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30 August 70 – Titus ends the siege of Jerusalem after destroying Herod's Temple

Siege of Jerusalem (70 CE)

Part of the First Jewish–Roman War

For the siege by Nebuchadnezzar that led to the destruction of the First Temple, see Siege of Jerusalem (587 BC). For other sieges upon the city of Jerusalem, see Siege of Jerusalem.

The siege of Jerusalem in 70 CE was the decisive event of the First Jewish Revolt against the Roman Empire (66–73 CE). Roman forces led by Titus, son of the emperor Vespasian, besieged Jerusalem, the Jewish capital and the revolt's main stronghold. After months of fighting, they breached the defenses, destroyed the Second Temple, and razed the city. Much of its population was killed, enslaved, or displaced by the Romans. The city's fall marked the effective end of the revolt and a turning point in Jewish history.

In winter 69–70, following a respite in the revolt's suppression caused by a succession war in Rome, Titus led four legions and auxiliary forces, numbering at least 48,200 soldiers, back into Judaea. By spring, this army had encircled Jerusalem, whose population had swollen with refugees and Passover pilgrims. Inside the city, rival factions led by John of Gischala, Simon bar Giora, and Eleazar ben Simon fought each other, destroying the city's food supplies and weakening its defenses. The factions eventually united and mounted fierce resistance, but the Romans breached the walls and drove the defenders into the Temple precincts.

In the month of Av (July/August), the Romans captured the Temple Mount and destroyed the Second Temple—an event commemorated annually in Judaism on Tisha B'Av. The rest of Jerusalem fell in the following weeks, and the Romans systematically demolished most of the city. A year later, Titus and Vespasian celebrated the victory with a triumph in Rome, parading Temple spoils—including the menorah—alongside hundreds of captives. The victory was later commemorated in monuments such as the Arch of Titus and on the Judaea capta coinage.

With sacrificial worship no longer possible, Judaism gradually reoriented around Torah study, acts of loving-kindness, and synagogue prayer, a development that culminated in Rabbinic Judaism. Some early Christians interpreted the destruction as a sign that God had turned away from the Jewish people, lending support to supersessionist theology. After the war, Legio X Fretensis established a permanent garrison on the site. Recalling the city's restoration after its destruction in 587/586 BCE, many Jews expected the Temple to be rebuilt, but it remained in ruins. In 130, the emperor Hadrian re-founded Jerusalem as Aelia Capitolina, a Roman colony dedicated to Jupiter, paving the way for the last major Jewish rebellion: the Bar Kokhba Revolt.

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31 August 1895 – German Count Ferdinand von Zeppelin patents his navigable balloon.

Ferdinand von Zeppelin

Several terms redirect here. For other uses, see Zeppelin (disambiguation) and Graf Zeppelin (disambiguation).

German general and airship pioneer (1838–1917)

Count Ferdinand von Zeppelin (German: Ferdinand Adolf Heinrich August Graf von Zeppelin;^[1] 8 July 1838 – 8 March 1917) was a German general and later inventor of the Zeppelin rigid airships. His name became synonymous with airships and dominated long-distance flight until the 1930s. He founded the company Luftschiffbau Zeppelin.

1. ^ "Katalog der Deutschen Nationalbibliothek" (in German). Retrieved 4 April 2009.

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1 September 1894 – Over 400 people die in the Great Hinckley Fire, a forest fire in Hinckley, Minnesota.

Great Hinckley Fire

1894 forest fire in Minnesota, U.S.

The Great Hinckley Fire was a conflagration in the pine forests of the U.S. state of Minnesota that ignited on September 1, 1894, which burned an area of at least 200,000 acres (810 km²; 310 sq mi)^[1] (perhaps more than 250,000 acres [1,000 km²; 390 sq mi]), including the town of Hinckley. The official death count was 418; the actual number of fatalities was likely higher.^[2] Other sources put the death toll at 476.^[3]

1. ^ Haines, Donald A.; Sando, Rodney W. (1969). "Climatic Conditions Preceding Historical Great Fires in the North Central Region". North Central Experimentation Forest Service. US Department of Agriculture.
2. ^ "The Great Hinckley Fire of 1894". Archived from the original on August 7, 2014. Retrieved March 24, 2015.
3. ^ Headlines and Heros. A Treasury of Railroad Folklore. New York, Bonaza Books, 1953

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2 September 1859 – The Carrington Event is the strongest geomagnetic storm on record.

Carrington Event

Geomagnetic storm in 1859

The Carrington Event was the most intense geomagnetic storm in recorded history, peaking on 1–2 September 1859 during solar cycle 10. It created strong auroral displays that were reported globally and caused sparking and even fires in telegraph stations.^[1] The geomagnetic storm was most likely the result of a coronal mass ejection (CME) from the Sun colliding with Earth's magnetosphere.^[2]

The geomagnetic storm was associated with a very bright solar flare on 1 September 1859. It was observed and recorded independently by British astronomers Richard Carrington and Richard Hodgson—the first records of a solar flare. A geomagnetic storm of this magnitude occurring today has the potential to cause widespread electrical disruptions and blackouts as well as damage to the electrical power grid and satellites.^[3][4][5]

1. ^ Kimball, D. S. (April 1960). "A Study of the Aurora of 1859" (PDF). Geophysical Institute at the University of Alaska. Retrieved 28 November 2021.
2. ^ Tsurutani, B. T. (2003). "The extreme magnetic storm of 1–2 September 1859". Journal of Geophysical Research. 108 (A7) 2002JA009504: 1268. Bibcode:2003JGRA..108.1268T. doi:10.1029/2002JA009504. Retrieved 28 November 2021.
3. ^ Solar Storm Risk to the North American Electric Grid (PDF). Lloyd's of London and Atmospheric and Environmental Research, Inc. 2013. Retrieved 17 February 2022.
4. ^ Baker, D. N.; et al. (2008). Severe Space Weather Events – Understanding Societal and Economic Impacts. Washington, D.C.: The National Academy Press. doi:10.17226/12507. ISBN 978-0-309-12769-1.
5. ^ Phillips, Dr. Tony (23 July 2014). "Near miss: The solar superstorm of July 2012". NASA. Retrieved 26 July 2014.

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3 September 2004 – Beslan school siege results in over 330 fatalities, including 186 children.

Beslan school siege

2004 Russian hostage crisis and massacre

The Beslan school siege, also referred to as the Beslan school hostage crisis or the Beslan massacre,^[2][3][4] was a terrorist attack that occurred from 1 September 2004 to 3 September 2004 in the town of Beslan, North Ossetia, Russia. It lasted three days, and involved the imprisonment of more than 1,100 people as hostages, including 777 children^[5]. The hostages — primarily children, their parents, and school staff — were held by terrorists in a building rigged with explosives under severe conditions; the terrorists did not provide them with food or water and denied them other basic necessities. The siege ended with the deaths of 334 people, 186 of them children,^[6] as well as 31 of the attackers.^[1] It is considered the deadliest school shooting in history.^[7]

The crisis began when a group of armed terrorists occupied School Number One (SNO) in the town of Beslan, North Ossetia (a republic in the North Caucasus region of Russia), on 1 September 2004. The hostage-takers were members of the Riyad-us Saliheen, sent by the Chechen warlord Shamil Basayev, who demanded Russia withdraw from and recognize the independence of Chechnya. On the third day of the standoff, Russian security forces stormed the building.

The event had security and political repercussions in Russia, leading to a series of federal government reforms consolidating power in the Kremlin and strengthening the powers of the President of Russia.^[8] Criticisms of the Russian government's management of the crisis have persisted, including allegations of disinformation and censorship in news media as well as questions about journalistic freedom,^[9] negotiations with the terrorists, allocation of responsibility for the eventual outcome and the use of excessive force.^{[10][11][12][13][14]}

1. ^ ^{a b} "Woman injured in 2004 Russian siege dies". The Boston Globe. 8 December 2006. Archived from the original on 17 October 2007. Retrieved 9 January 2007. bringing the total death toll to 334, a Beslan activist said. ... Two other former hostages died of their wounds last year and another died last August, which had brought the overall death toll to 333 -- a figure that does not include the hostage-takers.
2. ^ Arnold, Chloe (4 June 2005). "Beslan mothers' futile quest for relief". Europe. BBC News. Retrieved 8 April 2026.
3. ^ McCormack, Sean (31 August 2005). "United States Expresses Sympathy on Anniversary of Beslan Attack" (Press release). U.S. Department of State. Archived from the original on 27 May 2010. Retrieved 8 April 2026.
4. ^ Cite error: The named reference legacy was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
5. ^ Cite error: The named reference unicef was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
6. ^ "Putin meets angry Beslan mothers". BBC News. 2 September 2005. Archived from the original on 4 September 2017. Retrieved 28 July 2006. Of those who died, 186 were children.
7. ^ "Russian Children Return to School on 'Day of Knowledge'". The Moscow Times. 1 September 2021. Archived from the original on 25 September 2021. Retrieved 25 September 2021.
8. ^ Cite error: The named reference shadow was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
9. ^ Dalziel, Stephen (16 September 2004). "Russia 'impeded media' in Beslan". BBC. Retrieved 8 April 2026.
10. ^ Satter, David (16 November 2016). "The Truth About Beslan". Hudson Institute. Archived from the original on 31 January 2023. Retrieved 31 January 2023.
11. ^ Cite error: The named reference aching was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
12. ^ Doukaev, Aslan. "Beslan's unanswered questions". Opinion. International Herald Tribune. Archived from the original on 14 June 2006. Retrieved 8 April 2026.
13. ^ Lukov, Yaroslav (2 September 2005). "Beslan siege still a mystery". BBC News. Retrieved 8 April 2026.Beslan siege still a mystery, BBC News, 2 September 2005.
14. ^ "One Year Later, Beslan's School Tragedy Still Haunts". The Boston Globe. 2 September 2005. Archived from the original on 4 June 2011. Retrieved 2 March 2008.

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4 September 1977 – The Golden Dragon massacre takes place in San Francisco.

Golden Dragon massacre

1977 shooting in San Francisco, California, U.S.

Preview warning: Using more than one of the following parameters in Template:Infobox civilian attack: perpetrators, perps.

A gang-related mass shooting took place on September 4, 1977, inside the Golden Dragon restaurant at 822 Washington Street in Chinatown, San Francisco, California, United States. The shooting was planned and committed by members of the Joe Boys, a Chinese-American youth gang, who were attempting to kill leaders of the Wah Ching, a rival Chinatown gang. The attack left five people dead and 11 others injured, none of whom were gang members. Seven perpetrators were later convicted and sentenced in connection with the murders. The massacre led to the establishment of the San Francisco Police Department's Asian Gang Task Force, credited with ending gang-related violence in Chinatown by 1983. The restaurant closed in 2006.

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5 September 1725 – Wedding of Louis XV and Maria Leszczyńska.

wiki/Louis_XV

 

6 September 1803 – British scientist John Dalton begins using symbols to represent the atoms of different elements.

John Dalton

British chemist and physicist (1766–1844)

For other people named John Dalton, see John Dalton (disambiguation).

John Dalton (/ˈdɔːltən/; 5 or 6 September 1766 – 27 July 1844) was an English chemist, physicist, and meteorologist whose work laid the foundations of modern atomic theory and stoichiometric chemistry. Building on earlier ideas about the indivisibility of matter and his own precise measurements of combining ratios, Dalton proposed that each chemical element consists of identical atoms of characteristic weight, and that compounds are formed when atoms of different elements combine in fixed whole-number proportions. His A New System of Chemical Philosophy (1808) presented a coherent atomic model, supplied relative atomic weights and symbolic notation, and established the quantitative framework that shaped nineteenth-century chemistry and remains the basis of modern chemical thought.

Dalton was also a pioneering meteorologist and physicist; he kept daily weather observations for over fifty years, formulated the first empirical law of partial pressures (later known as Dalton's law), and studied the behaviour of gases through his work on vapor pressure and gas solubility. His investigations into his own color blindness led to the first scientific description of the condition—which in several languages is still known as Daltonism—and helped establish experimental methods for linking perception with physiology. Elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1822 and awarded its Royal Medal in 1826, Dalton became the first British scientist to develop a quantitative atomic theory and one of the key figures in the transition of chemistry from a qualitative to a mathematical science.

