Foot orthoses and crank power output during cycling

NewsBot · May 12, 2015

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Foot orthoses do not affect crank power output during maximal exercise on a cycle-ergometer
Boon K Yeo, David M Rouffet, Daniel R Bonanno
Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport; Article in Press

Objectives
To investigate the effects of custom-made foot orthoses on the torque- and power-cadence relationships and perceived comfort during maximal cycling exercises in a population of competitive road cyclists.

Design
Randomised, repeated measures, participant-blinded controlled study.

Methods
Twenty-four competitive road cyclists (22 males, 2 females; aged 18-53 years) with mobile feet performed the Torque-Velocity test with custom-made and sham foot orthoses. For both conditions, the maximal power, optimal cadence, optimal torque, maximal torque, and maximal cadence were extracted from the individual torque- and power-cadence relationships. Comfort was assessed on a 150 mm visual analogue scale. Paired-samples t-tests were used for comparison of means between conditions.

Results
No differences were observed between the custom-made and sham foot orthoses for any of the key variables extracted: maximal power (1022 ± 180 vs. 1020 ± 172 W; p = 0.794), optimal cadence (118 ± 10 vs. 119 ± 9 rpm; p = 0.682), optimal torque (82 ± 10 vs. 82 ± 11Nm; p= 0.559), maximal torque (157 ± 23 vs. 159 ± 20 Nm; p = 0.665) and maximal cadence (220 ± 22 vs. 221 ± 20 rpm; p = 0.935). There was no difference in comfort between custom-made and sham foot orthoses (106 ± 30.5 vs. 116 ± 25.0 mm; p = 0.995).

Conclusions
Compared to the sham foot orthoses, the custom-made foot orthoses did not significantly affect the torque and power generating capacities or comfort during a maximal exercise performed on a stationary cycle ergometer.
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Admin2 · May 12, 2015

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NewsBot · Dec 22, 2015

On the Relationship Between Pedal Force and Crank Angular Velocity in Sprint Cycling.
Bobbert, Maarten F.; Casius, L.J. Richard; van Soest, Arthur J.
Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise: December 21, 2015

Purpose: Relationships between tangential pedal force and crank angular velocity in sprint cycling tend to be linear. We set out to understand why they are not hyperbolic, like the intrinsic force-velocity relationship of muscles.

Methods: We simulated isokinetic sprint cycling at crank angular velocities ranging from 30 to 150 rpm with a forward dynamic model of the human musculoskeletal system actuated by eight lower extremity muscle groups. Input of the model was muscle stimulation over time, which we optimized to maximize average power output over a cycle.

Results: Peak tangential pedal force was found to drop more with crank angular velocity than expected based on intrinsic muscle properties; at 150 rpm it was less than 70% of maximum. This linearizing effect was not due to segmental dynamics but rather to active state dynamics. Maximizing average power in cycling requires muscles to bring their active state from as high as possible during shortening to as low as possible during lengthening. Reducing active state is a relatively slow process, and hence must be initiated a certain amount of time before lengthening starts. As crank angular velocity goes up this amount of time corresponds to a greater angular displacement, so the instant of switching off extensor muscle stimulation must occur earlier relative to the angle at which pedal force was extracted for the force-velocity relationship.

Conclusion: Relationships between pedal force and crank angular velocity in sprint cycling do not reflect solely the intrinsic force-velocity relationship of muscles but also consequences of activation dynamics.
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NewsBot · Sep 29, 2016

Preliminary study : the effect of biomechanical foot orthotics in bilateral pedalling asymmetry in three cyclists affected by an anatomic asymmetry
Geoffrey Millour
Conference Paper (PDF Available) · June 2016 with 20 Reads
Conference: Science & Cycling, At Caen

Background: The optimization of the cyclist's position aims to increase performance and may prevent injuries. To find the optimum posture, taking into account anthropometry of the cyclist is essential [1] because an anatomic asymmetry (short leg) could alter the cyclist's balance causing a decrease of power output for one of the two lower limbs. Bilateral pedalling asymmetry may amplify the risk of premature fatigue and injuries [2]. Biomechanical foot orthotics (FO) are used to reduce injuries [3] and to increase performance [4] improving left/right balance between the two legs. The aim of this study was to analyse the effect of the installation of a new FO (just after the laying) on a bilateral pedalling asymmetry in cyclist affected by an anatomic asymmetry (short leg).
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NewsBot · May 4, 2017

