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25 June: 1948 - The Berlin Airlift begins.

Berlin Blockade

USSR blockade of Berlin, 1948–1949

"Operation Vittles" redirects here. For the 1948 American short documentary film, see Operation Vittles (film).

The Berlin Blockade (24 June 1948 – 12 May 1949) was one of the first major international crises of the Cold War. During the multinational occupation of post–World War II Germany, the Soviet Union blocked the Western Allies' railway, road, and canal access to the sectors of Berlin under Western control. The Soviets offered to drop the blockade if the Western Allies withdrew the newly introduced Deutsche Mark from West Berlin.

The Western Allies organised the Berlin Airlift (German: Berliner Luftbrücke, lit. "Berlin Air Bridge") from 26 June 1948 to 30 September 1949 to carry supplies to the people of West Berlin, a difficult feat given the size of the city and the population.^[1][2] American and British air forces flew over Berlin more than 250,000 times, dropping necessities such as fuel and food, with the original plan being to lift 3,475 tons of supplies daily. By the spring of 1949, that number was often met twofold, with the peak daily delivery totalling 12,941 tons.^[3] Among these was the work of the later concurrent Operation Little Vittles in which candy-dropping aircraft dubbed "raisin bombers" generated much goodwill among German children.^[4]

Having initially concluded there was no way the airlift could work, the Soviets found its continued success an increasing embarrassment. On 12 May 1949, the USSR lifted the blockade of West Berlin, due to economic issues in East Berlin, although for a time the Americans and British continued to supply the city by air as they were worried that the Soviets would resume the blockade and were only trying to disrupt western supply lines. The Berlin Airlift officially ended on 30 September 1949 after fifteen months. The US Air Force had delivered 1,783,573 tons (76.4% of total) and the RAF 541,937 tons (23.3% of total),^{[nb 1]} totalling 2,334,374 tons, nearly two-thirds of which was coal, on 278,228 flights to Berlin. In addition Canadian, Australian, New Zealand and South African air crews assisted the RAF during the blockade.^[5]: 338 The French also conducted flights, but only to provide supplies for their military garrison.^[6]

American C-47 and C-54 transport airplanes, together, flew over 92,000,000 miles (148,000,000 km) in the process, almost the distance from Earth to the Sun.^[7] British transports, including Handley Page Haltons and Short Sunderlands, flew as well. At the height of the airlift, one plane reached West Berlin every thirty seconds.^[8]

Seventeen American and eight British aircraft crashed during the operation.^[9] A total of 101 fatalities were recorded as a result of the operation, including 40 Britons and 31 Americans,^[8] mostly due to non-flying accidents.

The Berlin Blockade served to highlight the competing ideological and economic visions for postwar Europe. It played a major role in aligning West Berlin with the United States and Britain as the major protecting powers,^[10] and in drawing West Germany into the NATO orbit several years later in 1955.

1. ^ Journey Across Berlin (1961). Universal Newsreel. 1957. Retrieved 22 February 2012.
2. ^ Air Force Story, The Cold War, 1948–1950 (1953). Universal Newsreel. 1953. Retrieved 22 February 2012.
3. ^ The American People: Creating a Nation and a Society. New York: Pearson Longman, 2008. p. 828.
4. ^ Smoler, Fredric (April/May 2003). "Where Berlin and America Meet Archived 28 August 2008 at the Wayback Machine" American Heritage. Retrieved 29 July 2010.
5. ^ "5 – National Security". South Africa: a country study. Federal Research Division, Library of Congress. 1997. ISBN 0-8444-0796-8.
6. ^ Jacques Bariéty (1994). "La France et la crise internationale du blocus de Berlin". Histoire, économie et société; Volume 13; numéro 1. pp. 29–44. Retrieved 11 June 2017.
7. ^ Berlin Airlift: Logistics, Humanitarian Aid, and Strategic Success Archived 16 January 2007 at the Wayback Machine, Major Gregory C. Tine, Army Logistician
8. ^ ^{a b} Cite error: The named reference turner27 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
9. ^ Tunner 1964, p. 218
10. ^ Daum, Andreas W. (2000). "America's Berlin, 1945‒2000: Between Myths and Visions". In Trommler, Frank (ed.). Berlin: The New Capital in the East (PDF). The American Institute for Contemporary German Studies, Johns Hopkins University. pp. 49–73. Retrieved 2 March 2021.

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26 June: 1927 - The Cyclone roller coaster opens on Coney Island

The Cyclone

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27 June: 1893 - Crash of the New York Stock Exchange

New York Stock Exchange

American stock exchange

This article is about the stock exchange. For its parent company, see Intercontinental Exchange. For the headquarters building, see New York Stock Exchange Building.

The New York Stock Exchange (NYSE, nicknamed "The Big Board")^[4] is an American stock exchange in the Financial District of Lower Manhattan in New York City. It is the largest stock exchange in the world by market capitalization.^[5][6][7]

The NYSE trading floor is located at the New York Stock Exchange Building on 11 Wall Street and 18 Broad Street and is a National Historic Landmark. A previous trading room, at 30 Broad Street, was closed in February 2007.

The NYSE is owned by Intercontinental Exchange, an American holding company that it also lists (NYSE: ICE). Previously, it was part of NYSE Euronext (NYX), which was formed by the NYSE's 2007 merger with Euronext.^[8] According to a Gallup poll conducted in 2022, approximately 58% of American adults reported having money invested in the stock market, either through individual stocks, mutual funds, or retirement accounts.^[9]

1. ^ "History of the New York Stock Exchange". Library of Congress. Archived from the original on April 4, 2016. Retrieved March 28, 2016.
2. ^ "Listings Directory for NYSE Stocks".
3. ^ "Market Statistics – Focus". Focus.world-exchanges.org. World Federation of Exchanges. Retrieved March 18, 2024.
4. ^ "Merriam-Webster Dictionary's definition of "Big Board"". Merriam-Webster. Archived from the original on January 20, 2013. Retrieved November 6, 2012.(subscription required)
5. ^ "The NYSE Makes Stock Exchanges Around The World Look Tiny". Business Insider. Archived from the original on January 26, 2017. Retrieved March 26, 2017.
6. ^ "2016". Archived from the original on February 12, 2019. Retrieved February 6, 2019.
7. ^ "Is the New York Stock Exchange the Largest Stock Market in the World?". Archived from the original on January 26, 2017. Retrieved March 26, 2017.
8. ^ Rothwell, Steve (December 19, 2012), "For the New York Stock Exchange, a sell order", San Jose Mercury News, Associated Press
9. ^ LYDIA SAAD and JEFFREY M. JONES (May 12, 2022). "What Percentage of Americans Own Stock?". Gallup, Inc. Retrieved May 12, 2022.

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28 June: 1880 - Ned Kelly the Australian bushranger captured at Glenrowan.

Ned Kelly

Australian bushranger (1854–1880)

For other uses, see Ned Kelly (disambiguation).

Edward Kelly (December 1854^[a] – 11 November 1880) was an Australian bushranger, outlaw, gang leader and convicted police-murderer. One of the last bushrangers, he is known for wearing a suit of bulletproof armour during his final shootout with the police.

Kelly was born in the then–British colony of Victoria as the third of eight children to Irish parents. His father, a transported convict, died shortly after serving a six-month prison sentence, leaving Kelly, then aged 12, as the eldest male of the household. The Kellys were a poor selector family who saw themselves as downtrodden by the Squattocracy and as victims of persecution by the Victoria Police. While a teenager, Kelly was arrested for associating with bushranger Harry Power and served two prison terms for a variety of offences, the longest stretch being from 1871 to 1874 on a conviction of receiving a stolen horse. He later joined the "Greta Mob", a group of bush larrikins known for stock theft. A violent confrontation with a policeman occurred at the Kelly family's home in 1878, and Kelly was indicted for his attempted murder. Fleeing to the bush, Kelly vowed to avenge his mother, who was imprisoned for her role in the incident. After he, his younger brother Dan, and two associates—Joe Byrne and Steve Hart—shot dead three policemen, the government of Victoria proclaimed them outlaws.

Kelly and his gang eluded the police for two years, thanks in part to the support of an extensive network of sympathisers. The gang's crime spree included raids on Euroa and Jerilderie, and the killing of Aaron Sherritt, a sympathiser turned police informer. In a manifesto letter, Kelly—denouncing the police, the Victorian government and the British Empire—set down his own account of the events leading up to his outlawry. Demanding justice for his family and the rural poor, he threatened dire consequences against those who defied him. In 1880, when his attempt to derail and ambush a police train failed, he and his gang, dressed in armour fashioned from stolen plough mouldboards, engaged in a final gun battle with the police at Glenrowan. Kelly, the only survivor, was severely wounded by police fire and captured. Despite thousands of supporters attending rallies and signing a petition for his reprieve, Kelly was tried, convicted and sentenced to death by hanging, which was carried out at the Old Melbourne Gaol.

