Race walking injuries and biomechanics

NewsBot · Apr 23, 2008

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Subtalar joint kinematic correlations with footprint arch index in race walkers.
Elvira JL, Vera-García FJ, Meana M
J Sports Med Phys Fitness. 2008 Jun;48(2):225-34

AIM: The aim of the paper was to analyze the relationship between footprint arch index and subtalar joint movement in race walkers.

METHODS: Thirteen young, highly skilled race walkers volunteered to participate. We obtained dominant-foot footprints in a bipedal stance. The arch index was measured to classify arch height. We also conducted a photogrammetric video-3D study on a running track. The support phase was recorded while subjects race walked at their individual competition speed. We calculated 4 angle time series describing the ankle joint kinematics during the support phase. Five specific step instants were calculated for each angle and correlated with the arch index. Race walkers were grouped according to arch height to compare. We also correlated the arch index with the time in medial support, and time to change from lateral to medial support during the stance phase.

RESULTS: In the calcaneal angle we found correlations with the footprint (r=0.81; P<0.01) and statistical differences when grouped (P<0.01). In this angle we also found a moderate-high correlation between footprint arch index and the time in medial support (r=0.77; P<0.01), and also in the time to change from lateral to medial support during the stance phase (r=-0.73; P<0.01). Data also show that the race walkers adopt a characteristic propulsion technique in the end of the support. No statistical differences were found in the rearfoot angle, which has been previously associated to specific injuries in running.

CONCLUSION: In conclusion, race walkers with higher arches exhibit a more pronounced support with the lateral side of the foot and they do so for a longer time. Conversely, subjects with flatter feet support with the medial side of the foot. The footprint has been found to be a good predictor for the technique employed with respect to the medial and lateral strike of the foot reflected by the calcaneal angle. Coaches should keep this in mind from both performance and injury prevention viewpoints.
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NewsBot · May 15, 2008

Re: STJ motion and footprint in race walking

The evaluation of energy cost of effort and changes of centre of mass (COM) during race walking at starting speed after improving the length of lower extremities.
Klimek A, Chwała W.
Acta Bioeng Biomech. 2007;9(2):55-60

The purpose of the study was to evaluate the influence of extremities length improvement in the form of special shoe orthoses on the walking energy cost of the leading Polish representative in race walking. Before a proper study, the aerobic capacity of the subject was evaluated. The test consisted of two walking efforts performed on a mechanical treadmill. The subject was walking for 12 minutes with shoe orthoses at constant speed (12 km/h) and then the rest phase allowed for the total covering of the oxygen debt. Then the trial was repeated without orthoses. Simultaneously with measuring physiological variables, there was made 3D recording of the athlete's movements on the treadmill applying the Vicon system. There were chosen vertical oscillations of the body center of gravity and work of the subject's system of motion connected with kinetic and potential energy changes regarding the movements of COM during gait. The energy cost of walking at speed related to anaerobic threshold (starting) using shoe orthoses was slightly lower compared to energy expenditure during gait without improvement. No significant differences were noticed in the range of summary vertical COM oscillations during walking in both variants of the measurement. However, considerable asymmetries appeared in the value of COM kinetic energy changes that were lower for the right leg. This testifies to a strongly fixed asymmetrical scheme of individual athlete's technique.
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NewsBot · Jul 1, 2009

Re: STJ motion and footprint in race walking

Temporal values and plantar pressures during normal walking and racewalking in a group of racewalkers.
Villaroya MA, Casajus JA, Perez JM.
J Sport Rehabil. 2009 May;18(2):283-95.

OBJECTIVES: To compare temporal and pressure values between racewalking and normal walking (freely selected speed) and evaluate the impact of racewalking on normal walking.

DESIGN AND PARTICIPANTS: Temporal and plantar-pressure values were recorded (xPression system) during normal walking and racewalking in 8 high-level racewalkers. The Wilcoxon test was used for comparisons.

MEASUREMENTS: Duration of walking and racewalking cycle phases (seconds and percentage of the cycle), peak and average pressures under the hind foot and metatarsal heads, and pressure distribution (%) among metatarsal heads.

RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS: Normal walking: temporal parameters similar to those described in normal gait; peak pressures higher than those described in nonracewalkers with displacement toward lateral forefoot. Racewalking: shorter cycles (important decrease of midstance phase); higher peak pressures than during normal walking in the hind foot and 4th and 5th metatarsal heads; average pressures similar to normal walking in hind foot and lower in forefoot; pressure displacement toward lateral forefoot greater than in normal walking.
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NewsBot · Aug 18, 2009

Re: STJ motion and footprint in race walking

Footfall dynamics for racewalkers and runners barefoot on compliant surfaces.
Wilson JF, Rochelle RD.
J Biomech. 2009 Aug 12. [Epub ahead of print]

The main purpose of this study is to investigate the role of footfall surface compliance on the physical parameters affecting barefoot racewalkers and runners. These parameters are identified using a new inverted pendulum body model with a forward moving foot pivot. Model correlations of footfall loads measured for four compliant surface mats showed leg-foot compression stiffness for both gaits were in the range of 10.8-12.9kN/m, with the initial stiffness spikes in the range of 6.5-52kN/m. The average leg damping factor was about 0.6% for racewalkers and 6% for runners. For both gaits there was negative leg damping just prior to foot lift-off. Compared to the peak reactions for the rigid surface, a mat of intermediate compliance (1020kN/m) was effective in reducing the runners' peak reaction spikes by as much as 17%.
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NewsBot · May 18, 2013

Re: STJ motion and footprint in race walking

Kinematic characteristics of elite men's 50 km race walking.
Hanley B, Bissas A, Drake A.
EJSS (Champaign). 2013 May;13(3):272-9.

Race walking is an endurance event which also requires great technical ability, particularly with respect to its two distinguishing rules. The 50 km race walk is the longest event in the athletics programme at the Olympic Games. The aims of this observational study were to identify the important kinematic variables in elite men's 50 km race walking, and to measure variation in those variables at different distances. Thirty men were analysed from video data recorded during a World Race Walking Cup competition. Video data were also recorded at four distances during the European Cup Race Walking and 12 men analysed from these data. Two camcorders (50 Hz) recorded at each race for 3D analysis. The results of this study showed that walking speed was associated with both step length (r=0.54,P=0.002) and cadence (r=0.58,P=0.001). While placing the foot further ahead of the body at heel strike was associated with greater step lengths (r=0.45,P=0.013), it was also negatively associated with cadence (r= -0.62,P<0.001). In the World Cup, knee angles ranged between 175 and 186° at initial contact and between 180 and 195° at midstance. During the European Cup, walking speed decreased significantly (F=9.35,P=0.002), mostly due to a decrease in step length between 38.5 and 48.5 km (t=8.59,P=0.014). From this study, it would appear that the key areas a 50 km race walker must develop and coordinate are step length and cadence, although it is also important to ensure legal walking technique is maintained with the onset of fatigue.
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NewsBot · May 28, 2013

Re: STJ motion and footprint in race walking

Footstep analysis at different slopes and speeds in elite race walking.
Padulo J, Annino G, Dʼottavio S, Vernillo G, Smith L, Migliaccio GM, Tihanyi J.
J Strength Cond Res. 2013 Jan;27(1):125-9.

In order to investigate the effects of speed and slope on kinematic parameters, we studied the step parameters of 12 elite race walkers on a treadmill at different speeds (3.61, 3.89, and 4.17 m·s(-1)) and slopes (0, 2, and 7%). A high-speed digital camera (210 Hz) was used to record motion, and 2D data were analyzed with Dartfish 5.5Pro. The parameters studied were step length (SL), step frequency (SF), and contact time (CT). The results showed that the increases in SL were linearly related to increases in speed: r = 0.37 with p < 0.01, whereas decreases in SL were elicited with an increase in slope r = -0.56, p < 0.0001 ([0-2% = -3.5%, p < 0.02], [0-7% = -7.5%, p < 0.01]). The SF was positively correlated with increases in speed, r = 0.56, p = 0.0001, and slopes, r = 0.50, p < 0.0001 (0-2% = 3.6% n.s.; 0-7% = 8.5%, p < 0.01). Conversely, CT was negatively correlated with increases of both speed; r = -0.57, p < 0.0001 and slope r = -0.50, p < 0.0001 (0-2% = -3.4%, n.s.; 0-7% = -7.7%, p < 0.01). These results suggest that using slopes <7% could considerably alter the neuromechanical behavior of athletes, whereas slopes around 2% could positively influence the performance of the elite race walkers without altering the race-walking technique.
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NewsBot · Oct 22, 2013

