This day in .....

9 January 2015 – A mass poisoning at a funeral in Mozambique involving beer that was contaminated with Burkholderia gladioli leaves 75 dead and over 230 people ill.

Mozambique funeral beer poisoning

2015 mass poisoning due to contaminated beer in Chitima, Mozambique

On 9 January 2015, 75 people died and 230 were made ill after drinking contaminated beer at a funeral in Mozambique. All of the people affected had consumed the local beer, pombe, on 9 January, which had been inadvertently contaminated by the bacterium Burkholderia gladioli which produced the toxic compound bongkrekic acid.^[2]

Early speculation on the source of the illness by Mozambique officials blamed crocodile bile. A Forbes article opposed this hypothesis and instead pointed to the toxic flowering plant foxglove as the likely source of the poison.^[3][4] Only in November 2015 was it determined that the deaths and illnesses were a result of bacterial contamination of the beer.^[5]

1. ^ "Where is Chitima in Tete, Mozambique Located?". GoMapper. n.d. Archived from the original on 22 January 2015. Retrieved 22 January 2015.
2. ^ ^{a b} Gudo, Eduardo Samo; Cook, Kyla; Kasper, Amelia M; Vergara, Alfredo; Salomão, Cristolde; Oliveira, Fernanda; Ismael, Hamida; Saeze, Cristovão; Mosse, Carla; Fernandes, Quinhas; Viegas, Sofia Omar; Baltazar, Cynthia S; Doyle, Timothy J; Yard, Ellen; Steck, Alaina; Serret, Mayda; Falconer, Travis M; Kern, Sara E; Brzezinski, Jennifer L; Turner, James A; Boyd, Brian L; Jani, Ilesh V (2018). "Description of a Mass Poisoning in a Rural District in Mozambique: The First Documented Bongkrekic Acid Poisoning in Africa" (PDF). Clinical Infectious Diseases. 66 (9): 1400–1406. doi:10.1093/cid/cix1005. PMC 5908738. PMID 29155976. Archived (PDF) from the original on 20 March 2020. Retrieved 23 March 2018.
3. ^ "At least 69 die after drinking contaminated beer at Mozambique funeral". The Guardian. Associated Press. 12 January 2015. Archived from the original on 19 March 2020. Retrieved 12 January 2015.
4. ^ Camillo, Emmanuel (12 January 2015). "At Least 52 Dead After Drinking Poisoned Beer In Mozambique". The Huffington Post. Associated Press. Archived from the original on 13 January 2015. Retrieved 12 January 2015.
5. ^ "Mozambique: Mass Poisoning Caused By Bacterial Contamination". allafrica.com. 4 November 2015. Archived from the original on 7 February 2016. Retrieved 7 February 2016.

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10 January 1920 – The Treaty of Versailles takes effect, officially ending World War I.

Treaty of Versailles

One of the treaties that ended World War I

Not to be confused with Little Treaty of Versailles.

This article is about the Treaty of Versailles of 28 June 1919, at the end of World War I. For other uses, see Treaty of Versailles (disambiguation).

The Treaty of Versailles^[ii] was a peace treaty signed on 28 June 1919. As the most important treaty of World War I, it ended the state of war between Germany and most of the Allied Powers. It was signed in the Palace of Versailles, exactly five years after the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand, which led to the war. The other Central Powers on the German side signed separate treaties.^[iii] Although the armistice of 11 November 1918 ended the actual fighting, and agreed certain principles and conditions including the payment of reparations, it took six months of Allied negotiations at the Paris Peace Conference to conclude the peace treaty. Germany was not allowed to participate in the negotiations before signing the treaty.

The treaty required Germany to disarm, make territorial concessions, extradite alleged war criminals, agree to Kaiser Wilhelm being put on trial, recognise the independence of states whose territory had previously been part of the German Empire, and pay reparations to the Entente powers. The most critical and controversial provision in the treaty was: "The Allied and Associated Governments affirm and Germany accepts the responsibility of Germany and her allies for causing all the loss and damage to which the Allied and Associated Governments and their nationals have been subjected as a consequence of the war imposed upon them by the aggression of Germany and her allies." The other members of the Central Powers signed treaties containing similar articles. This article, Article 231, became known as the "War Guilt" clause.

Critics including John Maynard Keynes declared the treaty too harsh, styling it as a "Carthaginian peace", and saying the reparations were excessive and counterproductive. On the other hand, prominent Allied figures such as French Marshal Ferdinand Foch criticized the treaty for treating Germany too leniently. This is still the subject of ongoing debate by historians and economists.

The result of these competing and sometimes conflicting goals among the victors was a compromise that left no one satisfied. In particular, Germany was neither pacified nor conciliated, nor was it permanently weakened. The United States never ratified the Versailles treaty; instead it made a separate peace treaty with Germany, albeit based on the Versailles treaty. The problems that arose from the treaty would lead to the Locarno Treaties, which improved relations between Germany and the other European powers. The reparation system was reorganized and payments reduced in the Dawes Plan and the Young Plan. Bitter resentment of the treaty powered the rise of the Nazi Party, and eventually the outbreak of a second World War.

Although it is often referred to as the "Versailles Conference", only the actual signing of the treaty took place at the historic palace. Most of the negotiations were in Paris, with the "Big Four" meetings taking place generally at the French Ministry of Foreign Affairs on the Quai d'Orsay.

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1. ^ Slavicek 2010, p. 114.
2. ^ Slavicek 2010, p. 107.
3. ^ Boyer et al. 2009, p. 153.

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11 January 1942 – World War II: Japanese forces capture Kuala Lumpur, the capital of the Federated Malay States.

Battle of Kuala Lumpur

Part of the Japanese invasion of British Malaysia (1942)

The Battle of Kuala Lumpur was a battle between Japanese invasion forces and the British forces in Kuala Lumpur, in the then capital of the Federated Malay States, a British protectorate. Starting in late December Japanese began bombing the city;ground forces reached the city by 11 January 1942. The battle was part of Empire of Japan's expansive attack across the Pacific in December 1941, invading and attacking all over the Pacific, from Pearl Harbor, striking islands across the Pacific, Philippines, Malaya, Borneo, Burma, and Thailand. The invasion of Malaya leading up this battle had started after midnight on December 8 with the invasion of Kota Bharu.

1. ^ L, Klemen (1999–2000). "Lieutenant-General Arthur Ernest Percival". Forgotten Campaign: The Dutch East Indies Campaign 1941–1942. Archived from the original on 24 September 2011.

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12 January 2006 – A stampede during the Stoning of the Devil ritual on the last day at the Hajj in Mina, Saudi Arabia, kills at least 362 Muslim pilgrims.

Stoning of the Devil

Ritual performed by Muslims during Hajj in Mecca, Saudi Arabia

The Stoning of the Devil (Arabic: رمي الجمرات ramy al-jamarāt, lit. "throwing of the jamarāt [place of pebbles]")^[1][2][3] is part of the annual Islamic Hajj pilgrimage to the holy city of Mecca in Saudi Arabia. During the ritual, Muslim pilgrims throw pebbles at three walls (formerly pillars), called jamarāt, in the city of Mina just east of Mecca. It is a symbolic reenactment of Ibrahim's (or Abraham's) hajj, where he stoned three pillars representing the Shaitan (or Satan), and Muslims' temptation to disobey the will of Allah.

On Eid al-Adha (the 10th day of the month of Dhu al-Hijjah), pilgrims must strike the Big Jamarah or Al-Jamrah Al-Aqaba with seven pebbles. After the stoning is completed on the day of Eid, every pilgrim must cut or shave their hair.^[4] On each of the following two days, they must hit all three walls with seven pebbles each, going in order from east to west. Thus at least 21 pebbles are needed for the ritual; more stones would be needed if they failed to hit the pillar. It is permissible for the stones to fall into the designated areas of the pillars, and there is no need to throw them again if they land in the appropriate vicinity.

Some pilgrims stay at Mina for an additional day, in which case they must again stone each wall seven times. The pebbles used in the stoning are traditionally gathered at Muzdalifah, a plain southeast of Mina, on the night before the first throwing, but can also be collected at Mina.

1. ^ Burton, Richard Francis (1857). Personal Narrative of a Pilgrimage to El Medinah and Meccah. Longman, Brown, Green, Longmans, and Roberts. p. 226. Retrieved 2016-10-23. The word jamrah is applied to the place of stoning, as well as to the stones.
2. ^ Abū Dāʼūd (1984). Sunan Abu Dawud: Chapters 519-1337. Sh. M. Ashraf. ISBN 9789694320977. Archived from the original on 2017-04-09. Retrieved 2016-10-23. 1204. Jamrah originally means a pebble. It is applied to the heap of stones or a pillar.
3. ^ Hughes, Thomas Patrick (1995) [1885]. Dictionary of Islam. Asian Educational Services. p. 225. ISBN 978-81-206-0672-2. Archived from the original on 2016-05-08. Retrieved 2016-10-23. Literally "gravel, or small pebbles." The three pillars [...] placed against a rough wall of stones [...]
4. ^ "Day 3: 10th of Dhul Hijjah | Hajj & Umrah Planner". hajjumrahplanner.com. 12 February 2017. Archived from the original on 2017-04-07. Retrieved 2017-04-07.

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13 January 2018 – A false emergency alert warning of an impending missile strike in Hawaii causes widespread panic in the state.

2018 Hawaii false missile alert

False alarm sent over all communications media in the U.S. state of Hawaii

On the morning of January 13, 2018, an alert was accidentally issued via the Emergency Alert System and Wireless Emergency Alert System over television, radio, and cellular networks in the U.S. state of Hawaii, instructing citizens to seek shelter due to an incoming ballistic missile. The message was sent at 8:08 a.m. local time and the state had not authorized civil defense outdoor warning sirens to sound.

38 minutes and 13 seconds later, state officials blamed a miscommunication during a drill at the Hawaii Emergency Management Agency for the first message. Then-Governor David Ige apologized for the erroneous alert. The Federal Communications Commission and the Hawaii House of Representatives launched investigations into the incident, leading to the resignation of the state's emergency management administrator.

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14 January 1967 – Counterculture of the 1960s: The Human Be-In takes place in San Francisco, California's Golden Gate Park, launching the Summer of Love

Human Be-In

1967 countercultural gathering in San Francisco, California

For the events in New York City, see Central Park be-ins.

The Human Be-In was an event held in San Francisco's Golden Gate Park Polo Fields on January 14, 1967.^[1][2][3] It was a prelude to San Francisco's Summer of Love, which made the Haight-Ashbury district a symbol of American counterculture and introduced the word "psychedelic" to suburbia.

1. ^ "American Experience Summer of Love". PBS. Archived from the original on 2015-09-24. Retrieved 2017-08-31.
2. ^ Goldberg, Danny (13 January 2017). "All the Human Be-In Was Saying 50 Years Ago, Was Give Peace a Chance". The Nation. Retrieved 12 January 2021.
3. ^ Palmer, Steven. "The Human Be-In Teach-In". Oral History Masters of Arts. Columbia University. Retrieved 12 January 2021.

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15 January 2001 – Wikipedia, a free wiki content encyclopedia, goes online.

Wikipedia

Free online crowdsourced encyclopedia

This article is about the online encyclopedia. For Wikipedia's home page, see Main Page. For the primary English-language Wikipedia, see English Wikipedia. For other uses, see Wikipedia (disambiguation).

Wikipedia^[b] is a free online encyclopedia written and maintained by a community of volunteers, known as Wikipedians, through open collaboration and the wiki software MediaWiki. Founded by Jimmy Wales and Larry Sanger in 2001, Wikipedia has been hosted since 2003 by the Wikimedia Foundation, an American nonprofit organization funded mainly by donations from readers.^[2] Wikipedia is the largest and most-read reference work in history.^[3][4]

Initially available only in English, Wikipedia exists in over 340 languages and is the world's eighth most visited website. The English Wikipedia, with over 7 million articles, remains the largest of the editions, which together comprise more than 65 million articles and attract more than 1.5 billion unique device visits and 13 million edits per month (about 5 edits per second on average) as of April 2024^[update].^{[W 1]} As of May 2025^[update], over 25% of Wikipedia's traffic comes from the United States, while Japan, the United Kingdom, Germany and Russia each account for around 5%.^[5]

Wikipedia has been praised for enabling the democratization of knowledge, its extensive coverage, unique structure, and culture. Wikipedia has been censored by some national governments, ranging from specific pages to the entire site.^[6][7] Although Wikipedia's volunteer editors have written extensively on a wide variety of topics, the encyclopedia has been criticized for systemic bias, such as a gender bias against women and a geographical bias against the Global South.^[8][9] While the reliability of Wikipedia was frequently criticized in the 2000s, it has improved over time, receiving greater praise from the late 2010s onward.^[3][10][11] Articles on breaking news are often accessed as sources for up-to-date information about those events.^[12][13]

1. ^ Cite error: The named reference autogenerated1 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
2. ^ Seitz-Gruwell, Lisa (October 23, 2023). "7 reasons you should donate to Wikipedia". Wikimedia Foundation. Archived from the original on December 27, 2023. Retrieved December 27, 2023.
3. ^ ^{a b} "Wikipedia is 20, and its reputation has never been higher". The Economist. January 9, 2021. Archived from the original on January 7, 2021. Retrieved February 25, 2021.
4. ^ Anderson, Chris (May 8, 2006). "Jimmy Wales – The 2006 Time 100". Time. Archived from the original on October 12, 2022. Retrieved November 11, 2017.
5. ^ "wikipedia.org". similarweb.com. Archived from the original on June 5, 2020. Retrieved November 14, 2024.
6. ^ Treisman, Rachel (April 1, 2022). "Russia threatens to fine Wikipedia if it doesn't remove some details about the war". NPR. Archived from the original on December 2, 2022. Retrieved January 22, 2023.
7. ^ Cite error: The named reference :1 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
8. ^ Noor, Poppy (July 29, 2018). "Wikipedia biases". The Guardian. Archived from the original on November 9, 2020. Retrieved May 31, 2024.
9. ^ Hern, Alex (September 15, 2015). "Wikipedia's view of the world is written by the west". The Guardian. Retrieved May 31, 2024.
10. ^ "Happy Birthday, Wikipedia". The Economist. January 9, 2021. Archived from the original on January 1, 2023. Retrieved January 22, 2023.
11. ^ Cooke, Richard (February 17, 2020). "Wikipedia Is the Last Best Place on the Internet". Wired. Archived from the original on December 17, 2022. Retrieved October 13, 2020.
12. ^ Kelly, Samantha Murphy (May 20, 2022). "Meet the Wikipedia editor who published the Buffalo shooting entry minutes after it started". CNN. Archived from the original on October 12, 2022. Retrieved May 24, 2022.
13. ^ McNamee, Kai (September 15, 2022). "Fastest 'was' in the West: Inside Wikipedia's race to cover the queen's death". NPR. Archived from the original on January 15, 2023. Retrieved January 22, 2023.

