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23 May 1430 – Joan of Arc is captured at the Siege of Compiègne by troops from the Burgundian faction.

Joan of Arc

French folk heroine and saint (1412–1431)

Several terms redirect here. For other uses, see Jeanne d'Arc (disambiguation), Joan of Arc (disambiguation), and Jehanne (disambiguation).

Joan of Arc (French: Jeanne d'Arc [ʒan daʁk] ^ⓘ; Middle French: Jehanne Darc [ʒəˈãnə ˈdark]; c. 1412 – 30 May 1431) is a patron saint of France, honored as a defender of the French nation for her role in the siege of Orléans and her insistence on the coronation of Charles VII of France during the Hundred Years' War. Claiming to be acting under divine guidance, she became a military leader who transcended gender roles and gained recognition as a savior of France.

Joan was born to a propertied peasant family at Domrémy in northeast France. In 1428, she requested to be taken to Charles VII, later testifying that she was guided by visions from the archangel Michael, Saint Margaret, and Saint Catherine to help him save France from English domination. Convinced of her devotion and purity, Charles sent Joan, who was about seventeen years old, to the siege of Orléans as part of a relief army. She arrived at the city in April 1429, wielding her banner and bringing hope to the demoralized French army. Nine days after her arrival, the English abandoned the siege. Joan encouraged the French to aggressively pursue the English during the Loire Campaign, which culminated in another decisive victory at Patay, opening the way for the French army to advance on Reims unopposed, where Charles was crowned as the king of France with Joan at his side. These victories boosted French morale, paving the way for their final triumph in the Hundred Years' War several decades later.

After Charles's coronation, Joan participated in the unsuccessful siege of Paris in September 1429 and the failed siege of La Charité in November. Her role in these defeats reduced the court's faith in her. In early 1430, Joan organized a company of volunteers to relieve Compiègne, which had been besieged by the Burgundians—French allies of the English. She was captured by Burgundian troops on 23 May. After trying unsuccessfully to escape, she was handed to the English in November. She was put on trial by Bishop Pierre Cauchon on accusations of heresy, which included blaspheming by wearing men's clothes, acting upon visions that were demonic, and refusing to submit her words and deeds to the judgment of the church. She was declared guilty and burned at the stake on 30 May 1431, aged about nineteen.

In 1456, an inquisitorial court reinvestigated Joan's trial and overturned the verdict, declaring that it was tainted by deceit and procedural errors. Joan has been described as an obedient member of the Catholic Church, an early feminist, and a symbol of freedom and independence. She is popularly revered as a martyr. After the French Revolution, she became a national symbol of France. In 1920, Joan of Arc was canonized by Pope Benedict XV and, two years later, was declared one of the patron saints of France. She is portrayed in numerous cultural works, including literature, music, paintings, sculptures, and theater.

1. ^ Contamine 2007, p. 199: Cette miniature du XV^e siècle, très soignée (l'étendard correspond exactement à la description que Jeanne d'Arc elle-même en donnera lors de son procès) ... Mais c'est précisément cette exactitude, et cette coïncidence, trop belle pour être vraie, qui éveillent—ou plutôt auraient dû éveiller—les soupçons ... [This miniature from the 15th century, very neat (the banner corresponds exactly to the description that Joan of Arc herself will give during her trial) ... But it is precisely this exactitude, and this coincidence, too good to be true, which arouses—or rather should have aroused—suspicion ...]
2. ^ The Calendar 2021.

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24 May 1798 – The Irish Rebellion of 1798 led by the United Irishmen against British rule begins.

Irish Rebellion of 1798

Part of the French Revolutionary Wars

The Irish Rebellion of 1798 (Irish: Éirí Amach 1798; Ulster-Scots: The Turn out,^[6] The Hurries,^[7] 1798 Rebellion^[8]) was a popular insurrection against the British Crown in what was then the separate, but subordinate, Kingdom of Ireland. The main organising force was the Society of United Irishmen. First formed in Belfast by Presbyterians opposed to the landed Anglican establishment, the Society, despairing of reform, sought to secure a republic through a revolutionary union with the country's Catholic majority. The grievances of a rack-rented tenantry drove recruitment.

While assistance was being sought from the French Republic and from democratic militants in Britain, martial-law seizures and arrests forced the conspirators into the open. Beginning in late May 1798, there were a series of uncoordinated risings: in the counties of Carlow and Wexford in the southeast where the rebels met with some success; in the north around Belfast in counties Antrim and Down; and closer to the capital, Dublin, in counties Meath and Kildare.

In late August, after the rebels had been reduced to pockets of guerrilla resistance, the French landed an expeditionary force in the west, in County Mayo. Unable to effect a conjunction with a significant rebel force, they surrendered on 9 September. In the last open-field engagement of the rebellion, the local men they had rallied on their arrival were routed at Killala on 23 September. On 12 October, a second French expedition was defeated in a naval action off the coast of County Donegal leading to the capture of the United Irish leader Wolfe Tone.

In the wake of the rebellion, Acts of Union abolished the Irish legislature and brought Ireland under the crown of a United Kingdom through the Parliament at Westminster. The centenary of the rebellion in 1898 saw its legacy disputed by nationalists who wished to restore a legislature in Dublin, by republicans who invoked the name of Tone in the cause of complete separation and independence, and by unionists opposed to all measures of Irish self-government. Renewed in a bicentenary year that coincided with the 1998 Belfast "Good Friday" Agreement, the debate over the interpretation and significance of "1798" continues.

1. ^ The 1798 Irish Rebellion (BBC).
2. ^ Thomas Bartlett, Clemency and Compensation, the treatment of defeated rebels and suffering loyalists after the 1798 rebellion, in Revolution, Counter-Revolution and Union, Ireland in the 1790s, Jim Smyth ed, Cambridge, 2000, p. 100
3. ^ Thomas Pakenham, p. 392 The Year of Liberty (1969) ISBN 0-586-03709-8
4. ^ Bartlett, p. 100
5. ^ Richard Musgrave (1801). Memoirs of the different rebellions in Ireland (see Appendices)
6. ^ Patterson, William Hugh (1880). "Glossary of Words in the Counties of Antrim and Down". www.ulsterscotsacademy.com. Retrieved 29 October 2024.
7. ^ Patterson, William Hugh (1880). "Glossary of Words in the Counties of Antrim and Down". www.ulsterscotsacademy.com. Retrieved 4 November 2020.
8. ^ Smyth, Jim, ed. (2000). Revolution, counter-revolution, and union: Ireland in the 1790s. Cambridge; New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-66109-6.

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25 May 1925 – Scopes Trial: John T. Scopes is indicted for teaching human evolution in Tennessee

Scopes trial

1925 US legal case in Tennessee

The State of Tennessee v. John Thomas Scopes, commonly known as the Scopes trial or Scopes Monkey Trial, was an American legal case from July 10 to July 21, 1925, in which a high school teacher, John T. Scopes, was accused of violating the Butler Act, a Tennessee state law which outlawed the teaching of human evolution in public schools.^[1] The trial was deliberately staged in order to attract publicity to the small town of Dayton, Tennessee, where it was held. Scopes was unsure whether he had ever actually taught evolution, but he incriminated himself deliberately so the case could have a defendant.^[2][3] Scopes was represented by the American Civil Liberties Union, which had offered to defend anyone accused of violating the Butler Act in an effort to challenge the constitutionality of the law.

Scopes was found guilty and was fined $100 (equivalent to $1,800 in 2024), but the verdict was overturned on a technicality. William Jennings Bryan, a three-time presidential candidate and former secretary of state, argued for the prosecution, while famed labor and criminal lawyer Clarence Darrow served as the principal defense attorney for Scopes. The trial publicized the fundamentalist–modernist controversy, which set modernists, who believed evolution could be consistent with religion,^[4] against fundamentalists, who believed the word of God as revealed in the Bible took priority over all human knowledge. The case was thus seen both as a theological contest and as a trial on whether evolution should be taught in schools. The trial became a symbol of the larger social anxieties associated with the cultural changes and modernization that characterized the decade of the 1920s in the United States. It also served its purpose of drawing intense national publicity and highlighted the growing influence of mass media, having been covered by news outlets around the country and being the first trial in American history to be nationally broadcast by radio.

1. ^ "Tennessee Anti-evolution Statute—UMKC School of Law". umkc.edu. Archived from the original on May 20, 2009.
2. ^ Mark Paxton (2013). Media Perspectives on Intelligent Design and Evolution. ABC-CLIO. p. 105. ISBN 9780313380648.
3. ^ Charles Alan Israel (2004). Before Scopes: Evangelicalism, Education, and Evolution in Tennessee, 1870–1925. U of Georgia Press. p. 161. ISBN 9780820326450.
4. ^ Cotkin, George (2004) [1992]. Reluctant Modernism: American Thought and Culture, 1880–1900. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield. pp. 7–14. ISBN 978-0-7425-3746-0. Retrieved October 5, 2013.

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26 May 1896 – Charles Dow publishes the first edition of the Dow Jones Industrial Average.

Dow Jones Industrial Average

American stock market index composed of 30 industry leaders

"Dow Jones index" redirects here. For other indices, see Dow Jones.

The Dow Jones Industrial Average (DJIA), Dow Jones, or simply the Dow (/ˈdaʊ/), is a stock market index of 30 prominent companies listed on stock exchanges in the United States.