Historian Geoffrey Serle called Kelly and his gang "the last expression of the lawless frontier in what was becoming a highly organised and educated society, the last protest of the mighty bush now tethered with iron rails to Melbourne and the world".^[1] In the century after his death, Kelly became a cultural icon, inspiring numerous works in the arts and popular culture, and is the subject of more biographies than any other Australian. Kelly continues to cause division in his homeland: some celebrate him as Australia's equivalent of Robin Hood, while others regard him as a murderous villain undeserving of his folk hero status.^[2] Journalist Martin Flanagan wrote: "What makes Ned a legend is not that everyone sees him the same—it's that everyone sees him. Like a bushfire on the horizon casting its red glow into the night."^[3]

Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

1. ^ Serle, Geoffrey (1971). The Rush to Be Rich: A History of the Colony of Victoria 1883–1889. Melbourne University Press. p. 11. ISBN 978-0-522-84009-4.
2. ^ Brear, Bea (9 April 2003). "Ned Kelly: freedom fighter or villain?" Archived 24 December 2013 at the Wayback Machine, Green Left Weekly. Retrieved 23 December 2013.
3. ^ Flanagan, Martin (30 March 2013). "Rebels who knew the end was coming, but stood up anyway" Archived 20 May 2013 at the Wayback Machine, The Age. Retrieved 13 July 2015.

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29 June: 1995 - Space Shuttle program: STS-71 Mission (Atlantis docks with the Russian space station Mir for the first time.)

STS-71

1995 American crewed spaceflight to Mir

This article is about Space Shuttle mission STS-71. For the hominid fossil, see STS 71.

As the third mission of the US/Russian Shuttle-Mir Program, STS-71 became the first Space Shuttle to dock with the Russian space station Mir. STS-71 began on June 27, 1995, with the launch of Space Shuttle Atlantis from launchpad 39A at the Kennedy Space Center in Florida. The Shuttle delivered a relief crew of two cosmonauts Anatoly Solovyev and Nikolai Budarin to the station and recovered Increment astronaut Norman Thagard. Atlantis returned to Earth on July 7 with a crew of eight. It was the first of seven straight missions to Mir flown by Atlantis, and the second Shuttle mission to land with an eight-person crew after STS-61-A in 1985.

For the five days the Shuttle was docked to Mir they were the largest spacecraft in orbit at the time. STS-71 marked the first docking of a Space Shuttle to a space station, the first time a Shuttle crew switched members with the crew of a station, and the 100th crewed space launch by the United States. The mission carried Spacelab and included a logistical resupply of Mir. Together the Shuttle and station crews conducted various on-orbit joint US/Russian life science investigations with Spacelab along with the Shuttle Amateur Radio Experiment-II (SAREX-II) experiment.

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30 June: 1972 - One leap second is added to the UTC time system.

Leap second

Extra second inserted to keep civil time in sync with the Earth's rotation

A leap second is a one-second adjustment that is occasionally applied to Coordinated Universal Time (UTC), to accommodate the difference between precise time (International Atomic Time (TAI), as measured by atomic clocks) and imprecise observed solar time (UT1), which varies due to irregularities and long-term slowdown in the Earth's rotation. The UTC time standard, widely used for international timekeeping and as the reference for civil time in most countries, uses TAI and consequently would run ahead of observed solar time unless it is reset to UT1 as needed. The leap second facility exists to provide this adjustment. The leap second was introduced in 1972. Since then, 27 leap seconds have been added to UTC, with the most recent occurring on December 31, 2016.^[1]

Because the Earth's rotational speed varies in response to climatic and geological events,^[2] UTC leap seconds are irregularly spaced and unpredictable. Insertion of each UTC leap second is usually decided about six months in advance by the International Earth Rotation and Reference Systems Service (IERS), to ensure that the difference between the UTC and UT1 readings will never exceed 0.9 seconds.^[3][4]

This practice has proven disruptive, particularly in the twenty-first century and especially in services that depend on precise timestamping or time-critical process control. And since not all computers are adjusted by leap-second, they will display times differing from those that have been adjusted.^[5] After many years of discussions by different standards bodies, in November 2022, at the 27th General Conference on Weights and Measures, it was decided to abandon the leap second by or before 2035.^[6][7]

1. ^ Martin, Cassie (19 January 2024). "50 years ago, timekeepers deployed the newly invented leap second". 50 Years Ago. Science News. p. 4.
2. ^ "IERS science background". Frankfurt am Main: IERS. 2013. Archived from the original on 29 August 2016. Retrieved 6 August 2016.
3. ^ Gambis, Danie (5 January 2015). "Bulletin C 49". Paris: IERS. Archived from the original on 30 May 2015. Retrieved 5 January 2015.
4. ^ James Vincent (7 January 2015). "2015 is getting an extra second and that's a bit of a problem for the internet". The Verge. Archived from the original on 17 March 2017.
5. ^ Finkleman, David; Allen, Steve; Seago, John; Seaman, Rob; Seidelmann, P. Kenneth (2011). "The Future of Time: UTC and the Leap Second". American Scientist. 99 (4): 312–319. arXiv:1106.3141. doi:10.1511/2011.91.312. S2CID 118403321.
6. ^ Cite error: The named reference AFP was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
7. ^ Cite error: The named reference gibney was invoked but never defined (see the help page).

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1 July: 1972 - First Gay Pride march in England

Gay Pride

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2 July: 1900 - First zeppelin flight on Lake Constance near Friedrichshafen, Germany.

Zeppelin

Rigid airship type

For other uses, see Zeppelin (disambiguation).

A Zeppelin is a type of rigid airship named after the German inventor Ferdinand von Zeppelin (German pronunciation: [ˈt͡sɛpəliːn] ^ⓘ) who pioneered rigid airship development at the beginning of the 20th century. Zeppelin's notions were first formulated in 1874^[1] and developed in detail in 1893.^[2] They were patented in Germany in 1895 and in the United States in 1899.^[3] After the outstanding success of the Zeppelin design, the word zeppelin came to be commonly used to refer to all forms of rigid airships. Zeppelins were first flown commercially in 1910 by Deutsche Luftschiffahrts-AG (DELAG), the world's first airline in revenue service. By mid-1914, DELAG had carried over 10,000 fare-paying passengers on over 1,500 flights. During World War I, the German military made extensive use of Zeppelins as bombers and as scouts. Numerous bombing raids on Britain resulted in over 500 deaths.^[4]

The defeat of Germany in 1918 temporarily slowed the airship business. Although DELAG established a scheduled daily service between Berlin, Munich, and Friedrichshafen in 1919, the airships built for that service eventually had to be surrendered under the terms of the Treaty of Versailles, which also prohibited Germany from building large airships. An exception was made to allow the construction of one airship for the United States Navy, the order for which saved the company from extinction.

In 1926, the restrictions on airship construction were lifted and, with the aid of donations from the public, work began on the construction of LZ 127 Graf Zeppelin. That revived the company's fortunes and, during the 1930s, the airships Graf Zeppelin, and the even larger LZ 129 Hindenburg operated regular transatlantic flights from Germany to North America and Brazil. The spire of the Empire State Building was originally designed to serve as a mooring mast for Zeppelins and other airships, although it was found that high winds made that impossible and the plan was abandoned.^[5] The Hindenburg disaster in 1937, along with political and economic developments in Germany, hastened the demise of airships.

1. ^ Eckener 1938, pp. 155–157.
2. ^ Dooley 2004, p. A.187.
3. ^ Cite error: The named reference Doo190 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
4. ^ Cole and Cheeseman 1984, p. 449.
5. ^ China Williams; Becca Blond (2004). New York State. Lonely Planet. p. 86. ISBN 978-1-74104-125-5.

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3 July: 1844 - The last pair of Great Auks is killed.

Great Auk

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4 July: 1776 - American Independence Day: The United States Declaration of Independence by the Second Continental Congress declaring itself free of British rule.

Independence_Day_%28United_States%29

 

Graduation day in Edinburgh Foot Clinic 4 July 1983 - 25 years ago! Some memories for the Old Cronies....

 

5 July: 1975 - Arthur Ashe becomes the first black man to win the Wimbledon singles title.

Arthur Ashe

American tennis player (1943–1993)

For the British Columbia politician, see Arthur James Richard Ash.

Arthur Robert Ashe Jr. (July 10, 1943 – February 6, 1993) was an American professional tennis player. He won three Grand Slam titles in singles and two in doubles. Ashe was the first black player selected to the United States Davis Cup team, and the only black man ever to win the singles titles at Wimbledon, the US Open, and the Australian Open. He retired in 1980.