Differences in pedalling technique between road cyclists of different competitive levels.
García-López J et al
J Sports Sci. 2016 Sep;34(17):1619-26. doi: 10.1080/02640414.2015.1127987

The purpose of this study was to compare the pedalling technique in road cyclists of different competitive levels. Eleven professional, thirteen elite and fourteen club cyclists were assessed at the beginning of their competition season. Cyclists' anthropometric characteristics and bike measurements were recorded. Three sets of pedalling (200, 250 and 300 W) on a cycle ergometer that simulated their habitual cycling posture were performed at a constant cadence (~90 rpm), while kinetic and kinematic variables were registered. The results showed no differences on the main anthropometric variables and bike measurements. Professional cyclists obtained higher positive impulse proportion (1.5-3.3% and P < 0.05), mainly due to a lower resistive torque during the upstroke (15.4-28.7% and P < 0.05). They also showed a higher ankle range of movement (ROM, 1.1-4.0° and P < 0.05). Significant correlations (P < 0.05) were found between the cyclists' body mass and the kinetic variables of pedalling: positive impulse proportion (r = -0.59 to -0.61), minimum (r = -0.59 to -0.63) and maximum torques (r = 0.35-0.47). In conclusion, professional cyclists had better pedalling technique than elite and club cyclists, because they opted for enhancing pulling force at the recovery phase to sustain the same power output. This technique depended on cycling experience and level of expertise.
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NewsBot · Jan 18, 2019

The effect of torsional shoe sole stiffness on knee moment and gross efficiency in cycling
Jared R. Fletcher, Michael J. Asmussen, Sandro R. Nigg, Brian R. MacIntosh & Benno M. Nigg
Journal of Sports Sciences: 18 Jan 2019

Altering torsional stiffness of cycling shoe soles may be a novel approach to reducing knee joint moments and overuse injuries during cycling. We set out to determine if the magnitude of three-dimensional knee moments were different between cycling shoe soles with different torsional stiffnesses. Eight trained male cyclists cycled at 90% lactate threshold power output in one of two cycling shoe conditions in a randomized crossover design. The shoe sole was considered torsionally flexible (FLEX) compared to a relatively stiffer (STIFF) sole. Gross efficiency (GE) and knee joint moments were quantified. No significant effect of shoe condition was seen in GE (21.4 ± 1.1% and 20.9 ± 1.6% for FLEX and STIFF, respectively, P = 0.12), nor in three-dimensional knee moments. 4 of the 8 subjects had reduced knee moments in at least 2 of the 3 moment directions. These “responders” were significantly shorter (1.73 ± 0.02 m vs 1.81 ± 0.04 m, P = 0.017) and had a higher relative maximal aerobic power (MAP) (4.6 ± 0.3 W∙kg-1 vs 3.9 ± 0.3 W∙kg-1, P = 0.024) compared to non-responders. These results suggest that certain shoe characteristics may influence certain individuals differently because these participants belong to different “functional groups”; certain individuals may respond positively to FLEX, while others may not. Further studies should test this proposed hypothesis.
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NewsBot · May 1, 2019

The Effect of Cycling Shoes and the Shoe-Pedal Interface on Maximal Mechanical Power Output in Bicycling
Burns, Andrew
Undergraduate Honors Theses. 1907.
https://scholar.colorado.edu/honr_theses/1907