The DJIA is one of the oldest and most commonly followed equity indices. It is price-weighted, unlike other common indexes such as the Nasdaq Composite or S&P 500, which use market capitalization.^[4][5] The DJIA also contains fewer stocks, which could exhibit higher risk; however, it could be less volatile when the market is rapidly rising or falling due to its components being well-established large-cap companies.^[6]

The value of the index can also be calculated as the sum of the stock prices of the companies included in the index, divided by a factor, which is approximately 0.163 as of November 2024^[update]. The factor is changed whenever a constituent company undergoes a stock split so that the value of the index is unaffected by the stock split.

First calculated on May 26, 1896,^[2] the index is the second-oldest among U.S. market indices, after the Dow Jones Transportation Average. It was created by Charles Dow, co-founder of both The Wall Street Journal and Dow Jones & Company, and named after him and his business associate, statistician Edward Jones. The first published value of the Dow Jones was 40.94.

The index is maintained by S&P Dow Jones Indices, an entity majority-owned by S&P Global. Its components are selected by a committee. The ten components with the largest dividend yields are commonly referred to as the Dogs of the Dow. As with all stock prices, the prices of the constituent stocks and consequently the value of the index itself are affected by the performance of the respective companies as well as macroeconomic factors.

1. ^ "Dow Record Book Adds Another First". Philly.com. February 24, 1995. Archived from the original on October 4, 2013.
2. ^ ^{a b} Judge, Ben (May 26, 2015). "26 May 1896: Charles Dow launches the Dow Jones Industrial Average". MoneyWeek. Archived from the original on October 6, 2019. Retrieved October 6, 2019.
3. ^ "Dow Jones Industrial Average® Fact Sheet" (PDF). S&P Global.
4. ^ Deporre, James (September 7, 2018). "Ignore the Misleading Dow Jones Industrial Average". TheStreet.com. Archived from the original on August 12, 2019. Retrieved August 12, 2019.
5. ^ Dzombak, Dan (April 18, 2014). "Why the Dow Jones Industrial Average Is Useless". The Motley Fool. Archived from the original on August 12, 2019. Retrieved August 12, 2019.
6. ^ Cite error: The named reference spglobal was invoked but never defined (see the help page).

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27 May 1798 – The Pitt–Tierney duel takes place on Putney Heath outside London. A bloodless duel between the Prime Minister of Great Britain William Pitt the Younger and his political opponent George Tierney.

Pitt–Tierney duel

1798 duel in England

William Pitt the Younger, the prime minister since 1783.

George Tierney, a prominent member of the Whig opposition.

The Pitt–Tierney Duel took place on 27 May 1798 when the Prime Minister of Great Britain William Pitt the Younger met his political opponent George Tierney in a duel with pistols on Putney Heath outside London.^[1] 

1. ^ Banks p.262

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28 May 1830 – U.S. President Andrew Jackson signs the Indian Removal Act which denies Native Americans their land rights and forcibly relocates them.

Indian Removal Act

Law authorizing the removal of Native Americans from US states

Not to be confused with Indian Relocation Act of 1956.

The Indian Removal Act of 1830 was signed into law on May 28, 1830, by United States president Andrew Jackson. The law, as described by Congress, provided "for an exchange of lands with the Indians residing in any of the states or territories, and for their removal west of the river Mississippi".^[a][2][3] During the presidency of Jackson (1829–1837) and his successor Martin Van Buren (1837–1841), more than 60,000 Native Americans^[4] from at least 18 tribes^[5] were forced to move west of the Mississippi River where they were allocated new lands. The southern tribes were resettled mostly in Indian Territory (Oklahoma). The northern tribes were resettled initially in Kansas. With a few exceptions, the United States east of the Mississippi and south of the Great Lakes was emptied of its Native American population. The movement westward of indigenous tribes was characterized by a large number of deaths due to the hardships of the journey.^[6]

The U.S. Congress approved the Act by a narrow majority in the House of Representatives. The Indian Removal Act was supported by President Jackson and the Democratic Party,^[7] southern and white settlers, and several state governments, especially that of Georgia. Indigenous tribes and the Whig Party opposed the bill, as did other groups within white American society (e.g., some Christian missionaries and clergy). Legal efforts to allow Indian tribes to remain on their land in the eastern U.S. failed. Most famously, the Cherokee (excluding the Treaty Party) challenged their relocation, but were unsuccessful in the courts; they were forcibly removed by the United States government in a march to the west that later became known as the Trail of Tears. Since the 21st century, scholars have cited the act and subsequent removals as an early example of state-sanctioned ethnic cleansing or genocide or settler colonialism; some view it as all three.^[8][9][10]

1. ^ Prucha, Francis Paul, The Great Father: The United States Government and the American Indians, Volume I, Lincoln: the University of Nebraska Press, 1984, p. 206.
2. ^ The Congressional Record; May 26, 1830; House vote No. 149; Government Tracker online; retrieved October 2015
3. ^ "Indian Removal Act: Primary Documents of Americas History". Library of Congress. Retrieved March 3, 2024.
4. ^ "Andrew Jackson was called 'Indian Killer'". Washington Post, November 23, 2017. Retrieved 10 November 2022.
5. ^ Native American Removal. The Oxford Encyclopedia of American Social History. 2012. ISBN 978-0-19-974336-0. Retrieved 10 November 2022. {{cite book}}: |website= ignored (help)
6. ^ Lewey, Guenter (September 1, 2004). "Were American Indians the Victims of Genocide?". Commentary. Archived from the original on August 15, 2017. Retrieved March 8, 2017. Also available in reprint from the History News Network.
7. ^ https://economics.emory.edu/documents/carlson-len-indian-lands-squatterism-and-slavery.pdf ^{[bare URL PDF]}
8. ^ Hixson, Walter L. (2016). "Policing the Past: Indian Removal and Genocide Studies". Western Historical Quarterly. 47 (4): 439–443. doi:10.1093/whq/whw092. ISSN 0043-3810. JSTOR 26782722.
9. ^ Anderson, Gary Clayton (2016). "The Native Peoples of the American West: Genocide or Ethnic Cleansing?". Western Historical Quarterly. 47 (4): 407–433. doi:10.1093/whq/whw126. ISSN 0043-3810. JSTOR 26782720.
10. ^ Perdue, Theda (2012). "The Legacy of Indian Removal". The Journal of Southern History. 78 (1): 3–36. ISSN 0022-4642. JSTOR 23247455.

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29 May 1919 – Albert Einstein's theory of general relativity is tested (later confirmed) by Arthur Eddington and Andrew Claude de la Cherois Crommelin.

Eddington experiment

1919 observational test which confirmed Einstein's theory of general relativity

The Eddington experiment was an observational test of general relativity, organised by the British astronomers Frank Watson Dyson and Arthur Stanley Eddington in 1919. The observations were of the total solar eclipse of 29 May 1919 and were carried out by two expeditions, one to the West African island of Príncipe, and the other to the Brazilian town of Sobral. The aim of the expeditions was to measure the gravitational deflection of starlight passing near the Sun.^[1] The value of this deflection had been predicted by Albert Einstein in a 1911 paper; however, this initial prediction turned out not to be correct because it was based on an incomplete theory of general relativity. Einstein later improved his prediction after finalizing his theory in 1915 and obtaining the solution to his equations by Karl Schwarzschild. Following the return of the expeditions, the results were presented by Eddington to the Royal Society of London^[2] and, after some deliberation, were accepted. Widespread newspaper coverage of the results led to worldwide fame for Einstein and his theories.

1. ^ Earman, John; Glymour, Clark (1980). "Relativity and eclipses: the British eclipse expeditions of 1919 and their predecessors" (PDF). Historical Studies in the Physical Sciences. 11 (1): 49–85. doi:10.2307/27757471. JSTOR 27757471.
2. ^ Cite error: The named reference Dyson1920 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).

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30 May 1381 – Beginning of the Peasants' Revolt in England

Peasants' Revolt

1381 uprising in England

This article is about the English peasants' revolt of 1381. For other peasants' revolts, see List of peasant revolts.

The Peasants' Revolt, also named Wat Tyler's Rebellion or the Great Rising, was a major uprising across large parts of England in 1381. The revolt had various causes, including the socio-economic and political tensions generated by the Black Death in the 1340s, the high taxes resulting from the conflict with France during the Hundred Years' War, and instability within the local leadership of London. The revolt heavily influenced the course of the Hundred Years' War, by deterring later Parliaments from raising additional taxes to pay for military campaigns in France.

Interpretations of the revolt by academics have shifted over the years. It was once seen as a defining moment in English history, in particular causing a promise by King Richard II to abolish serfdom, and a suspicion of Lollardy, but modern academics are less certain of its impact on subsequent social and economic history.

The revolt has been widely used in socialist literature, including by the author William Morris, and remains a potent symbol for the political left, informing the arguments surrounding the introduction of the Community Charge in the United Kingdom during the 1980s.

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30 May 1381 – Beginning of the Peasants' Revolt in England

Peasants' Revolt

1381 uprising in England

This article is about the English peasants' revolt of 1381. For other peasants' revolts, see List of peasant revolts.