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7 September 1625 – The Treaty of Southampton makes an alliance between England and the Dutch Republic against Spain.

Treaty of Southampton

1625 alliance between England and the Dutch Republic

The Treaty of Southampton was an alliance between England and the Dutch Republic against the Kingdom of Spain. Concluded at Southampton on September 7, 1625, the pact was drawn in French, and agreed to establish the King of Spain as a common enemy of the two nations: "afin d'assaillir le Roy d'Espaigne a guerre ouverte, en tous ses royaumes, terres, subjects, et droicts, en tous lieux, deçá et delá la ligne, par mer et par terre." ('for the purpose of attacking the King of Spain in open war in all his realms in all places, on this side and beyond the line, by land and sea'). The parties were to be aligned for as long as the King of Spain continued to fight the rebelling Dutch Republic in the Eighty Years' War and continued with occupation of the Palatinate in opposition to Protestant ascendancy, or at least fifteen years from signing. This amounted to a recognition of the Dutch Republic.^[1][2]

The treaty outlined maritime rights of trade and operation for each party, and called for other nations to join the alliance which was accomplished in part with the Treaty of The Hague. Following the treaty negotiations, English forces under Edward Cecil attacked Spain at Cádiz, with heavy losses. In America, Dutch merchants negotiated to effect trade with Plymouth Colony from New Amsterdam.^[1]

In 1627, Charles I of England repeated the admonishment to provide freedom of trade to the Dutch in response to English violations of the treaty, even while holding Dutch ships to appease Parliamentary anger over the Amboyna massacre of Englishmen by agents of the Dutch East India Company.^[3] However, by 1630 with the French aligned with Spain in the wake of the earlier failure of the Spanish match, Charles abandoned the Dutch alliance of the Treaty of Southampton with the signing of the Treaty of Madrid.^[2]

1. ^ ^{a b} Davenport, Frances Gardiner; Paullin, Charles Oscar, eds. (2004). European Treaties Bearing on the History of the United States and Its Dependencies: Issue 254. The Lawbook Exchange, Ltd. ISBN 9781584774228.
2. ^ ^{a b} Anton Poot (March 2013). ANGLO-DUTCH RELATIONS: A Political and Diplomatic Analysis of the years 1625-1642 (PDF). Royal Holloway, University of London research portal (Ph.D. thesis).
3. ^ Sir W. W. Hunter (1907). "Chapter 4 – The End of the Struggle: The Tragedy of Amboyna". In A.V. Williams Jackson (ed.). History of India. Vol. 7. The European struggle for Indian supremacy in the seventeenth century.

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8 September 1504 – Michelangelo's David is unveiled in Piazza della Signoria in Florence.

David (Michelangelo)

Renaissance statue in Florence, Italy

David is a masterpiece of Italian Renaissance sculpture in marble^[1][2] created from 1501 to 1504 by Michelangelo. With a height of 5.17 metres (17 ft 0 in), the David was not only the first colossal marble statue made in the High Renaissance, but also the first since classical antiquity, setting a precedent for the 16th century and beyond. David was originally commissioned as one of a series of statues of twelve prophets to be positioned along the roofline of the east end of Florence Cathedral, but was instead placed in the public square in front of the Piazza della Signoria, the seat of civic government in Florence, where it was unveiled on 8 September 1504. In 1873, the statue was moved to the Galleria dell'Accademia, Florence. In 1910 a replica was installed at the original site on the public square.

The biblical figure David was a favoured subject in the art of Florence.^[3] Because of the nature of the figure it represented, the statue soon came to symbolize the defence of civil liberties embodied in the 1494 constitution of the Republic of Florence,^[4] an independent city-state threatened on all sides by more powerful rival states and by the political aspirations of the Medici family.

1. ^ Paolucci, Antonio (2004). Bracci, Susanna; Falletti, Franca; Matteini, Mauro (eds.). Exploring David: Diagnostic Tests and State of Conservation. Giunti Editore. p. 12. ISBN 978-88-09-03325-2. The David in Florence's Accademia is young Michelangelo's masterpiece.
2. ^ Buonarroti, Michelangelo; Paolucci, Antonio (2006). Michelangelo's David. Harry N. Abrams. p. 7. ISBN 978-1-903973-99-8. ...a masterpiece of throbbing vitality.
3. ^ See, for example, Donatello's two sculptures of David; Verrocchio's bronze David; Domenico Ghirlandaio's painting of David; and Bartolomeo Bellano's bronze David.
4. ^ Pocock, John Greville Agard (2016) [1975]. The Machiavellian Moment: Florentine Political Thought and the Atlantic Republican Tradition. Princeton University Press. p. 103. ISBN 978-1-4008-8351-6.

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9 September 1543 – Mary Stuart, at nine months old, is crowned "Queen of Scots" in the central Scottish town of Stirling.

Mary, Queen of Scots

Queen of Scotland from 1542 to 1567

For other uses, see Mary, Queen of Scots (disambiguation).

Mary, Queen of Scots (8 December 1542 – 8 February 1587), also known as Mary Stuart^[b] or Mary I of Scotland,^[1] was Queen of Scotland from 14 December 1542 until her forced abdication on 24 July 1567.

The only surviving legitimate child of King James V of Scotland, Mary was six days old when her father died, and she inherited the throne. During her childhood, Scotland was governed by regents, first by the heir to the throne, James Hamilton, Earl of Arran, and then by her mother, Mary of Guise. In 1548, she was betrothed to Francis, the Dauphin of France, and was sent to be brought up in France, where she would be safe from invading English forces during the Rough Wooing. Mary married Francis in 1558, becoming queen consort of France from his accession in 1559 until his death in December 1560. Widowed, Mary returned to Scotland in August 1561. The tense religious and political climate following the Scottish Reformation that Mary encountered on her return to Scotland was further agitated by prominent Scots such as John Knox, who openly questioned whether her subjects had a duty to obey her. The early years of her personal rule were marked by pragmatism, tolerance, and moderation. She issued a proclamation accepting the religious settlement in Scotland as she had found it upon her return, retained advisers such as James Stewart, Earl of Moray (her illegitimate half-brother), and William Maitland of Lethington, and governed as the Catholic monarch of a Protestant kingdom.

In 1565, Mary married her half-cousin Henry Stuart, Lord Darnley; they had a son, James. Their marriage soured after Darnley orchestrated the murder of Mary's Italian secretary and close friend David Rizzio. In February 1567, Darnley's residence was destroyed by an explosion, and he was found murdered in the nearby garden. James Hepburn, 4th Earl of Bothwell, was generally believed to have orchestrated Darnley's death, but he was acquitted of the charge in April 1567 and in the following month, he married Mary. Following an uprising against the couple, Mary was imprisoned in Lochleven Castle. In July 1567, she was forced to abdicate in favour of her one-year-old son James VI. After an unsuccessful attempt to regain the throne, she fled southward seeking the protection of her first cousin once removed, Elizabeth I of England.

As a great-granddaughter of Henry VII of England, Mary had once claimed Elizabeth's throne as her own and was considered the legitimate sovereign of England by many English Catholics, including participants in a rebellion known as the Rising of the North. Perceiving Mary as a threat, Elizabeth had her confined in various castles and manor houses in the interior of England. After eighteen and a half years in captivity, Mary was found guilty of plotting to assassinate Elizabeth in 1586 and was beheaded the following year at Fotheringhay Castle. Mary's life and execution established her in popular culture as a romanticised historical figure.

Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

1. ^ "National Records of Scotland; Hall of Fame A-Z – Mary Queen of Scots". NRS. 31 May 2013. Archived from the original on 15 September 2024. Retrieved 30 September 2022.

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10 September 1573 – German pirate Klein Henszlein and 33 of his crew are beheaded in Hamburg

Klein Henszlein

16th-century German pirate

Klein Henszlein [Klaus Hanslein] (died 1573) was a German pirate active from 1560 to 1573 who raided shipping in the North Sea until his defeat and capture by a fleet from Hamburg. Taken back to Hamburg, Henszlein and his men were paraded through the city streets before being beheaded on September 10, 1573; their heads were then impaled on stakes. In a later account, the executioner described how he "flicked off" the heads of the thirty-three pirates (not including Henszlein) in only 45 minutes, then proceeding to behead the bodies of those pirates killed during their capture. He later claimed to have been "standing in blood so deep that it well nigh in his shoes did creep".

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11 September 1565 – Ottoman forces retreat from Malta ending the Great Siege of Malta.

Great Siege of Malta

Ottoman Empire's invasion of Malta in 1565

This article is about the siege in 1565. For other sieges of Malta, see Siege of Malta (disambiguation).

The Great Siege of Malta (Maltese: L-Assedju l-Kbir) occurred in 1565 when the Ottoman Empire attempted to conquer the island of Malta, then held by the Knights Hospitaller. The siege lasted nearly four months, from 18 May to 8 September 1565.

The Knights Hospitaller had been headquartered in Malta since 1530, after being driven out of Rhodes, also by the Ottomans, in 1522, following the siege of Rhodes. The Ottomans first attempted to take Malta in 1551 but failed. In 1565, Suleiman the Magnificent, the Ottoman Sultan, made a second attempt to take Malta. The Knights, who numbered around 500 together with approximately 6,000 footsoldiers, withstood the siege and repelled the invaders.

This victory became one of the most celebrated events of sixteenth-century Europe, to the point that Voltaire said in 1753: Rien n’est plus connu que ce siége, où la fortune de Soliman échoua ("Nothing is more known than this siege, where the fortune of Suleiman failed)."^[8] It undoubtedly contributed to the eventual erosion of the European perception of Ottoman invincibility, although the Mediterranean continued to be contested between Christian coalitions and the Muslim Turks for many years.^[9]

1. ^ At least two companies of Spanish Tercios took part in the defence of Fort St Elmo. Cañete, Hugo A. (3 July 2020). "La leyenda negra del fuerte de San Telmo y los tres capitanes españoles del Tercio Viejo de Sicilia que lo defendieron (Malta 1565) | Grupo de Estudios de Historia Militar". Grupo de Estudios de Historia Militar (in Spanish). Archived from the original on 4 July 2020. Retrieved 4 July 2020.
2. ^ Cite error: The named reference paoletti2008 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
3. ^ Allen 2015, p. 241.
4. ^ Allen 2015, p. 238.
5. ^ Arnold Cassola, The 1565 Great Siege of Malta and Hipolito Sans's La Maltea (Publishers Enterprise Group: Malta, 1999).
6. ^ Cite error: The named reference SOM was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
7. ^ Cite error: The named reference Giacomo Bosio 1643 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
8. ^ Voltaire, François-Marie Arouet (1753). "Annales de l'Empire, Œuvres complètes de Voltaire, tome 13". Wikisource. Retrieved 19/08/2026. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |access-date= (help)
9. ^ Fernand Braudel, The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean World in the Age of Philip II, vol. II (University of California Press: Berkeley, 1995).

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12 September 1847 – Mexican–American War: the Battle of Chapultepec begins.

Battle of Chapultepec

1847 battle of the Mexican–American War

The Battle of Chapultepec took place between U.S. troops and Mexican forces holding the strategically located Chapultepec Castle on the outskirts of Mexico City on September 13, 1847 during the Mexican–American War. The castle was built atop a 200-foot (61 m) hill in 1783, and in 1833 it was converted into a military academy and a gunpowder storage facility. The hill was surrounded by a wall 1,600 yards long.^[3]

The battle was one of the most pivotal battles during the Mexican–American War as it paved the way to seize Mexico City and led to a decisive American victory. On the U.S. side the army was headed by General Winfield Scott, who led a force totaling 7,200 men. The Mexican side was led by General Antonio López de Santa Anna, commander of the Mexican army, who had formed an army of approximately 25,000 men. Chapultepec Castle was defended by General Nicholas Bravo and his infantry of approximately 832 men, including military cadets of the Military Academy.^[2] They defended the position at Chapultepec against 2,000 U.S. troops. The Mexicans' loss opened the way for the U.S. to take the center of Mexico City.