Cyclists and industry professionals argue that cycling shoes improve performance. However, scientific evidence has demonstrated that cycling shoes have no significant effect on metabolic cost during submaximal, steady-state cycling (50-150 W). I measured the mechanical power outputs and velocities of twelve healthy male subjects (age 26.6 +/- 4.7 years, mass 71.2 +/- 4.8 kg) during high-power sprint cycling with the null hypotheses of no differences. I tested subjects outdoors on a paved asphalt road with a steady, uphill gradient of 4.9%. After a 15-minute warm-up, each participant completed sets of three uphill, 100-meter cycling sprints in three conditions: (1) Nike Free 3.0 running shoes with flat pedals, (2) Nike Free 3.0 running shoes on classic aluminum quill pedals with toe clips and straps, and (3) Specialized S-Works 6 RD rigid-soled, cleated cycling shoes and Look Keo click-in pedals. Subjects rode towards the starting line at 20 km/hr before completing a full-effort sprint. There were five minutes of rest between trials and ten minutes of rest between conditions. I analyzed each subject’s maximum and average power outputs (W) as well as maximum and average velocities achieved (km/hr). All four performance variables increased with the addition of a shoe-pedal attachment by up to 9.7% (p < 0.02) and further increased with a stiff shoe by up to 16.6% (p < 0.03). Hence, I reject both null hypotheses. Despite cycling shoes not improving metabolic cost, shoe-pedal attachment and stiff shoe soles independently and positively improve cycling performance during high-power, uphill sprints.
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NewsBot · Aug 6, 2019

During Cycling What Limits Maximum Mechanical Power Output at Cadences above 120 rpm?
Hodson-Tole, Emma F. et al
Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise: August 5, 2019 - Volume Publish Ahead of Print - Issue - p

Purpose A key determinant of muscle coordination and maximum power output during cycling is pedalling cadence. During cycling the neuromuscular system may select from numerous solutions that solve the task demands while producing the same result. For more challenging tasks fewer solutions will be available. Changes in the variability of individual muscle excitations (EMG) and multi-muscle coordination, quantified by entropic half-life (EnHL), can reflect the number of solutions available at each system level. We therefore ask whether reduced variability in muscle coordination patterns occur at critical cadences and if they coincide with reduced variability in excitations of individual muscles.

Methods Eleven trained cyclists completed an array of cadence-power output conditions. EnHL of EMG intensity recorded from 10 leg muscles and EnHL of principal components describing muscle coordination were calculated. Multivariate adaptive regressive splines were used to determine the relationships between each EnHL and cycling condition or excitation characteristics (duration, duty cycle).

Results Muscle coordination became more persistent at cadences up to 120 r.p.m., indicated by increasing EnHL values. Changes in EnHL at the level of the individual muscles differed from the changes in muscle coordination EnHL, with longer EnHLs occurring at the slowest (< 80 r.p.m.) and fastest (>120 r.p.m.) cadences. EnHL of the main power producing muscles however reached a minimum by 80 r.p.m. and did not change across the faster cadences studied.

Conclusions Muscle coordination patterns, rather than the contribution of individual muscles, are key to power production at faster cadences in trained cyclists. Reductions in maximum power output at cadences above 120 r.p.m. could be a function of the time available to coordinate orientation and transfer of forces to the pedals.
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NewsBot · May 26, 2020

The effect of cycling shoes and the shoe-pedal interface on maximal mechanical power output during outdoor sprints
Andrew C. Burns & Rodger Kram
Footwear Science : 24 May 2020

Cyclists and industry professionals believe that cycling shoes with pedal attachment and stiff soles improve performance. However, scientific evidence has demonstrated that cycling shoes have no significant effect on metabolic cost during low-intensity, submaximal, steady-state cycling (50–150 W). Here, we investigated if stiff-soled cycling shoes combined with clip-in pedals provide benefits relevant to sprint cycling. We measured the mechanical power outputs and velocities of twelve healthy male cyclists during maximal sprint cycling. Participants rode outdoors on a paved asphalt road with a steady, uphill gradient of 4.9%. Each participant completed sets of three 100-metre cycling sprints in three conditions: (1) running shoes with flat pedals (no pedal attachment + flexible soles), (2) running shoes with classic aluminium quill pedals with toe clips and straps (pedal attachment + flexible soles), and (3) cycling shoes with clip-in pedals (pedal attachment + stiff soles). When using the running shoes, the toe clip attachment increased maximum sprint power by 9.7 ± 8.7% (p = 1.7E − 03). Maximum sprint power was 16.6 ± 10.2% (p = 3.25E − 06) greater for the stiff-soled cycling shoes combined with clip-in pedals compared to the flexible running shoes with toe clips condition, presumably due to the greater sole stiffness of the cycling shoes. Shoe-pedal attachment and stiff soles each positively improve cycling performance during high-power, uphill sprints.
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NewsBot · May 27, 2020