Re: STJ motion and footprint in race walking

BIOMECHANICS AND INJURY RISK FACTORS DURING RACE WALKING
Qipeng Song, Zhengye Ding, Dewei Mao, Cui Zhang, Wei Sun
International Conference on Biomechanics in Sports (2013)

The purpose of this study is to describe the biomechanical characteristics during race walking and identify whether the race walking rules could cause potential injury risks. Fourteen elite race walkers participated in this study. Rs-scan plantar pressure plate and three digital cameras were used to collect data during race walking and normal walking. Paired t-tests were used to detect the differences. The results showed that during race walking, the peak pressures of the lateral heel and medial heel, the displacements of the center of pressure, ankle dorsiflexion, plantarflexion, knee extension, hip adduction, foot eversion, ankle angular velocity, and average horizontal velocity were significantly larger than those during normal walking. The greater heel peak pressure and more ankle eversion may be the injury risks caused by the rules of race walking.
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NewsBot · Sep 30, 2014

The biomechanics of race walking: Literature overview and new insights
Gaspare Pavei, Dario Cazzola, Antonio La Torre & Alberto E. Minetti
European Journal of Sport Science; Volume 14, Issue 7, 2014

This review aims to provide both researchers and coaches with a comprehensive overview of race walking biomechanics and to point out new viable route for future analyses. The examined literature has been divided into three categories according to the method of analysis: kinematics, ground reaction forces and joint power/efficiency. From an overall view, race walking athletes seem to adhere to the ‘straightened knee’ rule, but at race speed they do not observe the ‘no-flight time’ rule. The coach-oriented analysis highlights that stride length (SL) is more important than stride frequency (SF) for increasing speed and it is mainly obtained by ankle and hip joint power. Moreover, kinematic differences (SF, SL and flight time) between male and female athletes were shown. Also, we found that the maximal speed prediction according to dynamic similarity theory with walking (Froude number) is not applicable as the 3D trajectory of the body centre of mass does not follow an arc of circumference as in walking. The analysed literature shows some shortcomings: (1) the data collection is often unreliable because of the mixture of gender and performance level and (2) the analysis has sometimes been performed on a limited number of strides and speeds. These limitations lead to a scattered and incomplete gait description and a biased application of the results. The research strategy adopted so far is promising but further rigorous analyses need to be approached to obtain a fully comprehensive picture of race walking and to provide coaches with consistent results and reference values.
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NewsBot · Jan 22, 2015

THE EFFECT OF ARCH-SUPPORTED FUNCTIONAL INSOLES TO AVOID OVERUSED
INJURIES DURING RACE WALKING
Qipeng Song, Zhengye Ding
Source

This study investigates the effectiveness of functional insoles on plantar pressure distribution
during race walking so as to reduce the high plantar pressure and force on race walkers, who
tend to suffer from overuse injury. A total of 20 male race walkers aged 21.19 ±2.66 years
and with a mean height of 178.85 ±14.07 cm were recruited as subjects. Each participant
completed a race walk with and without functional insoles. Plantar pressure insoles were used
to collect plantar pressure data. A two-way analysis of variance with a mixed design was used
to determine the difference between the two conditions. Results show that the use of
functional insoles reduced the peak pressure and the impulse in the metatarsal heads and
heels and thus suggest that functional insoles reduce the overuse injury risks of these parts.
The first ground reaction force peak also decreased. This result suggests that functional
insoles reduce the risks of foot and leg injuries.
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NewsBot · Feb 10, 2015

BIOMECHANICAL ANALYSIS OF RACE WALKING COMPARED TO NORMAL
WALKING AND RUNNING GAIT
Jaclyn D. Norberg
PhD DISSERTATION; University of Kentucky 2015

