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This day in .....

Discussion in 'Break Room' started by NewsBot, Apr 6, 2008.

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    29 April 1770James Cook arrives in Australia at Botany Bay, which he names

    James Cook

    Captain James Cook FRS (7 November [O.S. 27 October] 1728 – 14 February 1779) was a British explorer, cartographer and naval officer famous for his three voyages between 1768 and 1779 in the Pacific Ocean and to New Zealand and Australia in particular. He made detailed maps of Newfoundland prior to making three voyages to the Pacific, during which he achieved the first recorded European contact with the eastern coastline of Australia and the Hawaiian Islands and the first recorded circumnavigation of New Zealand.

    Cook joined the British merchant navy as a teenager and joined the Royal Navy in 1755. He served during the Seven Years' War and subsequently surveyed and mapped much of the entrance to the St. Lawrence River during the siege of Quebec, which brought him to the attention of the Admiralty and the Royal Society. This acclaim came at a crucial moment for the direction of British overseas exploration, and it led to his commission in 1768 as commander of HMS Endeavour for the first of three Pacific voyages.

    In these voyages, Cook sailed thousands of miles across largely uncharted areas of the globe. He mapped lands from New Zealand to Hawaii in the Pacific Ocean in greater detail and on a scale not previously charted by Western explorers. He surveyed and named features, and recorded islands and coastlines on European maps for the first time. He displayed a combination of seamanship, superior surveying and cartographic skills, physical courage, and an ability to lead men in adverse conditions.

    During his third voyage in the Pacific, Cook encountered the Hawaiian islands in 1779. He was killed while attempting to take hostage Kalaniʻōpuʻu, chief of the island of Hawaii. He left a legacy of scientific and geographical knowledge that influenced his successors well into the 20th century, and numerous memorials worldwide have been dedicated to him. He remains controversial as an enabler of British colonialism and for his occasionally violent encounters with indigenous peoples.

     
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    30 April 1513Edmund de la Pole, Yorkist pretender to the English throne, is executed on the orders of Henry VIII.

    Edmund de la Pole, 3rd Duke of Suffolk

    Edmund de la Pole, 3rd Duke of Suffolk, 6th Earl of Suffolk, KG (c. 1471 – 30 April 1513), Duke of Suffolk, was a son of John de la Pole, 2nd Duke of Suffolk and his wife Elizabeth of York.

    Although the male York line ended with the death of Edward Plantagenet and the Poles at first swore loyalty to the Tudor king of England, they later tried to claim the throne as the Yorkist claimant. Edmund was ultimately executed at the Tower of London.

     
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    1 May 1707 – The Act of Union joining England and Scotland to form the Kingdom of Great Britain takes effect.

    Acts of Union 1707

    The Acts of Union (Scottish Gaelic: Achd an Aonaidh) were two Acts of Parliament: the Union with Scotland Act 1706 passed by the Parliament of England, and the Union with England Act 1707 passed by the Parliament of Scotland. They put into effect the terms of the Treaty of Union that had been agreed on 22 July 1706, following negotiation between commissioners representing the parliaments of the two countries. By the two Acts, the Kingdom of England and the Kingdom of Scotland—which at the time were separate states in a personal union—were, in the words of the Treaty, "United into One Kingdom by the Name of Great Britain".[2]

    The two countries had shared a monarch since the Union of the Crowns in 1603, when King James VI of Scotland inherited the English throne from his double first cousin twice removed, Queen Elizabeth I. Although described as a Union of Crowns, and in spite of James's acknowledgement of his accession to a single Crown,[3] England and Scotland were officially separate Kingdoms until 1707 (as opposed to the implied creation of a single unified Kingdom, exemplified by the later Kingdom of Great Britain). Prior to the Acts of Union, there had been three previous attempts (in 1606, 1667, and 1689) to unite the two countries by Acts of Parliament, but it was not until the early 18th century that both political establishments came to support the idea, albeit for different reasons.

    The Acts took effect on 1 May 1707. On this date, the Scottish Parliament and the English Parliament united to form the Parliament of Great Britain, based in the Palace of Westminster in London, the previous home of the English Parliament.[4] This specific process is sometimes referred to as the "union of the Parliaments" in Scotland.[5]


    Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

    1. ^ Pickering, Danby, ed. (1794). "CAP. XIII An act to prevent acts of parliament from taking effect from a time prior to the passing thereof". The Statutes at Large : Anno tricesimo tertio George III Regis. Vol. XXXIX. Cambridge. pp. 32, 33. Archived from the original on 20 March 2023. Retrieved 29 January 2021. (33 Geo. 3. c. 13: "Acts of Parliament (Commencement) Act 1793")
    2. ^ Article I of the Treaty of Union
    3. ^ "House of Commons Journal Volume 1: 31 March 1607". Archived from the original on 31 October 2020. Retrieved 27 October 2020.
    4. ^ Act of Union 1707, Article 3
    5. ^ "Glossary". archive2021.parliament.scot. 20 May 2010. Retrieved 14 January 2023.
     
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    2 May 2011Osama bin Laden, the suspected mastermind behind the September 11 attacks and the FBI's most wanted man, is killed by the United States special forces in Abbottabad, Pakistan.

    Osama bin Laden

    Osama bin Mohammed bin Awad bin Laden (Arabic: أسامة بن محمد بن عوض بن لادن, romanizedUsāma bin Muḥammad bin ʿAwaḍ bin Lādin; 10 March 1957 – 2 May 2011) was a Saudi-born Islamic dissident and militant leader who was the founder and first general emir of al-Qaeda from 1988 until his death in 2011. Ideologically a pan-Islamist, he participated in the Afghan Jihad against the Soviet Union and supported the activities of the Bosnian mujahideen during the Yugoslav Wars. Bin Laden is most widely known as the mastermind of the September 11 attacks in the United States.

    Osama was born in Riyadh to the aristocratic bin Laden family. He studied at local universities until 1979, when he joined the Afghan mujahidin against the Soviet Union in the wake of the Afghan–Soviet War. In 1984, he co-founded Maktab al-Khidamat which recruited foreign mujahidin into the war. He founded al-Qaeda in 1988 for worldwide jihad. In the Gulf War (1990–1991), Bin Laden's offer for support against Iraq was rebuked by the Saudi royal family, which instead sought American aid. Bin Laden's views on pan-Islamism and anti-Americanism resulted in his expulsion from Saudi Arabia in 1991. He subsequently shifted his headquarters to Sudan until 1996 when he left the country to establish a new base in Afghanistan, where he was supported by the Taliban. Bin Laden declared two fatawa, the first in August 1996, and the second in February 1998, declaring holy war against the United States. He orchestrated the 1998 United States embassy bombings in East Africa. He was then listed on the FBI's Most Wanted Terrorists and Most Wanted Fugitives lists. In October 1999, the United Nations designated al-Qaeda as a terrorist organization.

    Bin Laden was the organizer of the September 11 attacks, which killed nearly 3,000 people. This resulted in the United States invading Afghanistan, which launched the war on terror. Bin Laden became the subject of nearly a decade-long multi-national manhunt led by the United States. During this period, he hid in several mountainous regions of Afghanistan and later escaped to neighboring Pakistan. On 2 May 2011, Bin Laden was killed by U.S. special operations forces at his compound in Abbottabad. His corpse was buried at the Arabian Sea and he was officially succeeded by his deputy Ayman al-Zawahiri on 16 June 2011.

    Bin Laden grew to become a highly influential ideologue in the Islamic world. He was considered a war hero due to his role in successfully opposing the Soviet occupation of Afghanistan and offered an articulate voice and organizational structure to many across the region harboring grievances against Western imperialism, often having approval ratings in some countries higher than those of national leaders. Nonetheless, his justification and orchestration of attacks against civilian targets in the United States, including the September 11 attacks, have made him a hated figure in the West, where public opinion holds bin Laden to be a reviled figurehead of mass murder.

    1. ^ Davies, William D.; Dubinsky, Stanley (2018). Language Conflict and Language Rights: Ethnolinguistic Perspectives on Human Conflict. Cambridge University Press. p. 74. ISBN 978-1-107-02209-6.
    2. ^ Fair, C. Christine; Watson, Sarah J. (18 February 2015). Pakistan's Enduring Challenges. University of Pennsylvania Press. p. 246. ISBN 978-0-8122-4690-2. Archived from the original on 31 January 2016. Osama bin Laden was a hard-core Salafi who openly espoused violence against the United States in order to achieve Salafi goals.
    3. ^ Brown, Amy Benson; Poremski, Karen M. (18 December 2014). Roads to Reconciliation: Conflict and Dialogue in the Twenty-first Century. Routledge. p. 81. ISBN 978-1-317-46076-3. Archived from the original on 31 January 2016.
    4. ^ Osama bin Laden (2007) Suzanne J. Murdico
    5. ^ Armstrong, Karen (11 July 2005). "The label of Catholic terror was never used about the IRA". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 26 December 2016.
     
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    3 May 1920 – A Bolshevik coup fails in the Democratic Republic of Georgia.

    1920 Georgian coup attempt

    The Georgian coup in May 1920 was an unsuccessful attempt to take power by the Bolsheviks in the Democratic Republic of Georgia. Relying on the 11th Red Army of Soviet Russia operating in neighboring Azerbaijan, the Bolsheviks attempted to take control of a military school and government offices in the Georgian capital of Tiflis on May 3. The Georgian government suppressed the disorders in Tiflis and concentrated its forces to successfully block the advance of the Russian troops on the Azerbaijani-Georgian border. The Georgian resistance, combined with an uneasy war with Poland, persuaded the Red leadership to defer their plans for Georgia's Sovietization and recognize Georgia as an independent nation in the May 7 treaty of Moscow.[1][2][3]

    1. ^ Kazemzadeh, Firuz (1951), The Struggle for Transcaucasia, 1917–1921, pp. 296, 314. The New York Philosophical Library
    2. ^ Lang, David Marshall (1962), A Modern History of Georgia, pp. 225–6. London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson
    3. ^ Pipes, Richard (1954), The Formation of the Soviet Union, Communism and Nationalism, 1917–1923, p. 227. Harvard University Press
     
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    4 May 1869 – The Naval Battle of Hakodate is fought in Japan.

    Naval Battle of Hakodate

    The Naval Battle of Hakodate (函館湾海戦, Hakodatewan Kaisen) was fought from 4 to 10 May 1869, between the remnants of the Tokugawa shogunate navy, consolidated into the armed forces of the rebel Ezo Republic, and the newly formed Imperial Japanese Navy. It was one of the last stages of Battle of Hakodate during the Boshin War, and occurred near Hakodate in the northern Japanese island of Hokkaidō.