The Peasants' Revolt, also named Wat Tyler's Rebellion or the Great Rising, was a major uprising across large parts of England in 1381. The revolt had various causes, including the socio-economic and political tensions generated by the Black Death in the 1340s, the high taxes resulting from the conflict with France during the Hundred Years' War, and instability within the local leadership of London. The revolt heavily influenced the course of the Hundred Years' War, by deterring later Parliaments from raising additional taxes to pay for military campaigns in France.

Interpretations of the revolt by academics have shifted over the years. It was once seen as a defining moment in English history, in particular causing a promise by King Richard II to abolish serfdom, and a suspicion of Lollardy, but modern academics are less certain of its impact on subsequent social and economic history.

The revolt has been widely used in socialist literature, including by the author William Morris, and remains a potent symbol for the political left, informing the arguments surrounding the introduction of the Community Charge in the United Kingdom during the 1980s.

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31 May 1790 – The United States enacts its first copyright statute, the Copyright Act of 1790.

Copyright Act of 1790

First U.S. federal legislation on copyright

The Copyright Act of 1790 was the first federal copyright act to be instituted in the United States, though most of the states had passed various legislation securing copyrights in the years immediately following the Revolutionary War. The stated object of the act was the "encouragement of learning," and it achieved this by securing authors the "sole right and liberty of printing, reprinting, publishing and vending" the copies of their "maps, charts, and books" for a term of 14 years, with the right to renew for one additional 14-year term should the copyright holder still be alive.

1. ^ 2 Stat. 171
2. ^ Ferch, Pricilla. "Statutory Damages Under the Copyright Act of 1976". Loyola University Chicago Law Journal. 15 (3). Retrieved July 27, 2018.

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1 June 1950 – The Chinchaga fire ignites. By September, it would become the largest single fire on record in North America.

Chinchaga fire

1950 forest fire in British Columbia and Alberta

The Chinchaga fire, also known as the Wisp fire, Chinchaga River fire and Fire 19,^[1] was a forest fire that burned in northern British Columbia and Alberta in the summer and early fall of 1950. With a final size of between 1,400,000 and 1,700,000 hectares (3,500,000 and 4,200,000 acres), it is the single largest recorded fire in North American history. The authorities allowed the fire to burn freely, following local forest management policy considering the lack of settlements in the region. The Chinchaga fire produced large amounts of smoke, creating the "1950 Great Smoke Pall", observed across eastern North America and Europe. As the existence of the massive fire was not well-publicized, and the smoke was mostly in the upper atmosphere and could not be smelled, there was much speculation about the atmospheric haze and its provenance. The Chinchaga firestorm's "historic smoke pall" caused "observations of blue suns and moons in the United States and Europe".^[2][3][4] It was the biggest firestorm documented in North America, and created the world's largest smoke layer in the atmosphere.^[4]

1. ^ Tymstra. Chinchaga Firestorm, p. 8
2. ^ Fromm 2005.
3. ^ Murphy & Tymstra 1986.
4. ^ ^{a b} Tymstra 2014.

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2 June 1909 – Alfred Deakin becomes Prime Minister of Australia for the third time.

Alfred Deakin

Prime Minister of Australia (1856–1919)

Alfred Deakin (3 August 1856 – 7 October 1919) was an Australian politician who served as the second prime minister of Australia from 1903 to 1904, 1905 to 1908, and 1909 to 1910. He held office as the leader of the Protectionist Party, and in his final term as that of the Liberal Party. He is notable for being one of the founding fathers of Federation and for his influence in early Australian politics.

Deakin was born in Melbourne to middle-class parents. He was elected to the Victorian Legislative Assembly in 1879, aged 23, additionally working as a barrister and journalist. He held ministerial office sporadically beginning in 1883, serving twice as Attorney-General of Victoria and aligning himself with liberal and radical reformers. In the 1890s, Deakin became one of the leading figures in the movement for the federation of the Australian colonies. He was a delegate to the federal conventions and served on the committees that drafted the federal constitution. He later campaigned at a series of referendums and lobbied the British government for its adoption.

After the Federation in 1901, Deakin became the inaugural Attorney-General of Australia in the ministry led by his close friend Edmund Barton. He succeeded Barton as prime minister in September 1903. Two subsequent elections in 1903 and 1906 produced an even split between three parties, with Deakin's Liberal Protectionist Party occupying an effective middle ground between the Free Traders and the Australian Labour Party (ALP). He left office in April 1904 following an unproductive first term but returned in July 1905 and was able to form a functional government with the support of the ALP. He relinquished office again in August 1908.

In 1909, in what became known as the Fusion, Deakin controversially led his supporters into a union with the Free Traders. Their alliance, based on anti-socialism, marked the beginning of a two-party system in federal politics and allowed him to form Australia's first majority government. Deakin regarded his final term as prime minister, from June 1909 to April 1910, as his most productive. However, to his surprise, the ALP won a majority in both houses at the 1910 election. He retired from politics in 1913, in the early stages of a degenerative neurological condition that led to his death at the age of 63.

Deakin is regarded as one of Australia's most influential prime ministers. He was the principal architect of the "Australian settlement", the features of which – the White Australia policy, compulsory arbitration, protectionism, state paternalism, and support for the British Empire – formed the basis of Australia's socio-economic framework well into the 20th century.^[1]

1. ^ Kelly, Paul (1992). The End of Certainty: The Story of the 1980s. Allen & Unwin. p. 3. ISBN 978-1-86373-388-5.

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3 June 1940 – World War II: During the Battle of France, the Luftwaffe bombs Paris.

Operation Paula

1940 offensive during the Battle of France

Unternehmen Paula (Operation Paula)^[3][4] is the German codename for a Luftwaffe operation to destroy the remaining units of the Armée de l'Air (AdA, French Air Force) during the Battle of France in 1940. On 10 May the German armed forces (Wehrmacht) began their invasion of Western Europe. By 3 June, the bulk of the British Army had withdrawn from Dunkirk Operation Dynamo, the Netherlands and Belgium had surrendered and most of the formations of the French Army were disbanded or destroyed. To complete the defeat of France, the Germans undertook another operation, Fall Rot (Case Red), to conquer the remaining regions. To achieve this, air supremacy was required. The Luftwaffe was ordered to destroy the French Air Forces and support to the German Army.

The Germans committed five Air Corps to the attack, comprising 1,100 aircraft. The operation was launched on 3 June 1940. British intelligence had warned the French of the impending attack and the operation failed to achieve the strategic results desired by Oberkommando der Luftwaffe (High Command of the Air Force). The plight of the French ground and air forces at this stage meant that the failure of the operation would not impede the conquest of France.

1. ^ Chant 1987, p. 180.
2. ^ ^{a b c} Hooton 2007, p. 84.
3. ^ Mackay 2003, p. 62.
4. ^ Chant 1987, p. 10.

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4 June 1943 – A military coup in Argentina ousts Ramón Castillo.

Ramón Castillo

20th President of Argentina (1942-43)

For the Honduran footballer, see Ramon Castillo (footballer). For the Chilean cult leader, see Antares de la Luz.

Not to be confused with Ramón Castilla.

In this Spanish name, the first or paternal surname is Castillo and the second or maternal family name is Barrionuevo.

Ramón Antonio Castillo Barrionuevo (20 November 1873 – 12 October 1944) was President of Argentina from 1942 to 1943. He took office after the resignation of President Roberto María Ortiz, under whom he was the Vice President. He was a leading figure in the period known as the Infamous Decade, characterised by electoral fraud, corruption and rule by conservative landowners heading the alliance known as the Concordancia.^[1]

Castillo graduated in law from the University of Buenos Aires (UBA) and began a judicial career. He reached the Appeals Chamber of commercial law before retiring and dedicating himself to teaching. He was professor and dean at UBA between 1923 and 1928.

Castillo was named Federal Intervenor of Tucumán Province in 1930. From 1932 until 1935, he was elected to the Argentine Senate for Catamarca Province for the National Democratic Party and was also Minister of Interior.

From 1938 to 1942, Castillo was vice-president of Argentina under President Roberto Ortiz, who won the election by fraud as the head of the Concordancia. He was acting president from 3 July 1940 to 27 June 1942 due to the illness of President Ortiz, who did not resign until less than a month before his death. Castillo maintained Argentina's neutrality during World War II. He was overthrown in the Revolution of '43 military coup^[2] in the midst of an unpopular attempt to impose Robustiano Patrón Costas as his successor. Future president Juan Domingo Perón was a junior officer in the coup.

1. ^ Taccone, Nicolas; Lopez, Ignacio (2023). "Democrats' Mistakes and the Birth of Authoritarian Rule: Ramón S. Castillo and the Fall of Conservative Democracy in Argentina". Journal of Latin American Studies. 55 (3): 429–453. doi:10.1017/S0022216X23000597. Retrieved 6 February 2024.
2. ^ "Argentine President Ramon Castillo is ousted amidst rioting in Buenos Aires". British Pathé.

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5 June 1644 – The Qing dynasty's Manchu forces led by the Shunzhi Emperor take Beijing during the collapse of the Ming dynasty

Qing dynasty

Manchu-led dynasty of China (1644–1912)

"Qing" redirects here. For other uses, see Qing (disambiguation).

Not to be confused with the Qin dynasty, the first dynasty of imperial China.

This article contains Manchu text. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of Manchu alphabet.