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16 January 1979 – The last Iranian Shah flees Iran with his family for good and relocates to Egypt.

Mohammad Reza Pahlavi

Shah of Iran from 1941 to 1979

"The Shah" redirects here. For the title itself, see Shah. For other uses, see Shah (disambiguation).

Not to be confused with his father Reza Shah (1878–1944) or his eldest son Reza Pahlavi (born 1960).

Mohammad Reza Pahlavi^[a] (26 October 1919 – 27 July 1980), commonly known as simply the Shah, was the Shah of Iran, ruling from 1941 to 1979.^[1] He succeeded his father Reza Shah and ruled the Imperial State of Iran until he was overthrown by the 1979 revolution, which abolished the Iranian monarchy to establish the present-day Islamic Republic of Iran. In 1967, he took the title Shahanshah (lit. 'King of Kings'),^[2] and also held several others, including Aryamehr (lit. 'Light of the Aryans') and Bozorg Arteshtaran (lit. 'Grand Army Commander'). He was the second and last ruling monarch of the Pahlavi dynasty. His vision of the "Great Civilization" (تمدن بزرگ) led to his leadership over rapid industrial and military modernization, as well as economic and social reforms in Iran.^[3][4]

During World War II, the Anglo-Soviet invasion of Iran forced the abdication of Reza Shah and succession of Mohammad Reza Shah. During his reign, the British-owned oil industry was nationalized by the prime minister Mohammad Mosaddegh, who had support from Iran's national parliament to do so; however, Mosaddegh was overthrown in the 1953 Iranian coup d'état, which was carried out by the Iranian military under the aegis of the United Kingdom and the United States. Subsequently, the Iranian government centralized power under the Shah and brought foreign oil companies back into the country's industry through the Consortium Agreement of 1954.^[5]

In 1963, Mohammad Reza Shah introduced the White Revolution, a series of reforms aimed at transforming Iran into a global power and modernizing the nation by nationalizing key industries and redistributing land. The regime also implemented Iranian nationalist policies establishing numerous popular symbols of Iran relating to Cyrus the Great. The Shah initiated major investments in infrastructure, subsidies and land grants for peasant populations, profit sharing for industrial workers, construction of nuclear facilities, nationalization of Iran's natural resources, and literacy programs which were considered some of the most effective in the world. The Shah also instituted economic policy tariffs and preferential loans to Iranian businesses which sought to create an independent Iranian economy. Manufacturing of cars, appliances, and other goods in Iran increased substantially, creating a new industrialist class insulated from threats of foreign competition. By the 1970s, the Shah was seen as a master statesman and used his growing power to pass the 1973 Sale and Purchase Agreement. The reforms culminated in decades of sustained economic growth that would make Iran one of the fastest-growing economies among both the developed world and the developing world. During his 37-year-long rule, Iran spent billions of dollars' worth on industry, education, health, and military spending. The Iranian national income rose 423 times over, and the country saw an unprecedented rise in per capita income—which reached the highest level of any point in Iran's history—and high levels of urbanization. By 1977, the Shah's focus on defense spending to end foreign powers' intervention in the country had culminated in the Iranian military standing as the world's fifth-strongest armed force.^[6]

As political unrest grew throughout Iran in the late 1970s,^[7] the Shah's position was made untenable by the Cinema Rex fire and the Jaleh Square massacre. The 1979 Guadeloupe Conference saw his Western allies state that there was no feasible way to save the Iranian monarchy from being overthrown. The Shah ultimately left Iran for exile in January 1979.^[8] Although he had told some Western contemporaries that he would rather leave the country than fire on his own people,^[9] estimates for the total number of deaths during the Islamic Revolution range from 540 to 2,000 (figures of independent studies) to 60,000 (figures of the Islamic government).^[10] After formally abolishing the Iranian monarchy, Shia Islamist cleric Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini assumed leadership as the Supreme Leader of Iran. Mohammad Reza Shah died in exile in Egypt, where he had been granted political asylum by Egyptian president Anwar Sadat, and his son Reza Pahlavi declared himself the new Shah of Iran in exile.

Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

1. ^ "Mohammad Reza Shah Pahlavi | Biography, History, & White Revolution". Britannica.com. Retrieved 18 February 2025.
2. ^ D. N. MacKenzie. A Concise Pahlavi Dictionary. Routledge Curzon, 2005.
3. ^ Gholami (2016), p. 80.
4. ^ Alikarami, Leila (2018). Women and Equality in Iran: Law, Society and Activism. Bloomsbury. p. 54. ISBN 978-1-78831-887-7.
5. ^ Kinzer (2003), p. 195 ff..
6. ^ Cooper (2016), pp. 21, 22.
7. ^ Razipour, Suzanne Maloney and Keian (24 January 2019). "The Iranian revolution—A timeline of events". Brookings.edu. Brookings Institution. Archived from the original on 25 January 2019. Retrieved 10 February 2021.
8. ^ Kabalan (2020), p. 113.
9. ^ Cooper (2016), pp. 10, 36.
10. ^ "Constitution of the Islamic Republic of Iran" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 22 December 2019.

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17 January 1873 – A group of Modoc warriors defeats the United States Army in the First Battle of the Stronghold, part of the Modoc War.

Modoc War

1872–73 conflict between the Native American Modoc people and the U.S. Army

The Modoc War, or the Modoc Campaign (also known as the Lava Beds War), was an armed conflict between the Native American Modoc people and the United States Army in northeastern California and southeastern Oregon from 1872 to 1873.^[3] Eadweard Muybridge photographed the early part of the US Army's campaign.

Kintpuash, also known as Captain Jack, led 52 warriors in a band of more than 150 Modoc people who left the Klamath Reservation. Occupying defensive positions throughout the lava beds south of Tule Lake (in present-day Lava Beds National Monument), those few warriors resisted for months the more numerous United States Army forces sent against them, which were reinforced with artillery. In April 1873 at a peace commission meeting, Captain Jack and others killed General Edward Canby and Rev. Eleazer Thomas, and wounded two others, mistakenly believing this would encourage the Americans to leave. The Modoc fled back to the lava beds. After U.S. forces were reinforced, some Modoc warriors surrendered and Captain Jack and the last of his band were captured. Jack and five warriors were tried for the murders of the two peace commissioners. Jack and three warriors were executed and two others sentenced to life in prison.

The remaining 153 Modoc of the band were sent to Indian Territory (pre-statehood Oklahoma), where they were held as prisoners of war until 1909, settled on reservation land with the Shawnee. Some at that point were allowed to return to the Klamath Reservation in Oregon. Most Modoc (and their descendants) stayed in what became the state of Oklahoma. They achieved separate federal recognition and were granted some land in Oklahoma. There are two federally recognized Modoc tribes: in Oregon and Oklahoma.

1. ^ ^{a b} "INDIAN WARS Campaigns". Archived from the original on 2010-08-08. Retrieved 2010-07-12.
2. ^ ^{a b c} "Modoc Indian War". Archived from the original on 2016-08-11. Retrieved 2016-06-22.
3. ^ Beck, Warren A. and Ynez D. Hasse. The Modoc War, 1872 to 1873. Archived 2006-11-08 at the Wayback Machine California State Military Museum. (10 Feb 2008)

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18 January 1919 – World War I: The Paris Peace Conference opens in Versailles, France.

Paris Peace Conference (1919–1920)

Meeting of the Allied Powers after World War I

See also: Treaty of Versailles, Rue Nitot, and Diplomatic history of World War I

For other uses of "Paris Peace Conference", see Paris meetings, agreements and declarations (disambiguation).

The Paris Peace Conference was a set of formal and informal diplomatic meetings in 1919 and 1920 after the end of World War I, in which the victorious Allies set the peace terms for the defeated Central Powers. Dominated by the leaders of Britain, France, the United States and Italy, the conference resulted in five treaties that rearranged the maps of Europe and parts of Asia, Africa and the Pacific Islands, and also imposed financial penalties. Germany, Austria-Hungary, Turkey and the other losing nations were not given a voice in the deliberations; this later gave rise to political resentments that lasted decades. The arrangements made by this conference are considered one of the greatest watersheds of 20th century geopolitical history which would lead to World War II.^[1]

The conference involved diplomats from 32 countries and nationalities. Its major decisions were the creation of the League of Nations and the five peace treaties with the defeated states. Main arrangements agreed upon in the treaties were, among others, the transition of German and Ottoman overseas possessions as "mandates" from the hands of these countries chiefly into the hands of Britain and France; the imposition of reparations upon Germany; and the drawing of new national boundaries, sometimes involving plebiscites, to reflect ethnic boundaries more closely.

US president Woodrow Wilson in 1917 commissioned a group of about 150 academics to research topics likely to arise in diplomatic talks on the European stage, and to develop a set of principles to be used for the peace negotiations to end World War I. The results of this research were summarized in the so-called Fourteen Points document that became the basis for the terms of the German surrender during the conference, as it had earlier been the basis of the German government's negotiations in the Armistice of 11 November 1918.

The main result of the conference was the Treaty of Versailles with Germany; Article 231 of that treaty placed the responsibility for the war on "the aggression of Germany and her allies". That provision proved very humiliating for German leaders, armies and citizens alike, and set the stage for the expensive reparations that Germany was intended to pay, only a small portion of which had been delivered when it stopped paying after 1931. The five great powers at that time, France, Britain, Italy, Japan and the United States, controlled the Conference. The "Big Four" leaders were French prime minister Georges Clemenceau, British prime minister David Lloyd George, US president Woodrow Wilson, and Italian prime minister Vittorio Emanuele Orlando. Together with teams of diplomats and jurists, they met informally 145 times and agreed upon all major decisions before they were ratified.^[2]

The conference began on 18 January 1919. With respect to its end, Professor Michael Neiberg noted, "Although the senior statesmen stopped working personally on the conference in June 1919, the formal peace process did not really end until July 1923, when the Treaty of Lausanne was signed."^[3] The entire process is often referred to as the "Versailles Conference", although only the signing of the first treaty took place in the historic palace; the negotiations occurred at the Quai d'Orsay in Paris.

1. ^ Showalter, Dennis E.; Royde-Smith, John Graham (30 October 2023). "World War I | History, Summary, Causes, Combatants, Casualties, Map, & Facts". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 31 October 2023.
2. ^ René Albrecht-Carrié, Diplomatic History of Europe Since the Congress of Vienna (1958) p. 363
3. ^ Neiberg, Michael S. (2017). The Treaty of Versailles: A Concise History. Oxford University Press. p. ix. ISBN 978-0-19-065918-9.

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19 January 1839 – The British East India Company captures Aden.

East India Company

British joint-stock company (1600–1874)

This article is about the British company. For the Dutch company, see Dutch East India Company. For other uses, see East India Company (disambiguation).

"John Company" redirects here. For the board game, see John Company (board game).

The East India Company (EIC)^[a] was an English, and later British, joint-stock company that was founded in 1600 and dissolved in 1874.^[4] It was formed to trade in the Indian Ocean region, initially with the East Indies (the Indian subcontinent and Southeast Asia), and later with East Asia. The company gained control of large parts of the Indian subcontinent and Hong Kong. At its peak, the company was the largest corporation in the world by various measures and had its own armed forces in the form of the company's three presidency armies, totalling about 260,000 soldiers, twice the size of the British Army at certain times.^[5]

Originally chartered as the "Governor and Company of Merchants of London Trading into the East-Indies,"^[6][7] the company rose to account for half of the world's trade during the mid-1700s and early 1800s,^[8] particularly in basic commodities including cotton, silk, indigo dye, sugar, salt, spices, saltpetre, tea, and later, opium. The company also initiated the beginnings of the British Raj in the Indian subcontinent.^[8][9]

The company eventually came to rule large areas of the Indian subcontinent, exercising military power and assuming administrative functions. Company-ruled areas in the region gradually expanded after the Battle of Plassey in 1757 and by 1858 most of modern India, Pakistan and Bangladesh was either ruled by the company or princely states closely tied to it by treaty. Following the Sepoy Rebellion of 1857, the Government of India Act 1858 led to the British Crown assuming direct control of present-day Bangladesh, Pakistan and India in the form of the new British Indian Empire.^[10]

The company subsequently experienced recurring problems with its finances, despite frequent government intervention. The company was dissolved in 1874 under the terms of the East India Stock Dividend Redemption Act enacted one year earlier, as the Government of India Act had by then rendered it vestigial, powerless, and obsolete. The official government machinery of the British Empire had assumed its governmental functions and absorbed its armies.