     
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    5 May 1821 – The first edition of The Manchester Guardian, now The Guardian, is published

    The Guardian

    The Guardian is a British daily newspaper. It was founded in 1821 as The Manchester Guardian, before it changed its name in 1959.[4] Along with its sister papers, The Observer and The Guardian Weekly, The Guardian is part of the Guardian Media Group, owned by the Scott Trust Limited.[5] The trust was created in 1936 to "secure the financial and editorial independence of The Guardian in perpetuity and to safeguard the journalistic freedom and liberal values of The Guardian free from commercial or political interference".[6] The trust was converted into a limited company in 2008, with a constitution written so as to maintain for The Guardian the same protections as were built into the structure of the Scott Trust by its creators. Profits are reinvested in its journalism rather than distributed to owners or shareholders.[6] It is considered a newspaper of record in the UK.[7][8]

    The editor-in-chief Katharine Viner succeeded Alan Rusbridger in 2015.[9][10] Since 2018, the paper's main newsprint sections have been published in tabloid format. As of July 2021, its print edition had a daily circulation of 105,134.[3] The newspaper has an online edition, TheGuardian.com, as well as three international websites, Guardian Australia (founded in 2013) Guardian New Zealand (founded in 2019) and Guardian US (founded in 2011). The paper's readership is generally on the mainstream left of British political opinion,[11][12] and the term "Guardian reader" is used to imply a stereotype of a person with liberal, left-wing or "politically correct" views.[13] Frequent typographical errors during the age of manual typesetting led Private Eye magazine to dub the paper the "Grauniad" in the 1970s, a nickname still occasionally used by the editors for self-mockery.[14][15]

    In an Ipsos MORI research poll in September 2018 designed to interrogate the public's trust of specific titles online, The Guardian scored highest for digital-content news, with 84% of readers agreeing that they "trust what [they] see in it".[16] A December 2018 report of a poll by the Publishers Audience Measurement Company stated that the paper's print edition was found to be the most trusted in the UK in the period from October 2017 to September 2018. It was also reported to be the most-read of the UK's "quality newsbrands", including digital editions; other "quality" brands included The Times, The Daily Telegraph, The Independent, and the i. While The Guardian's print circulation is in decline, the report indicated that news from The Guardian, including that reported online, reaches more than 23 million UK adults each month.[17]

    Chief among the notable "scoops" obtained by the paper was the 2011 News International phone-hacking scandal—and in particular the hacking of the murdered English teenager Milly Dowler's phone.[18] The investigation led to the closure of the News of the World, the UK's best-selling Sunday newspaper and one of the highest-circulation newspapers in history.[19] In June 2013, The Guardian broke news of the secret collection by the Obama administration of Verizon telephone records,[20] and subsequently revealed the existence of the surveillance program PRISM after knowledge of it was leaked to the paper by the whistleblower and former National Security Agency contractor Edward Snowden.[21] In 2016, The Guardian led an investigation into the Panama Papers, exposing then–Prime Minister David Cameron's links to offshore bank accounts. It has been named "newspaper of the year" four times at the annual British Press Awards: most recently in 2014, for its reporting on government surveillance.[22]

    1. ^  • Tsang, Amie (15 January 2018). "The Guardian, Britain's Left-Wing News Power, Goes Tabloid". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 16 January 2019. Retrieved 24 January 2019.
    2. ^ * Payling, Daisy (20 April 2017). "City limits: sexual politics and the new urban left in 1980s Sheffield". Contemporary British Society. 31 (2): 256–273. doi:10.1080/13619462.2017.1306194.
    3. ^ a b Tobitt, Charlotte; Majid, Aisha (25 January 2023). "National press ABCs: December distribution dive for freesheets Standard and City AM". Press Gazette. Archived from the original on 25 April 2023. Retrieved 15 February 2023.
    4. ^ "collection (The University of Manchester Library)". www.library.manchester.ac.uk. Archived from the original on 28 April 2021. Retrieved 12 March 2021.
    5. ^ "'Guardian' newspaper trust keeps journalism at top of its agenda". The Irish Times. Archived from the original on 4 November 2021. Retrieved 12 March 2021.
    6. ^ a b "The Scott Trust: values and history". The Guardian. 26 July 2015. Archived from the original on 9 May 2019. Retrieved 5 May 2019.
    7. ^ Corey Frost; Karen Weingarten; Doug Babington; Don LePan; Maureen Okun (30 May 2017). The Broadview Guide to Writing: A Handbook for Students (6th ed.). Broadview Press. pp. 27–. ISBN 978-1-55481-313-1. Archived from the original on 29 June 2023. Retrieved 9 March 2020.
    8. ^ Greg Barton; Paul Weller; Ihsan Yilmaz (18 December 2014). The Muslim World and Politics in Transition: Creative Contributions of the Gülen Movement. A&C Black. pp. 28–. ISBN 978-1-4411-5873-4. Archived from the original on 29 June 2023. Retrieved 9 March 2020.
    9. ^ "Guardian appoints Katharine Viner as editor-in-chief". The Guardian. 20 March 2015. Archived from the original on 20 July 2017. Retrieved 6 March 2016.
    10. ^ Rusbridger, Alan (29 May 2015). "'Farewell, readers': Alan Rusbridger on leaving The Guardian after two decades at the helm". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 29 May 2015. Retrieved 29 May 2015.
    11. ^ International Socialism, Spring 2003, ISBN 1-898876-97-5.
    12. ^ "Ipsos MORI". Ipsos MORI. Archived from the original on 23 May 2009. Retrieved 6 March 2016.
    13. ^ "Definition of Guardian Reader". Collins English Dictionary. Archived from the original on 20 April 2021. Retrieved 10 January 2018.
    14. ^ Marchi, Anna (2019). "Over there at The Guardian". Self-Reflexive Journalism: A Corpus Study of Journalistic Culture and Community in The Guardian. Taylor & Francis. p. 152. ISBN 978-1-351-71412-9. Archived from the original on 15 July 2023. Retrieved 19 March 2023.
    15. ^ Ribbans, Elisabeth (12 May 2021). "Typo negative: The best and worst of Grauniad mistakes over 200 years". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 4 April 2023. Retrieved 4 April 2023.
    16. ^ "The Guardian most trusted and The Sun least trusted online news brand, Pamco reveals". Press Gazette. 13 November 2017. Archived from the original on 2 December 2020. Retrieved 17 December 2018.
    17. ^ Waterson, Jim (17 December 2018). "Guardian most trusted newspaper in Britain, says industry report". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 17 December 2018. Retrieved 17 December 2018.
    18. ^ "Can The Guardian survive?". The Economist. Intelligent Life. July–August 2012. Archived from the original on 1 July 2015. Retrieved 3 July 2012.
    19. ^ Woolf, Nicky (3 July 2012). "Could the newspaper that broke the hacking scandal be the next to close?". GQ.com. Archived from the original on 6 July 2012.
    20. ^ Hosenball, Mark (6 June 2013). "Obama administration defends massive phone record collection". Reuters. Archived from the original on 24 September 2015. Retrieved 6 March 2016.
    21. ^ Greenwald, Glenn; MacAskill, Ewen; Poitras, Laura (9 June 2013). "Edward Snowden: the whistleblower behind the NSA surveillance revelations". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 26 July 2013. Retrieved 6 March 2016.
    22. ^ Rawlinson, Kevin (2 April 2014). "Guardian wins newspaper and website of the year at British press awards". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 12 June 2014. Retrieved 12 June 2014.
     
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    6 May 1682 – Louis XIV of France moves his court to the Palace of Versailles.

    Palace of Versailles

    The Palace of Versailles (/vɛərˈs, vɜːrˈs/ vair-SY, vur-SY;[1] French: château de Versailles [ʃɑto d(ə) vɛʁsɑj] ) is a former royal residence commissioned by King Louis XIV located in Versailles, about 19 kilometers (12 mi) west of Paris, France.

    The palace is owned by the French Republic and since 1995 has been managed, under the direction of the French Ministry of Culture, by the Public Establishment of the Palace, Museum and National Estate of Versailles.[2] About 15,000,000 people visit the palace, park, or gardens of Versailles every year, making it one of the most popular tourist attractions in the world.[3]

    Louis XIII built a simple hunting lodge on the site of the Palace of Versailles in 1623. With his death came Louis XIV who expanded the château into the beginnings of a palace that went through several changes and phases from 1661 to 1715. It was a favorite residence for both kings, and in 1682, Louis XIV moved the seat of his court and government to Versailles, making the palace the de facto capital of France. This state of affairs was continued by Kings Louis XV and Louis XVI, who primarily made interior alterations to the palace, but in 1789 the royal family and capital of France returned to Paris. For the rest of the French Revolution, the Palace of Versailles was largely abandoned and emptied of its contents, and the population of the surrounding city plummeted.

    Napoleon, following his coronation as Emperor, used Versailles as a summer residence from 1810 to 1814, but did not restore it. Following the Bourbon Restoration, when the king was returned to the throne, he resided in Paris and it was not until the 1830s that meaningful repairs were made to the palace. A museum of French history was installed within it, replacing the apartments of the southern wing.

    The palace and park were designated a World Heritage Site by UNESCO in 1979 for its importance as the center of power, art, and science in France during the 17th and 18th centuries.[4] The French Ministry of Culture has placed the palace, its gardens, and some of its subsidiary structures on its list of culturally significant monuments.

    1. ^ "Versailles". Dictionary.com. Retrieved 1 July 2021.
    2. ^ "The Public Establishment". Palace of Versailles. 31 October 2016. Retrieved 20 December 2021.
    3. ^ "Palace of Versailles (Château de Versailles)". Explore France. Government of France. 18 June 2021.
    4. ^ "Palace and Park of Versailles". UNESCO World Heritage Centre. United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization. Retrieved 9 October 2021.
     
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    7 May 1832 – Greece's independence is recognized by the Treaty of London.

    London Conference of 1832

    The London Conference of 1832 was an international conference convened to establish a stable government in Greece. Negotiations among the three Great Powers (Britain, France and Russia) resulted in the establishment of the Kingdom of Greece under a Bavarian Prince. The decisions were ratified in the Treaty of Constantinople later that year. The treaty followed the Akkerman Convention which had previously recognized another territorial change in the Balkans, the suzerainty of the Principality of Serbia.[1] [2]

    1. ^ Konstantopoulou Photeine, The foundation of the modern Greek state: Major treaties and conventions, 1830–1947 (1999)
    2. ^ Mitev, Plamen; Parvev, Ivan; Baramova, Maria; Racheva, Vania (2010), Empires and Peninsulas: Southeastern Europe between Karlowitz and the Peace of Adrianople, 1699–1829, ISBN 978-3-643-10611-7
     
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    8 May 1821Greek War of Independence: The Greeks defeat the Turks at the Battle of Gravia Inn.

    Battle of Gravia Inn

    The Battle of Gravia Inn (Greek: Μάχη στο Χάνι της Γραβιάς) was fought between Greek revolutionaries and the Ottoman Empire during the Greek War of Independence. The Greek leaders Odysseas Androutsos, Yannis Gouras and Angelis Govios, with a group of c. 120 men, repulsed an Ottoman army numbering 8,000 to 9,000 men and artillery under the command of Omer Vrioni and Köse Mehmed. The battle ended with heavy losses for the Ottomans and minimal casualties on the Greek side.

    The Ottoman army under the command of Omer Vrioni, following his defeat of the Greeks at the Battle of Alamana and the execution of their leader Athanasios Diakos, planned to attack the Peloponnese with an army of 11,000 men.[8] However, his army was met by a Greek group numbering 120 men, under the command of Odysseas Androutsos, who had barricaded themselves inside an old inn. The Ottoman army surrounded the area and attacked the inn but was driven back with heavy losses. At night, while the Ottoman army paused their attacks to bring up some cannons in order to bombard the inn, the Greeks escaped the inn and found safety in the mountains before the cannons arrived.[2]

    This battle is considered important to the outcome of the Greek revolution because it forced Omer Vrioni to retreat to Euboea, leaving the Greeks to consolidate their gains in the Peloponnese and capture the Ottoman capital of the Peloponnese, Tripoli.

    1. ^ Deligiannis 2009.
    2. ^ a b c Deligiannis 2009, p. 21.
    3. ^ a b c d Argeiti 2021, pp. 27–29.
    4. ^ a b c d Argeiti 2021, p. 27.
    5. ^ a b c d e Paroulakis, p. 71.
    6. ^ a b c Deligiannis 2009, pp. 17–22.
    7. ^ Argeiti 2021, pp. 28–29.
    8. ^ Deligiannis 2009, p. 19.
     
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    9 May 1992Westray Mine disaster kills 26 workers in Nova Scotia, Canada.

    Westray Mine

    The Westray Mine was a Canadian coal mine in Plymouth, Nova Scotia. Westray was owned and operated by Curragh Resources Incorporated (Curragh Inc.), which obtained both provincial and federal government money to open the mine, and supply the local electric power utility with coal.

    The mine opened in September 1991, but closed eight months later when it was the site of an underground methane explosion on May 9, 1992, killing all 26 miners working underground at the time. The week-long attempts to rescue the miners were widely followed by national media until it was obvious there would be no survivors.

    About a week later, the Nova Scotia government ordered a public inquiry to look into what caused one of Canada's deadliest mining disasters, and published its findings in late 1997. The report stated that the mine was mismanaged, miners' safety was ignored, and poor oversight by government regulators led to the disaster. A criminal case against two mine managers went to trial in the mid-1990s, but ultimately was dropped by the crown in 1998, as it seemed unlikely that a conviction could be attained. Curragh Resources went bankrupt in 1993, partially due to the disaster.

    One hundred and seventeen miners became unemployed almost immediately after the explosion; they were paid 12 weeks' severance six years after the mine's closure, but only when the provincial government was pressured to intervene. The mine was dismantled and permanently sealed in November 1998.

     
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    10 May 1975Sony introduces the Betamax videocassette recorder.

