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27 February 1829 Battle of Tarqui is fought.

Battle of Tarqui

1829 battle between Colombia and Peru

The Battle of Tarqui, also known as the Battle of Portete de Tarqui, took place on 27 February 1829 at Tarqui, near Cuenca, today part of Ecuador. It was fought between troops from Gran Colombia, commanded by Antonio José de Sucre, and Peruvian troops under José de La Mar. Although the Colombian troops achieved victory over the Peruvian vanguard, destroying it and forcing the rest of their forces to withdraw, they suffered heavy losses in their cavalry with the Peruvian charge, which made it difficult to continue the campaign and caused the stabilization of the front.

For this reason, Sucre and La Mar signed an armistice in Girón, a prelude to the negotiation of the end of hostilities and the establishment of limits between the two countries. However, the breach of the agreement almost led to a continuation of the war, an event that was prevented by the political instability in Peru that led to the deposition of La Mar by Agustín Gamarra. The new Peruvian president negotiated the signing of the peace treaty with Colombia, known as the Treaty of Guayaquil. At the same time, however, events were taking place that would lead to the dissolution of Gran Colombia.

The anniversary of the battle is conmemorated as Army Day by the Ecuadorian Army.

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28 February 1939 The erroneous word "dord" is discovered in the Webster's New International Dictionary, Second Edition, prompting an investigation.

Dord

Ghost word created as a dictionary error

This article is about a lexicographic error. For other uses, see Dord (disambiguation).

The word dord is a dictionary error in lexicography. It was accidentally created, as a ghost word, by the staff of G. and C. Merriam Company (now part of Merriam-Webster) in the New International Dictionary, second edition (1934). That dictionary defined the term as a synonym for density used in physics and chemistry in the following way:^[1]

dord (dôrd), n. Physics & Chem. Density.^[2]

Philip Babcock Gove, an editor at Merriam-Webster who became editor-in-chief of Webster's Third New International Dictionary, wrote a letter to the journal American Speech, fifteen years after the error was caught, in which he explained how the "dord" error was introduced and corrected.^[3]

On 31 July 1931, Austin M. Patterson, the dictionary's chemistry editor, sent in a slip reading "D or d, cont./density." This was intended to add "density" to the existing list of words that the letter "D" can abbreviate. The phrase "D or d" was misinterpreted as a single, run-together word: Dord. This was a plausible mistake because headwords on slips were typed with spaces between the letters, so "D or d" looked very much like "D o r d". The original slip went missing, so a new slip was prepared for the printer, which assigned a part of speech (noun) and a pronunciation. The would-be word was not questioned or corrected by proofreaders.^[3] The entry appeared on page 771 of the dictionary around 1934, between the entries for Dorcopsis (a type of small kangaroo) and doré (golden in color).^[1]

On 28 February 1939, an editor noticed "dord" lacked an etymology and investigated, discovering the error. An order was sent to the printer marked "plate change/imperative/urgent". The non-word "dord" was excised; "density" was added as an additional meaning for the abbreviation "D or d" as originally intended,^[4] and the definition of the adjacent entry "Doré furnace" was expanded from "A furnace for refining Doré bullion" to "a furnace in which Doré bullion is refined" to close up the space. Gove wrote that this was "probably too bad, for why shouldn't dord mean 'density'?"^[3] In 1940, bound books began appearing without the ghost word, although inspection of printed copies well into the 1940s shows "dord" still present.^[5] The entry "dord" was not completely removed until 1947.^[6]

1. ^ ^{a b} Eschner, Kat (28 February 2017). "As "Dord" Shows, Being in the Dictionary Doesn't Always Mean Something's a Word". Smithsonian. Retrieved 17 March 2017.
2. ^ Mikkelson, David (4 January 2015). "Dord: The Word That Didn't Exist". Snopes.com. Retrieved 6 March 2019.
3. ^ ^{a b c} Gove, Philip Babcock (1954). "The History of 'Dord'". American Speech. 29 (2): 136–138. doi:10.2307/453337. JSTOR 453337.
4. ^ "Erroneous word "Dord" is discovered in dictionary". History Channel. Archived from the original on 18 March 2017. Retrieved 17 March 2017.
5. ^ Neilson, William Allan, ed. (1943). "dord". Webster's New International Dictionary (Second ed.). G. & C. Merriam Company.
6. ^ Brewster, Emily. "Ask the Editor: Ghost Word". Merriam-Webster.com.

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29 February 1996 Faucett Flight 251 crashes in the Andes, all 123 passengers and crew died.

Faucett Flight 251

Redirect to:

• Faucett Perú Flight 251

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1 March 1901 The Australian Army is formed.

Australian Army

Land warfare branch of the Australian Defence Force

Military unit

The Australian Army is the principal land warfare force of Australia, a part of the Australian Defence Force (ADF) along with the Royal Australian Navy and the Royal Australian Air Force. The Army is commanded by the Chief of Army (CA), who is subordinate to the Chief of the Defence Force (CDF) who commands the ADF. The CA is also directly responsible to the Minister for Defence, with the Department of Defence administering the ADF and the Army.^[4]

Formed in 1901, as the Commonwealth Military Forces, through the amalgamation of the colonial forces of Australia following the Federation of Australia. Although Australian soldiers have been involved in a number of minor and major conflicts throughout Australia's history, only during the Second World War has Australian territory come under direct attack.

The Australian Army was initially composed almost completely of part–time soldiers, where the vast majority were in units of the Citizens Military Force (CMF or Militia) (1901–1980) during peacetime, with limits set on the regular Army. Since all reservists were barred from forcibly serving overseas, volunteer expeditionary forces (1st AIF, ANMEF, 2nd AIF) were formed to enable the Army to send large numbers of soldiers to serve overseas during periods of war.^[5][6] This period lasted from federation until post–1947, when a standing peacetime regular army was formed and the Australian Army Reserve (1980–present) began to decline in importance.^[7][6]

During its history, the Australian Army has fought in a number of major wars, including the Second Boer War, the First and Second World Wars, Korean War, Malayan Emergency, Indonesia-Malaysia Confrontation, Vietnam War,^[8] the War in Afghanistan (2001–2021) and the Iraq War.^[9] Since 1947, the Australian Army has also been involved in many peacekeeping operations, usually under the auspices of the United Nations. Today, it participates in multilateral and unilateral military exercises and provides emergency disaster relief and humanitarian aid in response to domestic and international crises.

1. ^ Commonwealth of Australia (2023). "Department of Defence Annual Report 2022-23" (PDF). Department of Defence. Retrieved 13 February 2023.
2. ^ Walsh, Hannah (24 April 2022). "Second Malayan Emergency veteran reflects on little-known conflict, the communist insurgency". ABC News. Archived from the original on 25 April 2022. Retrieved 26 April 2022.
3. ^ "Commonwealth of Australia Constitution Act – Section 68: Command of naval and military forces". Austlii. Archived from the original on 1 March 2021. Retrieved 25 March 2021.
4. ^ "Defence Act (1903) – SECT 9 Command of Defence Force and arms of Defence Force". Australasian Legal Information Institute. Archived from the original on 30 November 2016. Retrieved 19 October 2010.
5. ^ Grey 2008, pp. 88 & 147.
6. ^ ^{a b} Odgers 1988, p. 5.
7. ^ Grey 2008, pp. 200–201.
8. ^ Odgers 1988.
9. ^ Grey 2008, pp. 284–285.

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2 March 1946 Ho Chi Minh is elected the President of North Vietnam.

Ho Chi Minh

Vietnamese communist leader (1890–1969)

For other uses, see Ho Chi Minh (disambiguation).

Hồ Chí Minh^[a][b] (né Nguyễn Sinh Cung;^{[c][d][e][3][4]} 19 May 1890 – 2 September 1969),^[f] colloquially known as Uncle Ho (Bác Hồ) or just Uncle (Bác),^[g][7] and by other aliases^[h] and sobriquets,^[i] was a Vietnamese communist revolutionary, nationalist, and politician. He served as prime minister of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam from 1945 to 1955 and as president from 1945 until his death, in 1969. Ideologically a Marxist–Leninist, he was the Chairman and First Secretary of the Workers' Party of Vietnam, the predecessor of the current Communist Party of Vietnam.

Hồ Chí Minh was born in Nghệ An province in the French protectorate of Annam. From 1911, he left French Indochina to continue his revolutionary activities. He was also one of the founding members of the French Communist Party. In 1930, he founded the Communist Party of Vietnam and in 1941, he returned to Vietnam and founded the Việt Minh independence movement, an umbrella group. Then, Hồ led the August Revolution against the Japanese in August 1945, which resulted in the independence of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam. After the French returned to power the following month, Hồ's government retreated to the Việt Bắc region and began guerrilla warfare. The Việt Minh defeated the French Union in 1954 at the Battle of Điện Biên Phủ, ending the First Indochina War, and resulting in the division of Vietnam, with the Việt Minh in control of North Vietnam, and anti-communists in control of South Vietnam. He was a key figure in the People's Army of Vietnam during the Vietnam War, which lasted from 1955 to 1975. Hồ officially stepped down from power in 1965 due to health problems and died in 1969. North Vietnam was ultimately victorious against South Vietnam and its allies. Vietnam was officially unified in 1976. Saigon, the former capital of South Vietnam, was renamed Ho Chi Minh City in his honor.

The details of Hồ Chí Minh's life before he came to power in Vietnam are uncertain. He is known to have used between 50^[10]: 582 and 200 pseudonyms.^[11] Information on his birth and early life is ambiguous and subject to academic debate. At least four existing official biographies vary on names, dates, places, and other hard facts while unofficial biographies vary even more widely.^[12]

Aside from being a politician, Hồ was a writer, poet, and journalist. He wrote several books, articles, and poems in Chinese, Vietnamese, and French.