This battle proved to be significant win for American forces as it led to the eventual occupation of Mexico City. However, the story at Chapultepec cemented itself in Mexican history, as an act of bravery by six young cadets known as the Niños Héroes, who leapt to their deaths rather than die at the hands of American forces. According to legend, one of the cadets wrapped himself in the Mexican flag as he jumped so it would not be captured by the U.S. Marines.^[4] Although it lasted only about 60–90 minutes, the battle has great importance in the histories of both countries.

1. ^ ^{a b} Smith, Justin H. (Justin Harvey) (1919). The war with Mexico. New York: Macmillan. Retrieved 26 September 2018 – via Internet Archive.
2. ^ ^{a b} Cite error: The named reference Bauer was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
3. ^ Fuller, J. F. C. (2007). Decisive battles of the U.S.A., 1776-1918. Lincoln, Neb: University of Nebraska Press. ISBN 978-0-8032-6003-0. OCLC 71348720.
4. ^ Sandweiss, Martha A., Rick Stewart, and Ben W. Huseman, Eyewitness to War: Prints and Daguerrotypes of the Mexican War, 1846–1848. Fort Worth TX: Amon Carter Museum of Western Art 1989.

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13 September 1985 – Super Mario Bros. is released in Japan for the NES, which starts the Super Mario series of platforming games.

Super Mario Bros.

1985 video game

"Mario 1" redirects here. For the song, see Mario (song). For the series, see Super Mario. For the 1983 predecessor, see Mario Bros. For other uses, see Super Mario Bros. (disambiguation).

1985 video game

Super Mario Bros.^[b] is a 1985 platform game developed and published by Nintendo for the Nintendo Entertainment System (NES). Directed and produced by Shigeru Miyamoto, it is the successor to the 1983 arcade game Mario Bros. and the first game in the Super Mario series. Players control Mario, or his brother Luigi in the multiplayer mode, to traverse the Mushroom Kingdom to rescue Princess Toadstool from King Koopa (later named Bowser). They traverse side-scrolling stages while avoiding hazards such as enemies and pits and collecting power-ups such as the Super Mushroom, Fire Flower, and Starman.

Miyamoto and Takashi Tezuka designed Super Mario Bros. as a culmination of the team's experience working on Devil World and the side-scrollers Excitebike and Kung Fu. Miyamoto wanted to create a more colorful platform game with a scrolling screen and larger characters. The team designed the first level, World 1-1, as a tutorial for platform gameplay. Koji Kondo's soundtrack is one of the earliest in video games, making music a centerpiece of the design.

Super Mario Bros. was released in September 1985 in Japan for the Famicom, the Japanese version of the NES. Following a US test market release for the NES, it was converted to international arcades on the Nintendo VS. System in early 1986. The NES version was released in North America that year and in PAL regions in 1987. It has been rereleased on most Nintendo systems.

Super Mario Bros. is frequently cited as one of the greatest and most influential video games of all time, and is particularly admired for its precise controls. It is one of the best-selling games, with more than 58 million copies sold worldwide. Alongside the NES, it is credited as a key factor in reviving the video game industry after the 1983 crash, and helped popularize the side-scrolling platform genre. The soundtrack is often named among the best video game soundtracks. Mario has become prominent in popular culture, and Super Mario Bros. began a multimedia franchise including a long-running game series, an animated television series, a Japanese anime feature film, a live-action feature film and two animated feature films: The Super Mario Bros. Movie and The Super Mario Galaxy Movie.

1. ^ "The history of Super Mario". Nintendo. Archived from the original on February 1, 2021. Retrieved February 17, 2021. Released: Oct. 18, 1985

Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

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14 September 1960 – The Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) is founded.

OPEC

International petroleum organization

Not to be confused with Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation.

The Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC /ˈoʊpɛk/ OH-pek) is an intergovernmental cartel enabling the co-operation of leading oil-producing and oil-dependent countries in order to collectively influence the global oil market and maximize profit. It was founded on 14 September 1960 in Baghdad by the first five members: Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia and Venezuela. The organization, which currently comprises 11 member countries, accounted for 38 percent of global oil production in 2022.^[6][7] It is estimated that 79.5 percent of the world's proven oil reserves are located within OPEC nations, with the Middle East alone accounting for 67.2 percent of OPEC's total reserves.^[8][9]

In a series of steps in the 1960s and 1970s, OPEC restructured the global system of oil production in favor of oil-producing states and away from an oligopoly of dominant Anglo-American oil firms, the "Seven Sisters".^[10] In the 1970s, restrictions in oil production led to a dramatic rise in oil prices with long-lasting and far-reaching consequences for the global economy. Since the 1980s, OPEC has had a limited impact on world oil-supply and oil-price stability, as there is frequent cheating by members on their commitments to one another, and as member commitments reflect what they would do even in the absence of OPEC.^[11]

The formation of OPEC marked a turning point toward national sovereignty over natural resources. OPEC decisions have come to play a prominent role in the global oil market and in international relations. Economists have characterized OPEC as a textbook example of a cartel,^[12] a group whose members cooperate to reduce market competition and obtain monopoly profits.

The current OPEC members are^[ref] Algeria, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Libya, Nigeria, the Republic of the Congo, Saudi Arabia, and Venezuela. The former members are Angola, Ecuador, Indonesia, Qatar, and the United Arab Emirates.^[13] OPEC+ is a larger group consisting of OPEC members and other oil-producing countries. It was formed in late 2016 to better control the global crude oil market.^[14] Canada, Egypt, Norway, and Oman have attended some meetings as observers. The United Arab Emirates left both OPEC and OPEC+ in 2026.

1. ^ "GLOSSARY". U.S. Energy Information Administration. Retrieved 8 April 2024.
2. ^ Jelley, Nick (19 January 2017), "OPEC", A Dictionary of Energy Science, Oxford University Press, doi:10.1093/acref/9780191826276.001.0001, ISBN 978-0-19-182627-6, retrieved 8 April 2024
3. ^ Gambrell, Jon (28 April 2026). "United Arab Emirates says it will leave OPEC, a blow to the oil cartel". Associated Press. Retrieved 28 April 2026.
4. ^ Domonoske, Camila (28 April 2026). "The United Arab Emirates is quitting OPEC oil cartel after nearly 60 years". NPR. Retrieved 28 April 2026.
5. ^ "The UAE's departure from OPEC may not break the cartel". The Economist. ISSN 0013-0613. Retrieved 28 April 2026.
6. ^ "Where our oil comes from - U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA)". www.eia.gov. Retrieved 26 March 2024.
7. ^ "Opec: What is it and what is happening to oil prices?". BBC News. 3 May 2022.
8. ^ Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries. (2023). OPEC Annual Statistical Bulletin (58th ed.), 90 pages. Retrieved from https://asb.opec.org/. ISSN: 0475-0608. (See pages 7 and 22).
9. ^ "OPEC Share of World Crude Oil Reserves". Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries. Archived from the original on 25 August 2017. Retrieved 26 March 2024.
10. ^ Colgan 2021, The Rise of OPEC, pp. 59–93.
11. ^ Colgan, Jeff D. (2021). "The Stagnation of OPEC". Partial Hegemony: Oil Politics and International Order. Oxford University Press. pp. 94–118. doi:10.1093/oso/9780197546376.001.0001. ISBN 978-0-19-754637-6.
12. ^ LeClair, Mark S. (8 July 2016) [2000]. "The History and Evaluation of Significant commodity Cartels". International Commodity Markets and the Role of Cartels (reprint ed.). Abingdon: Routledge. p. 81. ISBN 978-1-315-50088-1. Retrieved 11 June 2023. OPEC, the most notorious of the modern cartels, functioned effectively for only thirteen years.
13. ^ "OPEC: Member Countries". opec.org. Retrieved 22 April 2020.
14. ^ Cohen, Ariel. "OPEC Is Dead, Long Live OPEC+". Forbes. Archived from the original on 2 August 2019. Retrieved 2 August 2019. The deal represents the latest successful policy effort by the 24 member supercartel, informally referred to as the 'Vienna Group' or 'OPEC+,' to put their thumb on the scale of global oil markets. And it's a huge thumb indeed. [...] OPEC's 14 members control 35 percent of global oil supplies and 82 percent of proven reserves. With the addition of the 10 Non-OPEC nations, notable among them Russia, Mexico and Kazakhstan, those shares increase to 55 percent and 90 percent respectively. This affords OPEC+ a level of influence over the world economy never seen before.

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15 September 1935 – Nazi Germany adopts a new national flag bearing the swastika.

Swastika

Ancient Eurasian icon and Nazi symbol

For other uses, see Swastika (disambiguation).

The swastika (/ˈswɒstɪkə/ SWOS-tih-kə, Sanskrit: [ˈsʋɐstikɐ], Sanskrit Devanagari: स्वस्तिक ; 卐 or 卍) is an ancient cross-cultural geometrical symbol that has been used in many cultures and religions of Eurasia, as well as a few in Africa and the Americas, for thousands of years. The swastika was and continues to be used as a symbol of divinity and spirituality in several religions, including Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism.^{[1][2][3][4][5]} In the Western world, it is predominantly associated with Nazism, being appropriated and widely displayed in Nazi symbolism. Most notably, it was used in the flag of Nazi Germany. This appropriation continues with the symbol's popularity among neo-Nazis around the world.^[1][6][7][8]

The English word swastika is originally of the Sanskrit language (स्वस्तिक, lit. 'conducive to well-being').^[1][9] In Hinduism, the right-facing symbol (卐) is called swastika, symbolizing surya, prosperity, and good luck; while the left-facing symbol (卍) is sometimes called sauvastika, symbolising night or tantric aspects of Kali.^[1] In Jain symbolism, it is a part of the Jain flag,^[10] and represents Suparshvanatha—the seventh of 24 Tirthankaras (spiritual teachers and saviours). In Buddhist symbolism, it represents the auspicious footprints of the Buddha.^[1][11][12] In different Indo-European traditions, the swastika symbolises fire, lightning bolts and the Sun.^[13] The symbol is found in the archaeological remains of the Indus Valley Civilization^[14] and the Neolithic-era Samarra culture of Mesopotamia. It has also been recorded in early Byzantine and Christian artwork.^[1][15]

The swastika was seen as a symbol of auspiciousness and good luck for most of the Western world until the 1930s.^[6] It was first used as a symbol of international antisemitism by far-right Romanian politician A. C. Cuza prior to World War I.^[16][17][18] Wider public perception would only change once the German Nazi Party adopted the swastika as an emblem of the so-called Aryan race. As a result of World War II and the Holocaust, Western societies continue to strongly associate the symbol with Nazism, antisemitism,^[19][20] white supremacism,^[21][22] or simply evil.^[23][24] As a consequence, displaying it is prohibited by law in several countries, with exceptions for religious symbolism. However, the swastika remains a symbol of good luck and prosperity in Hindu, Buddhist, Jain, and other Asian communities. It continues to be a peaceful cultural symbol in countries like Sri Lanka, Mongolia, India, Japan, China and Nepal. It carries various other meanings for people around the world, such as the Akan, Hopi, Navajo, and Tlingit peoples.