    Videocassette recorder

    A typical late-model Philips Magnavox, VHS format VCR
    A close-up process of how the magnetic tape in a VHS cassette is being pulled from the cassette shell to the head drum of the VCR

    A videocassette recorder (VCR) or video recorder is an electromechanical device that records analog audio and analog video from broadcast television or other AV sources and can play back the recording after rewinding. The use of a VCR to record a television program to play back at a more convenient time is commonly referred to as time shifting. VCRs can also play back prerecorded tapes, which were widely available for purchase and rental starting in the 80s and 90s, most popularly in the VHS videocassette format. Blank tapes were sold to make recordings.

    VCRs declined in popularity during the 2000s and in July 2016, Funai Electric, the last manufacturer of them, ceased production.

     
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    11 May 1998 – India conducts three underground atomic tests in Pokhran

    Pokhran-II

    The Pokhran-II tests were a series of five nuclear bomb test explosions conducted by India at the Indian Army's Pokhran Test Range in May 1998.[3] It was the second instance of nuclear testing conducted by India; the first test, code-named Smiling Buddha, was conducted in May 1974.[4]

    The tests achieved their main objective of giving India the capability to build fission and thermonuclear weapons with yields up to 200 kilotons.[1] The then-Chairman of the Indian Atomic Energy Commission described each one of the explosions of Pokhran-II to be "equivalent to several tests carried out by other nuclear weapon states over decades".[5] Subsequently, India established computer simulation capability to predict the yields of nuclear explosives whose designs are related to the designs of explosives used in this test.[1]

    Pokhran-II consisted of five detonations, the first of which was a fusion bomb while the remaining four were fission bombs.[3] The tests were initiated on 11 May 1998, under the assigned code name Operation Shakti, with the detonation of one fusion and two fission bombs.[3] On 13 May 1998, two additional fission devices were detonated,[6] and the Indian government led by Prime Minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee shortly convened a press conference to declare India as a full-fledged nuclear state.[6] The tests resulted in a variety of sanctions against India by a number of major countries including Japan and the United States.

    Many names have been assigned to these tests; originally these were collectively called Operation Shakti–98, and the five nuclear bombs were designated Shakti-I through to Shakti-V. More recently, the operation as a whole has come to be known as Pokhran-II, and the 1974 explosion as Pokhran-I.[7]

    1. ^ a b c Cite error: The named reference :0 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    2. ^ Ganguly, Sumit (1999). "India's Pathway to Pokhran II: The Prospects and Sources of New Delhi's Nuclear Weapons Program". International Security. 23 (4): 148–177. doi:10.1162/isec.23.4.148. ISSN 0162-2889. JSTOR 2539297. S2CID 57565560.
    3. ^ a b c CNN India Bureau (17 May 1998). "India releases pictures of nuclear tests". CNN India Bureau. CNN India Bureau. Retrieved 14 June 2015. {{cite news}}: |last1= has generic name (help)
    4. ^ "Official press release by India". meadev.gov.in/. Ministry of External Affairs, 1998. Retrieved 14 June 2015.
    5. ^ "We have an adequate scientific database for designing ... a credible nuclear deterrent". Frontline. 16. 2–15 January 1999. Archived from the original on 28 October 2019.
    6. ^ a b Cite error: The named reference Nuclear politics was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    7. ^ "Why May 11 be celebrated as National Technology Day? Things you should know". Times of India. 11 May 2020.
     
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    12 May 2015 – A train derailment in Philadelphia kills eight people and injures more than 200.

    2015 Philadelphia train derailment

    The 2015 Philadelphia train derailment of a New York City-bound Amtrak train in Kensington, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania in the United States resulted in multiple passenger injuries and deaths and disrupted Amtrak service for several days afterward due to the resulting investigation and removal of the wrecked train cars.

    1. ^ Stolberg, Sheryl Gay; Flegenheimer, Matt; Pérez-Peña, Richard (May 14, 2015). "Brandon Bostian Agrees to Talk About Amtrak Derailment but May Recall Little". The New York Times. Retrieved May 18, 2015.
    2. ^ "7 killed in Philadelphia Amtrak crash; engineer ID'd". 6abc.com. Philadelphia, PA: WPVI-TV. May 13, 2015. Retrieved May 13, 2015.
    3. ^ "Former Amtrak Engineer Brandon Bostian Found Not Guilty On All Counts In Deadly 2015 Train Derailment".
     
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    13 May 1950 – The inaugural Formula One World Championship race takes place at Silverstone Circuit.

    1950 British Grand Prix

    The 1950 British Grand Prix, formally known as The Royal Automobile Club Grand Prix d'Europe Incorporating The British Grand Prix,[4] was a Formula One motor race held on 13 May 1950 at the Silverstone Circuit in Silverstone, England. It was the first World Championship Formula One race, as well as the fifth British Grand Prix, and the third to be held at Silverstone after motor racing resumed after World War II. It was the first race of seven in the 1950 World Championship of Drivers.[5]

    The 70-lap race was won by Nino Farina for the Alfa Romeo team, after starting from pole position, with a race time of 2:13:23.6 and an average speed of 146.378 km/h. Luigi Fagioli finished second in another Alfa Romeo, and Reg Parnell third in a third Alfa Romeo.[5]

    The race followed the non-championship Pau Grand Prix and San Remo Grand Prix (both won by Juan Manuel Fangio), the Richmond Trophy (won by Reg Parnell), and the Paris Grand Prix (won by Georges Grignard).[5]

    1. ^ "World's Premier Motor Race". Dundeee Evening Telegraph. 13 May 1950. Retrieved 18 July 2020 – via British Newspaper Archive.
    2. ^ Lang, Mike (1981). Grand Prix! Vol 1. Haynes Publishing Group. p. 14. ISBN 0-85429-276-4.
    3. ^ Lang, Mike (1981). Grand Prix! Vol 1. Haynes Publishing Group. p. 15. ISBN 0-85429-276-4.
    4. ^ The Royal Automobile Club Grand Prix d'Europe. Royal Automobile Club. 1950.
    5. ^ a b c "Results". Formula 1® - The Official F1® Website. Retrieved 25 January 2024.
     
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    14 May 1955Cold War: Eight Communist bloc countries, including the Soviet Union, sign a mutual defense treaty called the Warsaw Pact.

    Warsaw Pact

    The Warsaw Pact (WP),[d] formally the Treaty of Friendship, Cooperation and Mutual Assistance (TFCMA),[e] was a collective defense treaty signed in Warsaw, Poland, between the Soviet Union and seven other Eastern Bloc socialist republics of Central and Eastern Europe in May 1955, during the Cold War. The term "Warsaw Pact" commonly refers to both the treaty itself and its resultant defensive alliance, the Warsaw Treaty Organization[5] (WTO).[f] The Warsaw Pact was the military and economic complement to the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (Comecon), the regional economic organization for the Eastern Bloc states of Central and Eastern Europe.[6][7][8][9][10][11][12][13][14][15][16]

    Dominated by the Soviet Union, the Warsaw Pact was established as a balance of power or counterweight to the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) and the Western Bloc.[17][18] There was no direct military confrontation between the two organizations; instead, the conflict was fought on an ideological basis and through proxy wars. Both NATO and the Warsaw Pact led to the expansion of military forces and their integration into the respective blocs.[18] The Warsaw Pact's largest military engagement was the Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia, its own member state, in August 1968 (with the participation of all pact nations except Albania and Romania),[17] which, in part, resulted in Albania withdrawing from the pact less than one month later. The pact began to unravel with the spread of the Revolutions of 1989 through the Eastern Bloc, beginning with the Solidarity movement in Poland,[19] its electoral success in June 1989 and the Pan-European Picnic in August 1989.[20]

    East Germany withdrew from the pact following German reunification in 1990. On 25 February 1991, at a meeting in Hungary, the pact was declared at an end by the defense and foreign ministers of the six remaining member states. The USSR itself was dissolved in December 1991, although most of the former Soviet republics formed the Collective Security Treaty Organization shortly thereafter. In the following 20 years, the Warsaw Pact countries outside the USSR each joined NATO (East Germany through its reunification with West Germany; and the Czech Republic and Slovakia as separate countries), as did the Baltic states.


    Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

    1. ^ Tismaneanu, Vladimir; Stan, Marius (2018). Romania Confronts Its Communist Past: Democracy, Memory, and Moral Justice. Cambridge University Press. p. 132. ISBN 978-1107025929.
    2. ^ Cook, Bernard A.; Cook, Bernard Anthony (2001). Europe Since 1945: An Encyclopedia, Volume 2. Taylor & Francis. p. 1075. ISBN 978-0815340584.
    3. ^ "Протокольная запись заседания Президиума ЦК КПCC (к пункту I протокола № 49)".
    4. ^ "Slovenské pohl'ady". Matica slovenská. 1997 – via Google Books.
    5. ^ "Milestones: 1953–1960 – Office of the Historian". history.state.gov.
    6. ^ Cite error: The named reference NATO Transformed: The Alliance's New Roles in International Security was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    7. ^ Cite error: The named reference History Channel 1 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    8. ^ Cite error: The named reference History Channel 2 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    9. ^ "In reaction to West Germany's NATO accession, the Soviet Union and its Eastern European client states formed the Warsaw Pact in 1955." Citation from: NATO website. "A short history of NATO". nato.int. Archived from the original on 26 March 2017. Retrieved 24 December 2015.
    10. ^ Cite error: The named reference The Future of European Alliance Systems was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    11. ^ Cite error: The named reference christopher was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    12. ^ Cite error: The named reference enclopedia was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    13. ^ Laurien Crump (2015). The Warsaw Pact Reconsidered: International Relations in Eastern Europe, 1955–1969. Routledge, pp. 21–22.
    14. ^ Debra J. Allen. The Oder-Neisse Line: The United States, Poland, and Germany in the Cold War. p. 158. "Treaties approving Bonn's participation in NATO were ratified in May 1955...shortly thereafter Soviet Union...created the Warsaw Pact to counter the perceived threat of NATO"
    15. ^ "Introduction". www.php.isn.ethz.ch.
    16. ^ "Text of Warsaw Pact" (PDF). United Nations Treaty Collection. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2 October 2013. Retrieved 22 August 2013.
    17. ^ a b Amos Yoder (1993). Communism in Transition: The End of the Soviet Empires. Taylor & Francis. p. 58. ISBN 978-0-8448-1738-5. Retrieved 1 January 2016.
    18. ^ a b Bob Reinalda (2009). Routledge History of International Organizations: From 1815 to the Present Day. Routledge. p. 369. ISBN 978-1-134-02405-6. Archived from the original on 1 January 2016. Retrieved 1 January 2016.
    19. ^ [1] Archived 23 December 2015 at the Wayback Machine Cover Story: The Holy Alliance By Carl Bernstein Sunday, 24 June 2001
    20. ^ Roser, Thomas (16 August 2018). "DDR-Massenflucht: Ein Picknick hebt die Welt aus den Angeln" [Mass Exodus of the GDR: A Picnic Clears the World]. Die Presse (in German).
     
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    15 May 1252Pope Innocent IV issues the papal bull ad extirpanda, which authorizes, but also limits, the torture of heretics in the Medieval Inquisition.

    Ad extirpanda

    Ad extirpanda ("To eradicate"; named for its Latin incipit) was a papal bull promulgated on Wednesday, May 15, 1252 by Pope Innocent IV which authorized in limited and defined circumstances the use of torture by the Inquisition as a tool for interrogation.[1]

    1. ^ Bishop, J (2006). Aquinas on Torture New Blackfriars, 87:229.
     
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    16 May 1832Juan Godoy discovers the rich silver outcrops of Chañarcillo sparking the Chilean silver rush.

    Chilean silver rush

    Location of Chañarcillo and Tres Puntas and the cities of northern Chile as of 1830. Modern boundaries of Chile are shown.

    Between 1830 and 1850, Chilean silver mining grew at an unprecedented pace which transformed mining into one of the country's principal sources of wealth. The rush caused rapid demographic, infrastructural, and economic expansion in the semi-arid Norte Chico mountains where the silver deposits lay. A number of Chileans made large fortunes in the rush and made investments in other areas of the economy of Chile. By the 1850s, the rush was in decline and lucrative silver mining definitively ended in the 1870s. At the same time, mining activity in Chile reoriented to saltpetre operations.