1. ^ "Ho Chi Minh". Random House Webster's Unabridged Dictionary.
2. ^ Vũ Ngự Chiêu (23 October 2011). "Vài vấn nạn lịch sử thế kỷ XX: Hồ Chí Minh – Nhà ngoại giao, 1945–1946". Hợp Lưu Magazine (in Vietnamese). Archived from the original on 7 January 2019. Retrieved 10 December 2013. Note: See the document in French, from Centre des archives d'Outre-mer [CAOM] (Aix)/Gouvernement General de l'Indochine [GGI]/Fonds Residence Superieure d'Annam [RSA]/carton R1, and the note in English at the end of the cited article
3. ^ Trần Quốc Vượng. "Lời truyền miệng dân gian về Hồ Chí Minh". BBC Vietnamese. Retrieved 10 December 2013.
4. ^ Nguyễn Vĩnh Châu. "Phỏng vấn sử gia Vũ Ngự Chiêu về những nghiên cứu lịch sử liên quan đến Hồ Chí Minh". Hợp Lưu Magazine. Archived from the original on 3 December 2013. Retrieved 10 December 2013.
5. ^ Nguyễn Xuân Tùng (18 September 2014). "Giới thiệu những tư liệu về Di chúc của Chủ tịch Hồ Chí Minh" [Introduction to documents related to President Ho Chi Minh's will] (in Vietnamese). Ministry of Justice (Vietnam). Retrieved 1 October 2021.
6. ^ Ngo, Tam T. T. (2018). "The Uncle Hồ religion in Vietnam". In Dean, Kenneth; van der Veer, Peter (eds.). The Secular in South, East, and Southeast Asia. Springer. p. 219. ISBN 978-3-319-89369-3.
7. ^ "Uncle Ho's legacy lives on in Vietnam". BBC News. 6 June 2012. Retrieved 25 April 2022.
8. ^ Watanabe, Musa (25 July 2014). "Father of modern Vietnam, Ho Chi Minh". The OpenLab at New York City College of Technology. Retrieved 17 April 2023.
9. ^ Woolf, Chris (18 September 2017). "The little-known story of Vietnamese communist leader Ho Chi Minh's admiration for the US". The World.
10. ^ Duiker, William J. Ho Chi Minh: A Life. New York: Hyperion, 2000.
11. ^ Duncanson 1957, p. 85.
12. ^ Pike 1976.

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3 March 2014 The trial of Oscar Pistorius begins in Pretoria.

 

4 March 2001 BBC bombing: A massive car bomb explodes in front of the BBC Television Centre in London, seriously injuring one person. The attack was attributed to the Real IRA.

2001 BBC bombing

2001 IRA terrorist attack on the BBC headquarters in London

The 2001 BBC bombing was a terrorist attack on the BBC's main news centre within BBC Television Centre, on Wood Lane in the White City area of West London.

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5 March 1946 Winston Churchill coins the phrase "Iron Curtain" in his speech at Westminster College, Missouri.

Iron Curtain

Political boundary dividing Europe during the Cold War

For other uses, see Iron Curtain (disambiguation).

During the Cold War, the Iron Curtain is a political metaphor used to describe the political boundary dividing Europe into two separate areas from the end of World War II in 1945 until the end of the Cold War in 1991. The term symbolizes the efforts by the Soviet Union (USSR) to block itself and its Satellite States from open contact with the West, its allies and neutral states. On the east side of the Iron Curtain were the countries that were connected to or influenced by the Soviet Union, while on the west side were the countries that were NATO members, or connected to or influenced by the United States; or nominally neutral. Separate international economic and military alliances were developed on each side of the Iron Curtain. It later became a term for the 7,000-kilometre-long (4,300 mi) physical barrier of fences, walls, minefields, and watchtowers that divided the "east" and "west". The Berlin Wall was also part of this physical barrier.

The nations to the east of the Iron Curtain were Poland, East Germany, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Romania, Bulgaria, Albania^[b], and the USSR; however, East Germany, Czechoslovakia, and the USSR have since ceased to exist. Countries that made up the USSR were Russia, Belarus, Latvia, Ukraine, Estonia, Moldova, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia, Uzbekistan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Lithuania, Turkmenistan, and Kazakhstan. The events that demolished the Iron Curtain started with peaceful opposition in Poland,^[3][4] and continued into Hungary, East Germany, Bulgaria, and Czechoslovakia. Romania became the only socialist state in Europe to overthrow its government with violence.^[5][6]

The use of the term "Iron Curtain" as a metaphor for strict separation goes back at least as far as the early 19th century. It originally referred to fireproof curtains in theaters.^[7] The author Alexander Campbell used the term metaphorically in his 1945 book It's Your Empire, describing "an iron curtain of silence and censorship [which] has descended since the Japanese conquests of 1942".^[8] Its popularity as a Cold War symbol is attributed to its use in a speech Winston Churchill gave on 5 March 1946, in Fulton, Missouri, soon after the end of World War II.^[7]

On the one hand, the Iron Curtain was a separating barrier between the power blocs and, on the other hand, natural biotopes were formed here, as the European Green Belt shows today.

Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

1. ^ Zagreb, University of; HR (25 November 2019). "False: Croatian President claims she was born behind the Iron Curtain". eufactcheck.eu. Retrieved 15 December 2022.
2. ^ "Jugoslavija le pogojno del železne zavese" [Yugoslavia Only Conditionally Part of the Iron Curtain]. MMC RTV Slovenija (in Slovenian). 1 February 2008.
3. ^ Sorin Antohi and Vladimir Tismăneanu, "Independence Reborn and the Demons of the Velvet Revolution" in Between Past and Future: The Revolutions of 1989 and Their Aftermath, Central European University Press. ISBN 963-9116-71-8. p.85.
4. ^ Boyes, Roger (4 June 2009). "World Agenda: 20 years later, Poland can lead eastern Europe once again". The Times. Retrieved 4 June 2009.
5. ^ Lucian-Dumitru Dîrdală, The End of the Ceauşescu Regime – A Theoretical Convergence (PDF)
6. ^ Piotr Sztompka, preface to Society in Action: the Theory of Social Becoming, University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0-226-78815-6. p. x.
7. ^ ^{a b} Cite error: The named reference Feuerlicht was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
8. ^ Alexander Campbell, It's Your Empire, Victor Gollancz Ltd., London, 1945, p.8.

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6 March 1899 Bayer registers "Aspirin" as a trademark.

Aspirin

Medication

For the Persian-language TV series, see Aspirin (TV series).

Not to be confused with Robert Asprin.

Aspirin, also known as acetylsalicylic acid (ASA), is a nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) used to reduce pain, fever, and/or inflammation, and as an antithrombotic.^[9] Specific inflammatory conditions which aspirin is used to treat include Kawasaki disease, pericarditis, and rheumatic fever.^[9]

Aspirin is also used long-term to help prevent further heart attacks, ischaemic strokes, and blood clots in people at high risk.^[9] For pain or fever, effects typically begin within 30 minutes.^[9] Aspirin works similarly to other NSAIDs but also suppresses the normal functioning of platelets.^[9]

One common adverse effect is an upset stomach.^[9] More significant side effects include stomach ulcers, stomach bleeding, and worsening asthma.^[9] Bleeding risk is greater among those who are older, drink alcohol, take other NSAIDs, or are on other blood thinners.^[9] Aspirin is not recommended in the last part of pregnancy.^[9] It is not generally recommended in children with infections because of the risk of Reye syndrome.^[9] High doses may result in ringing in the ears.^[9]

A precursor to aspirin found in the bark of the willow tree (genus Salix) has been used for its health effects for at least 2,400 years.^[10][11] In 1853, chemist Charles Frédéric Gerhardt treated the medicine sodium salicylate with acetyl chloride to produce acetylsalicylic acid for the first time.^[12] Over the next 50 years, other chemists, mostly of the German company Bayer, established the chemical structure and devised more efficient production methods.^{[12]: 69–75}

Aspirin is available without medical prescription as a proprietary or generic medication^[9] in most jurisdictions. It is one of the most widely used medications globally, with an estimated 40,000 tonnes (44,000 tons) (50 to 120 billion pills)^{[clarification needed]} consumed each year,^[10][13] and is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines.^[14] In 2021, it was the 34th most commonly prescribed medication in the United States, with more than 17 million prescriptions.^[15][16]

1. ^ "Aspirin Use During Pregnancy". Drugs.com. 2 April 2018. Retrieved 29 December 2019.
2. ^ "OTC medicine monograph: Aspirin tablets for oral use". Therapeutic Goods Administration (TGA). 21 June 2022. Retrieved 4 April 2023.
3. ^ "Poisons Standard October 2022". Australian Government Federal Register of Legislation. 26 September 2022. Retrieved 9 January 2023.
4. ^ "Aspirin Product information". Health Canada. 22 October 2009. Retrieved 20 August 2023.
5. ^ ^{a b} "Zorprin, Bayer Buffered Aspirin (aspirin) dosing, indications, interactions, adverse effects, and more". Medscape Reference. WebMD. Archived from the original on 7 April 2014. Retrieved 3 April 2014.
6. ^ ^{a b c} Brayfield A, ed. (14 January 2014). "Aspirin". Martindale: The Complete Drug Reference. Pharmaceutical Press. Retrieved 3 April 2014.
7. ^ CID 2244 from PubChem
8. ^ Cite error: The named reference b92 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
9. ^ ^{a b c d e f g h i j k l} "Aspirin". American Society of Health-System Pharmacists. 29 November 2021. Archived from the original on 25 April 2017 – via Drugs.com.
10. ^ ^{a b} Jones A (2015). Chemistry: An Introduction for Medical and Health Sciences. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 5–6. ISBN 978-0-470-09290-3.
11. ^ Ravina E (2011). The Evolution of Drug Discovery: From Traditional Medicines to Modern Drugs. John Wiley & Sons. p. 24. ISBN 978-3-527-32669-3.
12. ^ ^{a b} Jeffreys D (2008). Aspirin the remarkable story of a wonder drug. Bloomsbury Publishing USA. ISBN 978-1-59691-816-0. Archived from the original on 8 September 2017.^: 46–48
13. ^ Warner TD, Mitchell JA (October 2002). "Cyclooxygenase-3 (COX-3): filling in the gaps toward a COX continuum?". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 99 (21): 13371–3. Bibcode:2002PNAS...9913371W. doi:10.1073/pnas.222543099. PMC 129677. PMID 12374850.
14. ^ World Health Organization (2023). The selection and use of essential medicines 2023: web annex A: World Health Organization model list of essential medicines: 23rd list (2023). Geneva: World Health Organization. hdl:10665/371090. WHO/MHP/HPS/EML/2023.02.
15. ^ "The Top 300 of 2021". ClinCalc. Archived from the original on 15 January 2024. Retrieved 14 January 2024.
16. ^ "Aspirin - Drug Usage Statistics, US 2013-2021". ClinCalc. Retrieved 14 January 2024.