1. ^ Cite error: The named reference topic/East was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
2. ^ Carey, W. H. (1882). 1882 – The Good Old Days of Honourable John Company. Simla: Argus Press. Archived from the original on 23 September 2015. Retrieved 30 July 2015.
3. ^ "Company Bahadur". Encyclopaedia Britannica. Archived from the original on 9 December 2018. Retrieved 8 December 2018.
4. ^ "Not many days ago the House of Commons passed". Times. London. 8 April 1873. p. 9.
5. ^ Roos, Dave (23 October 2020). "How the East India Company Became the World's Most Powerful Monopoly". History. Retrieved 29 April 2022.
6. ^ Scott, William. "East India Company, 1817–1827". Archives Hub. Senate House Library Archives, University of London. Archived from the original on 21 September 2019. Retrieved 20 September 2019.
7. ^ Parliament of England (31 December 1600). Charter Granted by Queen Elizabeth to the East India Company  – via Wikisource. Governor and Company of Merchants of London Trading into the East-Indies
8. ^ ^{a b} Farrington, Anthony (2002). Trading Places: The East India Company and Asia 1600–1834. British Library. ISBN 9780712347563. Archived from the original on 27 July 2020. Retrieved 21 September 2019.
9. ^ "Books associated with Trading Places – the East India Company and Asia 1600–1834, an Exhibition". Archived from the original on 30 March 2014.
10. ^ Cite error: The named reference Conquests was invoked but never defined (see the help page).

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20 January 1921 – The British K-class submarine HMS K5 sinks in the English Channel; all 56 on board die.

HMS K5

Royal Navy K-class submarine (1917 to 1921)

HMS K5 was one of the K-class submarines that served in the Royal Navy from 1917–1921. She was lost with all hands when she sank en route to a mock battle in the Bay of Biscay.

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21 January 1981 – Production of the iconic DeLorean sports car begins in Dunmurry, Northern Ireland, United Kingdom.

DMC DeLorean

1980s automobile

Motor vehicle

The DMC DeLorean is a rear-engine, two-seat sports car manufactured and marketed by John DeLorean's DeLorean Motor Company (DMC) for the American market from 1981 until 1983—ultimately the only car brought to market by the fledgling company. The DeLorean is sometimes referred to by its internal DMC pre-production designation, DMC-12,^[10][11][12] although this was not used in sales or marketing materials for the production model.^[13]

Designed by Giorgetto Giugiaro, the DeLorean is noted for its gull-wing doors and brushed stainless-steel outer body panels, as well as its lack of power and performance compatible with its looks and price. Though its production was short-lived, the DeLorean became widely known after it was featured as the time machine in the Back to the Future films.

With the first production car completed on January 21, 1981, the design incorporated numerous minor revisions to the hood, wheels and interior before production ended in late December 1982, shortly after DMC filed for bankruptcy and after total production reached an estimated 9,000 units.^[a]

Despite the car having a reputation for poor build quality and an unsatisfactory driving experience, the DeLorean continues to have a strong following^[15] driven in part by the popularity of the science fiction film franchise Back to the Future, where a modified DeLorean was used to achieve time travel. 6,500 DeLoreans were estimated to still be on the road as of 2015.^[16]

1. ^ Lamm 2003, p. 112.
2. ^ ^{a b c} Espey 2014, pp. 115–117.
3. ^ Lamm 2003, pp. 78–82.
4. ^ Prisco, Jacopo (August 23, 2019). "Giorgetto Giugiaro, the 20th century's most influential car designer". CNN Style. Retrieved May 12, 2020.
5. ^ ^{a b} Clarke 1995, p. 94.
6. ^ Clarke 1995, p. 46.
7. ^ ^{a b c d} Espey 2014, p. 15.
8. ^ Gunnell, John A., ed. (1982). Standard Catalog of American Cars 1946–1975. Krause. ISBN 0-87341-027-0.
9. ^ ^{a b c d} Espey 2014, p. 16.
10. ^ Wills 2015, p. 4.
11. ^ "Seventeenth Board Meeting of De Lorean Motor Cars Limited". DeLorean Museum. October 30, 1979. p. 2. Retrieved September 7, 2021.
12. ^ Lander, D. H. (April 22, 1981). "Managing Director's Report No.35". DeLorean Museum. p. 2. Retrieved September 7, 2021.
13. ^ Cite error: The named reference Lamm9495 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
14. ^ "Learn about the DeLorean". DeLorean Directory. July 15, 2019.
15. ^ "DeLorean Revival 2025 (Belfast, 13–25 June 2025)". DeLorean Revival.
16. ^ Phelan, Mark (March 28, 2015). "DeLorean faithful to gather in Belfast". Detroit Free Press.

Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

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21 January 1981 – Production of the iconic DeLorean sports car begins in Dunmurry, Northern Ireland, United Kingdom.

DMC DeLorean

1980s automobile

Motor vehicle

The DMC DeLorean is a rear-engine, two-seat sports car manufactured and marketed by John DeLorean's DeLorean Motor Company (DMC) for the American market from 1981 until 1983—ultimately the only car brought to market by the fledgling company. The DeLorean is sometimes referred to by its internal DMC pre-production designation, DMC-12,^[10][11][12] although this was not used in sales or marketing materials for the production model.^[13]

Designed by Giorgetto Giugiaro, the DeLorean is noted for its gull-wing doors and brushed stainless-steel outer body panels, as well as its lack of power and performance compatible with its looks and price. Though its production was short-lived, the DeLorean became widely known after it was featured as the time machine in the Back to the Future films.

With the first production car completed on January 21, 1981, the design incorporated numerous minor revisions to the hood, wheels and interior before production ended in late December 1982, shortly after DMC filed for bankruptcy and after total production reached an estimated 9,000 units.^[a]

Despite the car having a reputation for poor build quality and an unsatisfactory driving experience, the DeLorean continues to have a strong following^[15] driven in part by the popularity of the science fiction film franchise Back to the Future, where a modified DeLorean was used to achieve time travel. 6,500 DeLoreans were estimated to still be on the road as of 2015.^[16]

1. ^ Lamm 2003, p. 112.
2. ^ ^{a b c} Espey 2014, pp. 115–117.
3. ^ Lamm 2003, pp. 78–82.
4. ^ Prisco, Jacopo (August 23, 2019). "Giorgetto Giugiaro, the 20th century's most influential car designer". CNN Style. Retrieved May 12, 2020.
5. ^ ^{a b} Clarke 1995, p. 94.
6. ^ Clarke 1995, p. 46.
7. ^ ^{a b c d} Espey 2014, p. 15.
8. ^ Gunnell, John A., ed. (1982). Standard Catalog of American Cars 1946–1975. Krause. ISBN 0-87341-027-0.
9. ^ ^{a b c d} Espey 2014, p. 16.
10. ^ Wills 2015, p. 4.
11. ^ "Seventeenth Board Meeting of De Lorean Motor Cars Limited". DeLorean Museum. October 30, 1979. p. 2. Retrieved September 7, 2021.
12. ^ Lander, D. H. (April 22, 1981). "Managing Director's Report No.35". DeLorean Museum. p. 2. Retrieved September 7, 2021.
13. ^ Cite error: The named reference Lamm9495 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
14. ^ "Learn about the DeLorean". DeLorean Directory. July 15, 2019.
15. ^ "DeLorean Revival 2025 (Belfast, 13–25 June 2025)". DeLorean Revival.
16. ^ Phelan, Mark (March 28, 2015). "DeLorean faithful to gather in Belfast". Detroit Free Press.

Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

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22 January 1915 – Over 600 people are killed in Guadalajara, Mexico, when a train plunges off the tracks into a deep canyon.

Guadalajara train disaster

Deadly 1915 train derailment in western Mexico

The Guadalajara train disaster occurred in Mexico on January 22, 1915, and killed over 600 people.^[1]

The Mexican Revolution was in full swing by 1915. After the assassination of Francisco Madero two years earlier, the presidency of the country was assumed by Victoriano Huerta, but revolutionary forces led by Venustiano Carranza and Pancho Villa overthrew him and Carranza became president in 1914. Villa however wanted to continue the revolution and an armed struggle ensued. On January 18, 1915, Carranza's troops captured Guadalajara in western Mexico. He immediately ordered that the families of his troops be transported by train from Colima on the Pacific coast to his newly captured stronghold.

On January 22, 1915, a special train of twenty cars left Colima. It was packed, with people even clinging to the roofs and undercarriages. After entering the state of Jalisco, between Ciudad Guzmán and Sayula, the engineer lost control on a long steep descent. As the train gathered speed many people were thrown off as the train negotiated curves. Eventually the entire train plunged off the tracks and into a deep canyon, with fewer than 300 of the 900 on board surviving the disaster. Some of Carranza's troops, Yaqui Indians, committed suicide when hearing of the death of their families. Others swore vengeance on the train crew, but they had also been killed in the disaster.

The tragedy remains the deadliest railway accident in North American history.

1. ^ Luna, Adriana (January 22, 2015). "Un siglo de la peor tragedia ferroviaria en Jalisco". Excélsior. Retrieved June 3, 2023.

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23 January 1986 – The Rock and Roll Hall of Fame inducts its first members: Little Richard, Chuck Berry, James Brown, Ray Charles, Sam Cooke, Fats Domino, The Everly Brothers, Buddy Holly, Jerry Lee Lewis and Elvis Presley.

Rock and Roll Hall of Fame

Music museum in Cleveland, Ohio, U.S.

The Rock and Roll Hall of Fame (RRHOF), also simply referred to as the Rock Hall, is a museum and hall of fame located in downtown Cleveland, Ohio, United States, on the shore of Lake Erie. The museum documents the history of rock music and the artists, producers, engineers, and other notable figures and personnel who have influenced its development.

The Rock and Roll Hall of Fame Foundation was established on April 20, 1983, by Ahmet Ertegun, founder and chairman of Atlantic Records. After a long search for the right city, Cleveland was chosen in 1986 as the Hall of Fame's permanent home. Architect I. M. Pei designed the new museum, and it was dedicated on September 1, 1995.

1. ^ "2015–16 Annual Report". Rock & Roll Hall of Fame and Museum. 2016. p. 14. Archived from the original (PDF) on February 27, 2019. Retrieved February 27, 2019.

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24 January 1908 – The first Boy Scout troop is organized in England by Robert Baden-Powell.

Scouting

Youth movement

This article is about the Scout Movement. For other uses, see Scout (disambiguation).

Scouting or the Scout Movement is a youth movement which became popularly established in the first decade of the twentieth century.

It follows the Scout method of informal education with an emphasis on practical outdoor activities, including camping, woodcraft, aquatics, hiking, backpacking and sports. A widely recognized movement characteristic is the Scout uniform, by intent hiding all differences of social standing and encouraging equality, with neckerchief (known as a scarf in some countries) and (originally) a campaign hat or comparable headwear. Distinctive insignia include the fleur-de-lis as well as merit badges or patches. In many countries, girl only organizations, whose members are often called Guides instead of Scouts, use a trefoil insignia instead of the fleur-de-lis.

The original program was for youths between the ages of 11 and 17. Other programs for youths who are too young to be in the main program and take the Scout Promise sometimes exist within an organization. Early examples are Wolf Cubs and Brownies. Programs can also exist for those who are older. Early examples are Rovers or Rangers. The actual names or even existence depend on organization and time period. Speciality programs, such as Sea Scouts, exist.

In 2019, there were over 55 million Scouts and Guides in at least 155 countries. The Scout Movement is a pluralist movement, not a unitary organization. Numerous local, national and international Scout organizations have been formed. The largest international organizations are the World Organization of the Scout Movement (WOSM) and the World Association of Girl Guides and Girl Scouts (WAGGGS); some national organization belong to both.

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25 January 1915 – Alexander Graham Bell inaugurates U.S. transcontinental telephone service, speaking from New York to Thomas Watson in San Francisco.

Alexander Graham Bell

Canadian-American inventor of telephone (1847–1922)

This article is about the inventor of the telephone. For the song about him, see The Sweet.

Alexander Graham Bell (/ˈɡreɪ.əm/ ^ⓘ; born Alexander Bell; March 3, 1847 – August 2, 1922)^[4] was a Scottish-born^{[N 1]} Canadian-American inventor, scientist, and engineer who is credited with patenting the first practical telephone. He also co-founded the American Telephone and Telegraph Company (AT&T) in 1885.^[7]

Bell's father, grandfather, and brother had all been associated with work on elocution and speech, and both his mother and wife were deaf, profoundly influencing Bell's life's work.^[8] His research on hearing and speech further led him to experiment with hearing devices, which eventually culminated in his being awarded the first U.S. patent for the telephone, on March 7, 1876.^{[N 2]} Bell considered his invention an intrusion on his real work as a scientist and refused to have a telephone in his study.^{[9][N 3]}

Many other inventions marked Bell's later life, including ground-breaking work in optical telecommunications, hydrofoils, and aeronautics. Bell also had a strong influence on the National Geographic Society^[11] and its magazine while serving as its second president from 1898 to 1903.