Ashe was ranked world No. 1 by Rex Bellamy,^[3] Bud Collins,^[4] Judith Elian,^[5] Lance Tingay,^[6] World Tennis^[7] and Tennis Magazine (U.S.)^[8] in 1975. That year, Ashe was awarded the 'Martini and Rossi' Award, voted for by a panel of journalists,^[9] and the ATP Player of the Year award. In the ATP computer rankings, he peaked at No. 2 in May 1976.^[10]

Ashe is believed to have acquired HIV from a blood transfusion he received during heart bypass surgery in 1983. He publicly announced his illness in April 1992, and began working to educate others about HIV and AIDS. He founded the Arthur Ashe Foundation for the Defeat of AIDS and the Arthur Ashe Institute for Urban Health before his death from AIDS-related pneumonia at the age of 49 on February 6, 1993. On June 20, 1993, he was posthumously awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom by United States President Bill Clinton. Arthur Ashe Stadium, the main court for the US Open and the largest tennis arena in the world, is named in his honor.

1. ^ ^{a b} "Arthur Ashe: Career match record". thetennisbase.com. Tennis Base. Retrieved September 22, 2021.
2. ^ "Aurthur Ashe bio at ESPN". Retrieved August 6, 2014.
3. ^ The Times (London), December 30, 1975, p.6
4. ^ Collins & Hollander (1997), p. 651
5. ^ Quidet, Christian (1989). La Fabuleuse Histoire du Tennis (in French). Paris: Nathan. p. 772. ISBN 9782092864388.
6. ^ Barrett, John, ed. (1990). World Of Tennis. London: Collins Willow. pp. 235–237. ISBN 9780002183550.
7. ^ "Ashe replaces Connor in magazine rankings". The Morning Call. December 9, 1975. p. 38.
8. ^ "Rankings Dept". The Journal Herald. January 16, 1976. p. 18.
9. ^ "Times Tribune (Scranton), 8 February 1976". newspapers.com. February 8, 1976.
10. ^ "Arthur Ashe | Overview | ATP Tour | Tennis". ATP Tour. Retrieved June 12, 2019.

Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

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July 6: 1885 - Louis Pasteur successfully tests his vaccine against rabies. The patient is Joseph Meister, a boy who was bitten by a rabid dog.

Louis Pasteur

French chemist and microbiologist (1822–1895)

"Pasteur" redirects here. For other uses, see Pasteur (disambiguation).

Louis Pasteur ForMemRS (/ˈluːi pæˈstɜːr/, French: [lwi pastœʁ]; 27 December 1822 – 28 September 1895) was a French chemist, pharmacist, and microbiologist renowned for his discoveries of the principles of vaccination, microbial fermentation, and pasteurization, the last of which was named after him. His research in chemistry led to remarkable breakthroughs in the understanding of the causes and preventions of diseases, which laid down the foundations of hygiene, public health and much of modern medicine.^[5] Pasteur's works are credited with saving millions of lives through the developments of vaccines for rabies and anthrax. He is regarded as one of the founders of modern bacteriology and has been honored as the "father of bacteriology"^[6] and the "father of microbiology"^[7][8] (together with Robert Koch;^[9][10] the latter epithet also attributed to Antonie van Leeuwenhoek).^[11]

Pasteur was responsible for disproving the doctrine of spontaneous generation. Under the auspices of the French Academy of Sciences, his experiment demonstrated that in sterilized and sealed flasks, nothing ever developed; conversely, in sterilized but open flasks, microorganisms could grow.^[12] For this experiment, the academy awarded him the Alhumbert Prize carrying 2,500 francs in 1862.

Pasteur is also regarded as one of the fathers of germ theory of diseases, which was a minor medical concept at the time.^[13] His many experiments showed that diseases could be prevented by killing or stopping germs, thereby directly supporting the germ theory and its application in clinical medicine. He is best known to the general public for his invention of the technique of treating milk and wine to stop bacterial contamination, a process now called pasteurization. Pasteur also made significant discoveries in chemistry, most notably on the molecular basis for the asymmetry of certain crystals and racemization. Early in his career, his investigation of sodium ammonium tartrate initiated the field of optical isomerism. This work had a profound effect on structural chemistry, with eventual implications for many areas including medicinal chemistry.

He was the director of the Pasteur Institute, established in 1887, until his death, and his body was interred in a vault beneath the institute. Although Pasteur made groundbreaking experiments, his reputation became associated with various controversies. Historical reassessment of his notebook revealed that he practiced deception to overcome his rivals.^[14][15]

1. ^ Cite error: The named reference formemrs was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
2. ^ "II. Abdülhamid'in Fransız kimyagere yaptığı yardım ortaya çıktı". CNN Türk. Archived from the original on 26 December 2018. Retrieved 29 December 2016.
3. ^ Asimov, Asimov's Biographical Encyclopedia of Science and Technology 2nd Revised edition
4. ^ "History of the Cholera Vaccine | Passport Health". www.passporthealthusa.com. Archived from the original on 21 January 2021. Retrieved 25 December 2020.
5. ^ Ligon, B. Lee (2002). "Biography: Louis Pasteur: A controversial figure in a debate on scientific ethics". Seminars in Pediatric Infectious Diseases. 13 (2): 134–141. doi:10.1053/spid.2002.125138. PMID 12122952.
6. ^ Adam, P. (1951). "Louis Pasteur: Father of bacteriology". Canadian Journal of Medical Technology. 13 (3): 126–128. PMID 14870064. Archived from the original on 30 April 2021. Retrieved 29 April 2021.
7. ^ Feinstein, S (2008). Louis Pasteur: The Father of Microbiology. Enslow Publishers, Inc. pp. 1–128. ISBN 978-1-59845-078-1.
8. ^ Fleming, Alexander (1952). "Freelance of Science". British Medical Journal. 2 (4778): 269. doi:10.1136/bmj.2.4778.269. PMC 2020971.
9. ^ Tan, S. Y.; Berman, E. (2008). "Robert Koch (1843–1910): father of microbiology and Nobel laureate". Singapore Medical Journal. 49 (11): 854–855. PMID 19037548. Archived from the original on 22 April 2021. Retrieved 29 April 2021.
10. ^ Gradmann, Christoph (2006). "Robert Koch and the white death: from tuberculosis to tuberculin". Microbes and Infection. 8 (1): 294–301. doi:10.1016/j.micinf.2005.06.004. PMID 16126424.
11. ^ Lane, Nick (2015). "The unseen world: reflections on Leeuwenhoek (1677) 'Concerning little animals'". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences. 370 (1666): 20140344. doi:10.1098/rstb.2014.0344. PMC 4360124. PMID 25750239.
12. ^ Seckbach, Joseph, ed. (2004). Origins: Genesis, Evolution and Diversity of Life. Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Kluwer Academic Publishers. p. 20. ISBN 978-1-4020-1813-8.
13. ^ Ullmann, Agnes (August 2007). "Pasteur-Koch: Distinctive Ways of Thinking about Infectious Diseases". Microbe. 2 (8): 383–387. Archived from the original on 10 May 2016. Retrieved 12 December 2007.
14. ^ Geison, Gerald L (1995). The Private Science of Louis Pasteur. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-01552-1. Archived from the original on 26 October 2014. Retrieved 26 October 2014.
15. ^ Anderson, Christopher (19 February 1993). "Pasteur Notebooks Reveal Deception". Science. 259 (5098): 1117. doi:10.1126/science.259.5098.1117.b. ISSN 0036-8075. PMID 8438162.

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Joseph Meister

First person to be inoculated against rabies (1885)

Joseph Meister (21 February 1876 – 24 June 1940) was the first person to be inoculated against rabies by Louis Pasteur, and likely the first person to be successfully treated for the infection, which has a >99% fatality rate once symptoms set in.

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7 July: 1947 - Alleged and disputed Roswell UFO incident.

Roswell UFO incident

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9 July: 1922 - Johnny Weissmuller swims the 100 meters freestyle in 58.6 seconds breaking a world swimming record and the 'minute barrier'.

Johnny Weissmuller

American swimmer, water polo player, and actor (1904–1984)

Johnny Weissmuller (/ˈwaɪsmʌlər/; born Johann Peter Weißmüller [ˈʋaɪ̯smʏlɐ]; June 2, 1904 – January 20, 1984) was an American Olympic swimmer, water polo player and actor. He was known for having one of the best competitive swimming records of the 20th century. He set world records alongside winning five gold medals in the Olympics.^[3] He won the 100m freestyle and the 4 × 200 m relay team event in the 1924 Summer Olympics in Paris and the 1928 Summer Olympics in Amsterdam. Weissmuller also won gold in the 400m freestyle, as well as a bronze medal in the water polo competition in Paris.^[4][5]

Following his retirement from swimming, Weissmuller played Edgar Rice Burroughs' Tarzan in twelve feature films from 1932 to 1948; six were produced by MGM, and six additional films by RKO. Weissmuller went on to star in sixteen Jungle Jim movies over an eight year period, then filmed 26 additional half-hour episodes of the Jungle Jim TV series.^[6][7]

1. ^ ^{a b} Johnny Weissmuller. espn.com
2. ^ Cite error: The named reference sr was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
3. ^ "Johnny Weissmuller". Olympedia. Retrieved November 13, 2021.
4. ^ "Johnny Weissmuller - Olympic Swimming, Water Polo | USA". International Olympic Committee. March 9, 2021. Retrieved March 11, 2021.
5. ^ "Johnny Weissmuller (USA)". ISHOF.org. International Swimming Hall of Fame. Archived from the original on January 30, 2021. Retrieved March 11, 2021.
6. ^ "Johnny Weissmuller". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved March 11, 2021.
7. ^ Cite error: The named reference :0 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).