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7 March 1876 Alexander Graham Bell is granted a patent for an invention he calls the telephone.

Alexander Graham Bell

Scottish, later also Canadian-American scientist and inventor (1847–1922)

Alexander Graham Bell (/ˈɡreɪ.əm/, born Alexander Bell; March 3, 1847 – August 2, 1922)^[4] was a Scottish-born^{[N 1]} Canadian-American inventor, scientist and engineer who is credited with patenting the first practical telephone. He also co-founded the American Telephone and Telegraph Company (AT&T) in 1885.^[7]

Bell's father, grandfather, and brother had all been associated with work on elocution and speech, and both his mother and wife were deaf; profoundly influencing Bell's life's work.^[8] His research on hearing and speech further led him to experiment with hearing devices which eventually culminated in Bell being awarded the first U.S. patent for the telephone, on March 7, 1876.^{[N 2]} Bell considered his invention an intrusion on his real work as a scientist and refused to have a telephone in his study.^{[9][N 3]}

Many other inventions marked Bell's later life, including groundbreaking work in optical telecommunications, hydrofoils, and aeronautics. Bell also had a strong influence on the National Geographic Society^[11] and its magazine while serving as the second president from January 7, 1898, until 1903.

Beyond his work in engineering, Bell had a deep interest in the emerging science of heredity.^[12] His work in this area has been called "the soundest, and most useful study of human heredity proposed in nineteenth-century America... Bell's most notable contribution to basic science, as distinct from invention."^[13]

1. ^ Boileau, John (2004). Fastest in the World: The Saga of Canada's Revolutionary Hydrofoils. Halifax, Nova Scotia: Formac Publishing. p. 12. ISBN 978-0-88780-621-6.
2. ^ [Is the following a quote from the source referenced?:] While Bell worked in many scientific, technical, professional and social capacities throughout his life he would remain fondest of his earliest vocation. To the end of his days, when discussing himself, Bell would always add with pride "I am a teacher of the deaf".^[1]
3. ^ "Particle Physics Resurrects Alexander Graham Bell's Voice". IEEE Spectrum. April 30, 2018. Retrieved May 10, 2018.
4. ^ "The Bell Family". Bell Homestead National Historic Site. Retrieved September 27, 2013.
5. ^ Gray 2006, p. 228.
6. ^ Reville, F. Douglas (1920). History of the County of Brant: Illustrated With Fifty Half-Tones Taken From Miniatures And Photographs (PDF). Brantford, Ontario: Brantford Historical Society & Hurley Printing. p. 319. Archived from the original (PDF) on April 19, 2012. Retrieved May 4, 2012.
7. ^ Bruce 1990, p. 291.
8. ^ Bruce, Robert V. (1990). Bell: Alexander Bell and the Conquest of Solitude. Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press. p. 419. ISBN 978-0-8014-9691-2.
9. ^ MacLeod, Elizabeth (1999). Alexander Graham Bell: An Inventive Life. Toronto, Ontario: Kids Can Press. p. 19. ISBN 978-1-55074-456-9.
10. ^ Bell, Mabel (October 1922). "Dr. Bell's Appreciation of the Telephone Service". Bell Telephone Quarterly. 1 (3): 65. Retrieved September 18, 2015.
11. ^ Howley, Andrew (May 26, 2011). "NGS Celebrates 23rd Founders Day". NGS. National Geographic Society. Archived from the original on February 2, 2016. Retrieved January 18, 2016. Though he wasn't one of the original 33 founders, Bell had a major influence on the Society.
12. ^ Stansfield, W. D. (January 1, 2005). "The Bell Family Legacies". Journal of Heredity. 96 (1): 1–3. doi:10.1093/jhered/esi007. ISSN 0022-1503. PMID 15618310.
13. ^ Cite error: The named reference bruce1990 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).

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8 March 1974 Charles de Gaulle Airport opens in Paris, France.

Charles de Gaulle Airport

Main airport serving Paris, France

Paris Charles de Gaulle Airport ^[a] (IATA: CDG, ICAO: LFPG), also known as Roissy Airport or simply Paris CDG, is the main international airport serving Paris, France. Opened in 1974, it is in Roissy-en-France, 23 km (14 mi) northeast of Paris and is named after World War II statesman Charles de Gaulle (1890–1970), whose initials (CDG) are used as its IATA airport code.

Charles de Gaulle Airport serves as the principal hub for Air France and a destination for other legacy carriers (from Star Alliance, Oneworld and SkyTeam), as well as an operating base for easyJet and Norse Atlantic Airways. It is operated by Groupe ADP (Aéroports de Paris) under the brand Paris Aéroport.

In 2022, the airport handled 57,474,033 passengers and 34,657 aircraft movements,^[1] thus making it the world's ninth busiest airport and Europe's third busiest airport (after Istanbul and Heathrow) in terms of passenger numbers. Charles de Gaulle is also the busiest airport within the European Union. In terms of cargo traffic, the airport is the eleventh busiest in the world and the busiest in Europe, handling 2,102,268 tonnes (2,069,066 long tons; 2,317,354 short tons) of cargo in 2019.^[2] It is also the airport that is served by the greatest number of airlines, with more than 105 airlines operating at the airport.^[3]

As of 2017^[update], the airport offers direct flights to the most countries and hosts the most airlines in the world.^[4] Marc Houalla has been the director of the airport since 12 February 2018.

Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

1. ^ "Traffic Paris Aéroport and Groupe ADP airports". www.parisaeroport.fr. Retrieved 7 April 2023.
2. ^ "Statistiques annuelles". Union des aéroports Français. Archived from the original on 29 February 2012. Retrieved 24 February 2012.
3. ^ "which airport serves the most airlines?". travelupdate.com. 4 June 2020. Archived from the original on 13 November 2022. Retrieved 31 May 2022.
4. ^ "Frankfurt and Paris CDG lead global analysis of airports in S17". anna.aero. 15 February 2017. Archived from the original on 29 January 2023.

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9 March 1959 The Barbie doll makes its debut at the American International Toy Fair in New York.

Barbie

Fashion doll brand by Mattel

This article is about the fashion doll and brand. For other uses, see Barbie (disambiguation).

Barbie is a fashion doll created by American businesswoman Ruth Handler, manufactured by American toy and entertainment company Mattel and introduced on March 9, 1959. The toy was based on the German Bild Lilli doll which Handler had purchased while in Europe. The figurehead of an eponymous brand that includes a range of fashion dolls and accessories, Barbie has been an important part of the toy fashion doll market for over six decades. Mattel has sold over a billion Barbie dolls, making it the company's largest and most profitable line.^[1] The brand has expanded into a multimedia franchise since 1984, including video games, animated films, television/web series, and a live-action film.

Barbie and her male counterpart, Ken, have been described as the two most popular dolls in the world.^[2] Mattel generates a large portion of Barbie revenue though related merchandise — accessories, clothes, friends, and relatives of Barbie. Writing for Journal of Popular Culture in 1977, Don Richard Cox noted that Barbie has a significant impact on social values by conveying characteristics of female independence, and with her multitude of accessories, an idealized upscale lifestyle that can be shared with affluent friends.^[3]

1. ^ Cite error: The named reference wsj.com was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
2. ^ Norton, Kevin I.; Olds, Timothy S.; Olive, Scott; Dank, Stephen (February 1, 1996). "Ken and Barbie at life size". Sex Roles. 34 (3): 287–294. doi:10.1007/BF01544300. ISSN 1573-2762. S2CID 143568530.
3. ^ Don Richard Cox, "Barbie and her playmates." Journal of Popular Culture 11.2 (1977): 303-307.

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10 March 1977 Rings of Uranus: Astronomers discover rings around Uranus.

Rings of Uranus

Planetary ring system of Uranus

The rings of Uranus are intermediate in complexity between the more extensive set around Saturn and the simpler systems around Jupiter and Neptune. The rings of Uranus were discovered on March 10, 1977, by James L. Elliot, Edward W. Dunham, and Jessica Mink. William Herschel had also reported observing rings in 1789; modern astronomers are divided on whether he could have seen them, as they are very dark and faint.^[1]

By 1977, nine distinct rings were identified. Two additional rings were discovered in 1986 in images taken by the Voyager 2 spacecraft, and two outer rings were found in 2003–2005 in Hubble Space Telescope photos. In the order of increasing distance from the planet the 13 known rings are designated 1986U2R/ζ, 6, 5, 4, α, β, η, γ, δ, λ, ε, ν and μ. Their radii range from about 38,000 km for the 1986U2R/ζ ring to about 98,000 km for the μ ring. Additional faint dust bands and incomplete arcs may exist between the main rings. The rings are extremely dark—the Bond albedo of the rings' particles does not exceed 2%. They are probably composed of water ice with the addition of some dark radiation-processed organics.

The majority of Uranus' rings are opaque and only a few kilometres wide. The ring system contains little dust overall; it consists mostly of large bodies 20 cm to 20 m in diameter. Some rings are optically thin: the broad and faint 1986U2R/ζ, μ and ν rings are made of small dust particles, while the narrow and faint λ ring also contains larger bodies. The relative lack of dust in the ring system may be due to aerodynamic drag from the extended Uranian exosphere.