Beyond his work in engineering, Bell had a deep interest in the emerging science of heredity.^[12] His work in this area has been called "the soundest, and most useful study of human heredity proposed in nineteenth-century America ... Bell's most notable contribution to basic science, as distinct from invention."^[13]

1. ^ Boileau, John (2004). Fastest in the World: The Saga of Canada's Revolutionary Hydrofoils. Halifax, Nova Scotia: Formac Publishing. p. 12. ISBN 978-0-88780-621-6.
2. ^ [Is the following a quote from the source referenced?:] While Bell worked in many scientific, technical, professional and social capacities throughout his life he would remain fondest of his earliest vocation. To the end of his days, when discussing himself, Bell would always add with pride "I am a teacher of the deaf".^[1]
3. ^ "Particle Physics Resurrects Alexander Graham Bell's Voice". IEEE Spectrum. April 30, 2018. Retrieved May 10, 2018.
4. ^ "The Bell Family". Bell Homestead National Historic Site. Retrieved September 27, 2013.
5. ^ Gray 2006, p. 228.
6. ^ Reville, F. Douglas (1920). History of the County of Brant: Illustrated With Fifty Half-Tones Taken From Miniatures And Photographs (PDF). Brantford, Ontario: Brantford Historical Society & Hurley Printing. p. 319. Archived from the original (PDF) on April 19, 2012. Retrieved May 4, 2012.
7. ^ Bruce 1990, p. 291.
8. ^ Bruce, Robert V. (1990). Bell: Alexander Bell and the Conquest of Solitude. Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press. p. 419. ISBN 978-0-8014-9691-2.
9. ^ MacLeod, Elizabeth (1999). Alexander Graham Bell: An Inventive Life. Toronto, Ontario: Kids Can Press. p. 19. ISBN 978-1-55074-456-9.
10. ^ Bell, Mabel (October 1922). "Dr. Bell's Appreciation of the Telephone Service". Bell Telephone Quarterly. 1 (3): 65. Retrieved September 18, 2015.
11. ^ Howley, Andrew (May 26, 2011). "NGS Celebrates 23rd Founders Day". NGS. National Geographic Society. Archived from the original on February 2, 2016. Retrieved January 18, 2016. Though he wasn't one of the original 33 founders, Bell had a major influence on the Society.
12. ^ Stansfield, W. D. (January 1, 2005). "The Bell Family Legacies". Journal of Heredity. 96 (1): 1–3. doi:10.1093/jhered/esi007. ISSN 0022-1503. PMID 15618310.
13. ^ Cite error: The named reference bruce1990 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).

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26 January 1952 – Black Saturday in Egypt: rioters burn Cairo's central business district, targeting British and upper-class Egyptian businesses.

Cairo fire

1952 anti-British riots in downtown Cairo, Egypt

The Cairo fire (Arabic: حريق القاهرة), also known as Black Saturday,^[3][4] was a series of riots that took place on 26 January 1952, marked by the burning and looting of some 750 buildings^[5]—retail shops, cafes, cinemas, hotels, restaurants, theatres, nightclubs, and the city's Casino Opera —in downtown Cairo. The direct trigger of the riots was the Battle of Ismailia, an attack on an Egyptian police installation in Ismaïlia by British forces on 25 January, in which roughly 50 auxiliary policemen were killed.^[4]

The spontaneous anti-British protests that followed these deaths were quickly seized upon by organized elements in the crowd, who burned and ransacked large sectors of Cairo amidst the unexplained absence of security forces.^[3] The fire is thought by some to have signalled the end of the Kingdom of Egypt.^[5][6] The perpetrators of the Cairo Fire remain unknown to this day, and the truth about this important event in modern Egyptian history has yet to be established.^[7]

The disorder that befell Cairo during the 1952 fire has been compared to the chaos that followed the anti-government protests of 25 January 2011, which saw demonstrations take place amidst massive arson and looting, an inexplicable withdrawal of the police, and organized prison-breaking.^[8]

1. ^ ^{a b} خسائر الحريق [The Fire Damage]. Al-Ahram (in Arabic). 12 May 2010. Archived from the original on 2011-05-12. Retrieved 2011-02-04.
2. ^ King 1989, p. 208
3. ^ ^{a b} King 1989, p. 207
4. ^ ^{a b} Goldschmidt & Johnston 2004, p. 83
5. ^ ^{a b} The Rebellion Within, An Al Qaeda mastermind questions terrorism. by Lawrence Wright. newyorker.com, June 2, 2008
6. ^ Egypt on the Brink by Tarek Osman, Yale University Press, 2010, p.39
7. ^ Hassan, Fayza (24–30 January 2002). "Burning down the house". Al-Ahram Weekly (570). Archived from the original on 2009-11-08. Retrieved 2011-02-06.
8. ^ Muhammad, Mohsen (3 February 2011). خسارة [Khusara]. Al Gomhuria (in Arabic). Archived from the original (Reprint) on 6 February 2011. Retrieved 2011-02-06.

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27 January 1973 – The Paris Peace Accords officially ends the Vietnam War.

Paris Peace Accords

1973 agreement between North and South Vietnam and the US to end the Vietnam War

For the treaties marking the official end of the Cambodian–Vietnamese War, see 1991 Paris Peace Agreements.

The Paris Peace Accords (Vietnamese: Hiệp định Paris về Việt Nam), officially the Agreement on Ending the War and Restoring Peace in Viet Nam (Hiệp định về chấm dứt chiến tranh, lập lại hòa bình ở Việt Nam), was a peace agreement signed on January 27, 1973, to establish peace in Vietnam and end the Vietnam War. It took effect at 8:00 the following day. The agreement was signed by the governments of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam (North Vietnam); the Republic of Vietnam (South Vietnam); the United States; and the Provisional Revolutionary Government of the Republic of South Vietnam (PRG), which represented South Vietnamese communists.^[1] US ground forces had begun to withdraw from Vietnam in 1969, and had suffered from deteriorating morale during the withdrawal. By the beginning of 1972 those that remained had very little involvement in combat. The last American infantry battalions withdrew in August 1972.^[2] Most air and naval forces, and most advisers, also were gone from South Vietnam by that time, though air and naval forces not based in South Vietnam were still playing a large role in the war. The Paris Agreement removed the remaining US forces. Direct US military intervention was ended, and fighting between the three remaining powers temporarily stopped for less than a day. The agreement was not ratified by the US Senate.^[3][4]

The negotiations that led to the accord began in 1968, after various lengthy delays. As a result of the accord, the International Control Commission (ICC) was replaced by the International Commission of Control and Supervision (ICCS), which consisted of Canada, Poland, Hungary, and Indonesia, to monitor the agreement.^[5] The main negotiators of the agreement were US National Security Advisor Henry Kissinger and the North Vietnamese Politburo member Lê Đức Thọ. Both men were awarded the 1973 Nobel Peace Prize for their efforts, but Lê Đức Thọ refused to accept it.

The agreement's provisions were immediately and frequently broken by both North and South Vietnamese forces with no official response from the United States. Open fighting broke out in March 1973, and North Vietnamese offensives enlarged their territory by the end of the year. Two years later, a massive North Vietnamese offensive conquered South Vietnam on April 30, 1975, and the two countries, which had been separated since 1954, united once more on July 2, 1976, as the Socialist Republic of Vietnam.^[1]

Part of the negotiations took place in the former residence of the French painter Fernand Léger; it was bequeathed to the French Communist Party. The street of the house was named after Philippe Leclerc de Hauteclocque, who had commanded French forces in Vietnam after the Second World War.^[6]

1. ^ ^{a b} Ward & Burns 2017, pp. 508–513.
2. ^ Stanton, Shelby L. (2007-12-18). The Rise and Fall of an American Army: U.S. Ground Forces in Vietnam, 1963-1973. Random House Publishing Group. pp. 358–362. ISBN 9780307417343.
3. ^ The Paris Agreement on Vietnam: Twenty-five Years Later Archived 2019-09-01 at the Wayback Machine Conference Transcript, The Nixon Center, Washington, DC, April 1998. Reproduced on mtholyoke.edu. Accessed 5 September 2012.
4. ^ The Constitution - Executive agreements Accessed 29 July 2014.
5. ^ Rhéaume, Charles (30 July 2010). "Cautious neighbour policy: Canada's helping hand in winding down the Vietnam War". Cold War History. 11 (2): 223–239. doi:10.1080/14682740903527684. S2CID 154387299. Retrieved 23 February 2023.
6. ^ Breakthrough in Paris Blocked in Saigon, October 8–23, 1972 Retrieved December 11, 2021

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28 January 1985 – Supergroup USA for Africa (United Support of Artists for Africa) records the hit single We Are the World, to help raise funds for Ethiopian famine relief.

Guantanamo Bay Naval Base

Military base of the United States Navy

"Gitmo" redirects here. For the detention center on the naval base, see Guantanamo Bay detention camp.

Guantanamo Bay Naval Base (Spanish: Base Naval de la Bahía de Guantánamo), officially known as Naval Station Guantanamo Bay or NSGB, (also called GTMO, pronounced Gitmo /ˈɡɪtmoʊ/ GIT-moh as jargon by the U.S. military)^[1] is a United States military base located on 45 square miles (117 km²) of land and water on the shore of Guantánamo Bay at the southeastern end of Cuba.^[2] It has been leased from Cuba to the U.S., without expiry, since 1903 as a coaling station and naval base.^[3] It is the oldest overseas American naval base.^[4] Since 1974, the U.S. has paid the Cuban government $4,085 per year to lease the bay.^[5][6] The lease was previously $2,000 per year (paid in gold) until 1934, when it was set to match the value of gold in dollars.^[7]

Since taking power in 1959, the Cuban government has consistently protested against the U.S. presence on Cuban soil, arguing that the base was imposed on Cuba by force and is illegal under international law. The lease requires either bilateral consent or full U.S. military withdrawal in order to terminate lease. Since 2002, the naval base has maintained the Guantanamo Bay detention camp, for alleged unlawful combatants captured in Afghanistan, Iraq, and other places during the War on Terror. Cases of alleged torture of prisoners by the U.S. military,^[8] and their denial of protection under the Geneva Conventions, have been criticized.^[9][10] The base has been a focal point for debates over civil liberties, notably influenced by the landmark 2008 Supreme Court decision in Boumediene v. Bush. This ruling affirmed the constitutional right of detainees to challenge their detention via habeas corpus, highlighting the ongoing tensions between national security and civil liberties.^[11][12]

1. ^ "File:US Navy 040813-N-6939M-002 Commissions building courtroom at Guantanamo Bay, Cuba.jpg". 13 August 2004.
2. ^ Rosenberg, Carol (25 October 2018). "Guantánamo By the Numbers". Miami Herald. Retrieved 15 April 2021. Size of Navy base: 45 square miles, straddling Guantánamo Bay, from prison camp to air strip.
3. ^ Suellentrop, Chris (18 January 2002). "How Did the U.S. Get a Naval Base in Cuba?". Slate. Retrieved 5 June 2018.
4. ^ Miroff, Nick (15 May 2025). "Why the U.S. base at Cuba's Guantanamo Bay is probably doomed". Washington Post. Retrieved 31 May 2018.
5. ^ Elsea, Jennifer K.; Else, Daniel H. (17 November 2016). Naval Station Guantanamo Bay: History and Legal Issues Regarding Its Lease Agreements (PDF). Washington, D.C.: Congressional Research Service. Archived (PDF) from the original on 5 September 2015. Retrieved 9 December 2016.
6. ^ "Naval Station Guantanamo Bay (NSGB)". United States Navy. 1 January 2024. Archived from the original on 21 March 2025. Retrieved 11 June 2025. A 1934 treaty reaffirming the lease granted Cuba and her trading partners free access through the Bay, modified the lease payment from $2,000 in gold coins per year to the 1934 equivalent value of $4,085 U.S. dollars.
7. ^ Sweeney, Joseph C. (2006). "Guantanamo and U.S. Law". Fordham International Law Journal. 30 (3): 22.
8. ^ "GTMO CTD Inspection Special Inquiry" (PDF). Federal Bureau of Investigation. Archived from the original (PDF) on 21 July 2011. Retrieved 26 January 2011.
9. ^ "Article 10: Right to fair public hearing by independent tribunal". BBC World Service. Retrieved 3 September 2012.
10. ^ "Agenda Item 17 base naval". cubaminrex.cu. Archived from the original on 4 June 2004.
11. ^ Carlisle, Madeleine (11 September 2021). "How 9/11 Radically Expanded The Power of the U.S. Government". TIME. Retrieved 19 September 2024.
12. ^ Yoo, John (17 June 2008). "The Supreme Court Goes to War". Wall Street Journal.

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29 January 1980 – The Rubik's Cube makes its international debut at the Ideal Toy Corp. in Earl's Court, London.