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11 July: 1955 - The phrase In God We Trust is added to all US currency.

In God We Trust

Official motto of the United States and the U.S. state of Florida

For other uses, see In God We Trust (disambiguation).

"In God We Trust" (also rendered as "In God we trust") is the official motto of the United States^[1][2][3] as well as the motto of the U.S. state of Florida, along with the nation of Nicaragua (Spanish: En Dios confiamos).^[4][5] It was adopted by the U.S. Congress in 1956, replacing E pluribus unum ("Out of many, one"), which had been the de facto motto since the initial design of the Great Seal of the United States.^[6]

While the earliest mentions of the phrase can be found in the mid-19th century, the origins of this phrase as a political motto lie in the American Civil War, where Union supporters wanted to emphasize their attachment to God and to boost morale.^[7] The capitalized form "IN GOD WE TRUST" first appeared on the two-cent piece in 1864 and initially only appeared on coins, but it gradually became accepted among Americans.^[8] Much wider adoption followed in the 1950s. The first postage stamps with the motto appeared in 1954. A law passed in July 1955 by a joint resolution of the 84th Congress (Pub. L.Tooltip Public Law (United States) 84–140) and approved by President Dwight Eisenhower requires that "In God We Trust" appear on all American currency. This law was first implemented on the updated one-dollar silver certificate that entered circulation on October 1, 1957.^[8] The 84th Congress later passed legislation (Pub. L.Tooltip Public Law (United States) 84–851), also signed by President Eisenhower on July 30, 1956, declaring the phrase to be the national motto.^[8][a] Several states have also mandated or authorized its use in public institutions or schools;^[9][10] while Florida, Georgia and Mississippi have incorporated the phrase in some of their state symbols. The motto has also been used in some cases in other countries, most notably on Nicaragua's coins.^[11]

The motto remains popular among the American public. According to a 2003 joint poll by USA Today, CNN, and Gallup, 90% of Americans support the inscription "In God We Trust" on U.S. coins;^[12] and a 2019 student poll by College Pulse showed that 53% of students supported its inclusion in currency.^[13] Some groups and people in the United States, however, have objected to its use, contending that its religious reference violates the Establishment Clause of the First Amendment.^[14] These groups believe the phrase should be removed from currency and public property, which has resulted in numerous lawsuits. This argument has not overcome the interpretational doctrine of accommodationism and the notion of "ceremonial deism". The former allows the government to endorse religious establishments as long as they are all treated equally, while the latter states that a repetitious invocation of a religious entity in ceremonial matters strips the phrase of its original religious connotation.^[15] The New Hampshire Supreme Court, as well as the Second, Fourth, Fifth, Sixth, Eighth, Ninth, and Tenth Circuits, have all upheld the constitutionality of the motto in various settings. The Supreme Court has discussed the motto in footnotes but has never directly ruled on its compliance with the U.S. constitution.^[16]

1. ^ "H. CON. RES. 13" (PDF). United States Government Publishing Office. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2019-05-12. Retrieved 2019-05-13. Reaffirming In God We Trust as the official motto of the United States
2. ^ "Title 36 – Patriotic and National Observances, Ceremonies, and Organizations". United States Government Publishing Office. Archived from the original on 2019-05-12. Retrieved 2019-05-12. §302. National motto "In God we trust" is the national motto.
3. ^ "36 U.S. Code § 302. National motto". Legal Information Institute. Archived from the original on 2019-02-07. Retrieved 2019-05-12. "In God we trust" is the national motto.
4. ^ "Florida State Motto In God We Trust". www.netstate.com. Archived from the original on 2017-06-14. Retrieved 2018-02-24.
5. ^ "State Motto". Florida Department of State. Archived from the original on 2018-02-16. Retrieved 2018-02-24.
6. ^ Bittker, Boris; Idleman, Scott; Ravitch, Frank (2015). Religion and the State in American Law. Cambridge University Press. p. 136. ISBN 9781107071827. Archived from the original on 2021-04-22. Retrieved 2020-11-12 – via Google Books.
7. ^ Lienesch, Michael (May 2019). ""In God We Trust:" The U.S. National Motto and the Contested Concept of Civil Religion". Religions. 10 (5): 340. doi:10.3390/rel10050340.
8. ^ ^{a b c} "History of 'In God We Trust'". U.S. Department of the Treasury. 2011. Archived from the original on 2016-04-17. Retrieved 2017-03-14.
9. ^ Kelley, Bryan (25 September 2019). "'In God We Trust': Public School Displays of the National Motto". Education Commission of the States. Archived from the original on 2021-05-25. Retrieved 2021-05-25.
10. ^ "Display of National Motto in Public Schools" (PDF). National Conference of State Legislatures. September 2019. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2021-06-20. Retrieved 2021-05-25.
11. ^ "Billetes y Monedas en Circulación". Central Bank of Nicaragua (in Spanish). Archived from the original on 2019-07-04. Retrieved 2021-05-29.
12. ^ "USA Today/CNN/Gallup Poll results". USA Today. 2011. Archived from the original on 2022-01-08. Retrieved 2011-11-15. C. The inscription "In God We Trust" on U.S. coins; 2003 Sep 19–21; Approve 90; Disapprove 8; No opinion 2
13. ^ Kabbany-Fix, Jennifer (2019-08-28). "Nearly half of college students believe 'In God We Trust' should be removed from U.S. currency: poll". The College Fix. Archived from the original on 2021-05-26. Retrieved 2021-05-24.
14. ^ "Atheist in battle to remove 'In God We Trust' from US currency". The Daily Telegraph. London. 2010-03-12. Archived from the original on 2013-10-31. Retrieved 2014-02-04.
15. ^ Drakeman, Donald L. (1991-01-01). Church-state Constitutional Issues: Making Sense of the Establishment Clause. Greenwood Press. ISBN 9780313276637.
16. ^ Cite error: The named reference :0 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).

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13 July: 1985 - The Live Aid benefit concert takes place in London and Philadelphia, as well as other venues such as Sydney and Moscow.

Live Aid

1985 benefit concert

For the 2005 benefit concerts, see Live 8.

Live Aid was a multi-venue benefit concert held on Saturday 13 July 1985, as well as a music-based fundraising initiative. The original event was organised by Bob Geldof and Midge Ure to raise further funds for relief of the 1983–1985 famine in Ethiopia, a movement that started with the release of the successful charity single "Do They Know It's Christmas?" in December 1984. Billed as the "global jukebox", Live Aid was held simultaneously at Wembley Stadium in London, attended by about 72,000 people, and John F. Kennedy Stadium in Philadelphia, attended by 89,484 people.^[1][2]

On the same day, concerts inspired by the initiative were held in other countries, such as the Soviet Union, Canada, Japan, Yugoslavia, Austria, Australia, and West Germany. It was one of the largest satellite link-ups and television broadcasts of all time; an estimated audience of 1.9 billion, in 150 nations, watched the live broadcast, nearly 40 percent of the world population.^[3][4]

The impact of Live Aid on famine relief has been debated for years. One aid relief worker stated that following the publicity generated by the concert, "humanitarian concern is now at the centre of foreign policy" for Western governments.^[5] Geldof has said, "We took an issue that was nowhere on the political agenda and, through the lingua franca of the planet – which is not English but rock 'n' roll – we were able to address the intellectual absurdity and the moral repulsion of people dying of want in a world of surplus."^[6] In another interview he stated that Live Aid "created something permanent and self-sustaining" but also asked why Africa is getting poorer.^[5] The organisers of Live Aid tried to run aid efforts directly, channelling millions of pounds to NGOs in Ethiopia. It has been alleged that much of this went to the Ethiopian government of Mengistu Haile Mariam – a regime the UK Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher opposed^[7] – and it is also alleged some funds were spent on guns.^[5][8] While the BBC World Service programme Assignment reported in March 2010 that the funds had been diverted, the BBC Editorial Complaints Unit later found "that there was no evidence to support such statements."^[9] Brian Barder, British Ambassador to Ethiopia from 1982 to 1986, wrote on his website that "the diversion of aid related only to the tiny proportion that was supplied by some NGOs to rebel-held areas."^[10]

1. ^ Live Aid on Bob Geldof's official site Archived 5 February 2011 at the Wayback Machine
2. ^ "Billboard Boxscore". Billboard. 27 July 1985. Retrieved 6 March 2020.
3. ^ Cite error: The named reference CNN was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
4. ^ World Population Prospects: The 2017 Revision Archived 19 September 2016 at the Wayback Machine. United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs. Retrieved 7 June 2018.
5. ^ ^{a b c} "Cruel to be kind?". The Guardian. Retrieved 31 March 2019.
6. ^ "Live Aid index: Bob Geldof". The Guardian. Retrieved 14 June 2019.
7. ^ "Margaret Thatcher demanded UK find ways to 'destabilise' Ethiopian regime in power during 1984 famine". The Independent. Retrieved 10 April 2019.
8. ^ "Live Aid: The Terrible Truth". Spin. 13 July 2015. Retrieved 30 March 2019.
9. ^ "BBC apologises over Band Aid money reports". BBC. Retrieved 19 July 2020.
10. ^ "Ethiopia famine relief aid: misinterpreted allegations out of control". Barder.com. Retrieved 18 July 2020.