Human locomotion is phenomenon that is extraordinarily complex. It is evident
that a complete description of locomotion involves consideration of kinematics, kinetics,
and muscle activity of the extremities in all of their various movements. Race walking
(RW) is a form of upright locomotion that differs from normal walking and running by its
form dictated by the International Amateur Athletics Federation (IAAF). Despite the
similarities to both normal walking (NW) and running (RU), RW has not been the subject
of equally intensive investigations.
This study explores the comprehensive biomechanics of race walking and how it
compares to NW and RU. A quantitative approach was used to evaluate kinematic,
kinetic and muscle activity variables between race walking and both normal walking and
running. A cross-sectional, laboratory design was used on 15 recreationally competitive
race walkers to evaluate these variables.
Based on the results of this study, RW is an intermediate gait between NW and
RU that has characteristics of both gaits, but is still a unique gait in itself. While there are
differences between RW and both RU and NW, some of the expected differences
between RW and the two gaits did not occur. Significantly greater frontal plane pelvistrunk
joint range of motion and sagittal plane peak hip flexor and extensor moments, hip
joint range of motion and rectus femoris muscle activity contribute to the significant
differences in both RW and NW, and RW and RU.
Significant differences between RW and RU showed that RU requires more contribution
from the trunk, pelvis and lower extremities kinematically and kinetically, as well as
increased muscle activation, to execute the motion than RW. Conversely, RW requires
more contribution from these variables than NW does, but in not as great a capacity as
RU compared to RW. In spite of these findings, there were some variables that had no
significant differences between RW and RU. This suggests that injuries during RW are
similar to those during RU, but may not occur as frequently.
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NewsBot · Jun 11, 2015

Could Insoles Offload Pressure? An Evaluation of the Effects of Arch-supported Functional Insoles on Plantar Pressure Distribution during Race Walking.
Song Q, Zhang C, Xu K, Yu B, Sun W, Mao D.
Res Sports Med. 2015 Jun 10:1-11

This study investigated the effectiveness of functional insoles on plantar pressure distribution during race walking so as to reduce the high plantar pressure and force on race walkers, who tend to suffer from overuse injury. A total of 20 male race walkers aged 21.19 ± 3.66 years and with a mean height of 178.85 ± 14.07 cm were recruited as participants. Each participant completed a race walking with functional or normal insoles. Plantar pressure insoles were used to collect vertical plantar pressure data. A two-way analysis of variance with a mixed design was used to determine the difference between the two conditions. Results showed that the use of functional insoles reduces the peak pressure and the impulse in the metatarsophalangeal joints and heels and thus suggest that functional insoles reduce the overuse injury risks of these parts. The first ground reaction force peak also decreased. This result suggested that functional insoles reduce the risks of foot and leg injuries.
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NewsBot · Apr 29, 2016

From the Gait Guys:
http://thegaitguys.tumblr.com/post/143579991674/knee-hyperextension-and-delayed-heel-rise-in-an

NewsBot · Jul 9, 2016

Analysis of lower limb work-energy patterns in world-class race walkers
Biomechanics
Brian Hanley & Athanassios Bissas
Journal of Sports Sciences

The aim of this study was to analyse lower limb work patterns in world-class race walkers. Seventeen male and female athletes race walked at competitive pace. Ground reaction forces (1000 Hz) and high-speed videos (100 Hz) were recorded and normalised joint moments, work and power, stride length, stride frequency and speed estimated. The hip flexors and extensors were the main generators of energy (24.5 J (?6.9) and 40.3 J (?8.3), respectively), with the ankle plantarflexors (16.3 J (?4.3)) contributing to the energy generated during late stance. The knee generated little energy but performed considerable negative work during swing (−49.1 J (?8.7)); the energy absorbed by the knee extensors was associated with smaller changes in velocity during stance (r = .783, P < .001), as was the energy generated by the hip flexors (r = −.689, P = .002). The knee flexors did most negative work (−38.6 J (?5.8)) and the frequent injuries to the hamstrings are probably due to this considerable negative work. Coaches should note the important contributions of the hip and ankle muscles to energy generation and the need to develop knee flexor strength in reducing the risk of injury.
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NewsBot · Sep 23, 2016

Gait variability and symmetry in world-class senior and junior race walkers
Catherine B. Tucker & Brian Hanley
Journal of Sports Sciences 22 Sep 2016