    Exports of Chilean silver alongside copper and wheat were instrumental in helping Chile to prevent default on its independence debt in London.[1]

    1. ^ Pérez Herrero, Pedro (2015). "El orden portaliano (1830-1840)". In Pérez Herrero, Pedro; Sanz, Eva (eds.). Fiscalidad, integración social y política exterior en el pensamiento liberal atlántico (1810-1930) (in Spanish). pp. 237–238. ISBN 978-84-9123-174-5.
     
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    17 May 1536 – Henry VIII and Anne Boleyn's marriage is annulled.

    Anne Boleyn

    Anne Boleyn (/ˈbʊlɪn, bʊˈlɪn/;[7][8][9] c. 1501 or 1507 – 19 May 1536) was Queen of England from 1533 to 1536, as the second wife of King Henry VIII. The circumstances of her marriage and execution by beheading for treason, made her a key figure in the political and religious upheaval that marked the start of the English Reformation.

    Anne was the daughter of Thomas Boleyn (later Earl of Wiltshire), and his wife, Elizabeth Howard, and was educated in the Netherlands and France. Anne returned to England in early 1522, to marry her cousin James Butler, 9th Earl of Ormond; the marriage plans were broken off, and instead, she secured a post at court as maid of honour to Henry VIII's wife, Catherine of Aragon. Early in 1523, Anne was secretly betrothed to Henry Percy, son of Henry Percy, 5th Earl of Northumberland, but the betrothal was broken off when the Earl refused to support it. Cardinal Thomas Wolsey refused the match in January 1524.

    In February or March 1526, Henry VIII began his pursuit of Anne. She resisted his attempts to seduce her, refusing to become his mistress, as her sister Mary had previously been. Henry focused on annulling his marriage to Catherine, so he would be free to marry Anne. After Wolsey failed to obtain an annulment from Pope Clement VII, it became clear the marriage would not be annulled by the Catholic Church. As a result, Henry and his advisers, such as Thomas Cromwell, began the breaking the Church's power in England and closing the monasteries. Henry and Anne formally married on 25 January 1533, after a secret wedding on 14 November 1532. On 23 May 1533, the newly appointed Archbishop of Canterbury Thomas Cranmer declared Henry and Catherine's marriage null and void; five days later, he declared Henry and Anne's marriage valid; Clement excommunicated Henry and Cranmer. As a result of the marriage and excommunications, the first break between the Church of England and Catholic Church took place, and the king took control of the Church of England. Anne was crowned queen on 1 June 1533. On 7 September, she gave birth to the future Queen Elizabeth I. Henry was disappointed to have a daughter, but hoped a son would follow and professed to love Elizabeth. Anne subsequently had three miscarriages and by March 1536, Henry was courting Jane Seymour.

    Henry had Anne investigated for high treason in April 1536. On 2 May, she was arrested and sent to the Tower of London, where she was tried before a jury, including Henry Percy, her former betrothed, and her uncle Thomas Howard, 3rd Duke of Norfolk; she was convicted on 15 May and beheaded four days later. Historians view the charges, which included adultery, incest with her brother George, and plotting to kill the king, as unconvincing.[10][11]

    After her daughter, Elizabeth, became queen in 1558, Anne became venerated as a martyr and heroine of the English Reformation, particularly through the works of George Wyatt.[12] She has inspired, or been mentioned in, many cultural works and retained her hold on the popular imagination. She has been called "the most influential and important queen consort England has ever had",[13] as she provided the occasion for Henry to declare the English Church's independence from the Vatican.

    1. ^ "Doubts raised over Anne Boleyn portraits". Hever Castle. 24 February 2015. Retrieved 19 June 2021.
    2. ^ Spender, Anna. "The many faces of Anne Boleyn" (PDF). Hever Castle. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 19 June 2021.
    3. ^ "The Offspring of Thomas and Elizabeth Boleyn". The Tudor Society. 25 March 2015. Retrieved 22 October 2021.
    4. ^ "Letters and papers, foreign and domestic, of the reign of Henry VIII". Internet Archive. 13 December 1862. Retrieved 21 October 2021.
    5. ^ Cite error: The named reference Ives, p.3 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    6. ^ Weir 1991
    7. ^ Pronunciations with stress on the second syllable were rare until recently and were not mentioned by reference works until the 1960s; see The Big Book of Beastly Mispronunciations (2006) by Charles Harrington Elster
    8. ^ Jones, Daniel Everyman's English Pronouncing Dictionary 12th edition (1963)
    9. ^ Wells, John C. (1990). Longman pronunciation dictionary. Harlow, England: Longman. p. 83. ISBN 0-582-05383-8. entry "Boleyn"
    10. ^ Gairdner, James, ed. (1887). Letters and Papers, Foreign and Domestic, Henry VIII, Volume 10, January–June 1536. Her Majesty's Stationery Office. pp. 349–371.
    11. ^ Wriothesley, Charles (1875). A Chronicle of England During the Reigns of the Tudors, From A.D. 1485 to 1559. Vol. 1. Camden Society. pp. 189–226.
    12. ^ Ives 2004, pp. 48–50.
    13. ^ Ives 2004, p. xv.


    Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

     
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    18 May 1565 – The Great Siege of Malta begins, in which Ottoman forces attempt and fail to conquer Malta.

    Great Siege of Malta

    The Great Siege of Malta (Maltese: L-Assedju l-Kbir) occurred in 1565 when the Ottoman Empire attempted to conquer the island of Malta, then held by the Knights Hospitaller. The siege lasted nearly four months, from 18 May to 12 September 1565.

    The Knights Hospitaller had been headquartered in Malta since 1530, after being driven out of Rhodes, also by the Ottomans, in 1522, following the siege of Rhodes. The Ottomans first attempted to take Malta in 1551 but failed. In 1565, Suleiman the Magnificent, the Ottoman Sultan, made a second attempt to take Malta. The Knights, who numbered around 500 together with approximately 6,000 footsoldiers, withstood the siege and repelled the invaders. This victory became one of the most celebrated events of sixteenth-century Europe, to the point that Voltaire said: "Nothing is better known than the siege of Malta." It undoubtedly contributed to the eventual erosion of the European perception of Ottoman invincibility, although the Mediterranean continued to be contested between Christian coalitions and the Muslim Turks for many years.[6]

    1. ^ At least two companies of Spanish Tercios took part in the defence of Fort St Elmo. Cañete, Hugo A. (3 July 2020). "La leyenda negra del fuerte de San Telmo y los tres capitanes españoles del Tercio Viejo de Sicilia que lo defendieron (Malta 1565) | Grupo de Estudios de Historia Militar". Grupo de Estudios de Historia Militar (in Spanish). Retrieved 4 July 2020.
    2. ^ Cite error: The named reference paoletti2008 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    3. ^ Arnold Cassola, The 1565 Great Siege of Malta and Hipolito Sans's La Maltea (Publishers Enterprise Group: Malta, 1999).
    4. ^ Cite error: The named reference SOM was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    5. ^ Cite error: The named reference Giacomo Bosio 1643 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    6. ^ Fernand Braudel, The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean World in the Age of Philip II, vol. II (University of California Press: Berkeley, 1995).
     
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    19 May 1743Jean-Pierre Christin developed the centigrade temperature scale.

    Jean-Pierre Christin

    Thermometer of Lyon in the Science Museum in London

    Jean-Pierre Christin (31 May 1683 – 19 January 1755) was a French physicist, mathematician, astronomer, and musician. His proposal in 1743 to reverse the Celsius thermometer scale (from water boiling at 0 degrees and ice melting at 100 degrees, to where zero represented the freezing point of water and 100 represented the boiling point of water) was widely accepted and is still in use today.[1][2][3]

    Christin was born in Lyon. He was a founding member of the Académie des sciences, belles-lettres et arts de Lyon and served as its Permanent Secretary from 1713 until 1755. His thermometer was known in France before the Revolution as the thermometer of Lyon. One of these thermometers was kept at the Science Museum in London.[4]

    1. ^ Arthur Sigurssen (10 May 2003). "History of the Thermometer". Newsfinder e-magazine. Archived from the original on 6 December 2012. Retrieved 3 July 2012.
    2. ^ "Celsius Temperature Scale". DiracDelta.co.uk science and engineering encyclopedia. Archived from the original on 10 June 2012. Retrieved 3 July 2012.
    3. ^ Henry Carrington Bolton (1800): Evolution of the thermometer 1592–1743. The Chemical pub. co., Easton, Pennsylvania. pp. 85–91.
    4. ^ "Mercury-in-glass thermometer, 1743–1799". Science Museum. Archived from the original on 1 June 2013. Retrieved 3 July 2012.
     
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    20 May 1980 – In a referendum in Quebec, the population rejects, by 60% of the vote, a government proposal to move towards independence from Canada.

    1980 Quebec referendum

    The 1980 Quebec independence referendum was the first referendum in Quebec on the place of Quebec within Canada and whether Quebec should pursue a path toward sovereignty. The referendum was called by Quebec's Parti Québécois (PQ) government, which advocated secession from Canada.

    The province-wide referendum took place on May 20, and the proposal to pursue secession was defeated by a 59.56 percent to 40.44 percent margin.[1]

    A second referendum on sovereignty, which was held in 1995, also rejected pursuing secession, albeit by a much smaller margin (50.58% to 49.42%).

    1. ^ Fitzmaurice, John (1985). Québec and Canada; Past, Present, and Future. C. Hurst & Co. Ltd. p. 47. ISBN 0-905838-94-7.
     
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    20 May 1980 – In a referendum in Quebec, the population rejects, by 60% of the vote, a government proposal to move towards independence from Canada.

    1980 Quebec referendum

    The 1980 Quebec independence referendum was the first referendum in Quebec on the place of Quebec within Canada and whether Quebec should pursue a path toward sovereignty. The referendum was called by Quebec's Parti Québécois (PQ) government, which advocated secession from Canada.

    The province-wide referendum took place on May 20, and the proposal to pursue secession was defeated by a 59.56 percent to 40.44 percent margin.[1]

    A second referendum on sovereignty, which was held in 1995, also rejected pursuing secession, albeit by a much smaller margin (50.58% to 49.42%).

    1. ^ Fitzmaurice, John (1985). Québec and Canada; Past, Present, and Future. C. Hurst & Co. Ltd. p. 47. ISBN 0-905838-94-7.
     
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    21 May 1904 – The Fédération Internationale de Football Association (FIFA) is founded in Paris.

    FIFA

    The Fédération internationale de football association (French for 'International Association Football Federation';[3] abbreviated as FIFA and pronounced in English as /ˈffə/ FEE-fə) is the international governing body of association football, beach soccer, and futsal. It was founded in 1904[4] to oversee international competition among the national associations of Belgium, Denmark, France, Germany, the Netherlands, Spain (represented by the Madrid Football Club), Sweden, and Switzerland. Headquartered in Zürich, Switzerland, its membership now comprises 211 national associations. These national associations must also be members of one of the six regional confederations into which the world is divided: CAF (Africa), AFC (Asia and Australia), UEFA (Europe), CONCACAF (North & Central America and the Caribbean), OFC (Oceania), and CONMEBOL (South America).