The Qing dynasty (/tʃɪŋ/ CHING), officially the Great Qing,^[b] was a Manchu-led imperial dynasty of China and an early modern empire in East Asia. The last imperial dynasty in Chinese history, the Qing dynasty was preceded by the Ming dynasty and succeeded by the Republic of China. At its height of power, the empire stretched from the Sea of Japan in the east to the Pamir Mountains in the west, and from the Mongolian Plateau in the north to the South China Sea in the south. Originally emerging from the Later Jin dynasty founded in 1616 and proclaimed in Shenyang in 1636, the dynasty seized control of the Ming capital Beijing and North China in 1644, traditionally considered the start of the dynasty's rule.^[a] The dynasty lasted until the Xinhai Revolution of October 1911 led to the abdication of the last emperor in February 1912. The multi-ethnic Qing dynasty assembled the territorial base for modern China. The Qing controlled the most territory of any dynasty in Chinese history, and in 1790 represented the fourth-largest empire in world history to that point. With over 426 million citizens in 1907,^[15] it was the most populous country in the world at the time.

Nurhaci, leader of the Jianzhou Jurchens and House of Aisin-Gioro who was also a vassal of the Ming dynasty,^[16][17] unified Jurchen clans (known later as Manchus) and founded the Later Jin dynasty in 1616, renouncing the Ming overlordship. As the founding Khan of the Manchu state he established the Eight Banners military system, and his son Hong Taiji was declared Emperor of the Great Qing in 1636. As Ming control disintegrated, peasant rebels captured Beijing as the short-lived Shun dynasty, but the Ming general Wu Sangui opened the Shanhai Pass to the Qing army, which defeated the rebels, seized the capital, and took over the government in 1644 under the Shunzhi Emperor and his prince regent. While the Qing became a Chinese empire, resistance from Ming rump regimes and the Revolt of the Three Feudatories delayed the complete conquest until 1683, which marked the beginning of the High Qing era. As an emperor of Manchu ethnic origin, the Kangxi Emperor (1661–1722) consolidated control, relished the role of a Confucian ruler, patronised Buddhism (including Tibetan Buddhism), encouraged scholarship, population and economic growth. Han officials worked under or in parallel with Manchu officials.

To maintain prominence over its neighbors, the Qing leveraged and adapted the traditional tributary system employed by previous dynasties, enabling their continued predominance in affairs with countries on its periphery like Joseon Korea and the Lê dynasty in Vietnam, while extending its control over Inner Asia including Tibet, Mongolia, and Xinjiang. The Qing dynasty reached its apex during the reign of the Qianlong Emperor (1735–1796), who led the Ten Great Campaigns of conquest, and personally supervised Confucian cultural projects. After his death, the dynasty faced internal revolts, economic disruption, official corruption, foreign intrusion, and the reluctance of Confucian elites to change their mindset. With peace and prosperity, the population rose to 400 million, but taxes and government revenues were fixed at a low rate, soon leading to a fiscal crisis. Following China's defeat in the Opium Wars, Western colonial powers forced the Qing government to sign unequal treaties, granting them trading privileges, extraterritoriality and treaty ports under their control. The Taiping Rebellion (1850–1864) and the Dungan Revolt (1862–1877) in western China led to the deaths of over 20 million people, from famine, disease, and war.

The Tongzhi Restoration in the 1860s brought vigorous reforms and the introduction of foreign military technology in the Self-Strengthening Movement. Defeat in the First Sino-Japanese War (1894–1895) led to loss of suzerainty over Korea and cession of Taiwan to the Empire of Japan. The ambitious Hundred Days' Reform in 1898 proposed fundamental change, but was poorly executed and terminated by the Empress Dowager Cixi (1835–1908) in the Wuxu Coup. In 1900, anti-foreign Boxers killed many Chinese Christians and foreign missionaries; in retaliation, the Eight-Nation Alliance invaded China and imposed a punitive indemnity. In response, the government initiated unprecedented fiscal and administrative reforms, including elections, a new legal code, and the abolition of the imperial examination system. Sun Yat-sen and revolutionaries debated reform officials and constitutional monarchists such as Kang Youwei and Liang Qichao over how to transform the Manchu-ruled empire into a modernised Han state. After the deaths of the Guangxu Emperor and Cixi in 1908, Manchu conservatives at court blocked reforms and alienated reformers and local elites alike. The Wuchang Uprising on 10 October 1911 led to the Xinhai Revolution. The abdication of the Xuantong Emperor on 12 February 1912 brought the dynasty to an end.

1. ^ "Ritual Music in the Court and Rulership of the Qing Dynasty (1644–1911)" (p. 136): "[1636] was the start of the Qing dynasty, although historians usually date the Qing dynasty started in 1644 when the Manchus conquered Beijing and north China."
2. ^ Wasserstrom, Jeffrey N. (2022). The Oxford History of Modern China. Oxford University Press. p. ix. ISBN 978-0-19-264830-3.
3. ^ Desnoyers, Charles (2017). Patterns of Modern Chinese History. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-994645-7.
4. ^ Rowe (2009), p. 292.
5. ^ Keliher, Macabe (2019). The Board of Rites and the Making of Qing China. University of California Press. p. ix. ISBN 978-0-520-97176-9.
6. ^ Schluessel, Eric (2023). The Tarikh-i Hamidi: A Late-Qing Uyghur History. Columbia University Press. p. xv. ISBN 978-0-520-97176-9.
7. ^ Elverskog, Johan (2008). Our Great Qing: The Mongols, Buddhism, and the State in Late Imperial China. University of Hawaii Press. p. 17. ISBN 978-0-8248-6381-4.
8. ^ Li, Xiangmin (2024). A HISTORY OF FINE ARTS ECONOMY OF CHINA. American Academic. p. 282. ISBN 978-1-63181-470-9.
9. ^ Wang, Robin (2003). Images of Women in Chinese Thought and. Hackett. p. 285. ISBN 978-0-87220-651-9.
10. ^ Yang, Zhanghui (2024). Convergence of East-West Poetics. Taylor & Francis. p. 37. ISBN 978-1-04-009828-8.
11. ^ Söderblom Saarela (2021).
12. ^ Norman (1988), pp. 133–134.
13. ^ ^{a b c} Taagepera, Rein (September 1997). "Expansion and Contraction Patterns of Large Polities: Context for Russia" (PDF). International Studies Quarterly. 41 (3): 500. doi:10.1111/0020-8833.00053. ISSN 0020-8833. JSTOR 2600793. Archived (PDF) from the original on 7 July 2020. Retrieved 24 July 2020.
14. ^ Wang Jianqiang (王堅強); Chen Jiahua (陳家華); Wang Yongzhong (王永中) (2018). 歷史與時事學法指導 (in Chinese). Ningbo chubanshe. p. 8. ISBN 9787552632859.
15. ^ ^{a b} Broomhall, Marshall (1907). The Chinese Empire: A General and Missionary Survey, Volumes 678–679. Morgan at Scott. pp. 2–3.
16. ^ The Cambridge History of China: Volume 9, The Ch'ing Empire to 1800, Part 1, by Willard J. Peterson, p. 29
17. ^ Rowe (2009), pp. 14–15.

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6 June 1985 – The grave of "Wolfgang Gerhard" is opened in Embu, Brazil; the exhumed remains are later proven to be those of Josef Mengele, Auschwitz's "Angel of Death"

Josef Mengele

Nazi SS doctor at Auschwitz (1911–1979)

"Mengele" redirects here. For other uses, see Mengele (disambiguation).

Josef Mengele (German: [ˈjoːzɛf ˈmɛŋələ] ^ⓘ; 16 March 1911 – 7 February 1979) was a Nazi German Schutzstaffel (SS) officer and physician during World War II at the Russian front and then at Auschwitz during the Holocaust, often dubbed the "Angel of Death" (German: Todesengel).^[2] He performed deadly experiments on prisoners at the Auschwitz II-Birkenau concentration camp, where he was a member of the team of doctors who selected victims to be murdered in the gas chambers.^[a]

Before the war, Mengele received doctorates in anthropology and medicine, and began a career as a researcher. He joined the Nazi Party in 1937 and the SS in 1938. He was assigned as a battalion medical officer at the start of World War II, then transferred to the Nazi concentration camps service in early 1943. He was assigned to Auschwitz, where he saw the opportunity to conduct genetic research on human subjects. With Red Army troops sweeping through German-occupied Poland, Mengele was transferred 280 kilometres (170 miles) away from Auschwitz to the Gross-Rosen concentration camp on 17 January 1945, ten days before the arrival of the Soviet forces at Auschwitz.

After the war, Mengele fled to Argentina in July 1949, assisted by a network of former SS members. He initially lived in and around Buenos Aires, but fled to Paraguay in 1959 and later Brazil in 1960, all while being sought by West Germany, Israel, and Nazi hunters such as Simon Wiesenthal, who wanted to bring him to trial. Mengele eluded capture in spite of extradition requests by the West German government and clandestine operations by the Israeli intelligence agency Mossad. He drowned in 1979 after suffering a stroke while swimming off the coast of Bertioga, and was buried under the false name of Wolfgang Gerhard. His remains were disinterred and positively identified by forensic examination in 1985.

1. ^ ^{a b} USHMM: Josef Mengele.
2. ^ Encyclopedia Britannica 2025.
3. ^ Piper 2000, pp. 109–110.

