Law Jurisdictions: Manifestations of the Shifts in the Legislation of Louisiana, Chile, and Argentina (16th–20th Centuries). Brill. p. 68. ISBN 978-9004338203. Retrieved 21 September 2018.
3. ^ Blair & Robertson (1903).
4. ^ Davenport (1917), p. 100.
5. ^ Chardon (1980), pp. 142, 144, & 151.
6. ^ Harrisse (1897), pp. 85–97, 176–190.
7. ^ Newlyn Walkup, Eratosthenes and the mystery of the stades
8. ^ Engels, Donald (1985). "The length of Eratosthenes' stade". American Journal of Philology. 106 (3): 298–311. doi:10.2307/295030. JSTOR 295030.
9. ^ Miller, Robert; LeSage, Lisa; Escarcena, Sebastián (1 August 2011). "The International Law of Discovery, Indigenous Peoples, and Chile". Nebraska Law Review. 89 (4).
10. ^ Davenport (1917), pp. 85 & 171.

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