The rings of Uranus are thought to be relatively young, and not more than 600 million years old. The Uranian ring system probably originated from the collisional fragmentation of several moons that once existed around the planet. After colliding, the moons probably broke up into many particles, which survived as narrow and optically dense rings only in strictly confined zones of maximum stability.

The mechanism that confines the narrow rings is not well understood. Initially it was assumed that every narrow ring had a pair of nearby shepherd moons corralling it into shape. In 1986 Voyager 2 discovered only one such shepherd pair (Cordelia and Ophelia) around the brightest ring (ε), though the faint ν would later be discovered shepherded between Portia and Rosalind.^[2]

1. ^ Rincon, Paul (Apr 18, 2007). "Uranus rings 'were seen in 1700s'". BBC News. Retrieved 23 January 2012.(re study by Stuart Eves)
2. ^ Filacchione & Ciarniello (2021) "Rings", Encyclopedia of Geology, 2nd edition, INAF-IAPS, Rome

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11 March 1864 The Great Sheffield Flood kills 238 people in Sheffield, England.

Great Sheffield Flood

1864 flood that devastated parts of Sheffield, England

See also: List of floods in Sheffield

The Great Sheffield Flood was a flood that devastated parts of Sheffield, England, on 11 March 1864, when the Dale Dyke Dam broke as its reservoir was being filled for the first time. At least 240 people died^[1] and more than 600 houses were damaged or destroyed by the flood. The immediate cause was a crack in the embankment, the cause of which was never determined. The dam's failure led to reforms in engineering practice, setting standards on specifics that needed to be met when constructing such large-scale structures. The dam was rebuilt in 1875.

1. ^ "The Forgotten Flood: Sheffield's tragic past remembered". BBC News. 11 March 2014. Archived from the original on 2 March 2015. Retrieved 25 September 2014.

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1928 In California, the St. Francis Dam fails; the resulting floods kill over 600 people.

St. Francis Dam

Former dam in Los Angeles County, California, US

Dam in California, U.S.

The St. Francis Dam, or the San Francisquito Dam, was a concrete gravity dam located in San Francisquito Canyon in northern Los Angeles County, California, United States, that was built between 1924 and 1926. The dam failed catastrophically in 1928, killing at least 431 people in the subsequent flood,^[2][3] in what is considered to have been one of the worst American civil engineering disasters of the 20th century and the third-greatest loss of life in California history.^[4][5][6]

The dam was built to serve the growing water needs of the city of Los Angeles, creating a large regulating and storage reservoir that was an integral part of the Los Angeles Aqueduct. It was located in San Francisquito Canyon of the Sierra Pelona Mountains, about 40 miles (64 km) northwest of downtown Los Angeles, and approximately 10 miles (16 km) north of the present day city of Santa Clarita.

However, a defective soil foundation and design flaws led to the dam's collapse just two years after its completion. Its failure ended the career of William Mulholland, the general manager and chief engineer of the Bureau of Water Works and Supply (now the Los Angeles Department of Water and Power).^[7]

1. ^ Cite error: The named reference CHL was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
2. ^ Stansell, Ann (August 2014). Memorialization and Memory of Southern California's St. Francis Dam Disaster of 1928. California State University, Northridge (Thesis).
3. ^ Stansell, Ann C. (February 2014). "Roster of St. Francis Dam Disaster Victims". Santa Clarita Valley History In Pictures.
4. ^ Peter Hartlaub (January 11, 2023). "How bad was California's 'Great Flood' of 1862? It was a torrent of horrors". San Francisco Tribune. Archived from the original on January 20, 2023. Retrieved July 3, 2023.
5. ^ Jon Schlosberg (December 7, 2020). "California's 'trillion dollar' mega disaster no one is talking about". ABC 7 Chicago. Archived from the original on December 7, 2020. Retrieved September 20, 2021.
6. ^ "California's Worst Disasters Remembered" seecalifornia.com. Quote: "600 people in 1928 died in the St. Francis Dam flood in Santa Clarita. It was around midnight that Southern California suffered one of the worst disasters in the state's history, second only to the earthquake and fire that devastated San Francisco in 1906."
7. ^ Cite error: The named reference William Mulholland was invoked but never defined (see the help page).

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13 March 1996 Dunblane school massacre: in Dunblane, Scotland, 16 primary school children and one teacher are shot dead by spree killer Thomas Watt Hamilton who then commits suicide.

Dunblane school massacre

Redirect to:

• Dunblane massacre

• From a page move: This is a redirect from a page that has been moved (renamed). This page was kept as a redirect to avoid breaking links, both internal and external, that may have been made to the old page name.

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14 March 2007 The first World Maths Day was celebrated

World Maths Day

World Maths Day (World Math Day in American English) is an online international mathematics competition, powered by Mathletics (a learning platform from 3P Learning, the same organisation behind Reading Eggs and Mathseeds).^[1] Smaller elements of the wider Mathletics program effectively power the World Maths Day event.

The first World Maths Day started in 2007.^[2] Despite these origins, the phrases "World Maths Day" and "World Math Day" are trademarks, and not to be confused with other competitions such as the International Mathematical Olympiad or days such as Pi Day. In 2010, World Maths Day created a Guinness World Record for the Largest Online Maths Competition.^[3][4]

The World Maths Day 2024 has been delayed to better align with school calendars across the globe.^[5]

1. ^ "Learn About 3P Learning - 15 Years of Edtech Excellence". 3P Learning. Retrieved 2023-01-03.
2. ^ "Mathletics Announce World Maths Day 2018". influencing.com. Retrieved 2022-03-03.
3. ^ "The Largest Online Maths Competition". Archived from the original on March 7, 2012. Retrieved March 22, 2012.
4. ^ "Top ten facts about maths". Express. March 6, 2013. Retrieved January 16, 2014.
5. ^ "World Maths Day". 3P Learning. Retrieved 2024-03-13.

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15 March 1956 My Fair Lady debuts on Broadway at the Mark Hellinger Theatre.

My Fair Lady

Stage musical by Alan Jay Lerner and Frederick Loewe

This article is about the musical stage play. For the film, see My Fair Lady (film). For other uses, see My Fair Lady (disambiguation).

My Fair Lady is a musical with a book and lyrics by Alan Jay Lerner and music by Frederick Loewe. The story, based on the 1938 film adaptation of George Bernard Shaw's 1913 play Pygmalion, concerns Eliza Doolittle, a Cockney flower girl who takes speech lessons from professor Henry Higgins, a phonetician, so that she may pass as a lady. Despite his cynical nature and difficulty understanding women, Higgins grows attached to her.

The musical's 1956 Broadway production was a notable critical and popular success, winning six Tony Awards, including Best Musical. It set a record for the longest run of any musical on Broadway up to that time and was followed by a hit London production. Rex Harrison and Julie Andrews starred in both productions. Many revivals have followed, and the 1964 film version won the Academy Award for Best Picture.

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16 March 1322 The Battle of Boroughbridge take place in the Despenser Wars.

Battle of Boroughbridge

1322 battle in England won by Edward II

The Battle of Boroughbridge was fought on 16 March 1322 in England between a group of rebellious barons and the forces of King Edward II, near Boroughbridge, north-west of York. The culmination of a long period of antagonism between the King and Thomas, Earl of Lancaster, his most powerful subject, it resulted in Lancaster's defeat and execution, ending the Despenser War. This allowed Edward to re-establish royal authority and hold on to power for almost five more years.

Though not a part of the Wars of Scottish Independence, the battle is significant for its employment of tactics learned in the Scottish wars in a domestic, English conflict. Both the extensive use of foot soldiers rather than cavalry and the heavy impact caused by the longbow represented significant steps in military developments.

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17 March 1947 First flight of the B-45 Tornado strategic bomber.

North American B-45 Tornado

1947 US bomber aircraft family

The North American B-45 Tornado was an early American jet bomber designed and manufactured by aircraft company North American Aviation. It has the distinction of being the first operational jet bomber to enter service with the United States Air Force (USAF), as well as the first multiengine jet bomber to be refueled in midair.^[1]

The B-45 originated from a wartime initiative launched by the U.S. War Department, which sought a company to develop a jet-propelled bomber to equal those being fielded by Nazi Germany, such as the Arado Ar 234. Following a competitive review of the submissions, the War Department issued a contract to North American to develop its NA-130 proposal; on 8 September 1944, work commenced on the assembly of three prototypes. Progress on the program was stalled by post-war cutbacks in defense expenditure, but regained importance due to growing tensions between America and the Soviet Union. On 2 January 1947, North American received a production contract for the bomber designated B-45A, from the USAF. On 24 February 1947, the prototype performed its maiden flight.

Soon after its entry to service on 22 April 1948, B-45 operations were troubled by technical problems, in particular poor engine reliability. The USAF found the plane to be useful during the Korean War performing both conventional bombing and aerial reconnaissance missions. On 4 December 1950, the first successful interception of a jet bomber by a jet fighter occurred when a B-45 was shot down by a Soviet-built MiG-15 inside Chinese airspace. During the early 1950s, forty B-45s were extensively modified so that they could be equipped with nuclear weapons. Improvements were made to their defensive systems and the fuel tankage was expanded to increase their survivability and range.

In its heyday, the B-45 was important to United States defense strategy, performing the strategically critical deterrence mission for several years during the early 1950s, after which the Tornado was superseded by the larger and more capable Boeing B-47 Stratojet. Both B-45 bombers and reconnaissance RB-45s served in the USAF's Strategic Air Command from 1950 until 1959, when the USAF withdrew the last ones in favor of the Convair B-58 Hustler, an early supersonic bomber. The Tornado was also adopted by the Royal Air Force (RAF) and operated from bases in United Kingdom, where it was used to overfly the Soviet Union on intelligence-related missions. Despite being painted with RAF markings and flown by RAF crew, they did not belong to the RAF; the RAF merely operated them on behalf of the United States.