1. ^ ^{a b c d e f} "Swastika". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Retrieved 22 May 2022.
2. ^ Cite error: The named reference Sullivan2001p216 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
3. ^ Cite error: The named reference snodgrass82 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
4. ^ Cort, John E. (2001). Jains in the World: Religious Values and Ideology in India. Oxford University Press. p. 17. ISBN 978-0-19-513234-2.
5. ^ Cite error: The named reference p.97 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
6. ^ ^{a b} Campion, Mukti Jain (23 October 2014). "How the world loved the swastika – until Hitler stole it". BBC News Magazine. Retrieved 11 January 2022.
7. ^ Cite error: The named reference Roden was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
8. ^ Olson, Jim (September 2020). "The Swastika Symbol in Native American Art". Whispering Wind. 48 (3): 23–25. ProQuest 2453170975.
9. ^ Cite error: The named reference etymology was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
10. ^ Jain, Vijay K. "Shri Amritchandra Suri's Puruṣārthasiddhyupāya". Jain Quantum. p. 6. Retrieved 23 January 2025.
11. ^ Cite error: The named reference silverblatt109 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
12. ^ Pant, Mohan; Funo, Shūji (2007). Stupa and Swastika: Historical Urban Planning Principles in Nepal's Kathmandu Valley. National University of Singapore Press. p. 231 with note 5. ISBN 978-9971-69-372-5.
13. ^ Greg, Robert Philips (1884). On the Meaning and Origin of the Fylfot and Swastika. Nichols and Sons. pp. 6, 29.
14. ^ "Faience button seal". Faience button seal (H99-3814/8756-01) with swastika motif found on the floor of Room 202 (Trench 43).
15. ^ "Textile with Interlacing Bands forming Swastika Figures (German, 14th–15th century)". The Metropolitan Museum of Art.
16. ^ The National Jewish Monthly. Vol. 55–56. B'nai B'rith. 1940. p. 181. Archived from the original on 28 July 2022. Retrieved 28 July 2022.
17. ^ Nagy-Talavera, Nicholas M. (1998). Nicholas M. Nagy-Talavera, Center for Romanian Studies, 1998, Nicolae Iorga: A Biography, p. 102. Center for Romanian Studies. ISBN 978-973-98091-7-7. Archived from the original on 5 January 2023. Retrieved 28 July 2022.
18. ^ Butnaru, Ion C.; Spodheim, Renee (1992). Ion C. Butnaru, Renee Spodheim, Greenwood Publishing Group, 1992, The Silent Holocaust: Romania and Its Jews, p. 28. Greenwood Publishing. ISBN 978-0-313-27985-0. Archived from the original on 5 January 2023. Retrieved 28 July 2022.
19. ^ Cite error: The named reference holocaust2009 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
20. ^ Cite error: The named reference wiener463 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
21. ^ Stollznow, Karen (2020). On the Offensive: Prejudice in Language Past and Present. Cambridge University Press. p. 134. ISBN 978-1-108-49627-8.
22. ^ Langman, Lauren; Lundskow, George (2016). God, Guns, Gold and Glory: American Character and its Discontents. Brill. p. 89. ISBN 978-90-04-32863-1.
23. ^ Lander, Janis (2013). Spiritual Art and Art Education. Routledge. p. 28. ISBN 978-1-134-66789-5.
24. ^ Wagoner, Brady (2009). Symbolic Transformation: The Mind in Movement Through Culture and Society. Routledge. p. 13. ISBN 978-1-135-15090-7.

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16 September 1959 – The first successful photocopier, the Xerox 914, is introduced in a demonstration on live television from New York City.

Xerox 914

1959 model of photocopier produced by Xerox; first successful commercial photocopier

The Xerox 914 was the first successful commercial plain paper copier. Introduced in 1959 by the Haloid/Xerox company, it revolutionized the document-copying industry. The culmination of inventor Chester Carlson's work on the xerographic process, the 914 was fast and economical. The copier was introduced to the public on September 16, 1959, in a demonstration at the Sherry-Netherland Hotel in New York, shown on live television.^[1]

1. ^ Cite error: The named reference wirtén was invoked but never defined (see the help page).

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17 September 1976 – The Space Shuttle Enterprise is unveiled by NASA.

Space Shuttle Enterprise

Space Shuttle test vehicle, used for glide tests

Space Shuttle Enterprise (Orbiter Vehicle Designation: OV-101) is the first orbiter of the Space Shuttle system. Rolled out on September 17, 1976, it was built for NASA as part of the Space Shuttle program to perform atmospheric test flights after being launched from a modified Boeing 747.^[1] It was constructed without engines or a functional heat shield. As a result, it was not capable of spaceflight.^[2]

Originally, Enterprise had been intended to be refitted for orbital flight to become the second space-rated orbiter in service.^[1] However, during the construction of Space Shuttle Columbia, details of the final design changed, making it simpler and less costly to build Challenger around a body frame that had been built as a test article.^[1] Similarly, Enterprise was considered for refit to replace Challenger after the latter was destroyed, but Endeavour was built from structural spares instead.^[1][3]

Enterprise was restored and placed on display in 2003 at the Smithsonian's new Steven F. Udvar-Hazy Center in Virginia.^[4] Following the retirement of the Space Shuttle fleet, Discovery replaced Enterprise at the Udvar-Hazy Center, and Enterprise was transferred to the Intrepid Museum in New York City, where it has been on display since July 2012.^[5]

1. ^ ^{a b c d} Jenkins, Dennis R (2007). Space Shuttle: The History of the National Space Transportation System. Voyageur Press. ISBN 978-0-9633974-5-4.
2. ^ Slovinac, Patricia; Deming, Joan (June 2010). Avionics Systems Laboratory/Building 16: Historical Documentation. NASA. JSC-CN-22284. Archived from the original on December 12, 2013.
3. ^ Cite error: The named reference name was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
4. ^ "National Air and Space Museum Steven F. Udvar-Hazy Center". NASA. October 23, 2003. Archived from the original on January 25, 2015. Retrieved September 30, 2015.
5. ^ D'Orazio, Dante (July 18, 2012). "NASA Space Shuttle Enterprise aboard the USS Intrepid in pictures". The Verge. Archived from the original on July 9, 2018. Retrieved September 30, 2015.

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18 September 1812 – The 1812 Fire of Moscow dies down after destroying more than three-quarters of the city. Napoleon returns from the Petrovsky Palace to the Moscow Kremlin, spared from the fire.

Fire of Moscow (1812)

Part of the French invasion of Russia

For similar disasters, see Fire of Moscow (disambiguation).

During the French occupation of Moscow, a fire persisted from 14 to 18 September 1812 and destroyed the city. The Russian troops and most of the remaining civilians had abandoned the city on 14 September 1812 just ahead of French Emperor Napoleon's troops entering the city after the Battle of Borodino.^[2][3][4] The Moscow military governor, Count Fyodor Rostopchin, has often been considered responsible for organising the destruction of the former capital to weaken the French army in the scorched city even more.^[5][6][7]

1. ^ (in Russian) Kataev, I. M. (1912) "The Fire of Moscow in 1812 "(Moscow, 1911)
2. ^ Haythornthwaite 2012, pp. 40–72, The Battle of Borodino.
3. ^ Riehn 1990, p. 285.
4. ^ Mikaberidze 2014, pp. 96–111, Chapter 6: The Great Conflagration.
5. ^ Mikaberidze 2014, pp. 68–95, Chapter 5: 'And Moscow, Mighty City, Blaze!'.
6. ^ Mikaberidze 2014, pp. 145–165, Chapter 8: 'By Accident or Malice?' Who Burned Moscow.
7. ^ Zemtsov, Vladimir Nikolaevich (2012). "French Jesuit Abbot A. Surugue and the 1812 Fire of Moscow Historic Myth". Izvestiya Uralskogo Federalnogo Universiteta – Seriya 2 – Gumanitarnye Nauki. 14 (2). Yekaterinburg, Russia: Ural Federal University: 118–133. ISSN 2227-2283.

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19 September 1970 – Michael Eavis hosts the first Glastonbury Festival.

Glastonbury Festival

Performing arts festival in England

For the early 20th-century classical music and theatre festivals, see Glastonbury Festival (1914–1925).

The Glastonbury Festival of Contemporary Performing Arts (commonly referred to as simply Glastonbury Festival, known colloquially as Glasto) is a five-day festival of contemporary performing arts held near Pilton, Somerset, England, in most summers.

In addition to contemporary music, the festival hosts dance, comedy, theatre, circus, cabaret and other arts. Leading pop and rock artists have headlined, alongside thousands of others appearing on smaller stages and performance areas. Films and albums have been recorded at the festival, and it receives extensive television and newspaper coverage.

Glastonbury takes place on 1,500 acres (610 ha) of farmland^[3] and is attended by around 200,000 people,^[4] requiring extensive security, transport, water, and electricity-supply infrastructure. While the number of attendees is sometimes swollen by gatecrashers, a record of 300,000 people was set at the 1994 festival, headlined by the Levellers, who performed on the Pyramid Stage.^[5] Most festival staff are unpaid volunteers, helping the festival to raise millions of pounds for charity organisations.^[6]

Regarded as a major event in contemporary British culture, the festival is inspired by the ethos of the hippie, the counterculture of the 1960s, and the free festival movement. Vestiges of these traditions are retained in the Green Fields area, which includes sections known as the Green Futures, the Stone Circle and Healing Field.^[7] Michael Eavis hosted the first festival, then called the Pilton Festival, after seeing an open-air Led Zeppelin concert in 1970 at the Bath Festival of Blues and Progressive Music.

1. ^ Farrant, Theo (26 June 2023). "Glastonbury 2023: Here are the biggest moments you might have missed". Euronews. Archived from the original on 21 April 2024.
2. ^ Malloy, Tomas (16 April 2023). "Glastonbury Festival 2023 capacity: How many people attend the world-famous Somerset event?".
3. ^ Digital, Pretty Good. "Glastonbury Festival – Site Layout & Distances". Glastonbury Festival – 21st–25th June, 2023. Archived from the original on 20 July 2024.
4. ^ "The Worlds's Biggest Music Festivals". CNBC. 24 March 2011. Archived from the original on 23 April 2014. Retrieved 20 May 2014.
5. ^ Hann, Michael (31 January 2018). "The Levellers: 'I'll rag our Brexiteer fans till they cry – or never come back'". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 31 March 2018. Retrieved 31 March 2018.
6. ^ "Thousands of people descend on Worthy Farm for Glastonbury Festival". Bathchronicle.co.uk. 24 June 2015. Archived from the original on 12 July 2015. Retrieved 30 June 2015.
7. ^ Stevens, Jenny (27 June 2015). "Glastonbury's Healing Fields: festivalgoer wellbeing is not just for hippies". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 29 December 2019. Retrieved 3 September 2020.

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19 September 1970 – Michael Eavis hosts the first Glastonbury Festival.

Glastonbury Festival

Performing arts festival in England

For the early 20th-century classical music and theatre festivals, see Glastonbury Festival (1914–1925).

The Glastonbury Festival of Contemporary Performing Arts (commonly referred to as simply Glastonbury Festival, known colloquially as Glasto) is a five-day festival of contemporary performing arts held near Pilton, Somerset, England, in most summers.

In addition to contemporary music, the festival hosts dance, comedy, theatre, circus, cabaret and other arts. Leading pop and rock artists have headlined, alongside thousands of others appearing on smaller stages and performance areas. Films and albums have been recorded at the festival, and it receives extensive television and newspaper coverage.

Glastonbury takes place on 1,500 acres (610 ha) of farmland^[3] and is attended by around 200,000 people,^[4] requiring extensive security, transport, water, and electricity-supply infrastructure. While the number of attendees is sometimes swollen by gatecrashers, a record of 300,000 people was set at the 1994 festival, headlined by the Levellers, who performed on the Pyramid Stage.^[5] Most festival staff are unpaid volunteers, helping the festival to raise millions of pounds for charity organisations.^[6]

Regarded as a major event in contemporary British culture, the festival is inspired by the ethos of the hippie, the counterculture of the 1960s, and the free festival movement. Vestiges of these traditions are retained in the Green Fields area, which includes sections known as the Green Futures, the Stone Circle and Healing Field.^[7] Michael Eavis hosted the first festival, then called the Pilton Festival, after seeing an open-air Led Zeppelin concert in 1970 at the Bath Festival of Blues and Progressive Music.

1. ^ Farrant, Theo (26 June 2023). "Glastonbury 2023: Here are the biggest moments you might have missed". Euronews. Archived from the original on 21 April 2024.
2. ^ Malloy, Tomas (16 April 2023). "Glastonbury Festival 2023 capacity: How many people attend the world-famous Somerset event?".
3. ^ Digital, Pretty Good. "Glastonbury Festival – Site Layout & Distances". Glastonbury Festival – 21st–25th June, 2023. Archived from the original on 20 July 2024.
4. ^ "The Worlds's Biggest Music Festivals". CNBC. 24 March 2011. Archived from the original on 23 April 2014. Retrieved 20 May 2014.
5. ^ Hann, Michael (31 January 2018). "The Levellers: 'I'll rag our Brexiteer fans till they cry – or never come back'". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 31 March 2018. Retrieved 31 March 2018.
6. ^ "Thousands of people descend on Worthy Farm for Glastonbury Festival". Bathchronicle.co.uk. 24 June 2015. Archived from the original on 12 July 2015. Retrieved 30 June 2015.
7. ^ Stevens, Jenny (27 June 2015). "Glastonbury's Healing Fields: festivalgoer wellbeing is not just for hippies". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 29 December 2019. Retrieved 3 September 2020.