Rubik's Cube

3D combination puzzle

The Rubik's Cube is a 3D combination puzzle invented in 1974^[2][3] by Hungarian sculptor and professor of architecture Ernő Rubik. Originally called the Magic Cube,^[4] the puzzle was licensed by Rubik to be sold by Pentangle Puzzles in the UK in 1978,^[5] and then by Ideal Toy Corp in 1980^[6] via businessman Tibor Laczi and Seven Towns founder Tom Kremer.^[7] The cube was released internationally in 1980 and became one of the most recognized icons in popular culture. It won the 1980 German Game of the Year special award for Best Puzzle. As of January 2024^[update], around 500 million cubes had been sold worldwide,^[8][9][10] making it the world's bestselling puzzle game^[11][12] and bestselling toy.^[13] The Rubik's Cube was inducted into the US National Toy Hall of Fame in 2014.^[14]

On the original, classic Rubik's Cube, each of the six faces was covered by nine stickers, with each face in one of six solid colours: white, red, blue, orange, green, and yellow. Some later versions of the cube have been updated to use coloured plastic panels instead. Since 1988, the arrangement of colours has been standardised, with white opposite yellow, blue opposite green, and orange opposite red, and with the red, white, and blue arranged clockwise, in that order.^[15] On early cubes, the position of the colours varied from cube to cube.^[16]

An internal pivot mechanism enables each layer to turn independently, thus mixing up the colours. For the puzzle to be solved, each face must be returned to having only one colour. The Cube has inspired other designers to create a number of similar puzzles with various numbers of sides, dimensions, and mechanisms.

Although the Rubik's Cube reached the height of its mainstream popularity in the 1980s, it is still widely known and used. Many speedcubers continue to practice it and similar puzzles and compete for the fastest times in various categories. Since 2003, the World Cube Association (WCA), the international governing body of the Rubik's Cube, has organised competitions worldwide and has recognised world records.

1. ^ Evans, Pete (27 October 2020). "Canadian company that owns classic toys Etch A Sketch and Aerobie buys Rubik's Cube for $50M". CBC News.
2. ^ Fotheringham, William (2007). Fotheringham's Sporting Pastimes. Anova Books. p. 50. ISBN 978-1-86105-953-6.
3. ^ de Castella, Tom (28 April 2014). "The people who are still addicted to the Rubik's Cube". BBC News Magazine. BBC. Retrieved 28 April 2014.
4. ^ Cite error: The named reference :0 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
5. ^ "25th Anniversa[r]y of Erno Rubik's Magic Cube. First introduced to the Western World by Pentangle Puzzles in 1978". puzzlemuseum.com. Retrieved 29 November 2020.
6. ^ Daintith, John (1994). A Biographical Encyclopedia of Scientists. Bristol: Institute of Physics Pub. p. 771. ISBN 0-7503-0287-9.
7. ^ Michael Shanks (8 May 2005). "History of the Cube". Stanford University. Archived from the original on 20 January 2013. Retrieved 26 July 2012.
8. ^ Prakash, Prarthana. "How the Rubik's Cube has lived to 50 years—and continues to be popular among members of Gen Z and beyond". Fortune Europe. Retrieved 3 April 2024.
9. ^ Adams, William Lee (28 January 2009). "The Rubik's Cube: A Puzzling Success". Time. Archived from the original on 1 February 2009. Retrieved 5 February 2009.
10. ^ Jamieson, Alastair (31 January 2009). "Rubik's Cube inventor is back with Rubik's 360". The Daily Telegraph. London. Archived from the original on 11 January 2022. Retrieved 5 February 2009.
11. ^ "eGames, Mindscape Put International Twist on Rubik's Cube PC Game". Reuters. 6 February 2008. Archived from the original on 12 February 2009. Retrieved 6 February 2009.
12. ^ Marshall, Ray. "Squaring up to the Rubchallenge". Archived from the original on 20 January 2013. Retrieved 15 August 2005.
13. ^ "Rubik's Cube 25 years on: crazy toys, crazy times". The Independent. London. 16 August 2007. Retrieved 6 February 2009.
14. ^ "National Toy Hall Of Fame 2014 - CBS News". CBS News. 6 November 2014.
15. ^ Dempsey, Michael W. (1988). Growing up with science: The illustrated encyclopedia of invention. London: Marshall Cavendish. p. 1245. ISBN 0-87475-841-6.
16. ^ Ewing, John; Czes Kosniowski (1982). Puzzle It Out: Cubes, Groups and Puzzles. Cambridge: Press Syndicate of the University of Cambridge. p. 4. ISBN 0-521-28924-6. Retrieved 19 May 2014.

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30 January 1862 – The first American ironclad warship, the USS Monitor is launched.

Ironclad warship

Steam-propelled warship protected by armor plates

"Ironclad" and "Broadside ironclad" redirect here. For other uses, see Ironclad (disambiguation).

For pre-modern armored ships, see naval armour.

An ironclad was a steam-propelled warship protected by steel or iron armor constructed from 1859 to the early 1890s. The ironclad was developed as a result of the vulnerability of wooden warships to explosive or incendiary shells. The first ironclad battleship, Gloire, was launched by the French Navy in November 1859, narrowly preempting the British Royal Navy. However, Britain built the first completely iron-hulled warships.

Ironclads were first used in warfare in 1862 during the American Civil War, when they operated against wooden ships, and against each other at the Battle of Hampton Roads in Virginia. Their performance demonstrated that the ironclad had replaced the unarmored ship of the line as the most powerful warship afloat. Ironclad gunboats became very successful in the American Civil War.

Ironclads were designed for several uses, including as high-seas battleships, long-range cruisers, and coastal defense ships. Rapid development of warship design in the late 19th century transformed the ironclad from a wooden-hulled vessel that carried sails to supplement its steam engines into the steel-built, turreted battleships, and cruisers familiar in the 20th century. This change was pushed forward by the development of heavier naval guns, more sophisticated steam engines, and advances in ferrous metallurgy that made steel shipbuilding possible.

The quick pace of change meant that many ships were obsolete almost as soon as they were finished and that naval tactics were in a state of flux. Many ironclads were built to make use of the naval ram, the torpedo, or sometimes both (as in the case with smaller ships and later torpedo boats), which several naval designers considered the important weapons of naval combat. There is no clear end to the ironclad period, but toward the end of the 1890s, the term ironclad dropped out of use. New ships were increasingly constructed to a standard pattern and designated as battleships or armored cruisers.

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31 January 1968 – Nauru gains independence from Australia.

Nauru

Island country in Oceania

This article is about the island country. For the Tanzanian village, see Nauru, Tanzania.

Nauru,^[c] officially the Republic of Nauru,^[d] formerly known as Pleasant Island, is an island country and microstate in the South Pacific Ocean. It lies within the Micronesia subregion of Oceania, with its nearest neighbour being Banaba (part of Kiribati) about 300 kilometres (190 mi) to the east.^[15]

With an area of only 21 square kilometres (8.1 sq mi), Nauru is the third-smallest country in the world, larger than only Vatican City and Monaco, making it the smallest republic and island nation, as well as the smallest member state of the Commonwealth of Nations by area. Its population of about 10,800 is the world's third-smallest (not including colonies or overseas territories). Nauru is a member of the United Nations, the Commonwealth of Nations, and the Organisation of African, Caribbean and Pacific States.

Settled by Micronesians circa 1000 BCE, Nauru was annexed and claimed as a colony by the German Empire in the late 19th century. After World War I, Nauru became a League of Nations mandate administered by Australia, New Zealand, and the United Kingdom. During World War II, Nauru was occupied by Japanese troops, and was bypassed by the Allied advance across the Pacific. After the war ended, the country entered into United Nations trusteeship. Nauru gained its independence in 1968. At various points since 2001, it has accepted aid from the Australian Government in exchange for hosting the Nauru Regional Processing Centre, a controversial offshore Australian immigration detention facility. As a result of heavy dependence on Australia, some sources have identified Nauru as a client state of Australia.^[16][17][18]

Nauru is a phosphate-rock island with rich deposits near the surface, which allowed easy strip mining operations for over a century. However, this has seriously harmed the country's environment, causing it to suffer from what is often referred to as the "resource curse". The phosphate was exhausted in the 1990s, and the remaining reserves are not economically viable for extraction.^[19] A trust established to manage the island's accumulated mining wealth, set up for the day the reserves would be exhausted, has diminished in value. To earn income, Nauru briefly became a tax haven and illegal money laundering centre.^[20]

1. ^ Franks, Patricia C.; Bernier, Anthony, eds. (2018). International Directory of National Archives. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 263.
2. ^ ^{a b} Worldwide Government Directory with Intergovernmental Organizations. CQ Press. 2013. p. 1131.
3. ^ "REPUBLIC OF NAURU Revenue Administration Act Act No. 15 of 2014" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 March 2023. Retrieved 28 January 2023. All Bills are to be drafted in English, the official language of Nauru.
4. ^ Cite error: The named reference CIA was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
5. ^ Cite error: The named reference state was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
6. ^ "Nauru's Constitution of 1968 with Amendments through 2015" (PDF). constituteproject.org. Archived (PDF) from the original on 17 March 2023. Retrieved 17 March 2023.
7. ^ "World Population Prospects 2022". United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division. Retrieved 17 July 2022.
8. ^ "World Population Prospects 2022: Demographic indicators by region, subregion and country, annually for 1950-2100" (XSLX) ("Total Population, as of 1 July (thousands)"). United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division. Retrieved 17 July 2022.
9. ^ "National Report on Population ad Housing" (PDF). Nauru Bureau of Statistics. Archived from the original (PDF) on 24 September 2015. Retrieved 9 June 2015.
10. ^ ^{a b c d} "Report for Selected Countries and Subjects". International Monetary Fund. Archived from the original on 2 May 2021. Retrieved 1 October 2018.
11. ^ "Human Development Report 2023/2024" (PDF). United Nations Development Programme. 13 March 2024. Archived (PDF) from the original on 13 March 2024. Retrieved 13 March 2024.
12. ^ "Nauru Standard Time Act 1978" (PDF). Department of Justice and Border Control. 21 December 1978. Archived (PDF) from the original on 15 April 2021. Retrieved 11 September 2020. Because of the peculiar way the legislation is worded the legal time is not GMT+12.
13. ^ "Nauru Pronunciation in English". Cambridge English Dictionary. Cambridge University Press. Archived from the original on 17 February 2015. Retrieved 16 February 2015.
14. ^ "Nauru – Definition, pictures, pronunciation and usage notes". Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary. Oxford University Press. Archived from the original on 2 January 2015. Retrieved 2 January 2015.
15. ^ "Nauru and Ocean Island". II(8) Pacific Islands Monthly. 15 March 1932. Archived from the original on 26 September 2021. Retrieved 26 September 2021.
16. ^ "Pacific correspondent Mike Field". Radio New Zealand. 18 June 2015. Archived from the original on 10 December 2015. Retrieved 8 December 2015.
17. ^ "Nauru's former chief justice predicts legal break down". Special Broadcasting Service. Archived from the original on 10 December 2015. Retrieved 8 December 2015.
18. ^ Doherty, Ben (28 October 2015). "This is Abyan's story, and it is Australia's story". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 26 February 2017. Retrieved 12 December 2016.
19. ^ Hogan, C Michael (2011). "Phosphate". Encyclopedia of Earth. National Council for Science and the Environment. Archived from the original on 25 October 2012. Retrieved 17 June 2012.
20. ^ Hitt, Jack (10 December 2000). "The Billion-Dollar Shack". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 16 January 2018. Retrieved 29 January 2018.

Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

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1 February 2003 – Space Shuttle Columbia disintegrated during the reentry of mission STS-107 into the Earth's atmosphere, killing all seven astronauts aboard.

STS-107

2003 failed flight of the Space Shuttle Columbia

This article is about the final mission of the Space Shuttle Columbia. For detailed information on the accident, see Space Shuttle Columbia disaster.

STS-107 was the 113th flight of the Space Shuttle program, and the 28th and final flight of Space Shuttle Columbia. The mission ended on February 1, 2003, with the Space Shuttle Columbia disaster, in which all seven crew members were killed; the shuttle was destroyed along with most of its scientific payloads. It was the 88th post-Challenger disaster mission.

The flight launched from Kennedy Space Center in Florida on January 16, 2003. It spent 15 days, 22 hours, 20 minutes, 32 seconds in orbit. The crew conducted a multitude of international scientific experiments.^[1] The disaster occurred during reentry while the orbiter was over Texas.

Immediately after the disaster, NASA convened the Columbia Accident Investigation Board to determine the cause of the disintegration. The source of the failure was determined to have been caused by a piece of foam that broke off during launch and damaged the thermal protection system (reinforced carbon-carbon panels and thermal protection tiles) on the leading edge of the orbiter's left wing. During re-entry the damaged wing slowly overheated and came apart, eventually leading to loss of control and disintegration of the vehicle. The cockpit window frame is now exhibited in a memorial inside the Space Shuttle Atlantis Pavilion at the Kennedy Space Center.

The damage to the thermal protection system on the wing was similar to that of Atlantis which had also sustained damage in 1988 during STS-27, the second mission after the Space Shuttle Challenger disaster. However, the damage on STS-27 occurred at a spot that had more robust metal (a thin steel plate near the landing gear), and that mission survived the re-entry.

1. ^ "HSF - STS-107 Science". NASA. May 30, 2003. Archived from the original on September 3, 2012. Retrieved September 2, 2012.

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2 February 1922 – Ulysses by James Joyce is published.