The aim of this study was to analyse gait variability and symmetry in race walkers. Eighteen senior and 17 junior athletes race walked on an instrumented treadmill (for 10 km and 5 km, respectively) at speeds equivalent to 103% of season’s best time for 20 km and 10 km, respectively. Spatio-temporal and ground reaction force (GRF) data were recorded at 2.5 km, and at 4.5, 6.5 and 8.5 km for a subsection of athletes. Gait variability was measured using median absolute deviation (MAD) whereas inter-leg symmetry was measured using the symmetry angle. Both groups showed low variability for step length (<0.9%), step frequency (<1.1%), contact time (≤1.2%) and vertical peak force values (<5%), and neither variability nor symmetry changed with distance walked. Junior athletes were more variable for both step length (P = 0.004) and loading force (P = 0.003); no differences for gait symmetry were found. Whereas there was little mean asymmetry overall, individual analyses identified asymmetry in several athletes (symmetry angle ≥ 1.2%). Importantly, asymmetrical step lengths were found in 12 athletes and could result from underlying imbalances. Coaches are advised to observe athletes on an individual basis to monitor for both variability and asymmetry.
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NewsBot · Dec 2, 2016

Electronic insoles to judge "lifting" in race walking come a step closer, IAAF Council hears

NewsBot · Mar 6, 2018

Race walking gait and its influence on race walking economy in world-class race walkers
Josu Gomez-Ezeiza, Jon Torres-Unda, Nicholas Tam, Jon Irazusta, Cristina Granados & Jordan Santos-Concejero
Journal of Sports Sciences 06 Mar 2018

Aim: The aim of this study was to determine the relationships between biomechanical parameters of the gait cycle and race walking economy in world-class Olympic race walkers.

Methods: Twenty-One world-class race walkers possessing the Olympic qualifying standard participated in this study. Participants completed an incremental race walking test starting at 10 km·h−1, where race walking economy (ml·kg−1·km−1) and spatiotemporal gait variables were analysed at different speeds.

Results: 20-km race walking performance was related to race walking economy, being the fastest race walkers those displaying reduced oxygen cost at a given speed (R = 0.760, p < 0.001). Longer ground contact times, shorter flight times, longer midstance sub-phase and shorter propulsive sub-phase during stance were related to a better race walking economy (moderate effect, p < 0.05).

Conclusion: According to the results of this study, the fastest race walkers were more economi cal than the lesser performers. Similarly, shorter flight times are associated with a more efficient race walking economy. Coaches and race walkers should avoid modifying their race walking style by increasing flight times, as it may not only impair economy, but also lead to disqualification.
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NewsBot · Jul 19, 2018

Race walking gait and its influence on race walking economy in world-class race walkers.
Gomez-Ezeiza J et al
J Sports Sci. 2018 Oct;36(19):2235-2241.

AIM:
The aim of this study was to determine the relationships between biomechanical parameters of the gait cycle and race walking economy in world-class Olympic race walkers.

METHODS:
Twenty-One world-class race walkers possessing the Olympic qualifying standard participated in this study. Participants completed an incremental race walking test starting at 10 km·h-1, where race walking economy (ml·kg-1·km-1) and spatiotemporal gait variables were analysed at different speeds.

RESULTS:
20-km race walking performance was related to race walking economy, being the fastest race walkers those displaying reduced oxygen cost at a given speed (R = 0.760, p < 0.001). Longer ground contact times, shorter flight times, longer midstance sub-phase and shorter propulsive sub-phase during stance were related to a better race walking economy (moderate effect, p < 0.05).

CONCLUSION:
According to the results of this study, the fastest race walkers were more economi cal than the lesser performers. Similarly, shorter flight times are associated with a more efficient race walking economy. Coaches and race walkers should avoid modifying their race walking style by increasing flight times, as it may not only impair economy, but also lead to disqualification.
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NewsBot · Mar 14, 2019

Press Release:
RACE WALKING
The IAAF Council agreed in principle with the Race Walking Committee's proposal to change the competition programme for race walking in order to protect and promote the discipline in major international championships and its appeal and attractiveness to new audiences.

Council specifically agreed with the importance of:
- maintaining a 4-medal discipline and gender equity with two men's and two women's events at all major international competition
- continuing to prioritise investment in and development of the Race Walking Electronic Control System (i.e, the electronic chip insole technology)
- testing and validating the technology in competition during 2020
- roll out of two of the following events: 10km, 20km, 30km or 35km from 2022.