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20 September 1984 – A suicide bomber in a car attacks the U.S. embassy in Beirut, Lebanon, killing twenty-two people.

1984 US embassy bombing in Beirut

Hezbollah attack on the US embassy in Beirut, Lebanon

On September 20, 1984, the Shi'a Islamic militant group Hezbollah, with support and direction from the Islamic Republic of Iran, carried out a suicide car bombing targeting the US embassy annex in East Beirut, Lebanon during the Lebanese Civil War. The attack killed 23 people and 1 attacker.

Hezbollah had also used suicide car or truck bombs in the April 1983 US embassy bombing and the October 1983 Beirut barracks bombings.

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21 September 1942 – The Boeing B-29 Superfortress makes its maiden flight.

Boeing B-29 Superfortress

US heavy bomber aircraft (1944–1960)

"Superfortress" and "B-29" redirect here. For the derived post-war-bomber, see Boeing B-50 Superfortress. For other uses, see B29 (disambiguation).

The Boeing B-29 Superfortress is a retired American four-engined propeller-driven heavy bomber, designed by Boeing and flown primarily by the USAAF and USAF during World War II and the Korean War. Named in allusion to its predecessor, the Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress, the Superfortress was designed for high-altitude strategic bombing, but also excelled in low-altitude night incendiary bombing and in dropping naval mines to blockade Japan. Silverplate B-29s dropped the atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki, and remain the only system to deliver nuclear weapons in combat.

One of the largest aircraft of World War II, the B-29 was designed with state-of-the-art technology, which included a pressurized cabin, dual-wheeled tricycle landing gear, and an analog computer-controlled fire-control system that allowed one gunner and a fire-control officer to direct four remote machine gun turrets. The $3 billion cost of design and production (equivalent to $54 billion in 2025),^[1] far exceeding the $1.9 billion cost of the Manhattan Project, made the B-29 program the most expensive of the war. The B-29 remained in service in various roles throughout the 1950s, being retired in the early 1960s after 3,970 had been built. A few were also used as flying television transmitters by the Stratovision company. The Royal Air Force flew the B-29 with the service name Washington from 1950 to 1954, when the jet-powered Canberra entered service.

The B-29 was the progenitor of a series of Boeing-built bombers, transports, tankers, reconnaissance aircraft, and trainers. For example, the re-engined B-50 Superfortress Lucky Lady II became the first aircraft to fly around the world non-stop, during a 94-hour flight in 1949. The Boeing C-97 Stratofreighter airlifter, which was first flown in 1944, was followed in 1947 by its commercial airliner variant, the Boeing Model 377 Stratocruiser. In 1948, Boeing introduced the KB-29 tanker, followed in 1950 by the Model 377 derivative KC-97. A line of outsized-cargo variants of the Stratocruiser is the Guppy / Mini Guppy / Super Guppy, which remain in service with NASA and other operators. The Soviet Union produced 847 Tupolev Tu-4s, an unlicensed reverse-engineered copy of the B-29. Twenty-two B-29s have survived to preservation. The majority are on static display at museums, while two airframes – FIFI and Doc – still fly.

1. ^ 1634–1699: McCusker, J. J. (1997). How Much Is That in Real Money? A Historical Price Index for Use as a Deflator of Money Values in the Economy of the United States: Addenda et Corrigenda (PDF). American Antiquarian Society. 1700–1799: McCusker, J. J. (1992). How Much Is That in Real Money? A Historical Price Index for Use as a Deflator of Money Values in the Economy of the United States (PDF). American Antiquarian Society. 1800–present: Federal Reserve Bank of Minneapolis. "Consumer Price Index (estimate) 1800–". Retrieved 29 February 2024.

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22 September 1991 – The Dead Sea Scrolls are made available to the public for the first time.

Dead Sea Scrolls

Ancient Jewish biblical manuscripts

The Dead Sea Scrolls (DSS), which mostly consist of the Qumran Caves Scrolls, are a set of ancient Jewish biblical manuscripts from the Second Temple period. They were discovered over a period of ten years, between 1946 and 1956, at the Qumran Caves near Ein Feshkha in the West Bank, on the northern shore of the Dead Sea and some nearby places. Dating from the 3rd century BCE to the 1st century CE,^[1] the Dead Sea Scrolls include the oldest surviving manuscripts of entire books later included in the various Jewish and Christian biblical canons, including deuterocanonical manuscripts from late Second Temple Judaism, as well as extrabiblical books. As such, they cast new light on the emergence of Rabbinic Judaism and of Christianity, and their relationship with Jewish religious traditions.^[2] In the wider sense, the Dead Sea Scrolls also include similar findings from elsewhere in the Judaean Desert, and are sometimes called Judaean Desert scrolls.^[3] Some of the scrolls found outside Qumran are from later centuries. Almost all of the 15,000 scrolls and scroll fragments are held in the Shrine of the Book at the Israel Museum in Jerusalem.

The Israeli government's custody of the Dead Sea Scrolls is disputed by Jordan and the Palestinian Authority on territorial, legal, and humanitarian grounds—they were mostly discovered following the Jordanian annexation of the West Bank and were acquired by Israel after Jordan lost the 1967 Arab–Israeli War^[4]—whilst Israel's claims are primarily based on historical and religious grounds, given their significance in Jewish history and in the heritage of Judaism.^[5]

Many thousands of written fragments have been discovered in the Dead Sea area – most have been published, together with the details of their discovery, in the 40-volume Discoveries in the Judaean Desert. They represent the remnants of larger manuscripts damaged by natural causes or through human interference, with the vast majority holding only small scraps of text. However, a small number of well-preserved and nearly intact manuscripts have survived—fewer than a dozen among those from the Qumran Caves.^[1] Researchers have assembled a collection of 981 different manuscripts (discovered in 1946/1947 and in 1956) from 11 caves,^[6] which lie in the immediate vicinity of the Hellenistic Jewish settlement at the site of Khirbet Qumran in the eastern Judaean Desert in the West Bank.^[7] The caves are located about 1.5 kilometres (1 mi) west of the northwestern shore of the Dead Sea, whence the scrolls derive their name. Archaeologists have long associated the scrolls with the ancient Jewish sect known as the Essenes, although some recent interpretations have challenged this connection and argue that priests in Jerusalem or other unknown Jewish groups wrote the scrolls.^[8][9]

Most of the manuscripts are written in Hebrew, with some written in Aramaic (for example the Son of God Text, in different regional dialects, including Nabataean) and a few in Greek.^[10] Other discoveries from the Judaean Desert add Latin (from Masada), and some later Arabic manuscripts from the 7th-8th centuries CE (from Khirbet al-Mird).^[11] Most of the texts are written on parchment, some on papyrus, and one on copper.^[12] Though scholarly consensus dates the Dead Sea Scrolls to have been made between the 3rd century BCE and the 1st century CE,^[13] there are Arabic manuscripts from associated Judaean Desert sites that are dated between the 8th and 10th century CE.^[13] Bronze coins found at the same sites form a series beginning with John Hyrcanus, a ruler of Hasmonean Judea (in office 135–104 BCE), and continuing until the period of the First Jewish–Roman War (66–73 CE), supporting the paleography and radiocarbon dating of the scrolls.^[14]

Owing to the poor condition of some of the scrolls, scholars have not identified all of their texts. The identified texts fall into three general groups:

1. About 40% are copies of texts from the canonical Hebrew scriptures.
2. Approximately 30% are texts from the Second Temple period that ultimately were not canonized in the Hebrew Bible, such as the Book of Enoch, the Book of Jubilees, the Book of Tobit, the Wisdom of Sirach, Psalms 152–155, etc.
3. The remainder (roughly 30%) are sectarian manuscripts of previously unknown documents that shed light on the rules and beliefs of a particular sect or groups within greater Judaism, such as the Community Rule, the War Scroll, the Pesher on Habakkuk, and The Rule of the Blessing.^[15]

1. ^ ^{a b} "The Digital Dead Sea Scrolls: Nature and Significance". Israel Museum Jerusalem. Retrieved 4 November 2023.
2. ^ Cite error: The named reference EBrit was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
3. ^ Popović, Mladen; Tigchelaar, Eibert (2023). "The Quality of Hasmonaean Biblical Manuscripts. 2 Quality of Judaean Desert Scrolls: State of the Art". Dead Sea Discoveries. 30 (3). Brill: 189–212. doi:10.1163/15685179-bja10048. hdl:11370/13cbb772-ccd2-48d8-86ed-f7e528a43ed0. Retrieved 24 April 2026.
4. ^ Lash, Mordechay; Goldstein, Yossi; Shai, Itzhaq (2020). "Underground-Archaeological Research in the West Bank, 1947–1968: Management, Complexity, and Israeli Involvement". Bulletin of the History of Archaeology. 30 8. doi:10.5334/bha-650. ISSN 1062-4740. S2CID 229403120.
5. ^ Duhaime, Bernard; Labadie, Camille (2020). "Intersections and Cultural Exchange: Archaeology, Culture, International Law and the Legal Travels of the Dead Sea Scrolls". Canada's Public Diplomacy. Palgrave Macmillan Series in Global Public Diplomacy. Cham: Springer International Publishing. p. 146. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-62015-2_6. ISBN 978-3-319-62014-5. ISSN 2731-3883. S2CID 236757632. Thus, the Palestinian Authority and Jordan base their claims on territorial aspects (places of discovery of the scrolls), humanitarian (illegal deprivation following the occupation of East Jerusalem by Israel) and legal (they claim to have proof of purchase of several scrolls) while, for its part, Israel's claims are primarily based in religious notions, invoking the sacred history of the Jewish people and recalling that the scrolls discovered in Qumran are, for the majority, the oldest known copies of biblical texts and are therefore of fundamental importance for the historical and religious heritage of Judaism.
6. ^ Cite error: The named reference Q12_2017 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
7. ^ Donahue, Michelle Z. (10 February 2017). "New Dead Sea Scroll Find May Help Detect Forgeries". nationalgeographic.com. Archived from the original on 15 June 2018. Retrieved 19 November 2017.
8. ^ Ofri, Ilani (13 March 2009). "Scholar: The Essenes, Dead Sea Scroll 'authors,' never existed". Ha'aretz. Archived from the original on 6 January 2018. Retrieved 26 May 2017.
9. ^ Golb, Norman (5 June 2009). "On the Jerusalem Origin of the Dead Sea Scrolls" (PDF). University of Chicago Oriental Institute. Archived (PDF) from the original on 10 June 2010. Retrieved 11 May 2010.
10. ^ Vermes, Geza (1977). The Dead Sea Scrolls. Qumran in Perspective. London: Collins. p. 15. ISBN 978-0-00-216142-8.
11. ^ "Languages and Scripts". Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library. Retrieved 18 December 2024.
12. ^ McCarthy, Rory (27 August 2008). "From papyrus to cyberspace". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 22 December 2016. Retrieved 17 December 2016.
13. ^ ^{a b} "The Digital Library: Introduction". Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library. Retrieved 1 November 2023.
14. ^ Leaney, A.R.C (1961). From Judaean Caves: The Story of the Dead Sea Scrolls. Wallington: Religious Education Press. p. 27.
15. ^ Abegg Jr., Martin; Flint, Peter; Ulrich, Eugene (2002). The Dead Sea Scrolls Bible: The Oldest Known Bible Translated for the First Time into English. San Francisco: Harper. pp. xiv–xvii. ISBN 0060600640. Retrieved 24 November 2023.

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23 September 1955 – An all-white jury in Mississippi finds Roy Bryant and J. W. Milam not guilty in the torture-murder of 14-year-old African American boy Emmett Till.

Emmett Till

American lynching victim (1941–1955)

"Death of Emmett Till" redirects here. For the song by Bob Dylan, see The Death of Emmett Till.