Ulysses (novel)

1922 novel by James Joyce

Ulysses is a modernist novel by the Irish writer James Joyce. Partially serialised in the American journal The Little Review from March 1918 to December 1920, the entire work was published in Paris by Sylvia Beach on 2 February 1922, Joyce's fortieth birthday. It is considered one of the most important works of modernist literature^[3] and a classic of the genre, having been called "a demonstration and summation of the entire movement".^[4]

Ulysses chronicles the experiences of three Dubliners over the course of a single day, 16 June 1904 (which its fans now celebrate annually as Bloomsday). Ulysses is the Latinised name of Odysseus, the hero of Homer's epic poem the Odyssey, and the novel establishes a series of parallels between Leopold Bloom and Odysseus, Molly Bloom and Penelope, and Stephen Dedalus and Telemachus. There are also correspondences with William Shakespeare's play Hamlet and with other literary, mythological and historical figures, including Jesus, Elijah, Moses, Dante Alighieri and Don Juan.^[5] Such themes as antisemitism, human sexuality, British rule in Ireland, Catholicism and Irish nationalism are treated in the context of early-20th-century Dublin. It is highly allusive and written in a variety of styles.

The writer Djuna Barnes quoted Joyce as saying, "The pity is ... the public will demand and find a moral in my book—or worse they may take it in some more serious way, and on the honour of a gentleman, there is not one single serious line in it. ... In Ulysses I have recorded, simultaneously, what a man says, sees, thinks, and what such seeing, thinking, saying does, to what you Freudians call the subconscious."^[6]

According to the writer Declan Kiberd, "Before Joyce, no writer of fiction had so foregrounded the process of thinking".^[7] Its stream of consciousness technique, careful structuring and prose of an experimental nature—replete with puns, parodies, epiphanies and allusions—as well as its rich characterisation and broad humour have led it to be regarded as one of the greatest literary works. Since its publication it has attracted controversy and scrutiny, ranging from an obscenity trial in the United States in 1921 to protracted disputes about the authoritative version of the text.

1. ^ Hanaway-Oakley, Cleo (1 February 2022). "Ulysses at 100: why Joyce was so obsessed with the perfect blue cover". The Conversation. Retrieved 12 January 2023.
2. ^ Ellmann 1982, p. 524.
3. ^ Harte, Tim (Summer 2003). "Sarah Danius, The Senses of Modernism: Technology, Perception, and Aesthetics". Bryn Mawr Review of Comparative Literature. 4 (1). Archived from the original on 5 November 2003. Retrieved 10 July 2001. (review of Danius book).
4. ^ Beebe 1972, p. 176.
5. ^ Tindall 1959, p. 130.
6. ^ Barnes, Djuna (April 1922). "James Joyce: A Portrait of the Man Who is, at Present, One of the More Significant Figures in Literature". Vanity Fair.
7. ^ Kiberd, Declan (16 June 2009). "Ulysses, modernism's most sociable masterpiece". The Guardian.

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2 February 1922 – Ulysses by James Joyce is published.

Ulysses (novel)

1922 novel by James Joyce

Ulysses is a modernist novel by the Irish writer James Joyce. Partially serialised in the American journal The Little Review from March 1918 to December 1920, the entire work was published in Paris by Sylvia Beach on 2 February 1922, Joyce's fortieth birthday. It is considered one of the most important works of modernist literature^[3] and a classic of the genre, having been called "a demonstration and summation of the entire movement".^[4]

Ulysses chronicles the experiences of three Dubliners over the course of a single day, 16 June 1904 (which its fans now celebrate annually as Bloomsday). Ulysses is the Latinised name of Odysseus, the hero of Homer's epic poem the Odyssey, and the novel establishes a series of parallels between Leopold Bloom and Odysseus, Molly Bloom and Penelope, and Stephen Dedalus and Telemachus. There are also correspondences with William Shakespeare's play Hamlet and with other literary, mythological and historical figures, including Jesus, Elijah, Moses, Dante Alighieri and Don Juan.^[5] Such themes as antisemitism, human sexuality, British rule in Ireland, Catholicism and Irish nationalism are treated in the context of early-20th-century Dublin. It is highly allusive and written in a variety of styles.

The writer Djuna Barnes quoted Joyce as saying, "The pity is ... the public will demand and find a moral in my book—or worse they may take it in some more serious way, and on the honour of a gentleman, there is not one single serious line in it. ... In Ulysses I have recorded, simultaneously, what a man says, sees, thinks, and what such seeing, thinking, saying does, to what you Freudians call the subconscious."^[6]

According to the writer Declan Kiberd, "Before Joyce, no writer of fiction had so foregrounded the process of thinking".^[7] Its stream of consciousness technique, careful structuring and prose of an experimental nature—replete with puns, parodies, epiphanies and allusions—as well as its rich characterisation and broad humour have led it to be regarded as one of the greatest literary works. Since its publication it has attracted controversy and scrutiny, ranging from an obscenity trial in the United States in 1921 to protracted disputes about the authoritative version of the text.

1. ^ Hanaway-Oakley, Cleo (1 February 2022). "Ulysses at 100: why Joyce was so obsessed with the perfect blue cover". The Conversation. Retrieved 12 January 2023.
2. ^ Ellmann 1982, p. 524.
3. ^ Harte, Tim (Summer 2003). "Sarah Danius, The Senses of Modernism: Technology, Perception, and Aesthetics". Bryn Mawr Review of Comparative Literature. 4 (1). Archived from the original on 5 November 2003. Retrieved 10 July 2001. (review of Danius book).
4. ^ Beebe 1972, p. 176.
5. ^ Tindall 1959, p. 130.
6. ^ Barnes, Djuna (April 1922). "James Joyce: A Portrait of the Man Who is, at Present, One of the More Significant Figures in Literature". Vanity Fair.
7. ^ Kiberd, Declan (16 June 2009). "Ulysses, modernism's most sociable masterpiece". The Guardian.

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3 February 1984 – Doctor John Buster and a research team at Harbor-UCLA Medical Center in the United States announce history's first embryo transfer, from one woman to another resulting in a live birth.

Embryo transfer

Method of assisted reproduction

Medical intervention

Embryo transfer (aka ET)^[1] refers to a step in the process of assisted reproduction in which embryos are placed into the uterus of a female with the intent to establish a pregnancy. This technique - which is often used in connection with in vitro fertilization (IVF) - may be used in humans or in other animals, in which situations and goals may vary.

Embryo transfer can be done at day two or day three, or later in the blastocyst stage, which was first performed in 1984.^[2]

Factors that can affect the success of embryo transfer include the endometrial receptivity, embryo quality, and embryo transfer technique.

1. ^ Logan CM, Rice MK (1987). Logan's Medical and Scientific Abbreviations (Hardbound book). J. B. Lippincott. p. 182. ISBN 0-397-54589-4.
2. ^ Cohen J, Simons RF, Fehilly CB, Fishel SB, Edwards RG, Hewitt J, Rowlant GF, Steptoe PC, Webster JM (March 1985). "Birth after replacement of hatching blastocyst cryopreserved at expanded blastocyst stage". Lancet. 1 (8429): 647. doi:10.1016/s0140-6736(85)92194-4. PMID 2857991. S2CID 32746730.

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4 February 1555 – John Rogers is burned at the stake, becoming the first English Protestant martyr under Mary I of England.

John Rogers (Bible editor and martyr)

English Protestant clergyman (c. 1505–1555)

John Rogers (c. 1505 – 4 February 1555) was an English clergyman, Bible translator and commentator. He guided the development of the Matthew Bible in vernacular English during the reign of Henry VIII and was the first English Protestant executed as a heretic under Mary I.

1. ^ Chester 1861, p. 1.
2. ^ Daniell 2004.

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6 January 1895 – Dreyfus affair: French army officer Alfred Dreyfus is stripped of his rank and sentenced to life imprisonment on Devil's Island

Dreyfus affair

1894–1906 political scandal in France

For the film series, see The Dreyfus Affair (film series).

The Dreyfus affair (French: affaire Dreyfus, pronounced [afɛːʁ dʁɛfys]) was a political scandal that divided the Third French Republic from 1894 until its resolution in 1906. The scandal began in December 1894 when Captain Alfred Dreyfus, a 35-year-old Alsatian French artillery officer of Jewish descent, was wrongfully convicted of treason for communicating French military secrets to the German Embassy in Paris. He was sentenced to life imprisonment and sent overseas to the penal colony on Devil's Island in French Guiana, where he spent the following five years imprisoned in very harsh conditions.

In 1896, evidence came to light—primarily through the investigations of Lieutenant Colonel Georges Picquart, head of counter-espionage—which identified the real culprit as a French Army major named Ferdinand Walsin Esterhazy. High-ranking military officials suppressed the new evidence, and a military court unanimously acquitted Esterhazy after a trial lasting only two days. The Army laid additional charges against Dreyfus, based on forged documents. Subsequently, writer Émile Zola's open letter "J'Accuse...!" in the newspaper L'Aurore stoked a growing movement of political support for Dreyfus, putting pressure on the government to reopen the case.

In 1899, Dreyfus was returned to France for another trial. The intense political and judicial scandal that ensued divided French society between those who supported Dreyfus, the "Dreyfusards" such as Sarah Bernhardt, Anatole France, Charles Péguy, Henri Poincaré, Georges Méliès, and Georges Clemenceau; and those who condemned him, the "anti-Dreyfusards" such as Édouard Drumont, the director and publisher of the antisemitic newspaper La Libre Parole. The new trial resulted in another conviction and a 10-year sentence, but Dreyfus was pardoned and released. In 1906, Dreyfus was exonerated. After being reinstated as a major in the French Army, he served during the whole of World War I, ending his service with the rank of lieutenant colonel. He died in 1935.

The Dreyfus affair came to symbolise modern injustice in the Francophone world;^[1] it remains one of the most notable examples of a miscarriage of justice and of antisemitism. The affair divided France into pro-republican, anticlerical Dreyfusards and pro-army, mostly Catholic anti-Dreyfusards, embittering French politics and encouraging radicalisation.^[2] The press played a crucial role in exposing information and in shaping and expressing public opinion on both sides of the conflict.

1. ^ Guy Canivet, first President of the Supreme Court, Justice from the Dreyfus Affair, p. 15.
2. ^ Daughton, James Patrick (2006). An Empire Divided: Religion, Republicanism, and the making of French Colonialism, 1880–1914. Oxford University Press. p. 8. ISBN 0-19-530530-2. OCLC 644094069.

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6 February 1843 – The first minstrel show in the United States

Minstrel show

19th- and 20th-century American form of musical theater

For the album by Little Brother, see The Minstrel Show. For the medieval European entertainer, see Minstrel. For the video game with a remake subtitled Minstrel Song in Japan, see Romancing SaGa.

The minstrel show, also called minstrelsy, was an American form of theater developed in the early 19th century.^[1] The shows were performed by mostly white actors wearing blackface makeup for the purpose of portraying racial stereotypes of African Americans. There were very few African-American performers and black-only minstrel groups that also formed and toured. Minstrel shows stereotyped black people as dimwitted, lazy, buffoonish, cowardly, superstitious, and happy-go-lucky.^[2][3] A recurring character was Jim Crow, an exaggerated portrayal of a black man in tattered clothes dancing, whose name later became synonymous with the post-Reconstruction period in American history. Each show consisted of comic skits, variety acts, dancing, and music performances that depicted people specifically of African descent. Minstrel shows aimed to confirm racist beliefs that black people were not civilized enough to be treated as equals. Often, the humor centered on situations where, whenever black characters tried to become citizens, they would fail, and fail comically.

Blackface minstrelsy was the first uniquely American form of theater, and for many minstrel shows emerged as brief burlesques and comic entr'actes in the early 1830s in the Northeastern states. They were developed into full-fledged art form in the next decade. By 1848, blackface minstrel shows were the national artform, translating formal art such as opera into popular terms for a general audience.^[4] During the 1830s and 1840s at the height of its popularity, it was at the epicenter of the American music industry. For several decades, it provided the means through which American whites viewed black people. On the one hand, it had strong racist aspects; on the other, it afforded white Americans more awareness, albeit distorted, of some aspects of black culture in America.^[5][6] Although the minstrel shows were extremely popular, being "consistently packed with families from all walks of life and every ethnic group",^[7] they were also controversial. Integrationists decried them as falsely showing happy slaves while at the same time making fun of them; segregationists thought such shows were "disrespectful" of social norms as they portrayed runaway slaves with sympathy and would undermine slavery.^[8]

During the Civil War, minstrelsy's popularity declined. By the turn of the 20th century the minstrel show enjoyed but a shadow of its former popularity, having been replaced for the most part by the Vaudeville style of theatre. The form survived as professional entertainment until about 1910; amateur performances continued until the 1960s in high schools and local theaters.^[9] Despite minstrel shows declined in popularity, racist characters and themes present carried over into newer media: in movies, television, and notably, cartoons.

The typical minstrel performance followed a three-act structure. The troupe first danced onto stage then exchanged wisecracks and sang songs. The second part featured a variety of entertainments, including the pun-filled stump speech. The final act consisted of a slapstick musical plantation skit or a send-up of a popular play. Minstrel songs and sketches featured several stock characters, most popularly the slave and the dandy. These were further divided into sub-archetypes such as the mammy, her counterpart the old darky, the provocative mulatto wench, and the black soldier. Minstrels claimed that their songs and dances were authentically black,^[10] although the extent of the genuine black influence remains debated. Spirituals (known as jubilees) entered the repertoire in the 1870s, marking the first undeniably black music to be used in minstrelsy.