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15 July: 1099 - First Crusade: Christian soldiers take Church of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem after the final assault of a difficult siege

First Crusade

1096–1099 Christian conquest of the Holy Land

The First Crusade (1096–1099) was the first of a series of religious wars, or Crusades, initiated, supported and at times directed by the Latin Church in the middle ages. The objective was the recovery of the Holy Land from Islamic rule. While Jerusalem had been under Muslim rule for hundreds of years, by the 11th century the Seljuk takeover of the region threatened local Christian populations, pilgrimages from the West, and the Byzantine Empire itself. The earliest initiative for the First Crusade began in 1095 when Byzantine emperor Alexios I Komnenos requested military support from the Council of Piacenza in the empire's conflict with the Seljuk-led Turks. This was followed later in the year by the Council of Clermont, during which Pope Urban II supported the Byzantine request for military assistance and also urged faithful Christians to undertake an armed pilgrimage to Jerusalem.

This call was met with an enthusiastic popular response across all social classes in western Europe. Mobs of predominantly poor Christians numbering in the thousands, led by Peter the Hermit, a French priest, were the first to respond. What has become known as the People's Crusade passed through Germany and indulged in wide-ranging anti-Jewish activities, including the Rhineland massacres. On leaving Byzantine-controlled territory in Anatolia, they were annihilated in a Turkish ambush led by the Seljuk Kilij Arslan I at the Battle of Civetot in October 1096.

In what has become known as the Princes' Crusade, members of the high nobility and their followers embarked in late-summer 1096 and arrived at Constantinople between November and April the following year. This was a large feudal host led by notable Western European princes: southern French forces under Raymond IV of Toulouse and Adhemar of Le Puy; men from Upper and Lower Lorraine led by Godfrey of Bouillon and his brother Baldwin of Boulogne; Italo-Norman forces led by Bohemond of Taranto and his nephew Tancred; as well as various contingents consisting of northern French and Flemish forces under Robert Curthose of Normandy, Stephen of Blois, Hugh of Vermandois, and Robert II of Flanders. In total and including non-combatants, the forces are estimated to have numbered as many as 100,000.

The crusader forces gradually arrived in Anatolia. With Kilij Arslan absent, a Frankish attack and Byzantine naval assault during the Siege of Nicaea in June 1097 resulted in an initial crusader victory. In July, the crusaders won the Battle of Dorylaeum, fighting Turkish lightly armoured mounted archers. After a difficult march through Anatolia, the crusaders began the Siege of Antioch, capturing the city in June 1098. Jerusalem, then under the Fatimids, was reached in June 1099 and the Siege of Jerusalem resulted in the city being taken by assault from 7 June to 15 July 1099, during which its residents were ruthlessly massacred. A Fatimid counterattack was repulsed later that year at the Battle of Ascalon, ending the First Crusade. Afterwards, the majority of the crusaders returned home.

Four Crusader states were established in the Holy Land: the Kingdom of Jerusalem, the County of Edessa, the Principality of Antioch, and the County of Tripoli. The Crusader presence remained in the region in some form until the loss of the last major Crusader stronghold in the Siege of Acre in 1291. After this loss of all Crusader territory in the Levant, there were no further substantive attempts to recover the Holy Land.

Cite error: There are <ref group=upper-alpha> tags or {{efn-ua}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=upper-alpha}} template or {{notelist-ua}} template (see the help page).

1. ^ Asbridge 2012, p. 42, The Call of the Cross.

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July 16: 1955 - Original Disneyland park opens in Anaheim, California

Disneyland_Park_%28Anaheim%29

 

17 July: 1976: African countries boycott Olympics. The opening ceremony of the 21st Olympic games in Montreal is marred by the withdrawal of 25 African countries.

1976 Summer Olympics

Multi-sport event in Montreal, Canada

"Games of the XXI Olympiad" redirects here. For the album by Black Cab, see Games of the XXI Olympiad (album).

The 1976 Summer Olympics (French: Jeux olympiques d'été de 1976), officially known as the Games of the XXI Olympiad (French: Jeux de la XXIe Olympiade) and commonly known as Montreal 1976 (French: Montréal 1976), were an international multi-sport event held from July 17 to August 1, 1976, in Montreal, Quebec, Canada. Montreal was awarded the rights to the 1976 Games at the 69th IOC Session in Amsterdam on May 12, 1970, over the bids of Moscow and Los Angeles. It was the first and, so far, only Summer Olympic Games to be held in Canada. Toronto hosted the 1976 Summer Paralympics the same year as the Montreal Olympics, which still remains the only Summer Paralympics to be held in Canada. Calgary and Vancouver later hosted the Winter Olympic Games in 1988 and 2010, respectively.

Twenty-nine countries, mostly African, boycotted the Montreal Games when the International Olympic Committee (IOC) refused to ban New Zealand, after the New Zealand national rugby union team had toured South Africa earlier in 1976 in defiance of the United Nations' calls for a sporting embargo due to their racist apartheid policies. The Soviet Union won the most gold and overall medals.

1. ^ ^{a b} "Factsheet - Opening Ceremony of the Games of the Olympiad" (PDF) (Press release). International Olympic Committee. October 9, 2014. Archived (PDF) from the original on August 14, 2016. Retrieved December 22, 2018.

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19 July 1941, British Prime Minister Winston Churchill launched his "V for Victory" campaign in Europe

V sign

Hand sign (victory, peace or insult)

For the V sign of dermatomyositis, see Shawl sign. For the ∨ symbol, see Descending wedge.

The V sign is a hand gesture in which the index and middle fingers are raised and parted to make a V shape while the other fingers are clenched. It has various meanings, depending on the circumstances and how it is presented.

When displayed with the palm inward toward the signer, it can be an offensive gesture in some Commonwealth nations (similar to showing the middle finger), dating back to at least 1900. When given with the palm outward, it is to be read as a victory sign ("V for Victory"); this usage was introduced in January 1941 as part of a campaign by the Allies of World War II,^[1] and made more widely known by Winston Churchill. During the Vietnam War, in the 1960s, the "V sign" with palm outward was widely adopted by the counterculture as a symbol of peace and still today in the United States and worldwide as the "peace sign".

1. ^ Cosgrove, Ben (4 July 2014). "V for Victory: Celebrating a Gesture of Solidarity and Defiance". Time (magazine).

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20 July: 1969 - Apollo Program: Apollo 11 successfully lands the first man on the Moon.

Apollo 11

First crewed Moon landing (1969)

"First Moon landing" redirects here. For earlier uncrewed Moon landings, see Moon landing.

This article is about the 1969 crewed lunar mission. For other uses, see Apollo 11 (disambiguation).

Apollo 11 (July 16–24, 1969) was the American spaceflight that first landed humans on the Moon. Commander Neil Armstrong and Lunar Module Pilot Buzz Aldrin landed the Apollo Lunar Module Eagle on July 20, 1969, at 20:17 UTC, and Armstrong became the first person to step onto the Moon's surface six hours and 39 minutes later, on July 21 at 02:56 UTC. Aldrin joined him 19 minutes later, and they spent about two and a quarter hours together exploring the site they had named Tranquility Base upon landing. Armstrong and Aldrin collected 47.5 pounds (21.5 kg) of lunar material to bring back to Earth as pilot Michael Collins flew the Command Module Columbia in lunar orbit, and were on the Moon's surface for 21 hours, 36 minutes before lifting off to rejoin Columbia.