Emmett Louis Till (July 25, 1941 – August 28, 1955) was an African-American boy who, at 14 years old, was abducted and lynched in Mississippi in 1955. The brutality of his murder and the acquittal of his killers drew attention to the long history of violent persecution of African Americans in the United States. Till posthumously became an icon of the civil rights movement.^[2]

Till was born and raised in Chicago, Illinois. During summer vacation in August 1955, he was visiting relatives near Money, Mississippi, in the Mississippi Delta region. Till spoke to 21-year-old Carolyn Bryant, the white, married proprietor of a local grocery store. Although what happened at the store is a matter of dispute, Till was accused of flirting with, touching, or whistling at Bryant. Till's interaction with Bryant, perhaps unwittingly, violated the unwritten code of behavior for a black male interacting with a white female in the Jim Crow–era South.^[3] Several nights after the encounter, Bryant's husband Roy and his half-brother J. W. Milam went to Till's great-uncle's house armed, and abducted Till, age 14. They beat and mutilated him before shooting him in the head and sinking his body in the Tallahatchie River. Three days later, Till's mutilated and bloated body was discovered and retrieved from the river.

Till's body was returned to Chicago, where his mother insisted on a public funeral service with an open casket, which was held at Roberts Temple Church of God in Christ.^[4] It was later said that "The open-coffin funeral held by Mamie Till Bradley^[a] exposed the world to more than her son Emmett Till's bloated, mutilated body. Her decision focused attention on not only American racism and the barbarism of lynching but also the limitations and vulnerabilities of American democracy."^[5] Tens of thousands attended his funeral or viewed his open casket, and images of Till's mutilated body were published in black-oriented magazines and newspapers, rallying black support and white sympathy across the United States. Intense scrutiny was brought to bear on the lack of black civil rights in Mississippi, with newspapers around the U.S. critical of the state. Although local newspapers and law enforcement officials initially decried the violence against Till and called for justice, they responded to national criticism by defending Mississippians, ultimately giving support to the killers.

In September 1955, an all-white jury acquitted Bryant and Milam of Till's murder.^[6] Protected against double jeopardy, the two men publicly admitted in a 1956 interview with Look magazine that they had tortured and murdered Till, selling the story for $4,000 (equivalent to $47,000 in 2025).^[7] Till's murder was seen as a catalyst for the next phase of the civil rights movement. In December 1955, the Montgomery bus boycott began in Alabama and lasted more than a year, resulting eventually in a U.S. Supreme Court ruling that segregated buses were unconstitutional.

According to historians, events surrounding Till's life and death continue to resonate. An Emmett Till Memorial Commission was established in 2006 by Tallahatchie County residents, and the county courthouse in Sumner was restored and includes the Emmett Till Interpretive Center. Fifty-one sites in the Mississippi Delta are memorialized as associated with Till. The Emmett Till Antilynching Act, an American law making lynching a federal hate crime, was signed into law on March 29, 2022, by President Joe Biden.^[8]

1. ^ Thompson, Wright (July 22, 2021). "His name was Emmett Till". The Atlantic. Retrieved July 24, 2021.
2. ^ Brown, DeNeen L. (July 12, 2018). "Emmett Till's mother opened his casket and sparked the civil rights movement". The Washington Post. Retrieved February 26, 2020.
3. ^ Cite error: The named reference Pérez-Peña-2017 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
4. ^ Brandon, Elissaveta M. "Eleven historic places in America that desperately need saving". Smithsonian. Retrieved October 20, 2020.
5. ^ White, Deborah Gray; Bay, Mia; Martin, Waldo E. Jr. (2013). Freedom on My Mind: A History of African Americans, with Documents. Boston: Bedford/St. Martin's. p. 637. ISBN 978-0-312-64884-8.
6. ^ "Emmett Till". Federal Bureau of Investigation. Retrieved May 6, 2026.
7. ^ "Getting Away with Murder". American Experience. PBS. Retrieved April 9, 2022.
8. ^ McDaniel, Eric; Moore, Elena (March 29, 2022). "Lynching is now a federal hate crime after a century of blocked efforts". NPR. Retrieved March 29, 2022.

Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

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23 September 1955 – An all-white jury in Mississippi finds Roy Bryant and J. W. Milam not guilty in the torture-murder of 14-year-old African American boy Emmett Till.

Emmett Till

American lynching victim (1941–1955)

"Death of Emmett Till" redirects here. For the song by Bob Dylan, see The Death of Emmett Till.

Emmett Louis Till (July 25, 1941 – August 28, 1955) was an African-American boy who, at 14 years old, was abducted and lynched in Mississippi in 1955. The brutality of his murder and the acquittal of his killers drew attention to the long history of violent persecution of African Americans in the United States. Till posthumously became an icon of the civil rights movement.^[2]

Till was born and raised in Chicago, Illinois. During summer vacation in August 1955, he was visiting relatives near Money, Mississippi, in the Mississippi Delta region. Till spoke to 21-year-old Carolyn Bryant, the white, married proprietor of a local grocery store. Although what happened at the store is a matter of dispute, Till was accused of flirting with, touching, or whistling at Bryant. Till's interaction with Bryant, perhaps unwittingly, violated the unwritten code of behavior for a black male interacting with a white female in the Jim Crow–era South.^[3] Several nights after the encounter, Bryant's husband Roy and his half-brother J. W. Milam went to Till's great-uncle's house armed, and abducted Till, age 14. They beat and mutilated him before shooting him in the head and sinking his body in the Tallahatchie River. Three days later, Till's mutilated and bloated body was discovered and retrieved from the river.

Till's body was returned to Chicago, where his mother insisted on a public funeral service with an open casket, which was held at Roberts Temple Church of God in Christ.^[4] It was later said that "The open-coffin funeral held by Mamie Till Bradley^[a] exposed the world to more than her son Emmett Till's bloated, mutilated body. Her decision focused attention on not only American racism and the barbarism of lynching but also the limitations and vulnerabilities of American democracy."^[5] Tens of thousands attended his funeral or viewed his open casket, and images of Till's mutilated body were published in black-oriented magazines and newspapers, rallying black support and white sympathy across the United States. Intense scrutiny was brought to bear on the lack of black civil rights in Mississippi, with newspapers around the U.S. critical of the state. Although local newspapers and law enforcement officials initially decried the violence against Till and called for justice, they responded to national criticism by defending Mississippians, ultimately giving support to the killers.

In September 1955, an all-white jury acquitted Bryant and Milam of Till's murder.^[6] Protected against double jeopardy, the two men publicly admitted in a 1956 interview with Look magazine that they had tortured and murdered Till, selling the story for $4,000 (equivalent to $47,000 in 2025).^[7] Till's murder was seen as a catalyst for the next phase of the civil rights movement. In December 1955, the Montgomery bus boycott began in Alabama and lasted more than a year, resulting eventually in a U.S. Supreme Court ruling that segregated buses were unconstitutional.

According to historians, events surrounding Till's life and death continue to resonate. An Emmett Till Memorial Commission was established in 2006 by Tallahatchie County residents, and the county courthouse in Sumner was restored and includes the Emmett Till Interpretive Center. Fifty-one sites in the Mississippi Delta are memorialized as associated with Till. The Emmett Till Antilynching Act, an American law making lynching a federal hate crime, was signed into law on March 29, 2022, by President Joe Biden.^[8]

1. ^ Thompson, Wright (July 22, 2021). "His name was Emmett Till". The Atlantic. Retrieved July 24, 2021.
2. ^ Brown, DeNeen L. (July 12, 2018). "Emmett Till's mother opened his casket and sparked the civil rights movement". The Washington Post. Retrieved February 26, 2020.
3. ^ Cite error: The named reference Pérez-Peña-2017 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
4. ^ Brandon, Elissaveta M. "Eleven historic places in America that desperately need saving". Smithsonian. Retrieved October 20, 2020.
5. ^ White, Deborah Gray; Bay, Mia; Martin, Waldo E. Jr. (2013). Freedom on My Mind: A History of African Americans, with Documents. Boston: Bedford/St. Martin's. p. 637. ISBN 978-0-312-64884-8.
6. ^ "Emmett Till". Federal Bureau of Investigation. Retrieved May 6, 2026.
7. ^ "Getting Away with Murder". American Experience. PBS. Retrieved April 9, 2022.
8. ^ McDaniel, Eric; Moore, Elena (March 29, 2022). "Lynching is now a federal hate crime after a century of blocked efforts". NPR. Retrieved March 29, 2022.

Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

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24 September 1906 – Racial tensions exacerbated by rumors lead to the Atlanta Race Riot, further increasing racial segregation.

1906 Atlanta race massacre

Massacre of African Americans in Georgia

"Atlanta massacre" redirects here. For the 1999 shootings, see 1999 Atlanta day trading firm shootings. For the 2021 shootings, see 2021 Atlanta spa shootings.

Violent attacks by armed mobs of White Americans against Black Americans in Atlanta, Georgia, began after newspapers, on the evening of September 22, 1906, published several unsubstantiated and luridly detailed reports of the alleged rapes of four white local women by black men.^[1] The violence lasted through September 24, 1906.^[2] The events were reported by newspapers around the world, including the French Le Petit Journal which described the "lynchings in the USA" and the "massacre of Negroes in Atlanta,"^[3] the Scottish Aberdeen Press & Journal under the headline "Race Riots in Georgia,"^[4] and the London Evening Standard under the headlines "Anti-Negro Riots" and "Outrages in Georgia."^[5] The final death toll of the conflict is unknown and disputed, but officially at least 25 African Americans^[6] and two whites died.^[7] Unofficial reports ranged from 10 to 100 black Americans killed during the massacre.^[8] According to the Atlanta History Center, some black Americans were hanged from lampposts; others were shot, beaten or stabbed to death. They were pulled from street cars and attacked on the street; white mobs invaded black neighborhoods, destroying homes and businesses.

The immediate catalyst was newspaper reports of four white women raped in separate incidents, allegedly by African American men. A grand jury later indicted two African Americans for raping Ethel Lawrence and her niece Mabel Lawrence. An underlying cause was the growing racial tension in a rapidly changing city and economy, competition for jobs, housing, and political power.

The violence did not end until after Governor Joseph M. Terrell called in the Georgia National Guard, and African Americans accused the Atlanta Police Department and some Guardsmen of participating in the violence against them. Local histories by whites ignored the massacre for decades. It was not until 2006 that the event was publicly marked, on its 100th anniversary. The next year, the Atlanta massacre was made part of the state's curriculum for public schools.^[9]

1. ^ Kuhn, C. & Mixon, G., "Atlanta Race Massacre of 1906" Georgia Humanities (2022) [1]
2. ^ Charles Crowe, "Racial Massacre in Atlanta: September 22, 1906." Journal of Negro History 54.2 (1969): 150–173. online
3. ^ "Un lynchage monstre" (September 24, 1906) Le Petit Journal
4. ^ "The Race Riots in Georgia". Aberdeenshire, Scotland. Aberdeen Press and Journal. September 25, 1906. p. 6.
5. ^ "Anti-Negro Riots". London, England. London Evening Standard. September 26, 1906. p. 7.
6. ^ Burns, Rebecca (September 2006). "Four Days of Rage". Atlanta Magazine: 141–145.
7. ^ "Whites and Negroes Killed at Atlanta; Mobs of Blacks Retaliate for Riots – Two Whites Killed; Many Negroes Surrounded; Two of Band That Killed an Officer Try to Escape, but Are Captured and Lynched." (September 25, 1906) New York Times
8. ^ Nittle, Nadra Kareem (November 8, 2022). "The 1906 Atlanta Race Massacre: How Fearmongering Led to Violence". History.com.
9. ^ Dewan, Shaila (September 24, 2006). "100 Years Later, a Painful Episode Is Observed at Last". The New York Times. Retrieved March 30, 2018.

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25 September 1915 – World War I: The Second Battle of Champagne begins.

Second Battle of Champagne

1915 battle during the First World War

See also: Third Battle of Artois and Battle of Loos

The Second Battle of Champagne (French: Bataille de Champagne, German: Herbstschlacht, [Autumn Battle]) in the First World War was a French offensive against the German army in Champagne that coincided with the Third Battle of Artois in the north and ended in a German victory.

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26 September 1580 – Francis Drake finishes his circumnavigation of the Earth in Plymouth, England.