1. ^ "B-45 — The Tornado Survivors". www.johnweeks.com. Retrieved 15 September 2019.

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18 March 1942 The War Relocation Authority is established in the United States to take Japanese Americans into custody.

War Relocation Authority

U.S. government agency created to intern Japanese Americans during WWII

The War Relocation Authority (WRA) was a United States government agency established to handle the internment of Japanese Americans during World War II. It also operated the Fort Ontario Emergency Refugee Shelter in Oswego, New York, which was the only refugee camp set up in the United States for refugees from Europe.^[1] The agency was created by Executive Order 9102 on March 18, 1942, by President Franklin D. Roosevelt, and was terminated June 26, 1946, by order of President Harry S. Truman.^[2]

1. ^ Marks, Edward B. "Token Shipment: The Story of America's War Refugee Shelter." (Washington, D.C.: United States Department of the Interior, War Relocation Authority; 1946.)
2. ^ Starr, Kevin. (2005). California : a history (1st ed.). New York: Modern Library. ISBN 0-679-64240-4. OCLC 59360288.

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19 March 1932 The Sydney Harbour Bridge is opened.

Sydney Harbour Bridge

Bridge across Sydney Harbour in Australia

The Sydney Harbour Bridge is a steel through arch bridge in Sydney, New South Wales, Australia, spanning Sydney Harbour from the central business district (CBD) to the North Shore. The view of the bridge, the harbour, and the nearby Sydney Opera House is widely regarded as an iconic image of Sydney, and of Australia itself. Nicknamed "The Coathanger" because of its arch-based design, the bridge carries rail, vehicular, bicycle and pedestrian traffic.^[1][2]

Under the direction of John Bradfield of the New South Wales Department of Public Works, the bridge was designed and built by British firm Dorman Long of Middlesbrough, and opened in 1932.^[3][4] The bridge's general design, which Bradfield tasked the NSW Department of Public Works with producing, was a rough copy of the Hell Gate Bridge in New York City. The design chosen from the tender responses was original work created by Dorman Long, who leveraged some of the design from its own Tyne Bridge.^[5]

It is the tenth-longest spanning-arch bridge in the world and the tallest steel arch bridge, measuring 134 m (440 ft) from top to water level.^[6] It was also the world's widest long-span bridge, at 48.8 m (160 ft) wide, until construction of the new Port Mann Bridge in Vancouver was completed in 2012.^[7][8]

1. ^ "7BridgesWalk.com.au". Bridge History. Archived from the original on 29 August 2007. Retrieved 23 October 2006.
2. ^ "Sydney Harbour Bridge". Government of Australia. 14 August 2008. Archived from the original on 12 May 2012. Retrieved 29 May 2012.
3. ^ "Dr J.J.C. Bradfield". Pylon Lookout: Sydney Harbour Bridge. Archived from the original on 18 February 2011. Retrieved 18 December 2010.
4. ^ "Olympic connections across the UK". BBC News. 19 January 2012. Archived from the original on 20 March 2012. Retrieved 19 March 2012.
5. ^ James Weirick (2007). "Radar Exhibition – Bridging Sydney". Archived from the original on 6 September 2008. Retrieved 20 March 2012.
6. ^ "Sydney Harbour Bridge". culture.gov.au. Australian Government. Archived from the original on 20 September 2010. Retrieved 1 October 2010.
7. ^ "Widest Bridge". Guinness World Records. Archived from the original on 14 September 2012. Retrieved 15 September 2012.
8. ^ "Port Mann Bridge". Transportation Investment Corporation. British Columbia: Province of British Columbia. 2007. Archived from the original on 11 September 2012. Retrieved 15 September 2012. Once complete, the new 10-lane Port Mann Bridge will the second largest and longest cable-supported bridge in North America, and at 65 metres wide it will be the widest bridge in the world.

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20 March 1916 Albert Einstein publishes his general theory of relativity.

General relativity

Theory of gravitation as curved spacetime

For the graduate textbook by Robert Wald, see General Relativity (book).

For a more accessible and less technical introduction to this topic, see Introduction to general relativity.

General relativity, also known as the general theory of relativity and Einstein's theory of gravity, is the geometric theory of gravitation published by Albert Einstein in 1915 and is the current description of gravitation in modern physics. General relativity generalizes special relativity and refines Newton's law of universal gravitation, providing a unified description of gravity as a geometric property of space and time or four-dimensional spacetime. In particular, the curvature of spacetime is directly related to the energy and momentum of whatever matter and radiation are present. The relation is specified by the Einstein field equations, a system of second order partial differential equations.

Newton's law of universal gravitation, which describes classical gravity, can be seen as a prediction of general relativity for the almost flat spacetime geometry around stationary mass distributions. Some predictions of general relativity, however, are beyond Newton's law of universal gravitation in classical physics. These predictions concern the passage of time, the geometry of space, the motion of bodies in free fall, and the propagation of light, and include gravitational time dilation, gravitational lensing, the gravitational redshift of light, the Shapiro time delay and singularities/black holes. So far, all tests of general relativity have been shown to be in agreement with the theory. The time-dependent solutions of general relativity enable us to talk about the history of the universe and have provided the modern framework for cosmology, thus leading to the discovery of the Big Bang and cosmic microwave background radiation. Despite the introduction of a number of alternative theories, general relativity continues to be the simplest theory consistent with experimental data.

Reconciliation of general relativity with the laws of quantum physics remains a problem, however, as there is a lack of a self-consistent theory of quantum gravity. It is not yet known how gravity can be unified with the three non-gravitational forces: strong, weak and electromagnetic.

Einstein's theory has astrophysical implications, including the prediction of black holes—regions of space in which space and time are distorted in such a way that nothing, not even light, can escape from them. Black holes are the end-state for massive stars. Microquasars and active galactic nuclei are believed to be stellar black holes and supermassive black holes. It also predicts gravitational lensing, where the bending of light results in multiple images of the same distant astronomical phenomenon. Other predictions include the existence of gravitational waves, which have been observed directly by the physics collaboration LIGO and other observatories. In addition, general relativity has provided the base of cosmological models of an expanding universe.

Widely acknowledged as a theory of extraordinary beauty, general relativity has often been described as the most beautiful of all existing physical theories.^[2]

1. ^ "GW150914: LIGO Detects Gravitational Waves". Black-holes.org. Retrieved 18 April 2016.
2. ^ Cite error: The named reference :0 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).

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21 March 1937 Ponce massacre: Nineteen people in Ponce, Puerto Rico, are gunned down by a police squad acting under orders of US-appointed Governor, Blanton C. Winship.

Ponce massacre

1937 police shooting in Puerto Rico

The Ponce massacre was an event that took place on Palm Sunday, March 21, 1937, in Ponce, Puerto Rico, when a peaceful civilian march turned into a police shooting in which 17 civilians and two policemen were killed,^[6] and more than 200 civilians wounded. None of the civilians were armed and most of the dead were reportedly shot in their backs.^[7] The march had been organized by the Puerto Rican Nationalist Party to commemorate the abolition of slavery in Puerto Rico by the governing Spanish National Assembly in 1873,^[8] and to protest the U.S. government's imprisonment of the Party's leader, Pedro Albizu Campos, on sedition charges.^[9]

An investigation led by the United States Commission on Civil Rights put the blame for the massacre squarely on the U.S.-appointed governor of Puerto Rico, Blanton Winship.^[10][11] Further criticism by members of the U.S. Congress led President Franklin D. Roosevelt to remove Whinship as governor in 1939.^[12]

Governor Winship was never prosecuted for the massacre and no one under his chain of command – including the police who took part in the event, and admitted to the mass shooting – was prosecuted or reprimanded.^[13]

The Ponce massacre remains the largest massacre in US imperial history in Puerto Rico.^[11] It has been the source of many articles, books, paintings, films, and theatrical works.

1. ^ Wagenheim, Kal; de Wagenheim, Olga Jiminez (2008). "The Grim Years". The Puerto Ricans: A Documentary History. Markus Wiener Publishers. pp. 179–180. ISBN 9781558764767.
2. ^ Millán, Reinaldo (21 March 2012). "Siete décadas no anulan tragedia" (in Spanish). La Perla del Sur.
3. ^ Marcantonio, Vito. "Five Years of Tyranny". The Official Piri Thomas Website. Archived from the original on 12 January 2012.
4. ^ Nelson A. Denis. War Against all Puerto Ricans: Revolution and Terror in America's Colony. New York: Nation Books, Perseus Books Group. 2015. pp.47, 49.ISBN 9781568585017
5. ^ Meyer, Gerald J. (2011). "Pedro Albizu Campos, Gilberto Concepción de Gracia, and Vito Marcantonio's Collaboration in the Cause of Puerto Rico's Independence". Centro Journal. XXIII (1). New York: The City University of New York: 87–123. ISSN 1538-6279.
6. ^ Wagenheim, Kal; Jiménez de Wagenheim, Olga (1998). The Puerto Ricans: A Documentary History. Maplewood, N.J.: Water Front Press. pp. 179–182.
7. ^ "Declara al Gobernador que ha dado 'instrucciones terminantes' en el caso de Ponce". El Mundo (in Spanish). San Juan, Puerto Rico. 23 March 1937. p. 1.
8. ^ Black, Timothy (2009). When a Heart Turns Rock Solid: The Lives of Three Puerto Rican Brothers On and Off the Streets. Pantheon Books. p. 5. ISBN 9780307377746.
9. ^ Navarro, Sharon Ann; Xavier Mejia, Armando (2004). ABC-CLIO (ed.). Latino Americans and Political Participation: A Reference Handbook. ISBN 9781851095230.
10. ^ Cite error: The named reference LMM was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
11. ^ ^{a b} Garcia-Passalacqua, Juan-Manuel (22 March 2007). "Remembering Puerto Rico's Ponce Massacre". Democracy Now (Interview). Interviewed by Juan Gonzalez; Amy Goodman.
12. ^ Hayes, Arthur Garfield; Commission of Inquiry on Civil Rights in Puerto Rico (22 May 1937). Report of the Commission of Inquiry on Civil Rights in Puerto Rico (Report). OCLC 304563805.
13. ^ Cite error: The named reference Hunter was invoked but never defined (see the help page).