Apollo 11 was launched by a Saturn V rocket from Kennedy Space Center on Merritt Island, Florida, on July 16 at 13:32 UTC, and it was the fifth crewed mission of NASA's Apollo program. The Apollo spacecraft had three parts: a command module (CM) with a cabin for the three astronauts, the only part that returned to Earth; a service module (SM), which supported the command module with propulsion, electrical power, oxygen, and water; and a lunar module (LM) that had two stages—a descent stage for landing on the Moon and an ascent stage to place the astronauts back into lunar orbit.

After being sent to the Moon by the Saturn V's third stage, the astronauts separated the spacecraft from it and traveled for three days until they entered lunar orbit. Armstrong and Aldrin then moved into Eagle and landed in the Sea of Tranquility on July 20. The astronauts used Eagle's ascent stage to lift off from the lunar surface and rejoin Collins in the command module. They jettisoned Eagle before they performed the maneuvers that propelled Columbia out of the last of its 30 lunar orbits onto a trajectory back to Earth.^[9] They returned to Earth and splashed down in the Pacific Ocean on July 24 after more than eight days in space.

Armstrong's first step onto the lunar surface was broadcast on live TV to a worldwide audience. He described the event as "one small step for [a] man, one giant leap for mankind."^[a][15] Apollo 11 effectively proved U.S. victory in the Space Race to demonstrate spaceflight superiority, by fulfilling a national goal proposed in 1961 by President John F. Kennedy, "before this decade is out, of landing a man on the Moon and returning him safely to the Earth."^[16]

1. ^ Byrne., Dave (July 8, 2019). "Apollo 11 Image Library". hq.nasa.gov. Archived from the original on February 24, 2020. Retrieved June 10, 2021.
2. ^ "Apollo 11 Command and Service Module (CSM)". NASA Space Science Data Coordinated Archive. Archived from the original on February 10, 2021. Retrieved November 20, 2019.
3. ^ "Apollo 11 Lunar Module / EASEP". NASA Space Science Data Coordinated Archive. Archived from the original on August 3, 2019. Retrieved November 20, 2019.
4. ^ ^{a b} "Apollo 11 Press Kit" (PDF). history.nasa.gov. Archived from the original (PDF) on January 6, 2023. Retrieved December 16, 2022.
5. ^ "Ground Ignition Weights". history.nasa.gov. Retrieved May 31, 2022.
6. ^ Cite error: The named reference Mission Overview was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
7. ^ ^{a b c d e} "Apollo 11 Mission Summary". Smithsonian Air and Space Museum. Archived from the original on February 9, 2021. Retrieved September 6, 2019.
8. ^ ^{a b} Orloff 2000, p. 106.
9. ^ ^{a b c d} Orloff 2000, p. 109.
10. ^ Cite error: The named reference ALSJ 1 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
11. ^ Orloff 2000, p. 97.
12. ^ Williams, David R. (December 11, 2003). "Apollo Landing Site Coordinates". NASA Space Science Data Coordinated Archive. NASA. Archived from the original on December 25, 2018. Retrieved October 18, 2021.
13. ^ Orloff 2000, p. 107.
14. ^ Jones, Eric (April 8, 2018). "One Small Step". Apollo 11 Lunar Surface Journal. Archived from the original on September 3, 2019. Retrieved September 6, 2019.
15. ^ Cite error: The named reference ALSJ 4 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
16. ^ Stenger, Richard (May 25, 2001). "Man on the Moon: Kennedy speech ignited the dream". CNN. Archived from the original on June 6, 2010. Retrieved December 30, 2018.

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22 July: 2003 - Members of 101st Airborne of the United States, aided by Special Forces, attack a compound in Iraq, killing Saddam Hussein's sons Uday and Qusay, along with Mustapha Hussein, Qusay's 14-year old son, and a bodyguard.

Uday Hussein

Iraqi politician and son of Saddam Hussein (1964–2003)

Uday Saddam Hussein^[1][2] (Arabic: عدي صدام حسين; 18 June 1964 – 22 July 2003) was an Iraqi politician and the elder son of Saddam Hussein. He held numerous positions as a sports chairman, military officer and businessman, and was the head of the Iraqi Olympic Committee, Iraq Football Association, and the Fedayeen Saddam.

Uday Hussein was born in Baghdad. He was the eldest child of Iraqi president Saddam Hussein and his first wife and cousin, Sajida Talfah. Uday was seen for several years as the likely successor to his father but lost the place as heir apparent to his younger brother, Qusay, due to injuries in an assassination attempt. Following the United States-led invasion of Iraq in 2003, he was killed alongside Qusay and his nephew Mustafa by an American task force after a prolonged gunfight in Mosul.

Uday was reportedly erratically ruthless and intimidating to perceived adversaries as well as to close friends. Relatives and personal acquaintances were often victims of his violence and rage. Witness allegations have suggested he was guilty of rape, murder, and torture, including the arrest and torture of Iraqi Olympic athletes and members of the national football team whenever they lost a match.^[3][4][5][6]

1. ^ "Uday Saddam Hussein Al-Tikriti". www.un.org. United Nations Security Council. Retrieved 5 June 2021.
2. ^ Cite error: The named reference Cantrell was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
3. ^ Harris, Paul; Heslop, Katy (16 March 2003). "Iraq's dirty dozen". The Guardian. Retrieved 30 October 2017.
4. ^ Spidaliere, John M. (30 May 2003). "Sick tales of torture and brutality". LancasterOnline. Retrieved 13 March 2021.
5. ^ Goldenberg, Suzanne (19 April 2003). "Footballers who paid the penalty for failure". The Guardian. Retrieved 6 October 2019.
6. ^ Filkins, Dexter (2008). The Forever War. Alfred A. Knopf. p. 98. ISBN 978-0-307-26639-2.

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23 July: 1881 - The Federation Internationale de Gymnastique, the world's oldest international sport federation, is founded.

Federation Internationale de Gymnastique

Redirect to:

• International Gymnastics Federation

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24 July: 2005 - Lance Armstrong wins his seventh consecutive Tour de France.

Lance Armstrong

American cyclist (born 1971)

For the Australian politician, see Lance Armstrong (politician).

Lance Edward Armstrong (né Gunderson; born September 18, 1971)^[4] is an American former professional road racing cyclist. He achieved international fame for winning the Tour de France a record seven consecutive times from 1999 to 2005, but was stripped of his titles after an investigation into doping allegations, called the Lance Armstrong doping case, found he used performance-enhancing drugs over his career. He is currently banned for life from all sanctioned bicycling events.^[5]

At age 16, Armstrong began competing as a triathlete and was a national sprint-course triathlon champion in 1989 and 1990. In 1992, he began his career as a professional cyclist with the Motorola team. He had success between 1993 and 1996 with the World Championship in 1993, the Clásica de San Sebastián in 1995, Tour DuPont in 1995 and 1996, and a handful of stage victories in Europe, including stage 8 of the 1993 Tour de France and stage 18 of the 1995 Tour de France. In 1996, he was diagnosed with a potentially fatal metastatic testicular cancer. After his recovery, he founded the Lance Armstrong Foundation (now the Livestrong Foundation) to assist other cancer survivors.

Returning to cycling in 1998, Armstrong was a member of the US Postal/Discovery team between 1998 and 2005 when he won his seven Tour de France titles. Armstrong retired from racing at the end of the 2005 Tour de France, but returned to competitive cycling with the Astana team in January 2009, finishing third in the 2009 Tour de France later that year. Between 2010 and 2011, he raced with Team Radio Shack, and retired for a second time in 2011.

Armstrong became the subject of doping allegations after he won the 1999 Tour de France. For years, he denied involvement in doping. In 2012, a United States Anti-Doping Agency (USADA) investigation concluded that Armstrong had used performance-enhancing drugs over the course of his career^[6] and named him as the ringleader of "the most sophisticated, professionalized and successful doping program that sport has ever seen".^[7] While maintaining his innocence, Armstrong chose not to contest the charges, citing the potential toll on his family.^[8] He received a lifetime ban from all sports that follow the World Anti-Doping Code, ending his competitive cycling career.^[9] The International Cycling Union (UCI) upheld USADA's decision^[10] and decided that his stripped wins would not be allocated to other riders.^{[N 1][11]} In January 2013, Armstrong publicly admitted his involvement in doping. In April 2018, Armstrong settled a civil lawsuit with the United States Department of Justice and agreed to pay US$5 million to the U.S. government after whistleblower proceedings were commenced by Floyd Landis, a former team member.