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7 June 1099 – First Crusade: The Siege of Jerusalem begins

Siege of Jerusalem (1099)

Christian conquest of the First Crusade

For other sieges laid upon the city of Jerusalem in history, see Siege of Jerusalem.

The siege of Jerusalem marked the successful end of the First Crusade, whose objective was the recovery of the city of Jerusalem and the Church of the Holy Sepulchre from Islamic control. The five-week siege began on 7 June 1099 and was carried out by the Christian forces of Western Europe mobilized by Pope Urban II after the Council of Clermont in 1095. The city had been out of Christian control since the Muslim conquest of the Levant in 637 and had been held for a century first by the Seljuk Turks and later by the Egyptian Fatimids. One of the root causes of the Crusades was the hindering of Christian pilgrimages to the Holy Land which began in the 4th century. A number of eyewitness accounts of the battle were recorded, including in the anonymous chronicle Gesta Francorum.

After Jerusalem was captured on 15 July 1099, thousands of Muslims and Jews were massacred by Crusader soldiers. As the Crusaders secured control over the Temple Mount, revered as the site of the two destroyed Jewish Temples, they also seized Al-Aqsa Mosque and the Dome of the Rock and repurposed them as Christian shrines. Godfrey of Bouillon, prominent among the Crusader leadership, was elected as the first ruler of Jerusalem.

1. ^ France 1994, p. 3
2. ^ Asbridge 2004, p. 308
3. ^ France 1994, pp. 346–350
4. ^ ^{a b} France 1994, p. 343
5. ^ Asbridge 2004, p. 300
6. ^ Rubenstein 2011, p. 297
7. ^ France 1994, p. 131
8. ^ The "massacre" at the sack of Jerusalem has become a commonplace motive in popular depictions, but the historical event is difficult to reconstruct with any certainty. Arab sources give figures of between 3,000 and 70,000 casualties (in Abu Bakr ibn al-Arabi, and in Ibn al-Athir, respectively). The latter figure is rejected as unrealistic as it is very unlikely that the city at the time had a total population of this order; medieval chroniclers tend to substantially exaggerate both troop strength and casualty figures; they cannot be taken at face value naively, and it is less than straightforward to arrive at realistic estimates based on them. For a further study of the Arab accounts, see: Hirschler, Konrad (2014). The Jerusalem Conquest of 492/1099 in the Medieval Arabic Historiography of the Crusades: From Regional Plurality to Islamic Narrative.

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8 June 1783 – Laki, a volcano in Iceland, begins an eight-month eruption which kills over 9,000 people and starts a seven-year famine.

Laki

Volcanic fissure in Iceland

For other uses, see Laki (disambiguation).

Laki (Icelandic pronunciation: [ˈlaːcɪ] ^ⓘ) or Lakagígar ([ˈlaːkaˌciːɣar̥], Craters of Laki) is a volcanic fissure in the western part of Vatnajökull National Park, Iceland, not far from the volcanic fissure of Eldgjá and the small village of Kirkjubæjarklaustur. The fissure is properly referred to as Lakagígar, while Laki is a mountain that the fissure bisects. Lakagígar is part of a volcanic system centered on the volcano Grímsvötn and including the volcano Þórðarhyrna.^[1][2][3] It lies between the glaciers of Mýrdalsjökull and Vatnajökull, in an area of fissures that run in a southwest to northeast direction.

The system erupted violently over an eight-month period between June 1783 and February 1784 from the Laki fissure and the adjoining volcano Grímsvötn. It poured out an estimated 42 billion tonnes or 14 km³ (18×10^⁹ cu yd) of basalt lava as well as clouds of poisonous hydrofluoric acid and sulfur dioxide compounds that contaminated the soil, leading to the death of over 50% of Iceland's livestock population, and the destruction of the vast majority of all crops. This led to a famine which then killed at least a fifth^[4] of the island's human population, although some have claimed a quarter.^[5]

The Laki eruption and its aftermath caused a drop in global temperatures, as 120 million tonnes of sulfur dioxide was spewed into the Northern Hemisphere. This caused crop failures in Europe and may have caused droughts in North Africa and India.

1. ^ "Katla". Global Volcanism Program. Smithsonian Institution. Retrieved March 26, 2010.
2. ^ "Iceland : Katla Volcano". Iceland on the web. Retrieved March 26, 2010.
3. ^ Gudmundsson, Magnús T.; Thórdís Högnadóttir (January 2007). "Volcanic systems and calderas in the Vatnajökull region, central Iceland: Constraints on crustal structure from gravity data". Journal of Geodynamics. 43 (1): 153–169. Bibcode:2007JGeo...43..153G. doi:10.1016/j.jog.2006.09.015.
4. ^ Cite error: The named reference 1783–1784 Laki eruption was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
5. ^ Gunnar Karlsson (2000), Iceland's 1100 Years, p. 181.

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9 June 1979 – The Ghost Train fire at Luna Park Sydney, Australia, kills seven.

1979 Sydney Ghost Train fire

1979 amusement park fire in Milson's Point, New South Wales, Australia

The Sydney Ghost Train fire at Luna Park Sydney in Milsons Point, New South Wales, Australia killed seven people (six children and one adult) on 9 June 1979. Inadequate fire-fighting measures and low staffing caused the fire to completely destroy the amusement park's ghost train.^[1]

The fire was originally blamed on electrical faults, but arson by known figures has also been claimed. The exact cause of the fire could not be determined by a coronial inquiry. The coroner also ruled that, while the actions of Luna Park's management and staff before and during the fire (in particular their decision not to follow advice on the installation of a fire sprinkler system in the ride) breached their duty of care, charges of criminal negligence should not be laid. The case was reopened in 1987 but no new findings were made, although the original police investigation and coronial inquiry were criticised.

Artist Martin Sharp, long associated with the park, obsessively collected evidence on the fire for decades until his death in 2013. An entire room of his house was dedicated to an archive of "documents, court records, government reports, newspaper clippings, photographs and hundreds of hours of cassette tape recordings, which were stories about the fire he taped off the radio and conversations and musings with people who had information and theories about the cause of the fire."^[2] Sharp also used the incident as the basis for his unreleased film, Street of Dreams.

In 2021, the ABC released the documentary Exposed: The Ghost Train Fire which used evidence collected by Sharp as well as freshly-obtained accounts of witnesses. The ABC's investigation concluded that Abe Saffron was responsible for the fire, and that the NSW Police had conspired with Saffron and Premier Neville Wran to cover it up. This led to public demand for a second formal investigation and the formation of Task Force Sedgeman.

As of late 2024, the matter is back before the courts with the potential for a second coroner's inquest.^[3]

1. ^ Cite error: The named reference Marshall110 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
2. ^ Johnson, Natasha (14 March 2021). "Inside the making of the ABC EXPOSED investigation into the Ghost Train fire at Sydney's Luna Park in 1979". ABC. Retrieved 27 November 2024.
3. ^ Mackay, Melissa (10 September 2024). "Redacted NSW Police review of Luna Park Ghost Train fire handed to coroner, ahead of decision about whether a fresh inquest will be held". ABC News. Retrieved 9 June 2025.

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10 June 1838 – Myall Creek massacre: Twenty-eight Aboriginal Australians are murdered.

Myall Creek massacre

1838 killing of Indigenous people in New South Wales

"Myall Creek" redirects here. For the early Queensland settlement formerly known by this name, see Dalby, Queensland.

The Myall Creek massacre was the killing of at least 28 unarmed Aboriginal people in the Colony of New South Wales by eight colonists on 10 June 1838 at the Myall Creek in the north of the colony.^[1][2][3] Seven perpetrators were convicted of murder and hanged.

This was one of the few alleged massacres of Aboriginal people to have been proven in court and the only to result in the conviction and execution of any of the perpetrators. After two trials, seven perpetrators of twelve accused were found guilty of murder and sentenced to death by hanging. Four men were never retried on additional charges following their acquittal in the first trial. The leader of the perpetrators, free settler John Henry Fleming, evaded arrest and was never tried.^[2] The trials and guilty verdicts sparked extreme controversy within New South Wales settler society.^[1][4][5]

1. ^ ^{a b} "Myall Creek massacre". National Museum of Australia. Archived from the original on 5 March 2019. Retrieved 10 February 2019. The remains of at least 28 corpses were later observed at the site, but the final death toll has never been confirmed.
2. ^ ^{a b} "Myall Creek Massacre and Memorial Site". Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts. 25 June 2008. Archived from the original on 5 June 2013.
3. ^ Franks, Rachel (September 2017). "Terry Smyth, Denny Day: The Life and Times of Australia's Greatest Lawman". Dictionary of Sydney. Retrieved 26 July 2024.
4. ^ Rogers, Thomas James; Bain, Stephen (3 February 2016). "Genocide and frontier violence in Australia". Journal of Genocide Research. 18 (1): 83–100. doi:10.1080/14623528.2016.1120466. S2CID 147512803.
5. ^ Tedeschi, Mark (9 June 2023). "True heroes exposed the Myall Creek massacre. To our shame, we don't know their names". The Sydney Morning Herald. Retrieved 12 July 2023.

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11 June 2001 – Timothy McVeigh is executed for his role in the Oklahoma City bombing.

Timothy McVeigh

American domestic terrorist (1968–2001)

For the United States Navy sailor, see Timothy R. McVeigh.

