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2 December 1939 – New York City's LaGuardia Airport opens.

LaGuardia Airport

Airport in East Elmhurst, Queens, New York City

"LaGuardia" redirects here. For the mayor for whom the airport is named, see Fiorello La Guardia. For other uses, see La Guardia.

"LGA" redirects here. For other uses, see LGA (disambiguation).

LaGuardia Airport (IATA: LGA, ICAO: KLGA, FAA LID: LGA) /ləˈɡwɑːrdiə/ is a civil airport in East Elmhurst, Queens, New York City. Covering 680 acres (280 ha) as of January 1, 2024^[update],^[2] the facility was established in 1929 and began operating as a public airport in 1939. It is named after former New York City mayor Fiorello La Guardia.

The airport primarily accommodates airline service to domestic (and limited international) destinations. As of 2019^[update], it was the third-busiest airport in the New York metropolitan area, behind Kennedy and Newark airports, and the twenty-first busiest in the United States by passenger volume.^[3] The airport is located directly to the north of the Grand Central Parkway, the airport's primary access highway. While the airport is a hub for both American Airlines and Delta Air Lines, commercial service is strictly governed by unique regulations including a curfew, a slot system, and a "perimeter rule" prohibiting most non-stop flights to or from destinations greater than 1,500 mi (2,400 km).^[4]

Throughout the 2000s and 2010s, LaGuardia was criticized for its outdated facilities, inefficient air operations, and poor customer service metrics.^[5][6] In response, the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey (PANYNJ) in 2015 announced a multibillion-dollar reconstruction of the airport's passenger infrastructure, which is expected to be completed by 2025.^[7]

1. ^ December 2019 Traffic Report (PDF) (Report). The Port Authority of New York & New Jersey. Retrieved March 6, 2020.
2. ^ "LGA airport data at skyvector.com". skyvector.com. Retrieved August 24, 2022.
3. ^ "2019 Airport Traffic Report" (PDF). Port Authority of New York and New Jersey: 29. 2019.
4. ^ "Long Distance at La Guardia". The New York Sun. August 4, 2005. Archived from the original on June 26, 2009. Retrieved March 4, 2010.
5. ^ "LaGuardia Airport has most flight delays in the nation, report finds". WABC-TV. February 27, 2017. Retrieved October 15, 2021.
6. ^ Krumboltz, Mike (February 6, 2014). "Biden compares New York's LaGuardia airport to 'third world country'". Yahoo! News. Archived from the original on February 9, 2014. Retrieved February 6, 2014.
7. ^ Cho, Aileen (October 27, 2020). "Final Destination in Sight for $8B LaGuardia Modernization". Engineering News-Record. Retrieved October 15, 2021.

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2 December 1939 – New York City's LaGuardia Airport opens.

LaGuardia Airport

Airport in East Elmhurst, Queens, New York City

"LaGuardia" redirects here. For the mayor for whom the airport is named, see Fiorello La Guardia. For other uses, see La Guardia.

"LGA" redirects here. For other uses, see LGA (disambiguation).

LaGuardia Airport (IATA: LGA, ICAO: KLGA, FAA LID: LGA) /ləˈɡwɑːrdiə/ is a civil airport in East Elmhurst, Queens, New York City. Covering 680 acres (280 ha) as of January 1, 2024^[update],^[2] the facility was established in 1929 and began operating as a public airport in 1939. It is named after former New York City mayor Fiorello La Guardia.

The airport primarily accommodates airline service to domestic (and limited international) destinations. As of 2019^[update], it was the third-busiest airport in the New York metropolitan area, behind Kennedy and Newark airports, and the twenty-first busiest in the United States by passenger volume.^[3] The airport is located directly to the north of the Grand Central Parkway, the airport's primary access highway. While the airport is a hub for both American Airlines and Delta Air Lines, commercial service is strictly governed by unique regulations including a curfew, a slot system, and a "perimeter rule" prohibiting most non-stop flights to or from destinations greater than 1,500 mi (2,400 km).^[4]

Throughout the 2000s and 2010s, LaGuardia was criticized for its outdated facilities, inefficient air operations, and poor customer service metrics.^[5][6] In response, the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey (PANYNJ) in 2015 announced a multibillion-dollar reconstruction of the airport's passenger infrastructure, which is expected to be completed by 2025.^[7]

1. ^ December 2019 Traffic Report (PDF) (Report). The Port Authority of New York & New Jersey. Retrieved March 6, 2020.
2. ^ "LGA airport data at skyvector.com". skyvector.com. Retrieved August 24, 2022.
3. ^ "2019 Airport Traffic Report" (PDF). Port Authority of New York and New Jersey: 29. 2019.
4. ^ "Long Distance at La Guardia". The New York Sun. August 4, 2005. Archived from the original on June 26, 2009. Retrieved March 4, 2010.
5. ^ "LaGuardia Airport has most flight delays in the nation, report finds". WABC-TV. February 27, 2017. Retrieved October 15, 2021.
6. ^ Krumboltz, Mike (February 6, 2014). "Biden compares New York's LaGuardia airport to 'third world country'". Yahoo! News. Archived from the original on February 9, 2014. Retrieved February 6, 2014.
7. ^ Cho, Aileen (October 27, 2020). "Final Destination in Sight for $8B LaGuardia Modernization". Engineering News-Record. Retrieved October 15, 2021.