1. ^ Fotheringham, William (2011). Cyclopedia: It's All about the Bike. Chicago Review Press. p. 18. ISBN 978-1-56976-948-5.
2. ^ Reilly, Rick (July 5, 2010). "Armstrong keeps passing tests". espn.go.com. Archived from the original on January 28, 2016. Retrieved May 12, 2013.
3. ^ ^{a b} Cite error: The named reference tdf was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
4. ^ "Lance Armstrong Fast Facts". CNN. January 17, 2013. Archived from the original on June 7, 2019. Retrieved July 10, 2017.
5. ^ Schrotenboer, Brent (September 7, 2016). "Lance Armstrong's ban is partially lifted". USA Today. Archived from the original on July 24, 2023. Retrieved July 24, 2023.
6. ^ Cite error: The named reference Lance Armstrong was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
7. ^ "Lance Armstrong: USADA report labels him 'a serial cheat'". BBC News. October 11, 2012. Archived from the original on October 11, 2012. Retrieved November 10, 2012.
8. ^ Cite error: The named reference NYTdropsfight was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
9. ^ "Lance Armstrong Receives Lifetime Ban And Disqualification Of Competitive Results For Doping Violations Stemming From His Involvement In The United States Postal Service Pro-Cycling Team Doping Conspiracy, USADA". Usada.org. August 24, 2012. Archived from the original on December 5, 2012. Retrieved November 10, 2012. the UCI recognized a decision from the U.S. Anti-Doping Agency
10. ^ Cite error: The named reference BBC-UCI was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
11. ^ ^{a b} "Press release: UCI takes decisive action in wake of Lance Armstrong affair". Union Cycliste Internationale. October 26, 2012. Archived from the original on August 26, 2013. Retrieved February 18, 2014.
12. ^ Cite error: The named reference auto1 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).

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25 July: Galicia (Spain) - National Day (Día da Pátria Galega).

D%C3%ADa_da_P%C3%A1tria_Galega

 

27 July: 1921 - Researchers at the University of Toronto led by biochemist Frederick Banting announce the discovery of the hormone insulin.

Frederick Banting

Canadian medical scientist and doctor

Sir Frederick Grant Banting KBE MC FRS FRSC FRCS FRCP^[3][4][5] (November 14, 1891 – February 21, 1941) was a Canadian pharmacologist, orthopedist, and field surgeon.^[6] For his co-discovery of insulin and its therapeutic potential, Banting was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine with John Macleod.^[7]

Banting and his student, Charles Best, isolated insulin at the University of Toronto in the lab of Scottish physiologist John Macleod.^[8] When he and Macleod received the 1923 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, Banting shared the honours and award money with Best. That same year, the government of Canada granted Banting a lifetime annuity to continue his work.^[9] To this day, Frederick Banting, who received the Nobel Prize at age 32, remains the youngest Nobel laureate for Physiology/Medicine.^[10]

1. ^ Collip 1941, p. 473.
2. ^ Bliss 1992, p. 39.
3. ^ Best 1942.
4. ^ "Sir Frederick Grant Banting | RCP Museum". Royal College of Physicians. Retrieved February 25, 2024.
5. ^ Bliss 1992, p. 214–215.
6. ^ "Frederick Grant Banting". Library and Archives Canada. February 24, 2015. Archived from the original on April 20, 2016. Retrieved April 4, 2016.
7. ^ "Frederick Grant Banting (1891–1941) Codiscoverer of Insulin". Journal of the American Medical Association. 198 (6): 660–61. 1966. doi:10.1001/jama.1966.03110190142041.
8. ^ "Frederick Grant Banting". Oxford Reference. Retrieved February 24, 2024.
9. ^ Toronto Daily Star (June 28, 1923). "Canada rewards Banting's service. Young physician will receive $7,500 yearly from federal treasury". University of Toronto Libraries.
10. ^ "Nobel Laureates by Age". Nobelprize.org. Nobel Media AB. Retrieved April 3, 2016.

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28 July: 1586 - First potato arrives in Britain.

Potato

Staple food, root tuber, starchy

For other uses, see Potato (disambiguation).

The potato (/pəˈteɪtoʊ/) is a starchy root vegetable native to the Americas that is consumed as a staple food in many parts of the world.^[2] Potatoes are tubers of the plant Solanum tuberosum, a perennial in the nightshade family Solanaceae.^[3]

Wild potato species can be found from the southern United States to southern Chile.^[4] The potato was originally believed to have been domesticated by Native Americans independently in multiple locations,^[5] but later genetic studies traced a single origin, in the area of present-day southern Peru and extreme northwestern Bolivia. Potatoes were domesticated there about 7,000–10,000 years ago from a species in the S. brevicaule complex.^[6][7][8] Many varieties of the potato are cultivated in the Andes region of South America, where the species is indigenous.

The Spanish introduced potatoes to Europe in the second half of the 16th century. They are a staple food in many parts of the world and an integral part of much of the world's food supply. Following millennia of selective breeding, there are now over 5,000 different varieties of potatoes.^[7] Over 99% of potatoes presently cultivated worldwide descend from varieties that originated in the lowlands of south-central Chile.^[9] The importance of the potato as a food source and culinary ingredient varies by region and is still changing. It remains an essential crop in Europe, especially Northern and Eastern Europe, where per capita production is still the highest in the world, while the most rapid expansion in production during the 21st century was in southern and eastern Asia, with China and India leading the world production of 376 million tonnes (370,000,000 long tons; 414,000,000 short tons) as of 2021.

Like the tomato, the potato is a nightshade in the genus Solanum, and the vegetative and fruiting parts of the potato contain the toxin solanine which is dangerous for human consumption. Normal potato tubers that have been grown and stored properly produce glycoalkaloids in negligible amounts, but, if green sections of the plant (namely sprouts and skins) are exposed to light, the tuber can accumulate a high enough concentration of glycoalkaloids to affect human health.^[10]

1. ^ "Solanum tuberosum L." Plants of the World Online. Board of Trustees of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. 2017. Retrieved 7 September 2020.
2. ^ Beals, Katherine A. (2019). "Potatoes, Nutrition and Health". American Journal of Potato Research. 96 (2): 102–110. doi:10.1007/s12230-018-09705-4.
3. ^ "Potato – Definition". Merriam-Webster. 21 June 2023.
4. ^ Hijmans, RJ; Spooner, DM (2001). "Geographic distribution of wild potato species". American Journal of Botany. 88 (11): 2101–12. doi:10.2307/3558435. JSTOR 3558435. PMID 21669641.
5. ^ "Finding rewrites the evolutionary history of the origin of potatoes". University of Wisconsin-Madison. 3 October 2005. Retrieved 23 January 2024.
6. ^ Spooner, David M.; McLean, Karen; Ramsay, Gavin; Waugh, Robbie; Bryan, Glenn J. (29 September 2005). "A single domestication for potato based on multilocus amplified fragment length polymorphism genotyping". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 102 (41): 14694–99. Bibcode:2005PNAS..10214694S. doi:10.1073/pnas.0507400102. PMC 1253605. PMID 16203994.
7. ^ ^{a b} Office of International Affairs (1989). Lost Crops of the Incas: Little-Known Plants of the Andes with Promise for Worldwide Cultivation. p. 92. doi:10.17226/1398. ISBN 978-0-309-04264-2.
8. ^ John Michael Francis (2005). Iberia and the Americas: Culture, Politics, and History : a Multidisciplinary Encyclopedia. ABC-CLIO. p. 867. ISBN 978-1-85109-421-9.
9. ^ Ames, M.; Spooner, D.M. (February 2008). "DNA from herbarium specimens settles a controversy about origins of the European potato". American Journal of Botany. 95 (2): 252–57. doi:10.3732/ajb.95.2.252. PMID 21632349. S2CID 41052277.
10. ^ Mendel Friedman, Gary M. McDonald & Mary Ann Filadelfi-Keszi (1997). "Potato Glycoalkaloids: Chemistry, Analysis, Safety, and Plant Physiology". Critical Reviews in Plant Sciences. 16 (1): 55–132. Bibcode:1997CRvPS..16...55F. doi:10.1080/07352689709701946.

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29 July: 1981 - Marriage of Prince Charles to Lady Diana Spencer

Lady Diana Spencer

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• Diana, Princess of Wales

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30 July: 1966 - England national football team win 1966 FIFA World Cup beating West Germany 4-2 in the Final

1966 FIFA World Cup

Association football tournament in England

International football competition

The 1966 FIFA World Cup was the eighth FIFA World Cup, a quadrennial football tournament for men's senior national teams. It was played in England from 11 to 30 July 1966. England defeated West Germany 4–2 in the final to win their first ever World Cup title. The final was level at 2–2 after 90 minutes and went to extra time, when Geoff Hurst scored two goals to complete his hat-trick, the first to be scored in a men's World Cup final. England were the fifth nation to win the event, and the third host nation to win after Uruguay in 1930 and Italy in 1934. Two time reigning champions Brazil failed to get past the group stages as they were defeated by Hungary and Portugal. It was the first time that defending champions were eliminated in the group stages after Italy in 1950. This would not occur again until 36 years later. It was opened by Queen Elizabeth II during the opening ceremony.^[1]

Two debut teams performed well at the competition – North Korea beat Italy 1–0 on the way to reaching the quarter-finals, where they lost to Portugal 5–3 after leading 3–0. Portugal themselves finished third, losing 2–1 to England in the semi-final. Portuguese striker Eusébio was the tournament's top scorer, with nine goals clinching the golden boot with three goals more than second placed Helmut Haller.