"Robert Kling" redirects here. For the footballer, see Robert Kling (footballer).

Timothy James McVeigh (April 23, 1968 – June 11, 2001) was an American domestic terrorist who masterminded and perpetrated the Oklahoma City bombing on April 19, 1995.^[7][8] The bombing itself killed 167 people (including 19 children), injured 684 people, and destroyed one-third of the Alfred P. Murrah Federal Building.^[9][10] A rescue worker was killed after the bombing when debris struck her head, bringing the total to 168 killed. It remains the deadliest act of domestic terrorism in U.S. history.^[11]

A Gulf War veteran, McVeigh became radicalized by anti-government beliefs. He sought revenge against the United States federal government for the 1993 Waco siege, as well as the 1992 Ruby Ridge incident. McVeigh expressed particular disapproval of federal agencies such as the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, and Firearms (ATF) and the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) for their handling of issues regarding private citizens. He hoped to inspire a revolution against the federal government, and he defended the bombing as a legitimate tactic against what he saw as a tyrannical government.^[12] He was arrested shortly after the bombing and indicted on 160 state offenses and 11 federal offenses, including the use of a weapon of mass destruction. He was found guilty on all counts in 1997 and sentenced to death.^[13]

McVeigh was executed by lethal injection on June 11, 2001, at the Federal Correctional Complex in Terre Haute, Indiana. His execution, which took place just over six years after the offense, was carried out in a considerably shorter time than for most inmates awaiting execution, due in part to his refusal to pursue appeals or stays of execution.^[14]

1. ^ Cite error: The named reference McVeigh word essay was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
2. ^ "Oklahoma City Bombing".
3. ^ Shariat, Sheryll; Mallonee, Sue; Stidham, Shelli Stephens (December 1998). Oklahoma City Bombing Injuries (PDF) (Report). Injury Prevention Service, Oklahoma State Department of Health. pp. 2–3. Retrieved October 21, 2024.
4. ^ Shariat, Sheryll; Mallonee, Sue; Stidham, Shelli Stephens (December 1998). Oklahoma City Bombing Injuries (PDF) (Report). Injury Prevention Service, Oklahoma State Department of Health. pp. 2–3. Retrieved October 21, 2024.
5. ^ Cite error: The named reference washingtonpost was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
6. ^ Cite error: The named reference trutv7 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
7. ^ Eatwell, Roger; Mudde, Cas, eds. (2004). Western Democracies and the New Extreme Right Challenge. Routledge Studies in Extremism and Democracy. London: Routledge. p. 178. ISBN 978-0-415-55387-2.
8. ^ Flowers, R. Barri; Flowers, H. Lorraine (2004). Murders in the United States: Crimes, Killers and Victims of the Twentieth Century. McFarland & Company. p. 106. ISBN 0-7864-2075-8.
9. ^ Mallonee, S.; Shariat, S.; Stennies, G.; Waxweiler, R.; Hogan, D.; Jordan, F. (August 7, 1996). "Physical Injuries and Fatalities Resulting From the Oklahoma City Bombing". JAMA: The Journal of the American Medical Association. 276 (5): 382–387. doi:10.1001/jama.1996.03540050042021. ISSN 0098-7484. PMID 8683816.
10. ^ Shariat, Sheryll; Mallonee, Sue; Stidham, Shelli Stephens (December 1998). Oklahoma City Bombing Injuries (PDF) (Report). Injury Prevention Service, Oklahoma State Department of Health. pp. 2–3. Retrieved October 21, 2024.
11. ^ "Oklahoma City Bombing". Federal Bureau of Investigation. Retrieved January 4, 2025. It was the worst act of homegrown terrorism in the nation's history.
12. ^ Cite error: The named reference mcveigh_dead was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
13. ^ Cite error: The named reference cnn 3-29-01 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
14. ^ "Time on Death Row". Death Penalty Information Center. Archived from the original on August 12, 2021. Retrieved August 13, 2021.

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12 June 1939 – The Baseball Hall of Fame opens in Cooperstown, New York.

National Baseball Hall of Fame and Museum

Professional sports hall of fame in New York, U.S.

"Baseball Hall of Fame" redirects here. For other uses, see Baseball Hall of Fame (disambiguation).

The National Baseball Hall of Fame and Museum is a history museum and hall of fame in Cooperstown, New York, operated by a private foundation. It serves as the central collection and gathering space for the history of baseball in the United States displaying baseball-related artifacts and exhibits, honoring those who have excelled in playing, managing, and serving the sport. The Hall's motto is "Preserving History, Honoring Excellence, Connecting Generations". Cooperstown is often used as shorthand (or a metonym) for the National Baseball Hall of Fame and Museum. The museum also established and manages the process for honorees into the Hall of Fame.

The Hall of Fame was established in 1939 by Stephen Carlton Clark, an heir to the Singer Sewing Machine fortune. Clark sought to bring tourists to the village hurt by the Great Depression, which reduced the local tourist trade, and Prohibition, which devastated the local hops industry. Clark constructed the Hall of Fame's building, which was dedicated on June 12, 1939. (His granddaughter, Jane Forbes Clark, is the current chairman of the board of directors.) The mythology that future Civil War hero Abner Doubleday invented baseball in Cooperstown in the 1830s was instrumental in the placement and early marketing of the Hall.

An expanded library and research facility opened in 1994.^[4] Dale Petroskey became the organization's president in 1999.^[5] In 2002, the Hall launched Baseball as America, a traveling exhibit that toured ten American museums over six years. The Hall of Fame has since also sponsored educational programming on the Internet to bring the Hall of Fame to schoolchildren who might not visit. The Hall and Museum completed a series of renovations in spring 2005. The Hall of Fame also presents an annual exhibit at FanFest at the Major League Baseball All-Star Game.

1. ^ ^{a b c} "Archive and Collection". Baseball Hall of Fame. Archived from the original on March 27, 2019. Retrieved January 23, 2019.
2. ^ "Hall of Fame Welcomes 17 Millionth Visitor". Baseball Hall of Fame. Archived from the original on June 12, 2022. Retrieved February 18, 2019.
3. ^ ^{a b c} "President and Senior Staff". Baseball Hall of Fame. Archived from the original on June 24, 2021. Retrieved June 1, 2021.
4. ^ "Museum History". National Baseball Hall of Fame. Archived from the original on July 4, 2017. Retrieved October 21, 2017.
5. ^ The Official Site of Major League Baseball: News: HOF president Petroskey resigns Archived March 27, 2008, at the Wayback Machine from the Major League Baseball website

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13 June 1996 – The Montana Freemen surrender after an 81-day standoff with FBI agents.

Montana Freemen

Christian Patriot group based in Montana

The Montana Freemen were an anti-government Christian Patriot militia based outside the town of Jordan, Montana, United States. The members of the group referred to their land as "Justus Township" and had declared their leaders and followers "sovereign citizens" no longer under the authority of any outside government. They became the center of public attention in 1996 when they engaged in a prolonged armed standoff with agents of the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI).

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14 June 1966 – The Vatican announces the abolition of the Index Librorum Prohibitorum ("index of prohibited books"), which was originally instituted in 1557.

Index Librorum Prohibitorum

Books prohibited by the Catholic Church (16th–20th centuries)

This article is about the bibliographic index. For the fictional character, see List of A Certain Magical Index characters § Index.

The Index Librorum Prohibitorum (English: Index of Forbidden Books) was a changing list of publications deemed heretical or contrary to morality by the Sacred Congregation of the Index (a former dicastery of the Roman Curia); Catholics were forbidden to print or read them, subject to the local bishop.^[1] Catholic states could enact laws to adapt or adopt the list and enforce it.

The Index was active from 1560 to 1966.^[2][3][4] It banned thousands of book titles and blacklisted publications, including the works of Europe's intellectual elites.^[5][6][7]

The Index condemned religious and secular texts alike, grading works by the degree to which they were deemed to be repugnant, potentially misleading or heretical to the Sacred Congregation of the Index at the time.^[8] The aim of the list was to protect church members from reading theologically, culturally, or politically disruptive books. At times such books included the works of theologians, such as Robert Bellarmine^[9] and astronomers, such as Johannes Kepler's Epitome astronomiae Copernicanae (published in three volumes from 1618 to 1621), which was on the Index from 1621 to 1835; philosophers, such as Antonio Rosmini-Serbati^[10] and Immanuel Kant's Critique of Pure Reason (1781); and editions and translations of the Bible that had not been approved. Editions of the Index also contained the rules of the Church relating to the reading, selling, and preemptive censorship of books.^[11]

1. ^ Grendler, Paul F. "Printing and censorship" in The Cambridge History of Renaissance Philosophy, Charles B. Schmitt, ed. (Cambridge University Press, 1988, ISBN 978-0-52139748-3) pp. 45–46
2. ^ The 20th and final edition of the Index appeared in 1948; the Index was formally abolished on 14 June 1966 by Pope Paul VI. "Notification regarding the abolition of the Index of books". 14 June 1966.
3. ^ Adriányi, Gabriel; Dolan, John; Jedin, Hubert (1981). The Church in the Modern Age. History of the Church. Vol. 10. New York: Crossroad. p. 168. ISBN 978-0-8245-0013-9.
4. ^ Kusukawa, Sachiko (1999). "Galileo and Books". Starry Messenger.
5. ^ Lenard, Max (2006). "On the origin, development and demise of the Index librorum prohibitorum". Journal of Access Services. 3 (4): 51–63. doi:10.1300/J204v03n04_05. S2CID 144325885.
6. ^ Anastaplo, George. "Censorship". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 5 April 2022.
7. ^ Hilgers, Joseph (1908). "Censorship of Books". The Catholic Encyclopedia. Vol. 3. Robert Appleton Company. Retrieved 5 April 2022.
8. ^ Lyons, Martyns (2011). A Living History. Los Angeles. pp. Chapter 2.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
9. ^ Giannini, Massimo Carlo. "Robert Bellarmine: Jesuit, Intellectual, Saint". Pontifical Gregorian University. Retrieved 30 August 2023.
10. ^ "Cardinal Saraiva calls new blessed Antonio Rosmini "giant of the culture"". Catholic News Agency.
11. ^ Index Librorum Prohibitorum, 1559, Regula Quarta ("Rule 4")

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15 June 1520 – Pope Leo X threatens to excommunicate Martin Luther in Exsurge Domine.