The genre has had a lasting legacy and influence and was featured in the British television series The Black and White Minstrel Show as recently as the mid-1970s. Generally, as the civil rights movement progressed and gained acceptance, minstrelsy lost popularity.^{[citation needed]}

1. ^ "Minstrel show | Description, History, & Facts | Britannica". www.britannica.com.
2. ^ The Coon Character Archived 2012-04-14 at the Wayback Machine, Jim Crow Museum of Racist Memorabilia, Ferris State University. Retrieved 29 January 2016.
3. ^ John Kenrick, A History of the Musical: Minstrel Shows Archived 2012-06-11 at the Wayback Machine, musicals101.com. 1996, revised 2003. Retrieved 9 November 2011.
4. ^ Behind the Burnt Cork Mask: Early Blackface Minstrelsy and Antebellum American Popular Culture by William J. Mahar, University of Illinois Press (1998) p. 9 ISBN 0-252-06696-0.
5. ^ Lott 1993, pp. 17–18
6. ^ Watkins 1999, p. 82
7. ^ Sweet, Frank W. A History of the Minstrel Show, p27.
8. ^ A History of the Minstrel Show (2000) By Frank W. Sweet, Backintyme, p. 28 Retrieved 18 March 2010.
9. ^ Meehan, Sarah (February 8, 2019). "Blackface photos found in old University of Maryland yearbooks". The Baltimore Sun. Retrieved February 3, 2020.
10. ^ Nowatzki, Robert (2010). Representing African Americans in Transatlantic Abolitionism and Blackface Minstrelsy. Baton Rouge: LSU Press. p. 36. ISBN 978-0-8071-3745-1.

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7 February 1962 – The United States bans all Cuban imports and exports.

United States embargo against Cuba

Ongoing restriction on trade with Cuba by the United States

The United States embargo against Cuba is an embargo preventing U.S. businesses and citizens from conducting trade or commerce with Cuban interests since 1960. Modern diplomatic relations are cold, stemming from historic conflict and divergent political ideologies. U.S. economic sanctions against Cuba are comprehensive and impact all sectors of the Cuban economy. It is the most enduring trade embargo in modern history.^[1][2] The U.S. government influences extraterritorial trade with Cuba. The embargo has had a significant effect on the economic development of Cuba. As a result, the embargo has shaped regional geopolitics and America's sphere of influence in Latin America and the Caribbean.

The U.S. government first launched an arms embargo against Cuba in 1958, with their energy and agricultural sectors targeted in 1960. The Cuban Revolution led to nationalization and a trade war with the U.S. that prompted seizure of American economic assets, including oil refineries. The U.S. retaliated with a total embargo on Cuban trade, with exception for food and medicine. Cuba held nuclear missiles for the Soviet Union during the 1962 Cuban Missile Crisis, which forced the U.S. to fully blockade the island. The embargo was loosened during the Cuban thaw in 2015, tightening sharply in 2017 over human rights issues in Cuba. The embargo has faced international criticism for its severity and impact on Cubans.

The embargo is enforced mainly through the Trading with the Enemy Act of 1917, the Foreign Assistance Act of 1961, the Cuban Assets Control Regulations of 1963, the Cuban Democracy Act of 1992, the Helms–Burton Act of 1996, and the Trade Sanction Reform and Export Enhancement Act of 2000.^[3][4] Its legal framework reflects a complex mixture of federal law, entrenched and codified across multiple branches of government. Relations remain tense due to stark differences on immigration, counterterrorism, civil and political rights, human rights, electoral interference, disinformation campaigns, humanitarian aid, trade policy, financial claims, fugitive extradition and Cuban foreign policy.^[5]

1. ^ "Understanding the Failure of the U.S. Embargo on Cuba". WOLA. Retrieved November 16, 2023.
2. ^ Nouri, Sarah (November 20, 2022). "Time To End The US Embargo Against Cuba". Human Rights Pulse. Retrieved November 7, 2023.
3. ^ "The US Embargo Against Cuba: Its Impact on Economic and Social Rights". Amnesty International. September 2009. Retrieved December 29, 2013.
4. ^ "Cuban Democracy Act of 1992". U.S. Department of State.
5. ^ "Case Studies in Economic Sanctions and Terrorism: US v. Gta 5 (1960– : Castro)" (PDF). Peterson Institute for International Economics. October 2011. Archived from the original (PDF) on March 4, 2016. Retrieved December 29, 2013.

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8 February 1879 – The England cricket team led by Lord Harris is attacked in a riot during a match in Sydney

Sydney Riot of 1879

Australian cricket riot

The Sydney Riot of 1879 was an instance of civil disorder that occurred at an early international cricket match. It took place on 8 February 1879 at what is now the Sydney Cricket Ground (at the time known as the Association Ground), during a match between New South Wales, captained by Dave Gregory, and a touring English team, captained by Lord Harris.

The riot was sparked by a controversial umpiring decision, when star Australian batsman Billy Murdoch was given out by George Coulthard, a Victorian employed by the Englishmen. The dismissal caused an uproar among the spectators, many of whom surged onto the pitch and assaulted Coulthard and some English players. It was alleged that illegal gamblers in the New South Wales pavilion, who had bet heavily on the home side, encouraged the riot because the tourists were in a dominant position and looked set to win. Another theory given to explain the anger was that of intercolonial rivalry, that the New South Wales crowd objected to what they perceived to be a slight from a Victorian umpire.

The pitch invasion occurred while Gregory halted the match by not sending out a replacement for Murdoch. The New South Wales skipper called on Lord Harris to remove umpire Coulthard, whom he considered to be inept or biased, but his English counterpart declined. The other umpire, future prime minister Edmund Barton, defended Coulthard and Lord Harris, saying that the decision against Murdoch was correct and that the English had conducted themselves appropriately. Eventually, Gregory agreed to resume the match without the removal of Coulthard. However, the crowd continued to disrupt proceedings, and play was abandoned for the day. Upon resumption after the Sunday rest day, Lord Harris's men won convincingly by an innings.

In the immediate aftermath of the riot, the England team cancelled the remaining games they were scheduled to play in Sydney. The incident also caused much press comment in England and Australia. In Australia, the newspapers were united in condemning the unrest, viewing the chaos as a national humiliation and a public relations disaster. An open letter by Lord Harris about the incident was later published in English newspapers, and caused fresh outrage in New South Wales when it was reprinted by the Australian newspapers. A defensive letter written in response by the New South Wales Cricket Association further damaged relations. The affair led to a breakdown of goodwill that threatened the future of Anglo-Australian cricket relations. However, friction between the cricketing authorities finally eased when Lord Harris agreed to lead an England representative side at The Oval in London against the touring Australians in 1880; this match became the fourth-ever Test and cemented the tradition of Anglo-Australian Test matches.

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9 February 1941 – World War II: Bombing of Genoa: The Cathedral of San Lorenzo in Genoa, Italy, is struck by a bomb which fails to detonate.

Bombing of Genoa in World War II

WWII bombardment against Italian industrial city Genoa

Owing to the importance of its port (the largest and busiest port in Italy) and industries (such as the Ansaldo shipyard and Piaggio), the Italian port city of Genoa, the regional capital and largest city of Liguria, was heavily bombarded by both Allied air and naval forces during Second World War, suffering heavy damage.

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10 February 1906 – HMS Dreadnought, the first of a revolutionary new breed of battleships, is christened

HMS Dreadnought (1906)

British battleship which revolutionised warship designs

For other ships with the same name, see HMS Dreadnought.

HMS Dreadnought was a Royal Navy battleship, the design of which revolutionised naval power. The ship's entry into service in 1906 represented such an advance in naval technology that her name came to be associated with an entire generation of battleships, the dreadnoughts, as well as the class of ships named after her. Likewise, the generation of ships she made obsolete became known as pre-dreadnoughts. Admiral Sir John "Jacky" Fisher, First Sea Lord of the Board of Admiralty, is credited as the father of Dreadnought. Shortly after he assumed office in 1904, he ordered design studies for a battleship armed solely with 12 in (305 mm) guns and a speed of 21 knots (39 km/h; 24 mph). He convened a Committee on Designs to evaluate the alternative designs and to assist in the detailed design work.

Dreadnought was the first battleship of her era to have a uniform main battery, rather than having a few large guns complemented by a heavy secondary armament of smaller guns. She was also the first capital ship to be powered by steam turbines, making her the fastest battleship in the world at the time of her completion.^[1] Her launch helped spark a naval arms race as navies around the world, particularly the Imperial German Navy, rushed to match it in the build-up to the First World War.^[2]

Although designed to engage enemy battleships, her only significant action was the ramming and sinking of German submarine SM U-29; thus she became the only battleship confirmed to have sunk a submarine.^[3] Dreadnought did not participate in the Battle of Jutland in 1916 as she was being refitted, nor did she participate in any of the other naval battles in World War I. In July 1916 she was relegated to coastal defence duties in the English Channel, before rejoining the Grand Fleet in 1918. The ship was reduced to reserve in 1919 and sold for scrap two years later.

1. ^ Sturton, pp. 76–77
2. ^ Cite error: The named reference g1 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
3. ^ Cite error: The named reference b38 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).

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11 February 2001 – A Dutch programmer launched the Anna Kournikova virus infecting millions of emails via a trick photo of the tennis star.

Anna Kournikova (computer virus)

2001 computer virus inside email attachment

The Anna Kournikova virus (also known as VBS.OnTheFly, VBS/SST, and VBS_Kalamar) was a computer worm that emerged in February 2001.^[1] Disguised as an email attachment purportedly containing a picture of Russian tennis player Anna Kournikova, the worm exploited users' curiosity to propagate itself. Upon opening the attachment, the worm replicated by sending itself to all contacts in the victim's Microsoft Outlook address book, causing widespread email disruptions. Unlike some other viruses of its time, it did not cause direct damage to files or systems.

The worm was created by Jan de Wit, a 20-year-old Dutch student, using a Visual Basic Worm Generator program developed by an Argentinian programmer known as [K]Alamar. De Wit released the worm on February 11, 2001, and it rapidly infected millions of computers worldwide. He later turned himself in to authorities, stating that his intention was to highlight security vulnerabilities rather than cause harm. De Wit was subsequently convicted and sentenced to 150 hours of community service.

1. ^ Alijo, Hernan. "Purported 'Anna' virus toolkit author yanks files from site". ZDNet. Archived from the original on 9 August 2020. Retrieved 24 October 2020.

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12 February 1993 – Two-year-old James Bulger is abducted from New Strand Shopping Centre by two ten-year-old boys, who later torture and murder him.

Murder of James Bulger

1993 child murder in Liverpool, England

This article is about the 1993 murder in England. For the 2018 killing in the United States, see Whitey Bulger § Death.

On 12 February 1993 in Merseyside, England, two 10-year-old boys, Robert Thompson and Jon Venables, abducted, tortured, and murdered a two-year-old boy, James Patrick Bulger (16 March 1990^[2] – 12 February 1993).^[3][4] Thompson and Venables led Bulger away from the New Strand Shopping Centre in Bootle, where Bulger was visiting shops with his mother. His mutilated body was found on a railway line two and a half miles (four kilometres) away in Walton, Liverpool, two days later.

Thompson and Venables were charged on 20 February 1993 with abduction and murder. They were found guilty on 24 November, making them the youngest convicted murderers in modern British history. They were sentenced to indefinite detention at Her Majesty's pleasure, and remained in custody until a Parole Board decision in June 2001 recommended their release on a lifelong licence at age 18.^[5] Venables was sent to prison in 2010 for breaching the terms of his licence, was released on parole again in 2013, and in November 2017 was again sent to prison for possessing child sexual abuse images on his computer. He remained in prison in 2023 after his appeals for parole were rejected.

The Bulger case has prompted widespread debate about how to handle young offenders when they are sentenced or released from custody.^[6]

1. ^ Paterson, Stewart (26 November 2017). "James Bulger's father demands son's killer Jon Venables is stripped of anonymity". nzherald.co.nz. Archived from the original on 11 April 2019. Retrieved 30 August 2020.
2. ^ "The killers and the victims". CNN. 22 June 2001. Archived from the original on 28 March 2010. Retrieved 8 March 2010.
3. ^ "Thompson & Venables Recommendations as to Tariffs to the Secretary of State for Home Affairs". hmcourts-service.gov.uk. 26 October 2000. Archived from the original on 26 December 2005.
4. ^ Smith, David James (3 April 2011). "The Secret Life of a Killer" (PDF). The Sunday Times Magazine: 22–34. Archived from the original (PDF) on 12 November 2013.
5. ^ "Bulger killers to be released on parole". The Independent. 22 June 2001. Archived from the original on 8 February 2018. Retrieved 7 February 2018.
6. ^ Firth, Paul (3 March 2010). "A question of release and redemption as Bulger killer goes back into custody". Yorkshire Post. Johnston Press. Retrieved 8 March 2010.

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13 February 1990 – German reunification: An agreement is reached on a two-stage plan to reunite Germany.

German reunification

1989–1991 unification process of Germany

For the unification of most German states in 1871, see Unification of Germany.

German reunification (German: Deutsche Wiedervereinigung) was the process of re-establishing Germany as a single sovereign state, which began on 9 November 1989 and culminated on 3 October 1990 with the dissolution of the German Democratic Republic and the integration of its re-established constituent federated states into the Federal Republic of Germany to form present-day Germany. This date was chosen as the customary German Unity Day, and has thereafter been celebrated each year as a national holiday.^[1] On the same date, East and West Berlin were also reunified into a single city, which eventually became the capital of Germany.