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22 March 1984 ? Teachers at the McMartin preschool in Manhattan Beach, California are charged with satanic ritual abuse of the children in the school. The charges are later dropped as completely unfounded.

McMartin preschool trial

1980s day care sexual abuse case

The McMartin preschool trial was a day care sexual abuse case in the 1980s, prosecuted by the Los Angeles District Attorney, Ira Reiner.^[1] Members of the McMartin family, who operated a preschool in Manhattan Beach, California, were charged with hundreds of acts of sexual abuse of children in their care. Accusations were made in 1983, with arrests and the pretrial investigation taking place from 1984 to 1987 and trials running from 1987 to 1990. The case lasted seven years but resulted in no convictions, and all charges were dropped in 1990. By the case's end, it had become the longest and most expensive series of criminal trials in American history.^[2][3] The case was part of day-care sex-abuse hysteria, a moral panic over alleged Satanic ritual abuse in the 1980s and early 1990s.

1. ^ Shaw, David (January 19, 1990). "Where Was Skepticism in Media? : Pack journalism and hysteria marked early coverage of the McMartin case". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved January 2, 2018.
2. ^ Cite error: The named reference longest was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
3. ^ Mathews, Jay (July 28, 1990). "MCMARTIN PROSECUTION HALTED, ENDING LONGEST CRIMINAL CASE". The Washington Post. Los Angeles. Retrieved April 27, 2020.

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23 March 1848 The ship John Wickliffe arrives at Port Chalmers carrying the first Scottish settlers for Dunedin, New Zealand. Otago province is founded.

John Wickliffe (ship)

19th-century Scottish ship

The John Wickliffe was the first ship to arrive carrying Scottish settlers, including Otago settlement founder Captain William Cargill, in the city of Dunedin, New Zealand.^[1] The ship was named after the religious reformer, John Wycliffe.

Departing with 97 passengers from Gravesend, near London, on 22 November 1847,^[2] and from Portsmouth on 14 December 1847, she arrived at Port Chalmers on 23 March 1848. Her sister ship, the Philip Laing, arrived three weeks later on 15 April.

23 March is now observed as Otago Anniversary Day, although the anniversary actually celebrates the establishment of the Otago provincial government on the same day in 1852,^[3] and the day of the observance varies from year to year: it is usually observed on the Monday closest to 23 March.

1. ^ NZ History Online: 23 March
2. ^ "History Scots". Archived from the original on 9 March 2009. Retrieved 26 February 2010. Visit Dunedin: The Settlement of 'New Edinburgh'
3. ^ Lewis, John (19 March 2011). "Anniversary Day: variety in observance". Otago Daily Times. Retrieved 22 March 2012.

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24 March 1999 Mont Blanc Tunnel fire kills 39 people.

Mont Blanc Tunnel

Highway tunnel underneath the Alps connecting France and Italy

The Mont Blanc Tunnel is a highway tunnel between France and Italy, under Mont Blanc in the Alps. It links Chamonix, Haute-Savoie, France with Courmayeur, Aosta Valley, Italy, via the French Route Nationale 205 and the Italian Traforo T1 (forming the European route E25), in particular the motorways serving Geneva (A40 of France) and Turin (A5 of Italy). The passageway is one of the major trans-Alpine transport routes, particularly for Italy, which relies on this tunnel for transporting as much as one-third of its freight to northern Europe. It reduces the route from France to Turin by 50 kilometres (30 miles) and to Milan by 100 km (60 mi). Northeast of Mont Blanc's summit, the tunnel is about 15 km (10 mi) southwest of the tripoint with Switzerland, near Mont Dolent.

The agreement between France and Italy on building a tunnel was signed in 1949. Two operating companies were founded, each responsible for one half of the tunnel: the French Autoroutes et tunnel du Mont-Blanc (ATMB), founded on 30 April 1958, and the Italian Società italiana per azioni per il Traforo del Monte Bianco (SITMB), founded on 1 September 1957.^[1] Drilling began in 1959 and was completed in 1962; the tunnel was opened to traffic on 19 July 1965.

The tunnel is 11.611 km (7.215 mi) in length, 8.6 m (28 ft) in width, and 4.35 m (14.3 ft) in height. The passageway is not horizontal, but in a slightly inverted "V", which assists ventilation. The tunnel consists of a single gallery with a two-lane dual direction road. At the time of its construction, it was twice as long as any existing highway tunnel.^[2]

The tunnel passes almost exactly under the summit of the Aiguille du Midi. At this spot, it lies 2,480 metres (8,140 ft) beneath the surface, making it the world's second deepest operational tunnel^[3] after the Gotthard Base Tunnel.

The Mont Blanc Tunnel was originally managed by the two building companies. Following a fire in 1999 in which 39 people died, which showed how lack of coordination could hamper the safety of the tunnel, all the operations are managed by a single entity: MBT-EEIG, controlled by both ATMB and SITMB together, through a 50–50 shares distribution.^[4]

An alternative route for road traffic between France to Italy is the Fréjus Road Tunnel. Road traffic grew steadily until 1994, even with the opening of the Fréjus tunnel. Since then, the combined traffic volume of the former has remained roughly constant.

1. ^ Barry, Keith (15 July 2010). "July 16, 1965: Mont Blanc Tunnel Opens". Wired. Retrieved 16 July 2010.
2. ^ Soule, Gardner (December 1959). "World's longest auto tunnel to pierce the Alps". Popular Science. pp. 121–123/236–238.
3. ^ "Today in Science History". Retrieved 22 November 2014.
4. ^ "A French-Italian Operator - Autoroutes et Tunnel du Mont Blanc". Archived from the original on 29 July 2012. Retrieved 27 September 2011.

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25 March 1584 Sir Walter Raleigh is granted a patent to colonize Virginia.

Walter Raleigh

English statesman, soldier, writer, and pioneer of New World colonization (1552–1618)

For other people named Walter Raleigh, see Walter Raleigh (disambiguation).

Sir Walter Raleigh^[a] (/ˈrɔːli, ˈræli, ˈrɑːli/; c. 1552 – 29 October 1618) was an English statesman, soldier, writer and explorer. One of the most notable figures of the Elizabethan era, he played a leading part in English colonisation of North America, suppressed rebellion in Ireland, helped defend England against the Spanish Armada and held political positions under Elizabeth I.

Raleigh was born to a landed gentry family of Protestant faith in Devon, the son of Walter Raleigh and Catherine Champernowne. He was the younger half-brother of Sir Humphrey Gilbert and a cousin of Sir Richard Grenville. Little is known of his early life, though in his late teens he spent some time in France taking part in the religious civil wars. In his 20s he took part in the suppression of rebellion in the colonisation of Ireland; he also participated in the siege of Smerwick. Later, he became a landlord of property in Ireland and mayor of Youghal in east Munster, where his house still stands in Myrtle Grove.^[2] He rose rapidly in the favour of Queen Elizabeth I and was knighted in 1585. He was granted a royal patent to explore Virginia, paving the way for future English settlements. In 1591, he secretly married Elizabeth Throckmorton, one of the Queen's ladies-in-waiting, without the Queen's permission, for which he and his wife were sent to the Tower of London. After his release, they retired to his estate at Sherborne, Dorset.

In 1594, Raleigh heard of a "City of Gold" in South America and sailed to find it, publishing an exaggerated account of his experiences in a book that contributed to the legend of "El Dorado". After Queen Elizabeth died in 1603, Raleigh was again imprisoned in the Tower, this time for being involved in the Main Plot against King James I, who was not favourably disposed towards him. In 1616, he was released to lead a second expedition in search of El Dorado. During the expedition, men led by his top commander ransacked a Spanish outpost, in violation of both the terms of his pardon and the 1604 peace treaty with Spain. Raleigh returned to England and, to appease the Spanish, he was arrested and executed in 1618.

1. ^ Wolfe 2018.
2. ^ "The Church and Town of Sir Walter Raleigh". United Diocese of Cork, Cloyne and Ross. 21 May 2021. Retrieved 15 June 2021.

Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

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2 March 1975 The Biological Weapons Convention comes into force.