NewsBot · Aug 28, 2020

Increases in speed do not change gait symmetry or variability in world-class race walkers
Catherine B. Tucker & Brian Hanley
Journal of Sports Sciences : 29 Jul 2020

The aim of this study was to analyse changes in gait variability and symmetry with increasing speed in race walkers. Eighteen international athletes race walked on an instrumented treadmill at speeds of 11, 12, 13 and 14 km·h−1 in a randomised order for 3 min each. Spatiotemporal and ground reaction force data were recorded for 30 s at each speed. Gait variability was measured using median absolute deviation and inter-leg symmetry was measured using the symmetry angle. There was an overall effect of speed on all absolute values except push-off force, but symmetry and variability (except flight time) did not change with increased speed, step length and step frequency. Most athletes were asymmetrical for at least one variable, but none was asymmetrical for more than half of the variables measured. Therefore, being asymmetrical or having higher variability (<5%) in a few variables is normal. Taking all findings together, practitioners should exercise caution when deciding on the need for corrective interventions and should not be concerned that increasing gait speed could increase injury risk through changes to athletes’ asymmetry. Race walking coaches should test at competition speeds to ensure that flight times, and any variability or asymmetry, are measured appropriately.
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NewsBot · Oct 11, 2021

Morphological and mechanical properties of lower limbs in competitive racewalkers: associations with performance
JoshWalkerGarethNicholsonBrianHanley
Journal of Biomechanics; 9 October 2021, 110802

Racewalking is an unconventional form of competitive gait that elicits a unique loading profile on lower limb muscles and tendons. This study mapped the structural and mechanical properties of lower limbs in competitive racewalkers and made associations with World Athletics competition performance points. Fourteen international racewalkers (seven men, seven women) were recruited for this study. Static ultrasonography was used to quantify muscle and tendon morphological characteristics. An isokinetic dynamometer was used to measure passive musculotendinous stiffness of the triceps surae, isometric (seven knee/ankle angle combinations) and isokinetic (four angular velocities) strength parameters in the plantarflexors and dorsiflexors, and isokinetic knee flexion and extension strength at five angular velocities. Correlations were found between performance and fascicle length of gastrocnemius medialis (r = –0.569, p = 0.034), dorsiflexor strength at 120°/s (r = 0.649, p = 0.016) and knee flexor strength at 30°/s (r = 0.632, p = 0.020). No associations were found for isometric plantarflexion or passive stiffness properties. Overall, the study showed various morphological and mechanical properties are associated with performance in competitive racewalkers. These associations seem to be related to the specific and unique biomechanical characteristics of racewalking.
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NewsBot · Apr 5, 2022

Racewalking on a treadmill alters gait characteristics without increasing risk of disqualification
Xinrui Zhang et al
Eur J Sport Sci. 2022 Mar 29

Purpose: Treadmill training is useful for racewalking training; however, it may affect gait characteristics and lead to non-legal techniques. The aim of this study was to determine the kinematic differences between treadmill and overground conditions during racewalking at different speeds.

Methods: Twenty-two elite racewalkers participated in this study. They racewalked under treadmill and overground conditions at high and medium speeds. A 12-camera motion analysis system was used to record the racewalking trials.

Results: Significant condition by speed interactions were detected in step frequency and pelvis rotation angle; step frequency decreased while pelvis rotation angle increased from overground to treadmill conditions at high speed. Compared to overground conditions, racewalkers decreased the ankle dorsiflexion angle at heel strike and increased hip flexion, shoulder hyperextension, and elbow flexion angles at heel strike and hip and shoulder extension angles at toe-off under treadmill conditions. Compared to medium speed, racewalkers decreased the contact time, hip flexion, and shoulder hyperextension at heel strike, and ankle plantarflexion and shoulder extension angles at toe-off, and increased flight time, step length, and elbow flexion angle at heel strike at high speed.

Conclusion: Several kinematic differences during racewalking were detected between treadmill and overground conditions, with more differences detected at high speed, indicating that treadmill racewalking, especially at high speed, has different gait characteristics. However, no differences were detected in flight time and knee angle under treadmill conditions compared to overground conditions, indicating that racewalking on a treadmill does not increase the risk of disqualification.
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NewsBot · Aug 30, 2022

Racewalking: Key Lower Extremity Concepts

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