The East German government, controlled by the Socialist Unity Party of Germany (SED), started to falter on 2 May 1989, when the removal of Hungary's border fence with Austria opened a hole in the Iron Curtain. The border was still closely guarded, but the Pan-European Picnic and the indecisive reaction of the rulers of the Eastern Bloc started off an irreversible movement.^[2][3] It allowed an exodus of thousands of East Germans fleeing to West Germany via Hungary. The Peaceful Revolution, part of the international revolutions of 1989 including a series of protests by East German citizens, led to the fall of the Berlin Wall on 9 November 1989 and the GDR's first free elections on 18 March 1990, and then to negotiations between the two countries that culminated in a Unification Treaty.^[1] Other negotiations between the two Germanies and the four occupying powers in Germany produced the Treaty on the Final Settlement with Respect to Germany, which granted on 15 March 1991 full sovereignty to a reunified German state, whose two parts had previously been bound by a number of limitations stemming from their post-World War II status as occupation zones, though it was not until 31 August 1994 that the last Russian occupation troops left Germany.

After the end of World War II in Europe, the old German Reich, consequent on the unconditional surrender of all German armed forces and the total absence of any German central government authority, had effectively ceased to exist, and Germany was occupied and divided by the four Allied countries. There was no peace treaty. Two countries emerged. The American-occupied, British-occupied, and French-occupied zones combined to form the FRG, i.e., West Germany, on 23 May 1949. The Soviet-occupied zone formed the GDR, i.e., East Germany, in October 1949. The West German state joined NATO in 1955. In 1990, a range of opinions continued to be maintained over whether a reunited Germany could be said to represent "Germany as a whole"^[b] for this purpose. In the context of the revolutions of 1989; on 12 September 1990, under the Two Plus Four Treaty with the four Allies, both East and West Germany committed to the principle that their joint pre-1990 boundary constituted the entire territory that could be claimed by a government of Germany.

The reunited state is not a successor state, but an enlarged continuation of the 1949–1990 West German state. The enlarged Federal Republic of Germany retained the West German seats in the governing bodies of the European Economic Community (EEC) (later the European Union) and in international organizations including the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) and the United Nations (UN), while relinquishing membership in the Warsaw Pact (WP) and other international organizations to which only East Germany belonged.

Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

1. ^ ^{a b} "EinigVtr – Vertrag zwischen der Bundesrepublik Deutschland und der Deutschen Demokratischen Republik über die Herstellung der Einheit Deutschlands". www.gesetze-im-internet.de (in German). Archived from the original on 20 November 2022. Retrieved 6 March 2022.
2. ^ Brait, Andrea; Gehler, Michael (6 July 2014), "Grenzöffnung 1989 – Offene Grenzen?", Grenzöffnung 1989, Wien: Böhlau Verlag, pp. 9–44, doi:10.7767/boehlau.9783205793236.9, ISBN 978-3-205-79496-7, retrieved 6 March 2022
3. ^ Sardemann, Gerhard (1 August 2010). "Die Welt aus den Angeln heben". TATuP: Zeitschrift für Technikfolgenabschätzung in Theorie und Praxis. 19 (2): 8–17. doi:10.14512/tatup.19.2.8. ISSN 2199-9201.

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14 February 2018 – Jacob Zuma resigns as President of South Africa.

Jacob Zuma

President of South Africa from 2009 to 2018 (born 1942)

Jacob Gedleyihlekisa Zuma (Zulu: [geɮʱejiɬeˈkisa ˈzʱuma]; born 12 April 1942) is a South African politician who served as the fourth president of South Africa from 2009 to 2018. He is also referred to by his initials JZ and clan names Nxamalala and Msholozi.^[2][3][4][5] Zuma was a former anti-apartheid activist, member of uMkhonto weSizwe, and president of the African National Congress (ANC) from 2007 to 2017. He is also the father-in-law of Eswatini king, Mswati III, as of 2024.^[6]

Zuma was born in the rural region of Nkandla, which is now part of the KwaZulu-Natal province and the centre of Zuma's support base. He joined the ANC at the age of 17 in 1959 and spent ten years in Robben Island Prison as a political prisoner. He went into exile in 1975 and was ultimately appointed head of the ANC's intelligence department. After the ANC was unbanned in 1990, he quickly rose through the party's national leadership and became deputy secretary general in 1991, national chairperson in 1994, and deputy president in 1997. He was the deputy president of South Africa from 1999 to 2005 under President Thabo Mbeki, Nelson Mandela's successor. Mbeki dismissed Zuma on 14 June 2005 after Zuma's financial adviser, Schabir Shaik, was convicted of making corrupt payments to Zuma in connection with the Arms Deal. Zuma was charged with corruption and was also acquitted on rape charges in the highly publicised 2006 trial. He managed to retain the support of a left-wing coalition inside the ANC, which allowed him to remove Mbeki as ANC president in December 2007 at the ANC's Polokwane elective conference.

Zuma was elected president of South Africa in the 2009 general election and took office on 9 May. The criminal charges against him were formally withdrawn the same week. As president, he launched the R4-trillion National Infrastructure Plan and signed a controversial nuclear power deal with the Russian government, which was blocked by the Western Cape High Court in 2017. As a former member of the South African Communist Party, he increasingly relied on left-wing populist rhetoric, and in his 2017 State of the Nation address he announced a new policy of "radical economic transformation". Among the few policies implemented before the end of his presidency were land expropriation without compensation, free higher education, a series of attempted structural reforms in key sectors involving restrictions on foreign ownership, and more stringent black economic empowerment requirements. In the international arena, Zuma emphasised South-South cooperation and economic diplomacy. The admission of South Africa to the BRICS grouping has been described as a major triumph for Zuma, and he has been praised for his HIV/AIDS policy.

Zuma's presidency was beset by controversy, especially during his second term. In 2014, the Public Protector found that Zuma had improperly benefited from state expenditure on upgrades to his Nkandla homestead, and in 2016, the Constitutional Court ruled that Zuma had failed to uphold the Constitution, leading to calls for his resignation and a failed impeachment attempt in the National Assembly. By early 2016, there were also widespread allegations, later investigated by the Zondo Commission, that the Gupta family had acquired immense corrupt influence over Zuma's administration, amounting to state capture. Several weeks after Deputy President Cyril Ramaphosa was elected to succeed Zuma as ANC president in December 2017, the ANC National Executive Committee recalled Zuma. After a fifth vote of no confidence in Parliament, he resigned on 14 February 2018 and was replaced by Ramaphosa the next day.

Shortly after his resignation, on 16 March 2018, the National Prosecuting Authority announced that it would reinstate corruption charges against Zuma in relation to the 1999 Arms Deal. He pleaded not guilty on 26 May 2021, but the trial was not scheduled to take place until early 2023. The trial has since been set for April 2025. In a separate matter, in June 2021, the Constitutional Court convicted Zuma of contempt of court for his failure to comply with a court order compelling his testimony before the Zondo Commission. He was sentenced to 15 months' imprisonment and was arrested on 7 July 2021 in Estcourt, KwaZulu-Natal. However, he was released on medical parole two months later on 5 September. The high court rescinded his parole on 15 December. The parole was declared unlawful by the Supreme Court of Appeal, but it allowed the Department of Correctional Services to consider whether to deduct the time spent under it from his sentence. On 11 August 2023, the Department of Correctional Services granted Zuma remission of his 15-month sentence.^[7]

1. ^ "S Africa's ANC suspends Zuma after new party launch". BBC News. 29 January 2024. Retrieved 30 January 2024.
2. ^ Thank you Nxamalala, Msholozi, News24, 15 February 2018. Retrieved 7 October 2023
3. ^ Mbuyazi, Nondumiso (13 September 2008). "JZ receives 'death threat'". The Star. p. 4. Archived from the original on 18 May 2009. Retrieved 14 September 2008.
4. ^ Kaiser, Hein (30 June 2021). "Zuma is going to jail, but what will prison life be like for Msholozi?". The Citizen. Retrieved 10 September 2021.
5. ^ Lander, Alice (19 December 2007). "Durban basks in Zuma's ANC victory". BBC News. Archived from the original on 24 December 2007. Retrieved 14 September 2008.
6. ^ Zuma’s daughter marrying polygamous king ‘for love’, BBC, 4 September 2024. Retrieved 4 April 2025
7. ^ Masuabi, Chris Makhaye and Queenin (11 August 2023). "No prison time for Jacob Zuma after 'remission' decision". Daily Maverick. Retrieved 11 August 2023.

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14 February 2018 – Jacob Zuma resigns as President of South Africa.

Jacob Zuma

President of South Africa from 2009 to 2018 (born 1942)

Jacob Gedleyihlekisa Zuma (Zulu: [geɮʱejiɬeˈkisa ˈzʱuma]; born 12 April 1942) is a South African politician who served as the fourth president of South Africa from 2009 to 2018. He is also referred to by his initials JZ and clan names Nxamalala and Msholozi.^[2][3][4][5] Zuma was a former anti-apartheid activist, member of uMkhonto weSizwe, and president of the African National Congress (ANC) from 2007 to 2017. He is also the father-in-law of Eswatini king, Mswati III, as of 2024.^[6]

Zuma was born in the rural region of Nkandla, which is now part of the KwaZulu-Natal province and the centre of Zuma's support base. He joined the ANC at the age of 17 in 1959 and spent ten years in Robben Island Prison as a political prisoner. He went into exile in 1975 and was ultimately appointed head of the ANC's intelligence department. After the ANC was unbanned in 1990, he quickly rose through the party's national leadership and became deputy secretary general in 1991, national chairperson in 1994, and deputy president in 1997. He was the deputy president of South Africa from 1999 to 2005 under President Thabo Mbeki, Nelson Mandela's successor. Mbeki dismissed Zuma on 14 June 2005 after Zuma's financial adviser, Schabir Shaik, was convicted of making corrupt payments to Zuma in connection with the Arms Deal. Zuma was charged with corruption and was also acquitted on rape charges in the highly publicised 2006 trial. He managed to retain the support of a left-wing coalition inside the ANC, which allowed him to remove Mbeki as ANC president in December 2007 at the ANC's Polokwane elective conference.

Zuma was elected president of South Africa in the 2009 general election and took office on 9 May. The criminal charges against him were formally withdrawn the same week. As president, he launched the R4-trillion National Infrastructure Plan and signed a controversial nuclear power deal with the Russian government, which was blocked by the Western Cape High Court in 2017. As a former member of the South African Communist Party, he increasingly relied on left-wing populist rhetoric, and in his 2017 State of the Nation address he announced a new policy of "radical economic transformation". Among the few policies implemented before the end of his presidency were land expropriation without compensation, free higher education, a series of attempted structural reforms in key sectors involving restrictions on foreign ownership, and more stringent black economic empowerment requirements. In the international arena, Zuma emphasised South-South cooperation and economic diplomacy. The admission of South Africa to the BRICS grouping has been described as a major triumph for Zuma, and he has been praised for his HIV/AIDS policy.

Zuma's presidency was beset by controversy, especially during his second term. In 2014, the Public Protector found that Zuma had improperly benefited from state expenditure on upgrades to his Nkandla homestead, and in 2016, the Constitutional Court ruled that Zuma had failed to uphold the Constitution, leading to calls for his resignation and a failed impeachment attempt in the National Assembly. By early 2016, there were also widespread allegations, later investigated by the Zondo Commission, that the Gupta family had acquired immense corrupt influence over Zuma's administration, amounting to state capture. Several weeks after Deputy President Cyril Ramaphosa was elected to succeed Zuma as ANC president in December 2017, the ANC National Executive Committee recalled Zuma. After a fifth vote of no confidence in Parliament, he resigned on 14 February 2018 and was replaced by Ramaphosa the next day.

Shortly after his resignation, on 16 March 2018, the National Prosecuting Authority announced that it would reinstate corruption charges against Zuma in relation to the 1999 Arms Deal. He pleaded not guilty on 26 May 2021, but the trial was not scheduled to take place until early 2023. The trial has since been set for April 2025. In a separate matter, in June 2021, the Constitutional Court convicted Zuma of contempt of court for his failure to comply with a court order compelling his testimony before the Zondo Commission. He was sentenced to 15 months' imprisonment and was arrested on 7 July 2021 in Estcourt, KwaZulu-Natal. However, he was released on medical parole two months later on 5 September. The high court rescinded his parole on 15 December. The parole was declared unlawful by the Supreme Court of Appeal, but it allowed the Department of Correctional Services to consider whether to deduct the time spent under it from his sentence. On 11 August 2023, the Department of Correctional Services granted Zuma remission of his 15-month sentence.^[7]

1. ^ "S Africa's ANC suspends Zuma after new party launch". BBC News. 29 January 2024. Retrieved 30 January 2024.
2. ^ Thank you Nxamalala, Msholozi, News24, 15 February 2018. Retrieved 7 October 2023
3. ^ Mbuyazi, Nondumiso (13 September 2008). "JZ receives 'death threat'". The Star. p. 4. Archived from the original on 18 May 2009. Retrieved 14 September 2008.
4. ^ Kaiser, Hein (30 June 2021). "Zuma is going to jail, but what will prison life be like for Msholozi?". The Citizen. Retrieved 10 September 2021.
5. ^ Lander, Alice (19 December 2007). "Durban basks in Zuma's ANC victory". BBC News. Archived from the original on 24 December 2007. Retrieved 14 September 2008.
6. ^ Zuma’s daughter marrying polygamous king ‘for love’, BBC, 4 September 2024. Retrieved 4 April 2025
7. ^ Masuabi, Chris Makhaye and Queenin (11 August 2023). "No prison time for Jacob Zuma after 'remission' decision". Daily Maverick. Retrieved 11 August 2023.

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