Biological Weapons Convention

1975 treaty that comprehensively bans biological weapons

The Biological Weapons Convention (BWC), or Biological and Toxin Weapons Convention (BTWC), is a disarmament treaty that effectively bans biological and toxin weapons by prohibiting their development, production, acquisition, transfer, stockpiling and use.^[5] The treaty's full name is the Convention on the Prohibition of the Development, Production and Stockpiling of Bacteriological (Biological) and Toxin Weapons and on their Destruction.^[5]

Having entered into force on 26 March 1975, the BWC was the first multilateral disarmament treaty to ban the production of an entire category of weapons of mass destruction.^[5] The convention is of unlimited duration.^[6] As of February 2023, 185 states have become party to the treaty.^[7] Four additional states have signed but not ratified the treaty, and another eight states have neither signed nor acceded to the treaty.^[8]

The BWC is considered to have established a strong global norm against biological weapons.^[9] This norm is reflected in the treaty's preamble, which states that the use of biological weapons would be "repugnant to the conscience of mankind".^[10] It is also demonstrated by the fact that not a single state today declares to possess or seek biological weapons, or asserts that their use in war is legitimate.^[11] In light of the rapid advances in biotechnology, biodefense expert Daniel Gerstein has described the BWC as "the most important arms control treaty of the twenty-first century".^[12] However, the convention's effectiveness has been limited due to insufficient institutional support and the absence of any formal verification regime to monitor compliance.^[13]

1. ^ Article XIV, Biological Weapons Convention.
2. ^ "Status of the Biological Weapons Convention". United Nations Office for Disarmament Affairs. Retrieved 5 May 2021.
3. ^ Biological Weapons Convention, Article XIV.
4. ^ Biological Weapons Convention, Article XV.
5. ^ ^{a b c} "Biological Weapons Convention – UNODA". United Nations Office for Disarmament Affairs. Archived from the original on 15 February 2021. Retrieved 15 February 2021.
6. ^ Article XIII, Biological Weapons Convention. Treaty Database, United Nations Office for Disarmament Affairs.
7. ^ Cite error: The named reference :5 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
8. ^ Report on universalization activities, 2019 Meeting of States Parties to the Biological Weapons Convention, BWC/MSP/2019/3. Geneva, 8 October 2019.
9. ^ Cross, Glenn; Klotz, Lynn (3 July 2020). "Twenty-first century perspectives on the Biological Weapon Convention: Continued relevance or toothless paper tiger". Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists. 76 (4): 185–191. Bibcode:2020BuAtS..76d.185C. doi:10.1080/00963402.2020.1778365. ISSN 0096-3402. S2CID 221061960.
10. ^ Preamble, Biological Weapons Convention. Treaty Database, United Nations Office for Disarmament Affairs.
11. ^ Feakes, D. (August 2017). "The Biological Weapons Convention". Revue Scientifique et Technique (International Office of Epizootics). 36 (2): 621–628. doi:10.20506/rst.36.2.2679. ISSN 0253-1933. PMID 30152458. S2CID 52100050.
12. ^ Gerstein, Daniel (2013). National Security and arms control in the age of biotechnology: the Biological and Toxin Weapons Convention. Lanham, Maryland: Rowman & Littlefield. p. 53. ISBN 978-1-4422-2312-7.
13. ^ Tucker, Jonathan (1 August 2001). "Biological Weapons Convention (BWC) Compliance Protocol". Nuclear Threat Initiative. Archived from the original on 16 February 2021. Retrieved 16 February 2021.

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27 March 1986 A car bomb explodes at Russell Street Police HQ in Melbourne, killing one police officer and injuring 21 people.

Russell Street bombing

Terror attack in 1986 in Melbourne, Australia

The Russell Street bombing was the 27 March 1986 bombing of the Russell Street Police Headquarters complex in Melbourne, Victoria, Australia. The explosion killed Angela Rose Taylor, the first Australian policewoman to be killed in the line of duty. The materials for the bomb were stolen from Tyrconnel Mine. Several men were arrested for suspected involvement with the bombing. Stanley Taylor and Craig Minogue were convicted of murder and various other offences related to the bombing. Peter Reed and Rodney Minogue were acquitted of any offences related to the bombing, but Reed was convicted of a number of offences related to his arrest, which involved a shootout with police officers in which he and an officer were wounded. He was sentenced to 12 years' imprisonment.

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28 March 1854 Crimean War: France and Britain declare war on Russia.

Crimean War

1853–1856 war between the Russian Empire and their allies, and the Ottoman Empire and their allies

For the ongoing war fought over Crimea, see Russo-Ukrainian War. For the annexation of Crimea in 2014 by the Russian Federation, see Annexation of Crimea by the Russian Federation.

For other uses, see Crimean War (disambiguation).

The Crimean War^[d] was fought from October 1853 to February 1856^[6] between the Russian Empire and an ultimately victorious alliance of the Ottoman Empire, France, the United Kingdom, and Sardinia-Piedmont.

Geopolitical causes of the war included the decline of the Ottoman Empire (the "Eastern Question"), the expansion of the Russian Empire in the preceding Russo-Turkish Wars, and the British and French preference to preserve the Ottoman Empire to maintain the balance of power in the Concert of Europe. The flashpoint was a disagreement over the rights of Christian minorities in Palestine, then part of the Ottoman Empire, with the French promoting the rights of Roman Catholics, and Russia promoting those of the Eastern Orthodox Church.

The churches worked out their differences with the Ottomans and came to an agreement, but both the French Emperor Napoleon III and the Russian Tsar Nicholas I refused to back down. Nicholas issued an ultimatum that demanded the Orthodox subjects of the Ottoman Empire be placed under his protection. Britain attempted to mediate and arranged a compromise to which Nicholas agreed. When the Ottomans demanded changes to the agreement, Nicholas recanted and prepared for war.

In July 1853, Russian troops occupied the Danubian Principalities^[6] (now part of Romania but then under Ottoman suzerainty). On 16 October  [O.S. 4 October] 1853,^[7] having obtained promises of support from France and Britain, the Ottomans declared war on Russia.^[8] Led by Omar Pasha, the Ottomans fought a strong defensive campaign and stopped the Russian advance at Silistra (now in Bulgaria). A separate action on the fort town of Kars, in the Ottoman Empire, led to a siege, and an Ottoman attempt to reinforce the garrison was destroyed by a Russian fleet at the Battle of Sinop in November 1853.

Fearing the growth of influence of the Russian Empire, the British and French fleets entered the Black Sea in January 1854.^[6] They moved north to Varna in June 1854 and arrived just in time for the Russians to abandon Silistra. In the Baltic, near the Russian capital of Saint Petersburg, an Anglo-French fleet instituted a naval blockade and bottled up the outnumbered Russian Baltic Fleet, causing economic damage to Russia by blockading trade while also forcing the Russians to keep a large army guarding St. Petersburg from a potential allied attack.

After a minor skirmish at Köstence (now Constanța), the allied commanders decided to attack Russia's main naval base in the Black Sea, Sevastopol, in Crimea. After extended preparations, allied forces landed on the peninsula in September 1854 and marched their way to a point south of Sevastopol after they had won the Battle of the Alma on 20 September 1854. The Russians counterattacked on 25 October in what became the Battle of Balaclava and were repulsed, but the British Army's forces were seriously depleted as a result. A second Russian counterattack, at Inkerman (November 1854), ended in a stalemate as well.

By 1855, the Italian Kingdom of Sardinia sent an expeditionary force to Crimea, siding with France, Britain and the Ottoman Empire. The front settled into the Siege of Sevastopol, involving brutal conditions for troops on both sides. Smaller military actions took place in the Caucasus (1853–1855), the White Sea (July–August 1854) and the North Pacific (1854–1855).

Sevastopol finally fell after eleven months, after the French assaulted Fort Malakoff. Isolated and facing a bleak prospect of invasion by the West if the war continued, Russia sued for peace in March 1856. France and Britain welcomed the development, owing to the conflict's domestic unpopularity. The Treaty of Paris, signed on 30 March 1856, ended the war. It forbade Russia to base warships in the Black Sea. The Ottoman vassal states of Wallachia and Moldavia became largely independent. Christians in the Ottoman Empire gained a degree of official equality, and the Orthodox Church regained control of the Christian churches in dispute.^[9]

The Crimean War was one of the first conflicts in which military forces used modern technologies such as explosive naval shells, railways and telegraphs.^[10] The war was also one of the first to be documented extensively in written reports and in photographs. The war quickly became a symbol of logistical, medical and tactical failures and of mismanagement. The reaction in Britain led to a demand for the professionalisation of medicine, most famously achieved by Florence Nightingale, who gained worldwide attention for pioneering modern nursing while she treated the wounded.

The Crimean War marked a turning point for the Russian Empire. The war weakened the Imperial Russian Army, drained the treasury and undermined Russia's influence in Europe. The empire would take decades to recover. Russia's humiliation forced its educated elites to identify its problems and recognise the need for fundamental reforms. They saw rapid modernisation as the sole way to recover the empire's status as a European power. The war thus became a catalyst for reforms of Russia's social institutions, including the abolition of serfdom and overhauls in the justice system, local self-government, education and military service.

Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

1. ^ Badem 2010, p. 180.
2. ^ ^{a b c d e f g h i} Clodfelter 2017, p. 180.
3. ^ Зайончковский А. М. Восточная война 1853—1856. — СПб.: Полигон, 2002. — ISBN 5-89173-159-2
4. ^ Figes 2010, p. 489.
5. ^ Mara Kozelsky, "The Crimean War, 1853–56." Kritika: Explorations in Russian and Eurasian History 13.4 (2012): 903–917 online.
6. ^ ^{a b c} "Crimean War". Encyclopedia Britannica. 27 September 2020. Retrieved 28 January 2022.
7. ^ "Crimea war of 1853–1856 began – 16 October 1853". Boris Yeltsin Presidential Library.
8. ^ Kerr, Paul (2000). The Crimean War. Mcmillan. p. 17. ISBN 978-0752272481.
9. ^ Figes 2010, p. 415.
10. ^ Royle 2000, Preface.

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29 March 1871 The Royal Albert Hall is opened by Queen Victoria.

Royal Albert Hall

Concert hall in South Kensington, London

This article is about the London concert hall. For other uses, see Albert Hall (disambiguation).

The Royal Albert Hall is a concert hall on the northern edge of South Kensington, London, England. It has a seating capacity of 5,272.^[1]

Since the hall's opening by Queen Victoria in 1871, the world's leading artists from many performance genres have appeared on its stage. It is the venue for the BBC Proms concerts, which have been held there every summer since 1941. It is host to more than 390 shows in the main auditorium annually, including classical, rock and pop concerts, ballet, opera, film screenings with live orchestral accompaniment, sports, awards ceremonies, school and community events, and charity performances and banquets. A further 400 events are held each year in the non-auditorium spaces. Over its 153-year history, the hall has hosted people from various fields, including meetings held by suffragettes, speeches from Winston Churchill and Albert Einstein, fights by Lennox Lewis, exhibition bouts by Muhammad Ali, and concerts from regular performers at the venue such as Eric Clapton and Shirley Bassey.^[2][3][4]

The hall was originally to have been called the Central Hall of Arts and Sciences, but the name was changed to the Royal Albert Hall of Arts and Sciences by Queen Victoria upon laying the Hall's foundation stone in 1867, in memory of her husband, Prince Albert, who had died six years earlier. It forms the practical part of a memorial to the Prince Consort; the decorative part is the Albert Memorial directly to the north in Kensington Gardens, now separated from the Hall by Kensington Gore.