Acute effect of biomechanical foot orthotics on drag area and perceived comfort in cyclists affected by an anatomic asymmetry in time trial position
Anthony Bouillod et al
Journal of Science and Cycling. https://doi.org/10.28985/0620.jsc.01

The aim of this study was to analyse the acute effect of biomechanical foot orthotics on drag area (ACd) and perceived comfort in elite cyclists affected by a lower limb length inequality (LLLI) in TT position. Twenty-nine cyclists performed two discontinuous incremental exercises (before and after orthopaedic correction) using their personal TT bicycle and equipment on a 250-m indoor velodrome. The ACd was unchanged in both the test group (TG) (‑0.5%, p = 0.707) and the control group (CG) (-1.4%, p = 0.276), whereas the perceived comfort was improved in the TG (+6.2%, p = 0.002) and stabilised in the CG (+0.7%, p = 0.546), after the fitting of the foot orthotics. Pelvis movements were decreased (small effect size) in the TG (-6.2%, p = 0.093, ES = 0.251), whereas they were increased (small effect size) in the CG (+5.2%, p= 0.159, ES = 0.215). TT position was slightly improved by compensating for a LLLI, as the ACd was stabilised and the level of comfort was improved. Thus, cyclists affected by a LLLI are recommended to compensate with foot orthotics in order to improve their level of comfort and consequently their performance in TT position.
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NewsBot · Oct 8, 2020

No effect of cycling shoe sole stiffness on sprint performance
James W. Hurt III & Rodger Kram
Footwear Science : 04 Oct 2020

Most competitive and recreational road cyclists use stiff-soled shoes designed for cycling and ‘clipless’ pedals that firmly attach to the shoes. There are many unsubstantiated claims by cyclists and industry professionals about the advantages of cycling shoes and clipless pedals. Scientific research has shown that cycling shoes and clipless pedals have no significant effects on the metabolic cost of cycling during submaximal, steady-state efforts. However, a recent study demonstrated that, compared to running shoes, cycling shoes and clipless pedals do provide performance benefits relevant to sprint cycling. Here, we investigated if there was a positive relationship between longitudinal bending stiffness of cycling shoe soles and sprint performance. We measured the mechanical power outputs, velocities, and cadences of 19 healthy male recreational/competitive cyclists during maximal sprint cycling. All participants rode outdoors on a paved asphalt road with a steady, uphill grade of 4.9%. Each subject completed a total of nine 50 m cycling sprints in three (single-blinded) shoe conditions (each condition was replicated three times): identical shoe uppers with injection moulded nylon soles, carbon fibre-fibreglass blend soles, and full carbon fibre soles. The same clipless pedals were used throughout all tests. No significant differences were detected between the three shoe soles for: 50 m average and peak 1-second power, average change and peak change in velocity, average and peak cadence, maximal sprint velocity, peak acceleration, and peak crank torque (all p > 0.31). Greater longitudinal bending stiffness of cycling shoe soles had no effect on sprint performance during short uphill sprints.
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NewsBot · Jan 26, 2022

No Effect of Cycling Shoe Outsole Stiffness On Suband Supra-Maximal Cycling Performance
Parameters.
Manon Varvat et al
Source

Background: The aim of this study was to test the effects of cycling shoe outsole stiffness on
both performance and comfort parameters during sub- and supra-maximal cycling tests.
Methods: Two groups of recreational women tested three cycling shoe conditions with
differing outsole stiffness. One group of 8 women performed four cycling tests of 3 min
composed of two intensities (100 and 140 W) and two pedaling rates (70 and 100 rpm) for each
pair of shoes. Metabolic and subjective perception of comfort measurement was evaluated with
each shoe. Another group of 12 women performed 6-s all-out sprints against two external
resistances (0.4 and 0.7 N/kg) to determine force-velocity relationships with the three cycling
shoe conditions. Results: The main findings are that the stiffness of the investigated outsole
cycling shoes (i) does not influence cycling performance whatever the test (ii) while the
perception of comfort is largely degraded compared to the most flexible shoe. Conclusion:
Maximizing stiffness should no longer be of the highest design principal for beginners or
recreational women cyclists.
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