The 1966 World Cup was the first FIFA World Cup held in the English-speaking world. Matches were played at eight stadiums across England, with the final being held at Wembley Stadium, which had a capacity of 98,600.

All 15 African nations who entered the qualifying later boycotted the tournament in protest after FIFA, citing competitive and logistical issues, ruled that there would be no direct qualification for any African team. Prior to the tournament, the Jules Rimet trophy was stolen, but was recovered by a dog named Pickles four months before the tournament began. It was the first World Cup to have selected matches broadcast via satellite to countries on other continents.^[2] The final, which was broadcast locally by the BBC, was the last to be shown entirely in black and white.

1. ^ "Football mourns the loss of Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth II". FIFA. 8 September 2022.
2. ^ "World Cup 1966". ITV Football 1955-1968. Retrieved 7 August 2020.

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31 July:1964 - Ranger program: Ranger 7 sends back the first close-up photographs of the moon, with images 1,000 times clearer than anything ever seen from earth-bound telescopes.

Ranger 7

United States lunar space probe

Ranger 7 was the first space probe of the United States to successfully transmit close images of the lunar surface back to Earth. It was also the first completely successful flight of the Ranger program. Launched on July 28, 1964, Ranger 7 was designed to achieve a lunar-impact trajectory and to transmit high-resolution photographs of the lunar surface during the final minutes of flight up to impact.

The spacecraft carried six television vidicon cameras – two wide-angle (channel F, cameras A and B) and four narrow-angle (channel P) – to accomplish these objectives. The cameras were arranged in two separate chains, or channels, each self-contained with separate power supplies, timers, and transmitters so as to afford the greatest reliability and probability of obtaining high-quality video pictures. Ranger 7 transmitted over 4,300 photographs during the final 17 minutes of its flight. After 68.6 hours of flight, the spacecraft landed between Mare Nubium and Oceanus Procellarum. This landing site was later named Mare Cognitum. The velocity at impact was 1.62 miles per second, and the performance of the spacecraft exceeded hopes.^[3] No other experiments were carried on the spacecraft.^[4]

1. ^ ^{a b} "Ranger 7". NASA's Solar System Exploration website. Retrieved December 1, 2022.
2. ^ Samuel Lawrence (September 24, 2013). "LROC Coordinates of Robotic Spacecraft - 2013 Update". lroc.sese.asu.edu. Archived from the original on May 9, 2015. Retrieved June 9, 2015.
3. ^ Calvin J. Hamilton. "Ranger 7". Views of the Solar System.
4. ^ "National Space Science Data Center - Ranger 7". National Air and Space Administration. Retrieved December 3, 2022.

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1 August: 1941 - The first Jeep is produced.

Jeep

American automobile brand

This article is about the U.S. motor manufacturing company. For the original World War II Jeep, see Willys MB.

For other uses, see Jeep (disambiguation).

Jeep is an American automobile marque, now owned by multi-national corporation Stellantis.^[2][3] Jeep has been part of Chrysler since 1987, when Chrysler acquired the Jeep brand, along with other assets, from their previous owner American Motors Corporation (AMC).

Jeep's current product range consists solely of sport utility vehicles—both crossovers and fully off-road worthy SUVs and models, including one pickup truck. Previously, Jeep's range included other pick-ups, as well as small vans, and a few roadsters. Some of Jeep's vehicles—such as the Grand Cherokee—reach into the luxury SUV segment, a market segment the 1963 Wagoneer is considered to have started.^[4] Jeep sold 1.4 million SUVs globally in 2016, up from 500,000 in 2008,^[5][6] two-thirds of which in North America,^[7] and was Fiat-Chrysler's best selling brand in the U.S. during the first half of 2017.^[8] In the U.S. alone, over 2400 dealerships hold franchise rights to sell Jeep-branded vehicles, and if Jeep were spun off into a separate company, it is estimated to be worth between $22 and $33.5 billion—slightly more than all of FCA (US).^[7][6] Antonio Filosa is the current CEO of the Jeep brand worldwide.^[9]

Prior to 1940 the term "jeep" had been used as U.S. Army slang for new recruits or vehicles,^[10][11] but the World War II "jeep" that went into production in 1941 specifically tied the name to this light military 4×4, arguably making them the oldest four-wheel drive mass-production vehicles now known as SUVs.^[12] The Jeep became the primary light four-wheel-drive vehicle of the United States Armed Forces and the Allies during World War II, as well as the postwar period. The term became common worldwide in the wake of the war. Doug Stewart noted:^[13] "The spartan, cramped, and unstintingly functional jeep became the ubiquitous World War II four-wheeled personification of Yankee ingenuity and cocky, can-do determination." It is the precursor of subsequent generations of military light utility vehicles such as the Humvee, and inspired the creation of civilian analogs such as the original Series I Land Rover.^[14][15] Many Jeep variants serving similar military and civilian roles have since been designed in other nations.

The Jeep marque has been headquartered in Toledo, Ohio, ever since Willys–Overland launched production of the first CJ or Civilian Jeep branded models there in 1945.^[16] Its replacement, the conceptually consistent Jeep Wrangler series, has remained in production since 1986. With its solid axles and open top, the Wrangler has been called the Jeep model that is as central to the brand's identity as the 911 is to Porsche.^[17]

At least two Jeep models (the CJ-5 and the SJ Wagoneer) enjoyed extraordinary three-decade production runs of a single body generation.

In lowercase, the term "jeep" continues to be used as a generic term for vehicles inspired by the Jeep that are suitable for use on rough terrain.^[18] In Iceland, the word Jeppi (derived from Jeep) has been used since World War II and is still used for any type of SUV.

1. ^ Cite error: The named reference Statham was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
2. ^ "Chrysler 8-K/A SEC filing" (PDF). secdatabase.com. December 3, 2012. Retrieved January 18, 2015. ... served as the auditor for Fiat S.p.A. and its consolidated subsidiaries, which include Chrysler Group
3. ^ "Chrysler Group LLC". InsideView company data. Archived from the original on September 27, 2013. Retrieved January 18, 2015. Chrysler Group LLC operates as a subsidiary of Fiat North America LLC
4. ^ Gunnell, John (2005). American Cars of the 1960s: A Decade of Diversity. Krause Publications. p. 213. ISBN 978-0-89689-131-9.
5. ^ Peterson, George (February 24, 2017). "Jeep Guns For 2 Million In Annual Sales". Forbes. Retrieved November 10, 2020.
6. ^ ^{a b} Snavely, Brent. "Could Fiat Chrysler spin off Jeep, Ram? 'Yes'". Detroit Free Press. Retrieved May 30, 2019.
7. ^ ^{a b} "China's Great Wall wants to buy Jeep". Automotive News Europe. August 18, 2017. Retrieved May 30, 2019.
8. ^ Ebhardt, Tommaso; Butters, Jamie (August 24, 2017). "Marchionne Is Betting Big on Rugged Jeep to Steer Fiat". Bloomberg News. Retrieved October 17, 2020.
9. ^ "Stellantis Announces Changes in Leadership Team" (Press release). Stellantis NV. Retrieved February 23, 2024.
10. ^ Cite error: The named reference Jeeps4145 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
11. ^ Cite error: The named reference ODjeepname was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
12. ^ Russell, Philip (2013). 100 Military Inventions that Changed the World. Little, Brown Book Group. ISBN 978-1-4721-0670-4. Retrieved January 18, 2015.
13. ^ Stewart, Doug (1992). "Hail to the jeep! Could we have won without it?". Smithsonian. 23 (8): 60–69.
14. ^ Gunn, Richard (2006). Trucks & Off-Road Vehicles. Motorbooks. p. 137. ISBN 978-0-7603-2569-8. Retrieved July 31, 2011.^{[permanent dead link]}
15. ^ Robson, Graham (1981). The Rover Story. Stephens. p. 87. ISBN 978-0-85059-543-7. The first Land-Rover owed a lot to the Jeep. Designer Gordon Bashford, who laid out the basic concept, makes no secret of that. It was also his job to go off to an ex-WD surplus vehicle dump in the Cotswolds, buy a couple of roadworthy Jeeps ...
16. ^ Allen, Jim (2004). Jeep Collector's Library. MBI. pp. 49–51. ISBN 978-0-7603-1979-6. Retrieved May 22, 2014.
17. ^ Cite error: The named reference CurbClassic was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
18. ^ Morr, Tom; Brubaker, Ken (2007). The Joy of Jeep. MBI. p. 50. ISBN 978-0-7603-3061-6. Retrieved October 28, 2010.^{[permanent dead link]}

Cite error: There are <ref group=note> tags on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=note}} template (see the help page).

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