Exsurge Domine

1520 papal bull by Pope Leo X in response to Martin Luther's 95 Theses

Exsurge Domine (Latin for 'Arise, O Lord') is a papal bull promulgated on 15 June 1520 by Pope Leo X written in response to Martin Luther's Ninety-five Theses, which opposed the views of the Catholic Church. The bull censured forty-one of the Ninety-five Theses, and threatened Luther and his colleagues—one being Andreas Karlstadt—with excommunication unless they recanted their teachings sixty days after the publication of the bull in the Electorate of Saxony—now Saxony, Germany—and its neighboring regions.

Both theologians refused to recant, and Luther responded instead by composing polemical tracts rebuking the papacy and publicly burning a copy of Exsurge Domine on 10 December 1520 at the Elster Gate in Wittenburg. As a result, Pope Leo X promulgated the papal bull Decet Romanum Pontificem on 3 January 1521, excommunicating both theologians.^[1]

1. ^ "Chisholm, Hugh, (22 Feb. 1866–29 Sept. 1924), Editor of the Encyclopædia Britannica (10th, 11th and 12th editions)", Who Was Who, Oxford University Press, 2007-12-01, retrieved 2024-12-28

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16 June 1858 – Abraham Lincoln delivers his House Divided speech in Springfield, Illinois.

Lincoln's House Divided Speech

1858 speech by Abraham Lincoln

"House Divided" redirects here. For the episode of the TV series House, see House (season 5).

The House Divided Speech was an address given by senatorial candidate and future president of the United States Abraham Lincoln, on June 16, 1858, at what was then the Illinois State Capitol in Springfield, after he had accepted the Illinois Republican Party's nomination as candidate for US senator. The nomination of Lincoln was the final item of business at the convention, which then broke for dinner, meeting again at 8 pm. "The evening session was mainly devoted to speeches",^[1] but the only speaker was Lincoln, whose address closed the convention, save for resolutions of thanks to the city of Springfield and others. His address was immediately published in full by newspapers,^[2][3][4] as a pamphlet,^[5] and in the published proceedings of the convention.^[6] It was the launching point of his unsuccessful campaign for the senatorial seat held by Stephen A. Douglas; the campaign would climax with the Lincoln–Douglas debates. When Lincoln collected and published his debates with Douglas as part of his 1860 presidential campaign, he prefixed them with relevant prior speeches. The "House Divided" speech opens the volume.^[7]

Lincoln's remarks in Springfield depict the danger of slavery-based disunion, and it rallied Republicans across the North. Along with the Gettysburg Address and his second inaugural address, the speech became one of the best-known of his career. It begins with the following words, which became the best-known passage of the speech:^[8]

"A house divided against itself, cannot stand."

I believe this government cannot endure permanently half slave and half free.

I do not expect the Union to be dissolved – I do not expect the house to fall – but I do expect it will cease to be divided.

It will become all one thing or all the other.

Either the opponents of slavery will arrest the further spread of it, and place it where the public mind shall rest in the belief that it is in the course of ultimate extinction; or its advocates will push it forward, till it shall become lawful in all the States, old as well as new – North as well as South.^[6]: 9

Lincoln's goals were to differentiate himself from Douglas – the incumbent – and to voice a prophecy publicly. Douglas had long advocated popular sovereignty, under which the settlers in each new territory would decide their own status as a slave or free state; he had repeatedly asserted that the proper application of popular sovereignty would prevent slavery-induced conflict and would allow Northern and Southern states to resume their peaceful coexistence. Lincoln, however, responded that the Dred Scott ruling had closed the door on Douglas's preferred option, leaving the Union with only two remaining outcomes: the country would inevitably become either all slave or all free. Now that the North and the South had come to hold distinct opinions on the question of slavery, and now that the issue had come to permeate every other political question, the Union would soon no longer be able to function.

1. ^ "Republican Convention". The Pantagraph (Bloomington, Illinois). June 18, 1858. p. 2 – via newspapers.com.
2. ^ "Conclusion of the Republican State Convention. Speech of Hon. Abraham Lincoln". Chicago Tribune. June 19, 1858. p. 2.
3. ^ "Republican principles. Speech of Hon. Abraham Lincoln, of Illinois, at the Republican state Convention, June 16, 1858". New-York Tribune. June 24, 1858. p. 3 – via newspapers.com.
4. ^ "Speech of Hon. Abraham Lincoln". Alton Weekly Telegraph (Alton, Illinois). June 24, 1858. p. 2 – via newspapers.com.
5. ^ Lincoln, Abraham (1858). Speech of Hon. Abram [sic] Lincoln before the Republican state convention, June 16, 1858. OCLC 2454620.
6. ^ ^{a b} Proceedings of the Republican state convention, held at Springfield, Illinois, June 16th, 1858. Springfield, Illinois. 1858.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
7. ^ Lincoln, Abraham; Douglas, Stephen A. (1860). Political Debates between Hon. Abraham Lincoln and Hon. Stephen A. Douglas, In the Celebrated Campaign of 1858, in Illinois; including the preceding speeches of each, at Chicago, Springfield, etc.; also, the two great speeches of Mr. Lincoln in Ohio, in 1859, as carefully prepared by the reporters of each party, and published at the times of their delivery. Columbus, Ohio: Follett, Foster and Company. pp. 1–5.
8. ^ Foner, Eric (2010). The Fiery Trial: Abraham Lincoln and American Slavery. W. W. Norton. pp. 99–100. ISBN 978-0-393-06618-0.

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17 June 1885 – The Statue of Liberty arrives in New York Harbor.

Statue of Liberty

Colossal sculpture in New York Harbor

For other uses, see Statue of Liberty (disambiguation).

The Statue of Liberty (Liberty Enlightening the World; French: La Liberté éclairant le monde) is a colossal neoclassical sculpture on Liberty Island in New York Harbor, within New York City. The copper-clad statue, a gift to the United States from the people of France, was designed by French sculptor Frédéric Auguste Bartholdi and its metal framework was built by Gustave Eiffel. The statue was dedicated on October 28, 1886.

The statue is a figure of a classically draped woman,^[8] likely inspired by the Roman goddess of liberty, Libertas.^[9] In a contrapposto pose,^[8][10] she holds a torch above her head with her right hand, and in her left hand carries a tabula ansata inscribed JULY IV MDCCLXXVI (July 4, 1776, in Roman numerals), the date of the U.S. Declaration of Independence. With her left foot she steps on a broken chain and shackle,^[8] commemorating the national abolition of slavery following the American Civil War.^[11][12][13] After its dedication the statue became an icon of freedom and of the United States, seen as a symbol of welcome to immigrants arriving by sea.

The idea for the statue was conceived in 1865, when the French historian and abolitionist Édouard de Laboulaye proposed a monument to commemorate the upcoming centennial of U.S. independence (1876), the perseverance of American democracy and the liberation of the nation's slaves.^[14] The Franco-Prussian War delayed progress until 1875, when Laboulaye proposed that the people of France finance the statue and the United States provide the site and build the pedestal. Bartholdi completed the head and the torch-bearing arm before the statue was fully designed, and these pieces were exhibited for publicity at international expositions.

The torch-bearing arm was displayed at the Centennial Exposition in Philadelphia in 1876, and in Madison Square Park in Manhattan from 1876 to 1882. Fundraising proved difficult, especially for the Americans, and by 1885 work on the pedestal was threatened by lack of funds. Publisher Joseph Pulitzer, of the New York World, started a drive for donations to finish the project and attracted more than 120,000 contributors, most of whom gave less than a dollar (equivalent to $35 in 2024). The statue was built in France, shipped overseas in crates, and assembled on the completed pedestal on what was then called Bedloe's Island. The statue's completion was marked by New York's first ticker-tape parade and a dedication ceremony presided over by President Grover Cleveland.

The statue was administered by the United States Lighthouse Board until 1901 and then by the Department of War; since 1933, it has been maintained by the National Park Service as part of the Statue of Liberty National Monument, and is a major tourist attraction. Limited numbers of visitors can access the rim of the pedestal and the interior of the statue's crown from within; public access to the torch has been barred since 1916.