    FIFA outlines several objectives in its organizational statutes, including growing association football internationally, providing efforts to ensure it is accessible to everyone, and advocating for integrity and fair play.[5] It is responsible for the organization and promotion of association football's major international tournaments, notably the World Cup which commenced in 1930, and the Women's World Cup which began in 1991. Although FIFA does not solely set the laws of the game, that being the responsibility of the International Football Association Board of which FIFA is a member, it applies and enforces the rules across all FIFA competitions.[6] All FIFA tournaments generate revenue from sponsorships; in 2022, FIFA had revenues of over US $5.8 billion, ending the 2019–2022 cycle with a net positive of US$1.2 billion, and cash reserves of over US$3.9 billion.[7]

    Reports by investigative journalists have linked FIFA leadership with corruption, bribery, and vote-rigging related to the election of FIFA president Sepp Blatter and the organization's decision to award the 2018 and 2022 World Cups to Russia and Qatar, respectively. These allegations led to the indictments of nine high-ranking FIFA officials and five corporate executives by the U.S. Department of Justice on charges including racketeering, wire fraud, and money laundering. On 27 May 2015, several of these officials were arrested by Swiss authorities, who launched a simultaneous but separate criminal investigation into how the organization awarded the 2018 and 2022 World Cups. Those among these officials who were also indicted in the U.S. are expected to be extradited to face charges there as well.[8][9][10]

    Many officials were suspended by FIFA's ethics committee including Sepp Blatter[11] and Michel Platini.[12] In early 2017, reports became public about FIFA president Gianni Infantino attempting to prevent the re-elections[13] of both chairmen of the ethics committee, Cornel Borbély and Hans-Joachim Eckert, during the FIFA congress in May 2017.[14][15] On 9 May 2017, following Infantino's proposal,[16] FIFA Council decided not to renew the mandates of Borbély and Eckert.[16] Together with the chairmen, 11 of 13 committee members were removed. FIFA has been suspected of corruption regarding the Qatar 2022 FIFA World Cup.[17]

    1. ^ "Fédération Internationale de Football Association". Filmcircle.com. 11 June 2014. Archived from the original on 8 October 2014. Retrieved 11 June 2014.
    2. ^ "FIFA Committees – FIFA Council". FIFA. Archived from the original on 28 April 2015. Retrieved 19 December 2016.
    3. ^ "International Association Football Federation". International Olympic Committee. Retrieved 5 December 2022.
    4. ^ "History of FIFA - Foundation". FIFA. Archived from the original on 16 May 2015. Retrieved 15 June 2018.
    5. ^ "FIFA Statutes". FIFA. Archived from the original on 23 April 2015. Retrieved 10 July 2019.
    6. ^ "About FIFA: Organisation". FIFA. Archived from the original on 5 September 2015. Retrieved 10 July 2019.
    7. ^ "2022 Financial Highlights". FIFA. Retrieved 7 April 2023.
    8. ^ Clifford, Stephanie; Apuzzo, Matt (27 May 2015). "FIFA officials arrested on corruption charges; Sepp Blatter isn't among them". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 27 May 2015. Retrieved 1 March 2017.
    9. ^ "Nine FIFA Officials and Five Corporate Executives Indicted for Racketeering Conspiracy and Corruption". U.S. DOJ Office of Public Affairs. 27 May 2015. Archived from the original on 27 May 2015. Retrieved 27 May 2015.
    10. ^ Collett, Mike; Homewood, Brian (27 May 2015). "World soccer rocked as top officials held in U.S., Swiss graft cases". Reuters. Archived from the original on 24 September 2015. Retrieved 27 May 2015.
    11. ^ "Sepp Blatter and Michel Platini banned for eight years by Fifa". The Daily Telegraph. Archived from the original on 10 January 2022. Retrieved 24 March 2017.
    12. ^ "Rise and fall of Michel Platini – the self-proclaimed 'football man' who forgot the meaning of integrity". The Daily Telegraph. Archived from the original on 10 January 2022. Retrieved 24 March 2017.
    13. ^ Conn, David (2 March 2017). "Trust in Fifa has improved only slightly under Gianni Infantino, survey finds". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Archived from the original on 24 March 2017. Retrieved 24 March 2017.
    14. ^ "FIFA Ethics Chiefs Facing Uncertain Future". The New York Times. Reuters. 15 March 2017. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 24 March 2017.
    15. ^ "Infantino at 1. Are the Ethics bigwigs the next stop on his personal 'reform' agenda?". Inside World Football. 27 February 2017. Archived from the original on 25 March 2017. Retrieved 24 March 2017.
    16. ^ a b "FIFA Ethics Committee still investigating 'hundreds' of cases: Borbely". Reuters. 10 May 2017. Archived from the original on 10 May 2017. Retrieved 10 May 2017.
    17. ^ Ellis, Sam (9 December 2022). "How FIFA corrupted the World Cup". Vox. Retrieved 10 January 2023.
     
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    22 May 1939World War II: Germany and Italy sign the Pact of Steel.

    Pact of Steel

    The Pact of Steel (German: Stahlpakt, Italian: Patto d'Acciaio), formally known as the Pact of Friendship and Alliance between Germany and Italy (German: Freundschafts und Bündnispakt zwischen Deutschland und Italien, Italian: Patto di amicizia e di alleanza fra l'Italia e la Germania) was a military and political alliance between Italy and Germany.

    The pact was initially drafted as a tripartite military alliance between Japan, Italy and Germany. While Japan wanted the focus of the pact to be aimed at the Soviet Union, Italy and Germany wanted the focus of it to be aimed at the British Empire and France. Due to this disagreement, the pact was signed without Japan and as a result, it became an agreement which only existed between Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany, signed on 22 May 1939 by foreign ministers Galeazzo Ciano of Italy and Joachim von Ribbentrop of Germany.

    Together with the Anti-Comintern Pact and the Tripartite Pact, the Pact of Steel was one of the three agreements forming the main basis of the Axis alliance.[1] The pact consisted of two parts. The first section was an open declaration of continuing trust and co-operation between Germany and Italy. The second section, the "Secret Supplementary Protocol", encouraged a union of policies concerning the military and the economy.[2]

    1. ^ Cooke, Tim (2005). History of World War II: Volume 1 – Origins and Outbreak. Marshall Cavendish. p. 154. ISBN 0761474838. Retrieved 28 October 2020.
    2. ^ Gibler, Douglas M. 2008. International Military Alliances, 1648–2008. Washington, D.C.: CQ Press. pp. 326–327.
     
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    23 May 1998 – The Good Friday Agreement is accepted in a referendum in Northern Ireland with roughly 75% voting yes

    Good Friday Agreement

    The Good Friday Agreement (GFA) or Belfast Agreement (Irish: Comhaontú Aoine an Chéasta or Comhaontú Bhéal Feirste; Ulster Scots: Guid Friday Greeance or Bilfawst Greeance)[1] is a pair of agreements signed on 10 April, Good Friday, 1998, that ended most of the violence of the Troubles, an ethno-nationalist conflict[2] in Northern Ireland since the late 1960s. It was a major development in the Northern Ireland peace process of the 1990s. It is made up of the Multi-Party Agreement between most of Northern Ireland's political parties, and the British–Irish Agreement between the British and Irish governments. Northern Ireland's present devolved system of government is based on the agreement.

    Issues relating to sovereignty, governance, discrimination, military and paramilitary groups, justice and policing were central to the agreement. It restored self-government to Northern Ireland on the basis of "power sharing" and it included acceptance of the principle of consent, commitment to civil and political rights, cultural parity of esteem, police reform, paramilitary disarmament and early release of paramilitary prisoners, followed by demilitarisation. The agreement also created a number of institutions between Northern Ireland and Ireland ("North–South"), and between Ireland and the United Kingdom ("East–West").

    The agreement was approved by voters across the island of Ireland in two referendums held on 22 May 1998. In Northern Ireland, voters were asked in the 1998 Northern Ireland Good Friday Agreement referendum whether they supported the multi-party agreement. In Ireland, voters were asked whether they would allow the state to sign the agreement and allow necessary constitutional changes (Nineteenth Amendment of the Constitution of Ireland) to facilitate it. The people of both jurisdictions needed to approve the agreement to give effect to it.

    The British–Irish Agreement came into force on 2 December 1999. The Democratic Unionist Party (DUP) was the only major political group in Northern Ireland to oppose the Good Friday Agreement.[3]

    1. ^ "North-South Ministerial Council: Annual Report (2001) in Ulster Scots" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 11 December 2020. Retrieved 22 September 2020.
    2. ^ Coakley, John. "Ethnic Conflict and the Two-State Solution: The Irish Experience of Partition". Archived from the original (PDF) on 29 February 2012. Retrieved 15 February 2009. ... these attitudes are not rooted particularly in religious belief, but rather in underlying ethnonational identity patterns.
    3. ^ "The Good Friday Agreement". BBC History. Archived from the original on 2 January 2020. Retrieved 10 June 2017.
     
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    23 May 1998 – The Good Friday Agreement is accepted in a referendum in Northern Ireland with roughly 75% voting yes

    Good Friday Agreement

    The Good Friday Agreement (GFA) or Belfast Agreement (Irish: Comhaontú Aoine an Chéasta or Comhaontú Bhéal Feirste; Ulster Scots: Guid Friday Greeance or Bilfawst Greeance)[1] is a pair of agreements signed on 10 April, Good Friday, 1998, that ended most of the violence of the Troubles, an ethno-nationalist conflict[2] in Northern Ireland since the late 1960s. It was a major development in the Northern Ireland peace process of the 1990s. It is made up of the Multi-Party Agreement between most of Northern Ireland's political parties, and the British–Irish Agreement between the British and Irish governments. Northern Ireland's present devolved system of government is based on the agreement.

    Issues relating to sovereignty, governance, discrimination, military and paramilitary groups, justice and policing were central to the agreement. It restored self-government to Northern Ireland on the basis of "power sharing" and it included acceptance of the principle of consent, commitment to civil and political rights, cultural parity of esteem, police reform, paramilitary disarmament and early release of paramilitary prisoners, followed by demilitarisation. The agreement also created a number of institutions between Northern Ireland and Ireland ("North–South"), and between Ireland and the United Kingdom ("East–West").

    The agreement was approved by voters across the island of Ireland in two referendums held on 22 May 1998. In Northern Ireland, voters were asked in the 1998 Northern Ireland Good Friday Agreement referendum whether they supported the multi-party agreement. In Ireland, voters were asked whether they would allow the state to sign the agreement and allow necessary constitutional changes (Nineteenth Amendment of the Constitution of Ireland) to facilitate it. The people of both jurisdictions needed to approve the agreement to give effect to it.

    The British–Irish Agreement came into force on 2 December 1999. The Democratic Unionist Party (DUP) was the only major political group in Northern Ireland to oppose the Good Friday Agreement.[3]

    1. ^ "North-South Ministerial Council: Annual Report (2001) in Ulster Scots" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 11 December 2020. Retrieved 22 September 2020.
    2. ^ Coakley, John. "Ethnic Conflict and the Two-State Solution: The Irish Experience of Partition". Archived from the original (PDF) on 29 February 2012. Retrieved 15 February 2009. ... these attitudes are not rooted particularly in religious belief, but rather in underlying ethnonational identity patterns.
    3. ^ "The Good Friday Agreement". BBC History. Archived from the original on 2 January 2020. Retrieved 10 June 2017.
     
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    24 May 1993Eritrea gains its independence from Ethiopia.

    Eritrea

    Eritrea (/ˌɛrɪˈtrə/ ERR-ih-TREE or /-ˈtr-/ -⁠TRAY-;[17][18][19] Tigrinya: ኤርትራ, romanized: Ertra, pronounced [ʔer(ɨ)trä] ), officially the State of Eritrea is a country in the Horn of Africa region of Eastern Africa, with its capital and largest city at Asmara. It is bordered by Ethiopia in the south, Sudan in the west, and Djibouti in the southeast. The northeastern and eastern parts of Eritrea have an extensive coastline along the Red Sea. The nation has a total area of approximately 117,600 km2 (45,406 sq mi),[20][21] and includes the Dahlak Archipelago and several of the Hanish Islands.