1. ^ ^{a b} Colson, Thomas. "A 12-seat Grand Tier box at the Royal Albert Hall is on sale for £2.5 million". Business Insider. Archived from the original on 24 October 2019. Retrieved 24 October 2019.
2. ^ Cite error: The named reference History was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
3. ^ "Exclusive photos: boxing makes historic return to the Royal Albert Hall". Royal Albert Hall. Archived from the original on 18 August 2022. Retrieved 20 June 2022.
4. ^ "Shirley Bassey". Royal Albert Hall. Archived from the original on 20 June 2022. Retrieved 20 June 2022.

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30 March 1856 The Treaty of Paris is signed, ending the Crimean War.

Treaty of Paris (1856)

1856 treaty which made the Black Sea neutral territory, thereby ending the Crimean War

For other treaties of Paris, see Treaty of Paris (disambiguation).

The Treaty of Paris of 1856 brought an end to the Crimean War between the Russian Empire and an alliance of the Ottoman Empire, the United Kingdom, the Second French Empire and the Kingdom of Sardinia.^[1][2]

The treaty, signed on 30 March 1856 at the Congress of Paris, made the Black Sea neutral territory, closing it to all warships and prohibiting fortifications and the presence of armaments on its shores.

The treaty diminished Russian influence in the region. Conditions for the return of Sevastopol and other towns and cities in the south of Crimea to Russia were severe since no naval or military arsenal could be established by Russia on the coast of the Black Sea.

1. ^ ^{a b} Hertslet, Edward (1875). "General treaty between Great Britain, Austria, France, Prussia, Russia, Sardinia and Turkey, signed at Paris on 30th March 1856". The Map of Europe by Treaty showing the various political and territorial changes which have taken place since the general peace of 1814, with numerous maps and notes. Vol. 2. London: Butterworth. pp. 1250–1265.
2. ^ ^{a b} Albin, Pierre (1912). "Acte General Du Congres de Paris, 30 Mars 1856". Les Grands Traités Politiques: Recueil des Principaux Textes Diplomatiques Depuis 1815 Jusqu'à nos Jours avec des Notices Historiques et des Notes. Paris: Librairie Félix Alcan. pp. 170–180.

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31 March 1889 The Eiffel Tower is officially opened.

Eiffel Tower

Tower on the Champ de Mars in Paris, France

This article is about the landmark in Paris, France. For other uses, see Eiffel Tower (disambiguation).

"300-metre tower" and "Tour Eiffel" redirect here. For other tall towers, see List of tallest towers. For other uses, see Tour Eiffel (disambiguation).

The Eiffel Tower (/ˈaɪfəl/ EYE-fəl; French: Tour Eiffel [tuʁ ɛfɛl] ^ⓘ) is a wrought-iron lattice tower on the Champ de Mars in Paris, France. It is named after the engineer Gustave Eiffel, whose company designed and built the tower from 1887 to 1889.

Locally nicknamed "La dame de fer" (French for "Iron Lady"), it was constructed as the centerpiece of the 1889 World's Fair, and to crown the centennial anniversary of the French Revolution. Although initially criticised by some of France's leading artists and intellectuals for its design, it has since become a global cultural icon of France and one of the most recognisable structures in the world.^[5] The tower received 5,889,000 visitors in 2022.^[6] The Eiffel Tower is the most visited monument with an entrance fee in the world:^[7] 6.91 million people ascended it in 2015. It was designated a monument historique in 1964, and was named part of a UNESCO World Heritage Site ("Paris, Banks of the Seine") in 1991.^[8]

The tower is 330 metres (1,083 ft) tall,^[9] about the same height as an 81-storey building, and the tallest structure in Paris. Its base is square, measuring 125 metres (410 ft) on each side. During its construction, the Eiffel Tower surpassed the Washington Monument to become the tallest human-made structure in the world, a title it held for 41 years until the Chrysler Building in New York City was finished in 1930. It was the first structure in the world to surpass both the 200-metre and 300-metre mark in height. Due to the addition of a broadcasting aerial at the top of the tower in 1957, it is now taller than the Chrysler Building by 5.2 metres (17 ft). Excluding transmitters, the Eiffel Tower is the second tallest free-standing structure in France after the Millau Viaduct.

The tower has three levels for visitors, with restaurants on the first and second levels. The top level's upper platform is 276 m (906 ft) above the ground – the highest observation deck accessible to the public in the European Union. Tickets can be purchased to ascend by stairs or lift to the first and second levels. The climb from ground level to the first level is over 300 steps, as is the climb from the first level to the second, making the entire ascent a 600 step climb. Although there is a staircase to the top level, it is usually accessible only by lift. On this top, third level is a private apartment built for Gustave Eiffel's private use. He decorated it with furniture by Jean Lachaise and invited friends such as Thomas Edison.

1. ^ ^{a b} Bachman, Leonard R. (2019). Constructing the Architect: An Introduction to Design, Research, Planning, and Education. p. 80. ISBN 9781351665421.
2. ^ ^{a b} "Eiffel Tower". CTBUH Skyscraper Center.
3. ^ "Intermediate floor of the Eiffel tower".
4. ^ "Eiffel Tower". Emporis. Archived from the original on 22 April 2016.
5. ^ SETE. "The Eiffel Tower at a glance". Official Eiffel Tower website. Archived from the original on 14 April 2016. Retrieved 15 April 2016.
6. ^ Tourism Statistics, "Visit Paris Region" site of the Paris Ile de France Visitors Bureau, retrieved March 22, 2022.
7. ^ Cite error: The named reference :0 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
8. ^ Clayson, S. Hollis (26 February 2020), "Eiffel Tower", Architecture, Planning, and Preservation, Oxford University Press, doi:10.1093/obo/9780190922467-0014, ISBN 978-0-19-092246-7, retrieved 14 November 2021
9. ^ "Eiffel Tower grows six metres after new antenna attached". Reuters. 15 March 2022. Retrieved 15 March 2022.

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1 April 1960 Dr. Martens released its first boots, the model 1460.

Dr. Martens

Footwear brand

For other uses, see Doc Martin (disambiguation).

Dr. Martens also known as Doc Martens, Docs, or DMs,^[2] is a footwear and clothing brand, headquartered in Wollaston, Northamptonshire. Although famous for its footwear, the company also makes a range of accessories including clothing and bags. The footwear is distinguished by its air-cushioned sole, upper shape, welted construction, and yellow stitching. The Dr Martens' design studio is in Camden Town, London England. The company manufactures in the UK, China, Vietnam, Laos, and Thailand. The company is listed on the London Stock Exchange and is a constituent of the FTSE 250 Index.

1. ^ ^{a b c} "Annual Report 2023" (PDF). Dr Martens. Retrieved 12 February 2024.
2. ^ "R. Griggs Group Ltd v. Evans 2003 EWHC 2914 (Ch)". England and Wales High Court (Chancery Division) Decisions via British and Irish Legal Information Institute. p. 1. Retrieved 4 March 2020.

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2 April 1982 Falklands War: Argentina invades the Falkland Islands.

1982 invasion of the Falkland Islands

Argentine invasion of the Falklands

The Invasion of the Falkland Islands (Spanish: Invasión de las Islas Malvinas), code-named Operation Rosario (Operación Rosario), was a military operation launched by Argentine forces on 2 April 1982, to capture the Falkland Islands, and served as a catalyst for the subsequent Falklands War. The Argentines mounted amphibious landings and the invasion ended with the surrender of Falkland Government House.

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3 April 1559 The Peace of Cateau-Cambresis treaty is signed, ending the Italian Wars.

Italian_War_of_1551?59

 

4 April 1968 Apollo program: NASA launches Apollo 6.

Apollo 6

Second test flight of the Apollo Saturn V rocket

Apollo 6 (April 4, 1968), also known as AS-502, was the third and final uncrewed flight in the United States' Apollo Program and the second test of the Saturn V launch vehicle. It qualified the Saturn V for use on crewed missions, and it was used beginning with Apollo 8 in December 1968.

Apollo 6 was intended to demonstrate the ability of the Saturn V's third stage, the S-IVB, to propel itself and the Apollo spacecraft to lunar distances. Its components began arriving at the Kennedy Space Center in early 1967. Testing proceeded slowly, often delayed by testing of the Saturn V intended for Apollo 4—the inaugural launch of the Saturn V. After that uncrewed mission launched in November 1967, there were fewer delays, but enough so that the flight was postponed from March to April 1968.

The flight plan called for following trans-lunar injection with a direct return abort using the service module's main engine, with a flight time totaling about 10 hours. Instead, vibrations damaged some of the Rocketdyne J-2 engines in the second and third stages by rupturing internal fuel lines causing a second-stage engine to shut down early. An additional second-stage engine shut down early due to cross wiring with the other shutdown engine. The vehicle's onboard guidance system compensated by burning the second and third stages longer, although the resulting parking orbit was more elliptical than planned. The damaged third-stage engine failed to restart for trans-lunar injection. Flight controllers elected to repeat the flight profile of the previous Apollo 4 test, achieving a high orbit and high-speed return. Despite the engine failures, the flight provided NASA with enough confidence to use the Saturn V for crewed launches; a potential third uncrewed flight was cancelled.

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5 April 1994 American musician Kurt Cobain commits suicide.

Death of Kurt Cobain

Redirect to:

• Suicide of Kurt Cobain

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6 April 1970 Newhall massacre: Four California Highway Patrol officers are killed in a shootout.

Newhall massacre

Redirect to:

• Newhall incident

• From a page move: This is a redirect from a page that has been moved (renamed). This page was kept as a redirect to avoid breaking links, both internal and external, that may have been made to the old page name.

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