Francis Drake's circumnavigation

1577–1580 trip by the English explorer

The English explorer Francis Drake circumnavigated the Earth between 13 December 1577 and 26 September 1580. The expedition was authorised by Queen Elizabeth I and consisted of five ships. Termed a 'voyage of discovery', it was in effect an ambitious covert raiding voyage and the start of England's challenge to the global domination of Spain and Portugal.^[1]

Drake set off on 15 December 1577 after a delay of nearly six months. After capturing Spanish vessels and Portuguese caravels while crossing the Atlantic he became the first Englishman to navigate the Straits of Magellan. After reaching the Pacific Ocean in October 1578, he sailed up the west coast of South America. Due to losses by storms and disease, only two ships remained, one of which was the Golden Hind. Drake then plundered Spanish ports and took a number of Spanish treasure ships including the rich galleon Nuestra Señora de la Concepción. After continuing north, hoping to find a route back across to the Atlantic, Drake sailed farther up the west coast of America than any European ever had done, and landed in present-day California, claiming the land for England and naming it New Albion.

Unable to find a passage, Drake turned south in the lone Golden Hind and in July 1579 sailed west across the Pacific. His travels took him to the Moluccas, Celebes, Java, and then round the Cape of Good Hope and finally the western side of Africa. Drake arrived back in England in September 1580 with a rich cargo of spices and treasure and the distinction of being the second man to lead a circumnavigation of the globe with a ship intact, and the first Englishman to complete a circumnavigation. Seven months later, Queen Elizabeth had him knighted aboard the Golden Hind, much to the annoyance of King Philip II of Spain because of his piratical actions. As a result, the voyage was one of the precursors to the Anglo-Spanish War (1585–1604).^[2] Drake's intrusion into the Pacific, which Spain considered Mare clausum,^[3] triggered an immediate Spanish colonization attempt of the Strait of Magellan aimed to block access to the Pacific.^[4][5]

1. ^ Lane & Bialuschewski 2019, p. 21
2. ^ Wagner 2013, p. 87
3. ^ Lytle Schurz, William (1922), "The Spanish Lake", The Hispanic American Historical Review, 5 (2): 181–194, doi:10.1215/00182168-5.2.181, JSTOR 2506024
4. ^ "Navegantes europeos en el estrecho de Magallanes [Discovery and recognition of the territory: European navigators in the Strait of Magellan]". Memoria Chilena (in Spanish). Retrieved 20 October 2019.
5. ^ Soto Rodríguez, José Antonio (2006). "La defensa hispana del Reino de Chile" (PDF). Tiempo y Espacio (in Spanish). 16. Retrieved 30 January 2016.

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27 September 2007 – NASA launches the Dawn probe to the asteroid belt.

Dawn (spacecraft)

NASA orbiter mission to asteroid Vesta and dwarf planet Ceres (2007–2018)

Dawn is a retired space probe that was launched by NASA in September 2007 with the mission of studying two of the three known protoplanets of the asteroid belt: Vesta and Ceres.^[1] In the fulfillment of that mission—the ninth in NASA's Discovery Program—Dawn entered orbit around Vesta on July 16, 2011, and completed a 14-month survey mission before leaving for Ceres in late 2012.^[11][12] It entered orbit around Ceres on March 6, 2015.^[13][14] In 2017, NASA announced that the planned nine-year mission would be extended until the probe's hydrazine fuel supply was depleted.^[15] On November 1, 2018, NASA announced that Dawn had depleted its hydrazine, and the mission was ended. The derelict probe remains in a stable orbit around Ceres.^[16]

Dawn is the first spacecraft to have orbited two extraterrestrial bodies,^[17] the first spacecraft to have visited either Vesta or Ceres, and the first to have orbited a dwarf planet.^[18]

The Dawn mission was managed by NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory, with spacecraft components contributed by European partners from Italy, Germany, France, and the Netherlands.^[19] It was the first NASA exploratory mission to use ion propulsion, which enabled it to enter and leave the orbit of two celestial bodies. Previous multi-target missions using rockets powered by chemical engines, such as the Voyager program, were restricted to flybys.^[5]

1. ^ ^{a b} Cite error: The named reference NASA-20180907 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
2. ^ Cite error: The named reference GSpaceTimeline was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
3. ^ "Dawn". October 18, 2018.
4. ^ ^{a b c d} "Dawn at Ceres" (PDF) (Press kit). NASA / Jet Propulsion Laboratory. March 2015.
5. ^ ^{a b} Rayman, Marc; Fraschetti, Thomas C.; Raymond, Carol A.; Russell, Christopher T. (April 5, 2006). "Dawn: A mission in development for exploration of main belt asteroids Vesta and Ceres" (PDF). Acta Astronautica. 58 (11): 605–616. Bibcode:2006AcAau..58..605R. doi:10.1016/j.actaastro.2006.01.014. Retrieved April 14, 2011.
6. ^ ^{a b c d e} "Dawn". National Space Science Data Center. NASA. Archived from the original on May 23, 2022. Retrieved November 20, 2016.
7. ^ Cite error: The named reference NYT-20181101 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
8. ^ Cite error: The named reference NASA-20180906 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
9. ^ ^{a b c d e f g} "Nasa Horizons Ephemeris – Target body name: Dawn (spacecraft) (-203)". NASA JPL. January 6, 2022.
10. ^ Brown, Dwayne C.; Vega, Priscilla (August 1, 2011). "NASA's Dawn Spacecraft Begins Science Orbits of Vesta". NASA. Archived from the original on February 2, 2019. Retrieved August 6, 2011.
11. ^ "NASA's Dawn Spacecraft Hits Snag on Trip to 2 Asteroids". Space.com. August 15, 2012. Retrieved August 27, 2012.
12. ^ "Dawn Gets Extra Time to Explore Vesta". NASA. April 18, 2012. Archived from the original on April 21, 2012. Retrieved April 24, 2012.
13. ^ Landau, Elizabeth; Brown, Dwayne (March 6, 2015). "NASA Spacecraft Becomes First to Orbit a Dwarf Planet". NASA. Retrieved March 6, 2015.
14. ^ Rayman, Marc (March 6, 2015). "Dawn Journal: Ceres Orbit Insertion!". Planetary Society. Retrieved March 6, 2015.
15. ^ Landau, Elizabeth (October 19, 2017). "Dawn Mission Extended at Ceres". NASA. Retrieved October 19, 2017.
16. ^ Northon, Karen (November 1, 2018). "NASA's Dawn Mission to Asteroid Belt Comes to End". NASA. Retrieved November 12, 2018.
17. ^ Rayman, Marc (April 8, 2015). Now Appearing At a Dwarf Planet Near You: NASA's Dawn Mission to the Asteroid Belt (Speech). Silicon Valley Astronomy Lectures. Foothill College, Los Altos, CA. Retrieved July 7, 2018.
18. ^ Siddiqi, Asif A. (2018). Beyond Earth: A Chronicle of Deep Space Exploration, 1958–2016 (PDF). The NASA history series (second ed.). Washington, D.C.: NASA History Program Office. p. 2. ISBN 9781626830424. LCCN 2017059404. SP2018-4041.
19. ^ Evans, Ben (October 8, 2017). "Complexity and Challenge: Dawn Project Manager Speaks of Difficult Voyage to Vesta and Ceres". AmericaSpace. Retrieved February 28, 2018.

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28 September 1928 – Alexander Fleming notices a bacteria-killing mold growing in his laboratory, discovering what later became known as penicillin

Alexander Fleming

Scottish physician and microbiologist (1881–1955)

For other people named Alexander Fleming, see Alexander Fleming (disambiguation).

Sir Alexander Fleming (6 August 1881 – 11 March 1955)^[2] was a Scottish physician and microbiologist. He shared the 1945 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine with Howard Florey and Ernst Chain "for the discovery of penicillin and its curative effect in various infectious diseases".^[3] This was the first antibiotic substance discovered. His discovery in 1928 of what was later named benzylpenicillin (or penicillin G) from the mould Penicillium rubens has been described as the "single greatest victory ever achieved over disease".^{[4][5][6][7][8]}

He also discovered the enzyme lysozyme from his nasal discharge in 1922, and along with it a bacterium he named Micrococcus lysodeikticus, later renamed Micrococcus luteus.

Fleming was knighted for his scientific achievements in 1944.^[9] In 1999, he was named in Time magazine's list of the 100 Most Important People of the 20th century. In 2002, he was included in the BBC's television poll of the 100 Greatest Britons, and in 2009, he was also voted third "greatest Scot" in an opinion poll conducted by STV, behind only Robert Burns and William Wallace.

1. ^ Cite error: The named reference NobelPrizeBio was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
2. ^ "SIR ALEXANDER FLEMING". The New York Times. 12 March 1955.
3. ^ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1945". Nobel Foundation. Archived from the original on 21 August 2007. Retrieved 28 July 2007.
4. ^ Cite error: The named reference :4 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
5. ^ Ligon, B. Lee (2004). "Sir Alexander Fleming: Scottish researcher who discovered penicillin". Seminars in Pediatric Infectious Diseases. 15 (1): 58–64. doi:10.1053/j.spid.2004.02.002. PMID 15175996.
6. ^ "Alexander Fleming Biography". Les Prix Nobel. The Nobel Foundation. 1945. Archived from the original on 30 January 2011. Retrieved 27 March 2011.
7. ^ Hugh, T. B. (2002). "Howard Florey, Alexander Fleming and the fairy tale of penicillin". The Medical Journal of Australia. 177 (1): 52–53. doi:10.5694/j.1326-5377.2002.tb04643.x. PMID 12436980. S2CID 222048204.
8. ^ Cruickshank, Robert (1955). "Sir Alexander Fleming, F.R.S." Nature. 175 (4459): 355–356. Bibcode:1955Natur.175..663C. doi:10.1038/175663a0. PMC 1023893. PMID 13271592.
9. ^ McIntyre, N. (2007). "Sir Alexander Fleming". Journal of Medical Biography. 15 (4): 234. doi:10.1258/j.jmb.2007.05-72. PMID 18615899. S2CID 77187550.

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29 September 1724 – J. S. Bach leads the first performance of Herr Gott, dich loben alle wir, BWV

Herr Gott, dich loben alle wir, BWV 130

Chorale cantata by Johann Sebastian Bach

Herr Gott, dich loben alle wir (Lord God, we all praise you),^[1] BWV 130, is a chorale cantata by Johann Sebastian Bach for the Feast of archangel Michael (German: Michaelis; 29 September). It is based on Paul Eber's 1554 Lutheran hymn about the angels in twelve stanzas "Herr Gott, dich loben alle wir", to a melody known in English as Old 100th. The cantata was performed on that feast day in 1724.

Herr Gott, dich loben alle wir belongs to Bach's chorale cantata cycle, the second cycle during his tenure as Thomaskantor that began in 1723. The text retains the first and 11th stanza of the chorale unchanged, while the other stanzas were paraphrased into alternating recitatives and arias by an unknown librettist. The cantata is festively scored for SATB soloists and choir, three trumpets, timpani, flauto traverso, three oboes, strings and continuo.

A revised version of the cantata, BWV 130.2, was performed in Leipzig between 1732 and 1735. A manuscript likely from the second half of the 18th century contains two variant versions of the cantata. Whether Bach had anything to do with these versions is not known: a chorale setting which only occurs in these variants was adopted as No. 31 in the second Anhang of the Bach-Werke-Verzeichnis, that is the Anhang of doubtful works.

1. ^ Dellal 2024.

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30 September 1399 – Henry IV is proclaimed king of England

Henry IV of England

King of England from 1399 to 1413

Henry IV (c. April 1367 – 20 March 1413), also known as Henry Bolingbroke (having been born at Bolingbroke Castle), was King of England from 1399 to 1413, Lord of Ireland and duke of Aquitaine.^[3] Henry was the son of John of Gaunt, Duke of Lancaster, and a grandson of King Edward III.^[4]

When Henry came of age, he was involved in the 1388 revolt of the Lords Appellant against his first cousin, King Richard II. Henry was later exiled from England in 1397.^[5] After Henry's father died in 1399, Richard blocked Henry's inheritance to the holdings of the House of Lancaster. So, Henry rallied Lancastrian supporters, imprisoned Richard II and formally deposed him, usurping the throne. These actions later contributed to dynastic disputes in the Wars of the Roses (1455–1487).^[6]

Henry was the first English ruler whose mother tongue was English (rather than French) since the Norman Conquest, over 300 years earlier.^[7] He was also the first monarch to come from the House of Lancaster.^[8] As king, he faced a number of rebellions, most seriously those of Owain Glyndŵr, the last Welshman to claim the title of Prince of Wales, and the English knight Henry Percy (Hotspur), who was killed in the Battle of Shrewsbury in 1403. Henry IV had six children from his first marriage to Mary de Bohun, while his second marriage to Joan of Navarre produced no surviving children. Henry and Mary's eldest son, Henry of Monmouth, assumed the reins of government in 1410 as the king's health worsened. Henry IV died in 1413, and his son succeeded him as Henry V.