    Human remains found in Eritrea have been dated to 1 million years old and anthropological research indicates that the area may contain significant records related to the evolution of humans. The Kingdom of Aksum, covering much of modern-day Eritrea and northern Ethiopia, was established during the first or second century AD.[22][23] It adopted Christianity around the middle of the fourth century.[24] Beginning in the 12th century, the Ethiopian Zagwe and Solomonid dynasties held sway to a fluctuating extent over the entire plateau and the Red Sea coast. Eritrea's central highlands, known as Mereb Melash ("Beyond the Mereb"), were the northern frontier region of the Ethiopian kingdoms and were ruled by a governor titled the Bahr Negash ("lord of the sea"). In the 16th century, the Ottomans conquered the Eritrean coastline. Beginning in 1882–1885, Italian troops systematically spread out from Massawa toward the highland, eventually resulting in the formation of the colony of Italian Eritrea in 1889. After World War II, Eritrea was administered by the British Military Administration until 1952. Following the UN General Assembly decision in 1952, Eritrea would govern itself with a local Eritrean parliament, but for foreign affairs and defense, it would enter into a federal status with Ethiopia for ten years. However, in 1962, the government of Ethiopia annulled the Eritrean parliament and formally annexed Eritrea. The Eritrean secessionist movement organised the Eritrean Liberation Front in 1961 and fought the Eritrean War of Independence until Eritrea gained de facto independence in 1991. Eritrea gained de jure independence in 1993 after an independence referendum.[25]

    Contemporary Eritrea is a multi-ethnic country with nine recognised ethnic groups. Nine different languages are spoken by the nine recognised ethnic groups, the most widely spoken language being Tigrinya, the others being Tigre, Saho, Kunama, Nara, Afar, Beja, Bilen and Arabic.[26] Tigrinya, Arabic, and English serve as the three working languages.[2][27][28][29] Most residents speak languages from the Afroasiatic family, either of the Ethiopian Semitic languages or Cushitic branches. Among these communities, the Tigrinyas make up about 50% of the population, with the Tigre people constituting around 30% of inhabitants. In addition, there are several Nilo-Saharan-speaking Nilotic ethnic groups. Most people in the country adhere to Christianity or Islam, with a small minority adhering to traditional faiths.[30]

    Eritrea is one of the least developed countries. It is a unitary one-party presidential republic in which national legislative and presidential elections have never been held.[31][7] Isaias Afwerki has served as president since its official independence in 1993. According to Human Rights Watch, the Eritrean government's human rights record is among the worst in the world.[32] The Eritrean government has dismissed these allegations as politically motivated.[33] Freedom of the press in Eritrea is extremely limited; the Press Freedom Index consistently ranks it as one of the least free countries. As of 2022 Reporters Without Borders considers the country to be among those with the least press freedom.[34] Eritrea is a member of the African Union, the United Nations, and the Intergovernmental Authority on Development, and is an observer state in the Arab League alongside Brazil and Venezuela.[35]

    1. ^ "Constitution of the State of Eritrea". Shaebia.org. Archived from the original on 3 May 2011. Retrieved 2 May 2010.
    2. ^ a b "Eritrea at a Glance". Eritrea Ministry of Information. 1 October 2009. Retrieved 9 September 2020.
    3. ^ "Eritrea" (PDF). The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency. Archived from the original (PDF) on 27 February 2020. Retrieved 10 June 2020.
    4. ^ "Eritrea", The World Factbook, Central Intelligence Agency, 23 September 2022, retrieved 3 October 2022Public Domain This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.
    5. ^ "Report of the commission of inquiry on human rights in Eritrea". UNHRC website. 8 June 2015. Retrieved 9 June 2015.
    6. ^ "Eritrea: Events of 2016". Human Rights Watch. 12 January 2017.
    7. ^ a b Saad, Asma (21 February 2018). "Eritrea's Silent Totalitarianism".
    8. ^ Keane, Fergal (10 July 2018). "Making peace with 'Africa's North Korea'". BBC News.
    9. ^ Taylor, Adam (12 June 2015). "The brutal dictatorship the world keeps ignoring". The Washington Post. Retrieved 20 May 2019.
    10. ^ a b Human Development Report 2020 The Next Frontier: Human Development and the Anthropocene (PDF). United Nations Development Programme. 15 December 2020. pp. 343–346. ISBN 978-92-1-126442-5. Retrieved 16 December 2020.
    11. ^ "Eritrea". Central Intelligence Agency. 27 February 2023. Archived from the original on 10 January 2021. Retrieved 24 February 2023 – via CIA.gov.
    12. ^ "Eritrea country profile". BBC News. 10 May 2011. Archived from the original on 20 November 2023. Retrieved 20 November 2023.
    13. ^ "World Population Prospects 2019". UN DESA. 2019. Archived from the original on 27 February 2021. Retrieved 28 February 2021.
    14. ^ "Eritrea – Indicators – Population (million people), 2018". Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa. 2019. Archived from the original on 28 February 2021. Retrieved 28 February 2021.
    15. ^ "Eritrea – Population and Health Survey 2010" (PDF). National Statistics Office, Fafo Institute for Applied International Studies. 2010. Archived (PDF) from the original on 6 June 2019. Retrieved 3 March 2021.
    16. ^ a b c d "World Economic Outlook Database, October 2023 Edition. (Eritrea)". IMF.org. International Monetary Fund. 10 October 2023. Retrieved 12 October 2023.
    17. ^ "Eritrea". Dictionary.com Unabridged (Online). n.d.
    18. ^ "Eritrea". Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary. Retrieved 2 May 2010.
    19. ^ ISO 3166-1 Newsletter VI-13 International Organization for Standardization
    20. ^ "Eritrea". Central Intelligence Agency. 27 February 2023. Archived from the original on 10 January 2021. Retrieved 24 February 2023 – via CIA.gov.
    21. ^ "Eritrea country profile". BBC News. 10 May 2011. Archived from the original on 20 November 2023. Retrieved 20 November 2023.
    22. ^ Munro-Hay, Stuart (1991). Aksum: An African Civilization of Late Antiquity (PDF). Edinburgh: University Press. p. 57. ISBN 0-7486-0106-6. Archived from the original (PDF) on 23 January 2013. Retrieved 24 June 2012.
    23. ^ Henze, Paul B. (2005) Layers of Time: A History of Ethiopia, ISBN 1-85065-522-7.
    24. ^ Aksumite Ethiopia. Workmall.com (24 March 2007). Retrieved 3 March 2012.
    25. ^ "Encyclopedia Britannica". www.britannica.com.
    26. ^ "EASO Country of Origin Information Report: Eritrea Country Focus" (PDF). European Asylum Support Office. May 2015. Archived from the original (PDF) on 9 June 2021. Retrieved 19 August 2021.
    27. ^ "National Unity: Eritrea's core value for peace and stability".
    28. ^ "Eritrea at a Glance".
    29. ^ "Eritrea Constitution" (PDF). UNESCO. Retrieved 19 August 2021.
    30. ^ "Eritrea". The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency. 22 September 2021.
    31. ^ Cite error: The named reference gi was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    32. ^ Cite error: The named reference hrw was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    33. ^ "Human Rights and Eritrea's Reality" (PDF). E Smart. E Smart Campaign. Archived from the original (PDF) on 19 August 2014. Retrieved 12 June 2013.
    34. ^ "Eritrea: A dictatorship in which the media have no rights". Reporters Without Borders. Retrieved 13 March 2023.
    35. ^ "Arab League Fast Facts". CNN. 18 March 2016. Retrieved 5 June 2016.
     
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    25 May 2011Oprah Winfrey airs her last show, ending her 25-year run of The Oprah Winfrey Show.

    The Oprah Winfrey Show

    The Oprah Winfrey Show, often referred to as The Oprah Show or simply Oprah, is an American daytime syndicated talk show that aired nationally for 25 seasons from September 8, 1986, to May 25, 2011, from Chicago, Illinois. Produced and hosted by Oprah Winfrey, it remains the highest-rated daytime talk show in American television history.[2]

    The show was highly influential to many young stars, and many of its themes have penetrated into the American pop-cultural consciousness. Winfrey used the show as an educational platform, featuring book clubs, interviews, self-improvement segments, and philanthropic forays into world events. The show did not attempt to profit off the products it endorsed; it had no licensing agreement with retailers when products were promoted, nor did the show make any money from endorsing books for its book club.[3]

    Oprah was one of the longest-running daytime television talk shows in history. The show received 47 Daytime Emmy Awards before Winfrey chose to stop submitting it for consideration in 2000.[4] In 2002, TV Guide ranked it at No. 49 on TV Guide's 50 Greatest TV Shows of All Time.[5] In 2013, they ranked it as the 19th greatest TV show of all time.[6] In 2023, Variety ranked The Oprah Winfrey Show #17 on its list of the 100 greatest TV shows of all time.[7]

    In November 2009, Winfrey announced that the show would conclude in 2011 following its 25th and final season. The series finale aired on May 25, 2011.

    1. ^ Hollingshead, Iain (May 20, 2011). "Oprah Winfrey retires: Those in the spotlight can't bear the final curtain". The Daily Telegraph. London. Retrieved May 23, 2011.
    2. ^ Rose, Lacey (January 29, 2009). "America's Top-Earning Black Stars". Forbes. Retrieved May 23, 2012.
    3. ^ Carr, David (November 22, 2009). "The Media Equation – Oprah Winfrey's Success Owes to Decisions That Avoided Common Traps". The New York Times. Retrieved May 26, 2011.
    4. ^ "'The Oprah Winfrey Show': Trivia". Web. Oprah.com. January 1, 2006. Retrieved June 26, 2012.
    5. ^ "TV Guide Names Top 50 Shows". CBS News. April 26, 2002.
    6. ^ Fretts, Bruce; Roush, Matt. "The Greatest Shows on Earth". TV Guide Magazine. 61 (3194–3195): 16–19.
    7. ^ "The 100 Greatest TV Shows of All Time". Variety. December 20, 2023.
     
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    26 May 1998 – The first "National Sorry Day" is held in Australia. Reconciliation events are held nationally, and attended by over a million people.

    National Sorry Day

    National Sorry Day, officially the National Day of Healing, is an event held annually in Australia on 26 May commemorating the Stolen Generations. It is part of the ongoing efforts towards reconciliation between Indigenous and non-Indigenous Australians.

    The first National Sorry Day was held on the first anniversary of the 1997 Bringing Them Home report. It examined the government practices and policies which led to the Stolen Generations and recommended support and reparations to the Indigenous population. In 2008, Prime Minister Kevin Rudd issued a formal apology for the mistreatment of Indigenous Australians on behalf of the federal government. National Sorry Day has also inspired many public acts of solidarity and support for reconciliation.

    Protests have also been held on Sorry Day, with protestors arguing that Indigenous children have continued to be forcibly relocated under the child protection system and government systems have failed to adequately support them. Although there have been efforts implemented by state governments, a national reparation scheme has not been established.

     
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    27 May 1813War of 1812: In Canada, American forces capture Fort George.

    War of 1812

    The War of 1812 (18 June 1812 – 17 February 1815), called the American War of 1812 in Britain, was fought by the United States and its indigenous allies against the United Kingdom and its own indigenous allies in British North America, with limited participation by Spain in Florida. It began when the United States declared war on Britain on 18 June 1812. Although peace terms were agreed upon in the December 1814 Treaty of Ghent, the war did not officially end until the peace treaty was ratified by the United States Congress on 17 February 1815.[10][11]

    Anglo-American tensions originated in long-standing differences over territorial expansion in North America and British support for Tecumseh's confederacy, which resisted U.S. colonial settlement in the Old Northwest. These escalated in 1807 after the Royal Navy began enforcing tighter restrictions on American trade with France and impressed sailors who were originally British subjects, even those who had acquired American citizenship.[12] Opinion in the U.S. was split on how to respond, and although majorities in both the House and Senate voted for war, they divided along strict party lines, with the Democratic-Republican Party in favour and the Federalist Party against.[d][13] News of British concessions made in an attempt to avoid war did not reach the U.S. until late July, by which time the conflict was already underway.

    At sea, the Royal Navy imposed an effective blockade on U.S. maritime trade, while between 1812 and 1814 British regulars and colonial militia defeated a series of American invasions on Upper Canada.[14] The abdication of Napoleon in 1814 allowed the British to send additional forces to North America and reinforce the Royal Navy blockade, crippling the American economy.[15] In August 1814, negotiations began in Ghent, with both sides wanting peace; the British economy had been severely impacted by the trade embargo, while the Federalists convened the Hartford Convention in December to formalise their opposition to the war.

    In August 1814, British troops captured Washington, before American victories at Baltimore and Plattsburgh in September ended fighting in the north. In the Southeastern United States, American forces and Indian allies defeated an anti-American faction of the Muscogee. In early 1815, American troops repulsed a major British attack on New Orleans, which occurred during the ratification process of the signing of Treaty of Ghent, which brought an end to the conflict.[16]


    Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

    1. ^ a b c d Clodfelter 2017, p. 245.
    2. ^ Allen 1996, p. 121.
    3. ^ a b Clodfelter 2017, p. 244.
    4. ^ a b c Stagg 2012, p. 156.
    5. ^ Hickey 2006, p. 297.
    6. ^ Leland 2010, p. 2.
    7. ^ Tucker et al. 2012, p. 311.
    8. ^ Hickey 2012n.
    9. ^ Weiss 2013.
    10. ^ Order of the Senate of the United States 1828, pp. 619–620.
    11. ^ Carr 1979, p. 276.
    12. ^ Hickey 1989, p. 44.
    13. ^ Hickey 1989, pp. 32, 42–43.
    14. ^ Greenspan 2018.
    15. ^ Benn 2002, pp. 56–57.
    16. ^ "The Senate Approves for Ratification the Treaty of Ghent". U.S. Senate. Retrieved 3 January 2024.
     