1. ^ Jacobs, Julia (May 15, 2019). "New Statue of Liberty Museum Illuminates a Forgotten History". The New York Times.
2. ^ Cite error: The named reference monuments was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
3. ^ "Liberty Enlightening the World". Washington, D.C.: National Park Service. Archived from the original on January 1, 2020. Retrieved February 12, 2020.
4. ^ Weekly List of Actions Taken on Properties: 9/08/2017 through 9/14/2017 (PDF), National Park Service, September 14, 2017, archived from the original on December 29, 2018, retrieved July 13, 2019.
5. ^ "New Jersey and National Registers of Historic Places – Hudson County". New Jersey Department of Environmental Protection – Historic Preservation Office. Archived from the original on October 9, 2014. Retrieved August 2, 2014.
6. ^ "Cultural Resource Information System (CRIS)". New York State Office of Parks, Recreation and Historic Preservation. November 7, 2014. Retrieved July 20, 2023.
7. ^ Cite error: The named reference neighbor was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
8. ^ ^{a b c} Hayden & Despont 1986, p. 45.
9. ^ Sutherland 2003, p. 19.
10. ^ Khan 2010, p. 113.
11. ^ Jacobs, Julia (May 15, 2019). "New Statue of Liberty Museum Illuminates a Forgotten History". The New York Times. Archived from the original on June 21, 2024. Retrieved July 22, 2024.
12. ^ "Celebrate Lady Liberty". The Statue of Liberty—Ellis Island Foundation. October 25, 2021. Retrieved July 22, 2024.
13. ^ "Abolition". Statue of Liberty National Monument. National Park Service. February 26, 2015. Archived from the original on November 8, 2019. Retrieved November 18, 2019.
14. ^ "The French Connection". National Park Service. May 19, 2019. Retrieved June 10, 2023.

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18 June 1873 – Susan B. Anthony is fined $100 for attempting to vote in the 1872 presidential election.

Susan B. Anthony

American women's rights activist (1820–1906)

For other uses, see Susan B. Anthony (disambiguation).

Susan B. Anthony (born Susan Anthony; February 15, 1820 – March 13, 1906) was an American social reformer and women's rights activist who played a pivotal role in the women's suffrage movement. Born into a Quaker family committed to social equality, she collected anti-slavery petitions at the age of 17. In 1856, she became the New York state agent for the American Anti-Slavery Society.

In 1851, she met Elizabeth Cady Stanton, who became her lifelong friend and co-worker in social reform activities, primarily in the field of women's rights. Together they founded the New York Women's State Temperance Society after Anthony was prevented from speaking at a temperance conference because she was female. During the Civil War they founded the Women's Loyal National League, which conducted the largest petition drive in United States history up to that time, collecting nearly 400,000 signatures in support of the abolition of slavery. After the war, they initiated the American Equal Rights Association, which campaigned for equal rights for both women and African Americans. They began publishing a women's rights newspaper in 1868 called The Revolution. A year later, they founded the National Woman Suffrage Association as part of a split in the women's movement. The split was formally healed in 1890 when their organization merged with the rival American Woman Suffrage Association to form the National American Woman Suffrage Association, with Anthony as its key force. Anthony and Stanton began working with Matilda Joslyn Gage in 1876 on what eventually grew into the six-volume History of Woman Suffrage. The interests of Anthony and Stanton diverged somewhat in later years, but the two remained close friends.

In 1872, Anthony was arrested in her hometown of Rochester, New York, for voting in violation of laws that allowed only men to vote. She was convicted in a widely publicized trial. Although she refused to pay the fine, the authorities declined to take further action. In 1878, Anthony and Stanton arranged for Congress to be presented with an amendment giving women the right to vote. Introduced by Sen. Aaron A. Sargent (R-CA), it later became known colloquially as the Susan B. Anthony Amendment. It was eventually ratified as the Nineteenth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution in 1920.

Anthony traveled extensively in support of women's suffrage, giving as many as 75 to 100 speeches per year and working on many state campaigns. She worked internationally for women's rights, playing a key role in creating the International Council of Women, which is still active. She also helped to bring about the World's Congress of Representative Women at the World's Columbian Exposition in Chicago in 1893.

When she first began campaigning for women's rights, Anthony was harshly ridiculed and accused of trying to destroy the institution of marriage. Public perception of her changed radically during her lifetime, however. Her 80th birthday was celebrated in the White House at the invitation of President William McKinley. She became the first female citizen to be depicted on U.S. coinage when her portrait appeared on the 1979 dollar coin.

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19 June1867 – Maximilian I of the Second Mexican Empire is executed by a firing squad in Querétaro, Querétaro.

Maximilian I of Mexico

Emperor of Mexico from 1864 to 1867

Maximilian I (Spanish: Fernando Maximiliano José María de Habsburgo-Lorena; German: Ferdinand Maximilian Josef Maria von Habsburg-Lothringen; 6 July 1832 – 19 June 1867) was an Austrian archduke who became emperor of the Second Mexican Empire from 10 April 1864 until his execution by the Mexican Republic on 19 June 1867.

A member of the House of Habsburg-Lorraine, Maximilian was the younger brother of Emperor Franz Joseph I of Austria. Before becoming Emperor of Mexico, he was commander-in-chief of the small Imperial Austrian Navy and briefly the Austrian viceroy of Lombardy–Venetia, but was removed by the emperor. Two years before his dismissal, he briefly met with French emperor Napoleon III in Paris, where he was approached by conservative Mexican monarchists seeking a European royal to rule Mexico.^[2] Initially Maximilian was not interested, but following his dismissal as viceroy, the Mexican monarchists' plan was far more appealing to him.

Since Maximilian was a descendant of Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor, King of Spain when the Spaniards conquered the Aztecs (1519–21) and first brought Mexico into the Spanish Empire, a status it held until the Mexican independence in 1821, Maximilian seemed a perfect candidate for the conservatives' plans for monarchy in Mexico.^[3] Maximilian was interested in assuming the throne, but only with guarantees of French support. Mexican conservatives did not take sufficient account of Maximilian's embrace of liberalism, and Maximilian failed to understand he would be viewed as a foreign outsider.^[4] When Maximilian was first mentioned as a possible emperor of Mexico, the idea seemed farfetched, but circumstances changed and made it viable. His tenure as emperor was just three years, ending with his execution by firing squad by forces of the Restored Republic on 19 June 1867.

Political conflicts in Mexico in the 1850s between conservative and liberal factions were domestic disputes initially, but the conservatives' loss on the battlefield to the liberal regime during a three-year civil war (1858–61) meant conservatives sought ways to return to power with outside allies, opening a path for France under Napoleon III to intervene in Mexico and set up a puppet regime with conservative Mexican support. When the liberal government of Mexican President Benito Juárez suspended payment on foreign debts in 1861, there was an opening for European powers to intervene militarily in Mexico. The intention of the French and Mexican conservatives was for regime change to oust the liberals, backed by the power of the French army. Mexican monarchists sought a European head of state and, with the brokering of Napoleon III, Maximilian was invited to establish what would come to be known as the Second Mexican Empire. With a pledge of French military support and at the formal invitation of a Mexican delegation, Maximilian accepted the crown of Mexico on 10 April 1864 following a bogus referendum in Mexico that purportedly showed the Mexican people backed him.^[5]

Maximilian's hold on power in Mexico was shaky from the beginning. Rather than enacting policies that would return power to Mexican conservatives, Maximilian instead sought to implement liberal policies, losing him his domestic conservative backers. Internationally, his legitimacy as ruler was in doubt since the United States continued to recognize Benito Juárez as the legal head of state rather than Emperor Maximilian. The U.S. saw the French invasion as a violation of the Monroe Doctrine, but the U.S. was unable to intervene politically due to the American Civil War (1861–1865). With the end of the American Civil War in 1865, the United States began providing material aid to Juárez's republican forces. In the face of a renewed U.S. interest in enforcing the Monroe Doctrine, under orders by Napoleon III, the French armies that had propped up Maximilian's regime began withdrawing from Mexico in 1866. With no popular support and republican forces in the ascendant, Maximilian's monarchy collapsed. Maximilian was captured in Querétaro. He was tried and executed by the restored Republican government alongside his generals Miguel Miramón, a former President of Mexico, and Tomás Mejía Camacho in June 1867.^[6] His death marked the end of monarchism as a major force in Mexico. In reassessments of his brief rule, he is portrayed in Mexican history less as the villain of nationalist, republican history and more as a liberal in Mexico, along with Presidents of the Republic Juárez, Sebastián Lerdo de Tejada, and Porfirio Díaz.^[7]

1. ^ Maximilian I of Mexico at the Encyclopædia Britannica
2. ^ Chisholm, Hugh (1911). "The Encyclopaedia Britannica: A Dictionary of Arts, Sciences, Literature and General Information".
3. ^ Kemper, J. Maximilian in Mexico. Chicago: A.C. McClurg & Company 1911, 17
4. ^ Krauze, Mexico: Biography of Power, pp. 172-73
5. ^ McAllen, M.M. (2014). Maximilian and Carlota: Europe's Last Empire in Mexico. Trinity University Press. p. 124. ISBN 978-1-59534-183-9.
6. ^ "Emperor of Mexico executed". HISTORY. Retrieved 17 April 2021.
7. ^ Pani, Erika. El Segundo Imperio. Mexico: Fondo de Cultura Económica 2004, 121-24

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