1. ^ Mortimer 2007, p. 176.
2. ^ Mortimer 2006, p. 567.
3. ^ Brown & Summerson 2004.
4. ^ Given-Wilson 2016, p. 10.
5. ^ "Henry IV (r.1399-1413)". www.royal.uk. Retrieved 9 September 2025.
6. ^ Bucholz, R. O.; Key, Newton (2020). Early modern England, 1485-1714: a narrative history (Third ed.). Hoboken, NJ, USA: Wiley Blackwell. p. 79. ISBN 978-1-118-53221-8.
7. ^ Janvrin & Rawlinson 2016, p. 16.
8. ^ "BBC - History - Henry IV". www.bbc.co.uk. Retrieved 9 September 2025.

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1 October 1890 – Yosemite National Park is established by the U.S. Congress
Yosemite_National_Park[/wiki

 

2 October 2002 – The Beltway sniper attacks begin in Washington, D.C., extending over three weeks and killing 10 people

D.C. sniper attacks

2002 series of coordinated shootings in the Washington, D.C. area

The D.C. sniper attacks (also known as the Beltway sniper attacks) were a series of coordinated shootings that occurred over three weeks in October 2002 throughout the Washington metropolitan area, consisting of the District of Columbia, Maryland, and Virginia. These were preceded by a series of murders and robberies in several states starting in February 2002. Five people were killed, and five others were injured in the preliminary shootings, and ten people were killed and three others were critically wounded in the October shootings.^[2]

In total, the snipers killed 16 people and wounded 8 others in a 10-month span. They shot 16 people in the D.C. metro area based on both events that took place that year.^[3] The perpetrators, John Allen Muhammad (41 years old at the time) and Lee Boyd Malvo (17), traveled in a blue 1990 Chevrolet Caprice sedan. In 2003, Muhammad was sentenced to death. He was executed by lethal injection in 2009. Malvo, a juvenile, received six life sentences in Maryland and three in Virginia.

1. ^ Mount, Harry (May 25, 2006). "The sniper's plan: Kill six whites a day for 30 days". Archived from the original on February 20, 2023. Retrieved March 4, 2023.
2. ^ "Beltway Snipers". Federal Bureau of Investigation. Archived from the original on September 23, 2020. Retrieved January 7, 2023.
3. ^ "Sniper reportedly details 4 new shootings". kxmb.com. AP. June 16, 2006. Archived from the original on October 13, 2007.

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3 October 1712 – The Duke of Montrose issues a warrant for the arrest of Rob Roy MacGregor.

Rob Roy MacGregor

Scottish Jacobite and outlaw (1671–1734)

Not to be confused with the American submarine commander Rob Roy McGregor (admiral).

For other people with the same name, see Robert McGregor. For other uses, see Rob Roy.

Robert Roy MacGregor (Scottish Gaelic: Raibeart Ruadh MacGriogair; 7 March 1671 – 28 December 1734) was a Jacobite Scottish outlaw, who later became a Scottish and Jacobite folk hero.

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4 October 1582 – The Gregorian Calendar is introduced by Pope Gregory XIII.

Gregorian calendar

Internationally accepted civil calendar

For the calendar of religious holidays and periods, see Liturgical year. For this year's Gregorian calendar, see Common year starting on Thursday.

Not to be confused with Georgian calendar.

The Gregorian calendar is the calendar currently used in most parts of the world.^[1][a] It went into effect in October 1582 following the papal bull Inter gravissimas issued by Pope Gregory XIII, which introduced it as a modification of, and replacement for, the Julian calendar. The principal change was to space leap years slightly differently to make the average calendar year 365+97⁄400, or 365.2425, days long rather than the Julian calendar's 365+1⁄4 days, thus more closely approximating the 365.2422-day tropical, or solar, year that is determined by the Earth's revolution around the Sun.

The rule for leap years is that every year divisible by four is a leap year, except for years that are divisible by 100 but not also divisible by 400. For example, 1800 and 1900 were not leap years, but 1600 and 2000 were.^[2]

There were two reasons to establish the Gregorian calendar. First, the Julian calendar was based on the estimate that the average solar year is exactly 365.25 days long, an overestimate of a little under one day per century, and thus has a leap year every four years without exception. The Gregorian reform shortened the average (calendar) year by 0.0075 days to stop the drift of the calendar with respect to the equinoxes.^[3] Second, in the years since the First Council of Nicaea in AD 325,^[b] the excess leap days introduced by the Julian algorithm had caused the calendar to drift such that the March equinox was occurring well before its nominal 21 March date. This date was important to the Christian churches because it is fundamental to the calculation of the date of Easter. To reinstate the association, the reform advanced the date by 10 days:^[c] Thursday 4 October 1582 was followed by Friday 15 October 1582.^[3] In addition, the reform also altered the lunar cycle used by the Church to calculate the date for Easter, because astronomical new moons were occurring four days before the calculated dates.

The reform was adopted initially by the Catholic countries of Europe and their overseas possessions. Over the next three centuries, the Protestant and Eastern Orthodox countries also gradually moved to what they called the "Improved calendar",^[d] with Greece being the last European country to adopt the calendar (for civil use only) in 1923.^[4] However, many Orthodox churches continue to use the Julian calendar for religious rites and the dating of major feasts. To unambiguously specify a date during the transition period (in contemporary documents or in history texts), both notations were given, tagged as "Old Style" or "New Style" as appropriate. During the 20th century, most non-Western countries also adopted the calendar, at least for civil purposes.

1. ^ Dershowitz & Reingold (2008), p. 45. "The calendar in use today in most of the world is the Gregorian or new-style calendar designed by a commission assembled by Pope Gregory XIII in the sixteenth century.".
2. ^ "Introduction to Calendars". United States Naval Observatory. n.d. Retrieved 9 May 2022.
3. ^ ^{a b} Gregory XIII (1582).
4. ^ Blegen (2013).

Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

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5 October 1962 – The first of the James Bond film series, based on the novels by Ian Fleming, Dr. No, is released in Britain.

Dr. No (film)

1962 James Bond film directed by Terence Young

Dr. No is a 1962 spy film and the first film in the James Bond series, starring Sean Connery as the fictional MI6 agent James Bond. Co-starring Ursula Andress, Joseph Wiseman and Jack Lord, it was directed by Terence Young and adapted by Richard Maibaum, Johanna Harwood, and Berkely Mather from the 1958 novel by Ian Fleming. The film was produced by Harry Saltzman and Albert R. Broccoli of Eon Productions, a partnership that continued until 1975. In the film, James Bond is sent to Jamaica to investigate the disappearance of a fellow British agent. The trail leads him to the underground base of Dr. No, who is plotting to disrupt an early American space launch from Cape Canaveral with a radio beam weapon.

Although it was the first of the Bond books to be made into a film, Dr. No was the sixth of Fleming's series, beginning with Casino Royale. The film makes a few references to threads from earlier books, and later books in the series as well, such as the criminal organisation SPECTRE, which was not introduced until the 1961 novel Thunderball. Produced on a low budget, Dr. No was released by United Artists on 5 October 1962 and was a financial success. While the film received a mixed critical reaction upon release, it has gained a reputation over time as one of the series' best instalments. Dr. No also launched a genre of secret agent films that flourished in the 1960s. The film spawned a comic book adaptation and soundtrack album as part of its promotion and marketing.

Many aspects of a typical James Bond film were established in Dr. No. The film begins with an introduction to the character through the view of a gun barrel and a highly stylised main title sequence, both of which were created by Maurice Binder.^[7] It also introduced the iconic theme music written by the film's score composer Monty Norman. Production designer Ken Adam established an elaborate visual style that is one of the hallmarks of the film series. Dr. No was followed by From Russia with Love in 1963.

1. ^ "Dr. No" (cinema tab). British Board of Film Classification. Retrieved 24 July 2026.
2. ^ "Dr. No". Lumiere. European Audiovisual Observatory. Archived from the original on 29 September 2020. Retrieved 9 October 2020.
3. ^ "Dr. No (1962)". British Film Institute. Retrieved 14 January 2025.
4. ^ Dr. No, AFI Catalog of Feature Films American Film Institute. Retrieved November 19, 2025.
5. ^ Chapman, Llewella (2021). "'They wanted a bigger, more ambitious film': Film Finances and the American 'Runaways' That Ran Away". Journal of British Cinema and Television, 18(2), 176–197, p. 180. doi:10.3366/jbctv.2021.0565
6. ^ Chapman, J. (2022). The Money Behind the Screen: A History of British Film Finance, 1945–1985. Edinburgh University Press, p. 360
7. ^ "Spies". Mark Kermode's Secrets of Cinema. Series 2. Episode 3. 2 April 2020. Event occurs at 13:26. BBC. BBC Four. Archived from the original on 9 May 2020. Retrieved 3 April 2020.

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5 October 1962 – The first of the James Bond film series, based on the novels by Ian Fleming, Dr. No, is released in Britain.

Dr. No (film)

1962 James Bond film directed by Terence Young

Dr. No is a 1962 spy film and the first film in the James Bond series, starring Sean Connery as the fictional MI6 agent James Bond. Co-starring Ursula Andress, Joseph Wiseman and Jack Lord, it was directed by Terence Young and adapted by Richard Maibaum, Johanna Harwood, and Berkely Mather from the 1958 novel by Ian Fleming. The film was produced by Harry Saltzman and Albert R. Broccoli of Eon Productions, a partnership that continued until 1975. In the film, James Bond is sent to Jamaica to investigate the disappearance of a fellow British agent. The trail leads him to the underground base of Dr. No, who is plotting to disrupt an early American space launch from Cape Canaveral with a radio beam weapon.

Although it was the first of the Bond books to be made into a film, Dr. No was the sixth of Fleming's series, beginning with Casino Royale. The film makes a few references to threads from earlier books, and later books in the series as well, such as the criminal organisation SPECTRE, which was not introduced until the 1961 novel Thunderball. Produced on a low budget, Dr. No was released by United Artists on 5 October 1962 and was a financial success. While the film received a mixed critical reaction upon release, it has gained a reputation over time as one of the series' best instalments. Dr. No also launched a genre of secret agent films that flourished in the 1960s. The film spawned a comic book adaptation and soundtrack album as part of its promotion and marketing.

Many aspects of a typical James Bond film were established in Dr. No. The film begins with an introduction to the character through the view of a gun barrel and a highly stylised main title sequence, both of which were created by Maurice Binder.^[7] It also introduced the iconic theme music written by the film's score composer Monty Norman. Production designer Ken Adam established an elaborate visual style that is one of the hallmarks of the film series. Dr. No was followed by From Russia with Love in 1963.

1. ^ "Dr. No" (cinema tab). British Board of Film Classification. Retrieved 24 July 2026.
2. ^ "Dr. No". Lumiere. European Audiovisual Observatory. Archived from the original on 29 September 2020. Retrieved 9 October 2020.
3. ^ "Dr. No (1962)". British Film Institute. Retrieved 14 January 2025.
4. ^ Dr. No, AFI Catalog of Feature Films American Film Institute. Retrieved November 19, 2025.
5. ^ Chapman, Llewella (2021). "'They wanted a bigger, more ambitious film': Film Finances and the American 'Runaways' That Ran Away". Journal of British Cinema and Television, 18(2), 176–197, p. 180. doi:10.3366/jbctv.2021.0565
6. ^ Chapman, J. (2022). The Money Behind the Screen: A History of British Film Finance, 1945–1985. Edinburgh University Press, p. 360
7. ^ "Spies". Mark Kermode's Secrets of Cinema. Series 2. Episode 3. 2 April 2020. Event occurs at 13:26. BBC. BBC Four. Archived from the original on 9 May 2020. Retrieved 3 April 2020.

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