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    28 May 1999 – In Milan, Italy, after 22 years of restoration work, Leonardo da Vinci's masterpiece The Last Supper is put back on display.

    The Last Supper (Leonardo)

    The Last Supper (Italian: Il Cenacolo [il tʃeˈnaːkolo] or L'Ultima Cena [ˈlultima ˈtʃeːna]) is a mural painting by the Italian High Renaissance artist Leonardo da Vinci, dated to c. 1495–1498, housed in the refectory of the Convent of Santa Maria delle Grazie in Milan, Italy. The painting represents the scene of the Last Supper of Jesus with the Twelve Apostles, as it is told in the Gospel of John – specifically the moment after Jesus announces that one of his apostles will betray him.[1] Its handling of space, mastery of perspective, treatment of motion and complex display of human emotion has made it one of the Western world's most recognizable paintings and among Leonardo's most celebrated works.[2] Some commentators consider it pivotal in inaugurating the transition into what is now termed the High Renaissance.[3][4]

    The work was commissioned as part of a plan of renovations to the church and its convent buildings by Leonardo's patron Ludovico Sforza, Duke of Milan. In order to permit his inconsistent painting schedule and frequent revisions, it is painted with materials that allowed for regular alterations: tempera on gesso, pitch, and mastic. Due to the methods used, a variety of environmental factors, and intentional damage, little of the original painting remains today despite numerous restoration attempts, the last being completed in 1999. The Last Supper is Leonardo's largest work, aside from the Sala delle Asse.

    1. ^ Bianchini, Riccardo (24 March 2021). "The Last Supper by Leonardo da Vinci – Santa Maria delle Grazie – Milan". Inexhibit. Retrieved 19 October 2021.
    2. ^ "Leonardo Da Vinci's 'The Last Supper' reveals more secrets". sciencedaily.com. Retrieved 3 March 2014.
    3. ^ Frederick Hartt, A History of Art: Painting, Sculpture, Architecture; Harry N. Abrams Incorporated, New York, 1985, p. 601
    4. ^ Christoph Luitpold Frommel, "Bramante and the Origins of the High Renaissance" in Rethinking the High Renaissance: The Culture of the Visual Arts in Early Sixteenth-Century Rome, Jill Burke, ed. Ashgate Publishing, Oxan, UK, 2002, p. 172.
     
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    29 May 1914 – The Ocean liner RMS Empress of Ireland sinks in the Gulf of Saint Lawrence with the loss of 1,012 lives

    RMS Empress of Ireland

    RMS Empress of Ireland was a British-built ocean liner that sank near the mouth of the Saint Lawrence River in Canada following a collision in thick fog with the Norwegian collier Storstad in the early hours of 29 May 1914. Although the ship was equipped with watertight compartments and, in the aftermath of the Titanic disaster two years earlier, carried more than enough lifeboats for all aboard, she foundered in only 14 minutes. Of the 1,477 people on board, 1,012 died, making it the worst peacetime maritime disaster in Canadian history.[1][2][3][a]

    Fairfield Shipbuilding and Engineering built Empress of Ireland and her sister ship, Empress of Britain, at Govan on the Clyde in Scotland.[1] The liners were commissioned by Canadian Pacific Steamships or CPR for the North Atlantic route between Liverpool and Quebec City. The transcontinental CPR and its fleet of ocean liners constituted the company's self-proclaimed "World's Greatest Transportation System". Empress of Ireland had just begun her 96th voyage when she was lost.[4]

    The wreck of Empress of Ireland lies in 40 m (130 ft) of water, making it accessible to advanced divers.[5] Many artifacts from the wreckage have been retrieved, some of which are on display in the Empress of Ireland Pavilion at the Site historique maritime de la Pointe-au-Père in Rimouski, Quebec, and at the Canadian Museum of Immigration at Pier 21 in Halifax, Nova Scotia. The Canadian government has passed legislation to protect the site.[6]

    RMS Empress of Ireland
    1. ^ a b "Investigating the Empress of Ireland". Shipwreck Investigations at Library and Archives Canada. Library and Archives Canada. 14 February 2006. Retrieved 20 February 2018.
    2. ^ Cd. 7609, p. 25.
    3. ^ "The Empress of Ireland". Lost Ship Recovered Voyages. Royal Alberta Museum. Archived from the original on 13 March 2009. Retrieved 20 February 2018.
    4. ^ "The Empress of Ireland: Survivors". Lost Ship Recovered Voyages. Royal Alberta Museum. Archived from the original on 13 March 2009. Retrieved 20 February 2018.
    5. ^ "The Empress of Ireland: Respecting the Wreck". Lost Ship Recovered Voyages. Royal Alberta Museum. 6 February 2009. Archived from the original on 12 March 2009. Retrieved 20 February 2018.
    6. ^ "The Empress of Ireland: Protecting the Empress". Lost Ship Recovered Voyages. Royal Alberta Museum. 6 February 2009. Archived from the original on 12 March 2009. Retrieved 20 February 2018.


    Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

     
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    30 May 1806 – Future U.S. President Andrew Jackson kills Charles Dickinson in a duel.

    Charles Dickinson (historical figure)

     
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    31 May 2008Usain Bolt breaks the world record in the 100m sprint, with a wind-legal (+1.7 m/s) 9.72 seconds

    Usain Bolt

    Usain St. Leo Bolt OJ CD OLY (/ˈjuːsn/;[12] born 21 August 1986) is a Jamaican retired sprinter, widely considered to be the greatest sprinter of all time.[13][14][15] He is the world record holder in the 100 metres, 200 metres, and 4 × 100 metres relay.

    An eight-time Olympic gold medallist, Bolt is the only sprinter to win Olympic 100 m and 200 m titles at three consecutive Olympics (2008, 2012, and 2016). He also won two 4 × 100 relay gold medals. He gained worldwide fame for his double sprint victory in world record times at the 2008 Beijing Olympics, which made him the first person to hold both records since fully automatic time became mandatory.

    An eleven-time World Champion, he won consecutive World Championship 100 m, 200 m and 4 × 100 metres relay gold medals from 2009 to 2015, with the exception of a 100 m false start in 2011. He is the most successful male athlete of the World Championships. Bolt is the first athlete to win four World Championship titles in the 200 m and is one of the most successful in the 100 m with three titles, being the first person to run sub-9.7s and sub-9.6s.

    Bolt improved upon his second 100 m world record of 9.69 with 9.58 seconds in 2009 – the biggest improvement since the start of electronic timing. He has twice broken the 200 metres world record, setting 19.30 in 2008 and 19.19 in 2009. He has helped Jamaica to three 4 × 100 metres relay world records, with the current record being 36.84 seconds set in 2012. Bolt's most successful event is the 200 m, with three Olympic and four World titles. The 2008 Olympics was his international debut over 100 m; he had earlier won numerous 200 m medals (including 2007 World Championship silver) and held the world under-20 and world under-18 records for the event until being surpassed by Erriyon Knighton in 2021.

    His achievements as a sprinter have earned him the media nickname "Lightning Bolt", and his awards include the IAAF World Athlete of the Year, Track & Field Athlete of the Year, BBC Overseas Sports Personality of the Year (three times), and Laureus World Sportsman of the Year (four times). Bolt was included in Time magazine's 100 Most Influential People of 2016.[16] Bolt retired after the 2017 World Championships, when he finished third in his last solo 100 m race, opted out of the 200 m, and pulled up injured in the 4×100 m relay final.

    1. ^ Cite error: The named reference Focus was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    2. ^ Thomas, Claire (26 July 2016). "Built for speed: what makes Usain Bolt so fast?". The Telegraph. Archived from the original on 21 August 2016. Retrieved 20 August 2016.
    3. ^ "Usain BOLT". usainbolt.com. Archived from the original on 19 September 2015. Retrieved 29 September 2015.
    4. ^ Thomas, Claire (25 July 2016). "Glen Mills: the man behind Usain Bolt's record-shattering career". The Daily Telegraph. Archived from the original on 11 January 2022. Retrieved 29 January 2019.
    5. ^ Wile, Rob (11 August 2017). "Usain Bolt Is Retiring. Here's How He Made Over $100 Million in 10 Years". Money. Archived from the original on 29 January 2019. Retrieved 29 January 2019.
    6. ^ Clark, Nate (2 February 2019). "Usain Bolt having fun at Super Bowl, 'ties' NFL Combine 40-yard dash record". NBC. Archived from the original on 3 February 2019. Retrieved 2 February 2019.
    7. ^ Cite error: The named reference NY was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    8. ^ Cite error: The named reference IAAF was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    9. ^ Cite error: The named reference TTG was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    10. ^ a b Cite error: The named reference IAAFProfile was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    11. ^ "Usain Bolt to run an 800m". Canadian Running Magazine. 8 July 2021. Archived from the original on 24 July 2021. Retrieved 24 July 2021.
    12. ^ Ellington, Barbara (31 August 2008). He is a happy person, says Usain's mother. Jamaica Gleaner. Retrieved 5 August 2009.
    13. ^ "Usain BOLT - Olympic Athletics | Jamaica". International Olympic Committee. 27 November 2020. Archived from the original on 25 February 2021. Retrieved 9 February 2021.
    14. ^ "Bolt by Numbers". World Athletics. 5 July 2017. Archived from the original on 17 November 2019. Retrieved 9 February 2021.
    15. ^ "Usain Bolt". Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived from the original on 16 April 2021. Retrieved 19 March 2021.
    16. ^ "Usain Bolt". Time. 2016. Archived from the original on 18 September 2021. Retrieved 18 September 2021.


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    1 June 1974 – The Heimlich maneuver for rescuing choking victims is published in the journal Emergency Medicine

    Abdominal thrusts

    Abdominal thrusts, also known as the Heimlich maneuver or Heimlich manoeuvre, is a first-aid procedure used to treat upper-airway obstructions (or choking) by foreign objects. American doctor Henry Heimlich is often credited for its discovery. To perform abdominal thrusts, a rescuer stands behind a choking victim and using the hands to exert pressure on the bottom of the diaphragm. This compresses the lungs and exerts pressure on the object lodged in the trachea in an effort to expel it.

    Most modern protocols, including those of the American Heart Association, American Red Cross and the European Resuscitation Council, recommend several stages for airway obstructions, designed to apply an increasing level of pressure. Most protocols recommend encouraging the victim to cough, followed by hard back slaps, and finally abdominal thrusts or chest thrusts as a final resort. Some guidelines also recommend alternating between abdominal thrusts and back slaps.[1][2]

    1. ^ Cite error: The named reference ERC2010 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    2. ^ Foreign object inhaled: First aid, Mayo Clinic staff, November 1, 2011.
     
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    2 June 1835P. T. Barnum and his circus start their first tour of the United States.

    P. T. Barnum

    Phineas Taylor Barnum (/ˈbɑːrnəm/; July 5, 1810 – April 7, 1891) was an American showman, businessman and politician remembered for promoting celebrated hoaxes and founding the Barnum & Bailey Circus[1] with James Anthony Bailey.

    He was also an author, publisher and philanthropist, although he said of himself: "I am a showman by profession ... and all the gilding shall make nothing else of me."[2] According to Barnum's critics, his personal aim was "to put money in his own coffers."[2] The adage "there's a sucker born every minute"[3] has frequently been attributed to him, although no evidence exists that he had indeed coined the phrase.

    Barnum became a small-business owner in his early twenties and founded a weekly newspaper before moving to New York City in 1834. He embarked on an entertainment career, first with a variety troupe called "Barnum's Grand Scientific and Musical Theater", and soon after by purchasing Scudder's American Museum, which he renamed after himself. He used the museum as a platform to promote hoaxes and human curiosities such as the Fiji mermaid and General Tom Thumb.[4] In 1850, he promoted the American tour of Swedish opera singer Jenny Lind, paying her an unprecedented $1,000, equivalent to $35,176 in 2022, per night for 150 nights. He suffered economic reversals in the 1850s from unwise investments, as well as years of litigation and public humiliation, but he embarked on a lecture tour as a temperance speaker to emerge from debt. His museum added America's first aquarium and expanded its wax-figure department.

    Barnum served two terms in the Connecticut legislature in 1865 as a Republican for Fairfield, Connecticut. He spoke before the legislature concerning the ratification of the Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution, which abolished slavery and involuntary servitude: "A human soul, 'that God has created and Christ died for,' is not to be trifled with. It may tenant the body of a Chinaman, a Turk, an Arab, or a Hottentot—it is still an immortal spirit."[5] He was elected in 1875 as mayor of Bridgeport, Connecticut, where he worked to improve the water supply, bring gas lighting to streets and enforce liquor and prostitution laws. He was instrumental in the inception of Bridgeport Hospital in 1878 and was its first president.[6] The circus business, begun when he was 60 years old, was the source of much of his enduring fame. He established "P.T. Barnum's Grand Traveling Museum, Menagerie, Caravan & Hippodrome" in 1870, a traveling circus, menagerie and museum of "freaks" that adopted many names over the years.

    Barnum was married to Charity Hallett from 1829 until her death in 1873, and they had four children. In 1874, a few months after his wife's death, he married Nancy Fish, his friend's daughter and 40 years his junior. They were married until 1891 when Barnum died of a stroke at his home. He was buried in Mountain Grove Cemetery, Bridgeport, which he designed himself.[7]

    1. ^ North American Theatre Online: Phineas T. Barnum
    2. ^ a b Kunhardt, Kunhardt & Kunhardt 1995, p. vi
    3. ^ Shapiro, Fred R. The Yale Book of Quotations. New Haven: Yale UP, 2006. p. 44
    4. ^ Kunhardt, Kunhardt & Kunhardt 1995, p. 73
    5. ^ Barnum, Phineas (1888). The life of P. T. Barnum. Buffalo, N.Y.: The Courier Company. p. 237 – via Ebook and Texts Archive – American Libraries.
    6. ^ Cite error: The named reference kunhardt2 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    7. ^ Rogak, Lisa (2004). Stones and Bones of New England: A guide to unusual, historic, and otherwise notable cemeteries. Globe Pequat. ISBN 978-0-7627-3000-1.
     
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    2 June 1835P. T. Barnum and his circus start their first tour of the United States.

    P. T. Barnum

    Phineas Taylor Barnum (/ˈbɑːrnəm/; July 5, 1810 – April 7, 1891) was an American showman, businessman and politician remembered for promoting celebrated hoaxes and founding the Barnum & Bailey Circus[1] with James Anthony Bailey.

    He was also an author, publisher and philanthropist, although he said of himself: "I am a showman by profession ... and all the gilding shall make nothing else of me."[2] According to Barnum's critics, his personal aim was "to put money in his own coffers."[2] The adage "there's a sucker born every minute"[3] has frequently been attributed to him, although no evidence exists that he had indeed coined the phrase.

    Barnum became a small-business owner in his early twenties and founded a weekly newspaper before moving to New York City in 1834. He embarked on an entertainment career, first with a variety troupe called "Barnum's Grand Scientific and Musical Theater", and soon after by purchasing Scudder's American Museum, which he renamed after himself. He used the museum as a platform to promote hoaxes and human curiosities such as the Fiji mermaid and General Tom Thumb.[4] In 1850, he promoted the American tour of Swedish opera singer Jenny Lind, paying her an unprecedented $1,000, equivalent to $35,176 in 2022, per night for 150 nights. He suffered economic reversals in the 1850s from unwise investments, as well as years of litigation and public humiliation, but he embarked on a lecture tour as a temperance speaker to emerge from debt. His museum added America's first aquarium and expanded its wax-figure department.

    Barnum served two terms in the Connecticut legislature in 1865 as a Republican for Fairfield, Connecticut. He spoke before the legislature concerning the ratification of the Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution, which abolished slavery and involuntary servitude: "A human soul, 'that God has created and Christ died for,' is not to be trifled with. It may tenant the body of a Chinaman, a Turk, an Arab, or a Hottentot—it is still an immortal spirit."[5] He was elected in 1875 as mayor of Bridgeport, Connecticut, where he worked to improve the water supply, bring gas lighting to streets and enforce liquor and prostitution laws. He was instrumental in the inception of Bridgeport Hospital in 1878 and was its first president.[6] The circus business, begun when he was 60 years old, was the source of much of his enduring fame. He established "P.T. Barnum's Grand Traveling Museum, Menagerie, Caravan & Hippodrome" in 1870, a traveling circus, menagerie and museum of "freaks" that adopted many names over the years.

    Barnum was married to Charity Hallett from 1829 until her death in 1873, and they had four children. In 1874, a few months after his wife's death, he married Nancy Fish, his friend's daughter and 40 years his junior. They were married until 1891 when Barnum died of a stroke at his home. He was buried in Mountain Grove Cemetery, Bridgeport, which he designed himself.[7]

    1. ^ North American Theatre Online: Phineas T. Barnum
    2. ^ a b Kunhardt, Kunhardt & Kunhardt 1995, p. vi
    3. ^ Shapiro, Fred R. The Yale Book of Quotations. New Haven: Yale UP, 2006. p. 44
    4. ^ Kunhardt, Kunhardt & Kunhardt 1995, p. 73
    5. ^ Barnum, Phineas (1888). The life of P. T. Barnum. Buffalo, N.Y.: The Courier Company. p. 237 – via Ebook and Texts Archive – American Libraries.
    6. ^ Cite error: The named reference kunhardt2 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    7. ^ Rogak, Lisa (2004). Stones and Bones of New England: A guide to unusual, historic, and otherwise notable cemeteries. Globe Pequat. ISBN 978-0-7627-3000-1.
     
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    3 June 1844 – The last pair of great auks is killed

    Great auk

    The great auk (Pinguinus impennis) is a species of flightless alcid that became extinct in the mid-19th century. It was the only modern species in the genus Pinguinus. It is not closely related to the Southern Hemisphere birds now known as penguins, which were discovered later by Europeans and so named by sailors because of their physical resemblance to the great auk, which were called penguins.

    It bred on rocky, remote islands with easy access to the ocean and a plentiful food supply, a rarity in nature that provided only a few breeding sites for the great auks. When not breeding, they spent their time foraging in the waters of the North Atlantic, ranging as far south as northern Spain and along the coastlines of Canada, Greenland, Iceland, the Faroe Islands, Norway, Ireland, and Great Britain.

    The bird was 75 to 85 centimetres (30 to 33 inches) tall and weighed about 5 kilograms (11 pounds), making it the largest alcid to survive into the modern era, and the second-largest member of the alcid family overall (the prehistoric Miomancalla was larger).[6] It had a black back and a white belly. The black beak was heavy and hooked, with grooves on its surface. During summer, great auk plumage showed a white patch over each eye. During winter, the great auk lost these patches, instead developing a white band stretching between the eyes. The wings were only 15 cm (6 in) long, rendering the bird flightless. Instead, the great auk was a powerful swimmer, a trait that it used in hunting. Its favourite prey were fish, including Atlantic menhaden and capelin, and crustaceans. Although agile in the water, it was clumsy on land. Great auk pairs mated for life. They nested in extremely dense and social colonies, laying one egg on bare rock. The egg was white with variable brown marbling. Both parents participated in the incubation of the egg for around six weeks before the young hatched. The young left the nest site after two to three weeks, although the parents continued to care for it.

    The great auk was an important part of many Native American cultures, both as a food source and as a symbolic item. Many Maritime Archaic people were buried with great auk bones. One burial discovered included someone covered by more than 200 great auk beaks, which are presumed to be the remnants of a cloak made of great auks' skins. Early European explorers to the Americas used the great auk as a convenient food source or as fishing bait, reducing its numbers. The bird's down was in high demand in Europe, a factor that largely eliminated the European populations by the mid-16th century. Scientists soon began to realize that the great auk was disappearing and it became the beneficiary of many early environmental laws, but these proved ineffectual.

    Its growing rarity increased interest from European museums and private collectors in obtaining skins and eggs of the bird. On 3 June 1844, the last two confirmed specimens were killed on Eldey, off the coast of Iceland, ending the last known breeding attempt. Later reports of roaming individuals being seen or caught are unconfirmed. A report of one great auk in 1852 is considered by some to be the last sighting of a member of the species. The great auk is mentioned in several novels, and the scientific journal of the American Ornithological Society was named The Auk (now Ornithology) in honour of the bird until 2021.

    1. ^ Finlayson, Clive (2011). Avian survivors: The History and Biogeography of Palearctic Birds. Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 157. ISBN 978-1408137314.
    2. ^ BirdLife International (2021). "Pinguinus impennis". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2021: e.T22694856A205919631. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2021-3.RLTS.T22694856A205919631.en. Retrieved 19 November 2021.
    3. ^ "NatureServe Explorer 2.0". explorer.natureserve.org. Retrieved 31 March 2022.
    4. ^ Grieve, Symington (1885). The Great Auk, or Garefowl: Its history, archaeology, and remains. Thomas C. Jack, London. ISBN 978-0665066245.
    5. ^ Parkin, Thomas (1894). The Great Auk, or Garefowl. J.E. Budd, Printer. Retrieved 14 May 2010.
    6. ^ Smith, N (2015). "Evolution of body mass in the Pan-Alcidae (Aves, Charadriiformes): the effects of combining neontological and paleontological data". Paleobiology. 42 (1): 8–26. Bibcode:2016Pbio...42....8S. doi:10.1017/pab.2015.24. S2CID 83934750.
     
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    4 June 1942 – World War II: The Battle of Midway begins. The Japanese Admiral Chūichi Nagumo orders a strike on Midway Island by much of the Imperial Japanese Navy.

    Battle of Midway

    The Battle of Midway was a major naval battle in the Pacific Theater of World War II that took place 4–7 June 1942, six months after the Empire of Japan's attack on Pearl Harbor and one month after the Battle of the Coral Sea.[7][8][9] The U.S. Navy under Admirals Chester W. Nimitz, Frank J. Fletcher, and Raymond A. Spruance defeated an attacking fleet of the Imperial Japanese Navy under Admirals Isoroku Yamamoto, Chūichi Nagumo, and Nobutake Kondō north of Midway Atoll, inflicting devastating damage on the Japanese fleet. Military historian John Keegan called it "the most stunning and decisive blow in the history of naval warfare",[10] while naval historian Craig Symonds called it "one of the most consequential naval engagements in world history, ranking alongside Salamis, Trafalgar, and Tsushima Strait, as both tactically decisive and strategically influential."[11]

    In response to the Doolittle air raid on Tokyo, the Japanese leadership planned a "barrier" strategy to extend Japan's defensive perimeter. They hoped to lure the American aircraft carriers into a trap, clearing the seas for Japanese attacks on Midway, Fiji, Samoa, and Hawaii. The plan was undermined by faulty Japanese anticipations of the American reaction and poor initial dispositions. Crucially, U.S. cryptographers were able to determine the date and location of the planned attack, enabling the forewarned United States Navy to prepare its own ambush.

    Four Japanese and three American aircraft carriers participated in the battle. The Japanese fleet carriersAkagi, Kaga, Sōryū, and Hiryū, part of the six-carrier force that had attacked Pearl Harbor six months earlier—were sunk, as was the heavy cruiser Mikuma. The United States lost the carrier Yorktown and the destroyer Hammann, while the carriers USS Enterprise and USS Hornet survived the battle fully intact.

    After Midway and the exhausting attrition of the Solomon Islands campaign, Japan's capacity to replace its losses in materiel (particularly aircraft carriers) and men (especially well-trained pilots and maintenance crewmen) rapidly became insufficient to cope with mounting casualties, while the United States' massive industrial and training capabilities made losses far easier to replace. The Battle of Midway, along with the Guadalcanal campaign, is widely considered a turning point in the Pacific War.

    1. ^ Blair 1975, p. 240 map
    2. ^ Parshall & Tully 2005, pp. 90–91
    3. ^ "The Battle of Midway". Office of Naval Intelligence. Archived from the original on 27 October 2019. Retrieved 21 April 2009.
    4. ^ "The Battle of Midway".
    5. ^ Parshall & Tully 2005, p. 524
    6. ^ Cite error: The named reference ParTulcas was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    7. ^ a b "Battle of Midway: June 4–7, 1942". Naval History & Heritage Command. 26 March 2015. Archived from the original on 20 May 2016. Retrieved 15 June 2016.
    8. ^ Dull 1978, p. 166
    9. ^ "A Brief History of Aircraft Carriers: Battle of Midway". U.S. Navy. 2007. Archived from the original on 12 June 2007. Retrieved 12 June 2007.
    10. ^ Keegan 2005, p. 275
    11. ^ Symonds 2018, p. 293
     

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