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3 December 1979 – Iranian Revolution: Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini becomes the first Supreme Leader of Iran.

Ruhollah Khomeini

Supreme Leader of Iran from 1979 to 1989

For other people named Khomeini, see Khomeini (name).

"Khomeini" redirects here. Not to be confused with his successor, Ali Khamenei.

Ayatollah Ruhollah Musavi Khomeini^[b] (17 May 1900 or 24 September 1902^[a] – 3 June 1989) was an Iranian Islamic revolutionary, politician, and religious leader who served as the first supreme leader of Iran from 1979 until his death in 1989. He was the founder of the Islamic Republic of Iran and the leader of the Iranian Revolution, which overthrew Mohammad Reza Pahlavi and ended the Iranian monarchy.

Born in Khomeyn, in what is now Iran's Markazi province, his father was murdered in 1903 when Khomeini was two years old. He began studying the Quran and Arabic from a young age and was assisted in his religious studies by his relatives, including his mother's cousin and older brother. Khomeini was a high ranking cleric in Twelver Shi'ism, an ayatollah, a marja' ("source of emulation"), a Mujtahid or faqīh (an expert in sharia), and author of more than 40 books. His opposition to the White Revolution resulted in his state-sponsored expulsion to Bursa in 1964. Nearly a year later, he moved to Najaf, where speeches he gave outlining his religiopolitical theory of Guardianship of the Jurist were complied into Islamic Government.

He was Time magazine's Man of the Year in 1979 for his international influence, and Khomeini has been described as the "virtual face of Shia Islam in Western popular culture", where he was known for his support of the hostage takers during the Iran hostage crisis, his fatwa calling for the murder of British Indian novelist Salman Rushdie, and for referring to the United States as the "Great Satan" and the Soviet Union as the "Lesser Satan". Following the revolution, Khomeini became the country's first supreme leader, a position created in the constitution of the Islamic Republic as the highest-ranking political and religious authority of the nation, which he held until his death. Most of his period in power was taken up by the Iran–Iraq War of 1980–1988. He was succeeded by Ali Khamenei on 4 June 1989.

The subject of a pervasive cult of personality, Khomeini is officially known as Imam Khomeini inside Iran and by his supporters internationally. His funeral was attended by up to 10 million people, or 1/6 of Iran's population, the largest funeral at the time and one of the largest human gatherings in history. In Iran, his gold-domed tomb in Tehran's Behesht-e Zahrāʾ cemetery has become a shrine for his adherents, and he is legally considered "inviolable", with Iranians regularly punished for insulting him. His supporters view him as a champion of Islamic revival, anti-racism and anti-imperialism. Critics accuse him of human rights violations (including his ordering of attacks against demonstrators, execution of thousands of political prisoners, war criminals and prisoners of the Iran–Iraq War), as well as for using child soldiers extensively during the Iran-Iraq war for human wave attacks, estimates are as high as 100,000 for the number of children killed.

Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

1. ^ Bowering, Gerhard; Crone, Patricia; Kadi, Wadad; Stewart, Devin J.; Zaman, Muhammad Qasim; Mirza, Mahan, eds. (2012). The Princeton Encyclopedia of Islamic Political Thought. Princeton University Press. p. 518. ISBN 978-1-4008-3855-4.
2. ^ Malise Ruthven (2004). Fundamentalism: The Search for Meaning (Reprint ed.). Oxford University Press. p. 29. ISBN 978-0-19-151738-9.
3. ^ Jebnoun, Noureddine; Kia, Mehrdad; Kirk, Mimi, eds. (2013). Modern Middle East Authoritarianism: Roots, Ramifications, and Crisis. Routledge. p. 168. ISBN 978-1-135-00731-7.
4. ^ "Constitution of the Islamic Republic of Iran, Chapter 1, Article 1". Constitution of the Islamic Republic of Iran.
5. ^ ^{a b} Cite error: The named reference a was invoked but never defined (see the help page).

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4 December 1791 – The first edition of The Observer, the world's first Sunday newspaper, is published.

The Observer

British weekly newspaper

For other uses, see The Observer (disambiguation).

"Observer (newspaper)" redirects here. For the online-only newspaper, see Observer.com.

The Observer is a British newspaper published on Sundays. It is a sister paper to The Guardian and The Guardian Weekly, having been acquired by their parent company, Guardian Media Group Limited, in 1993. First published in 1791, it is the world's oldest Sunday newspaper.^[5]

1. ^ Graham Snowdon, "Inside the 19 January edition", The Guardian Weekly, 16 January 2018 (page visited on 19 January 2018).
2. ^ Matt Wells (15 October 2004). "World writes to undecided voters". The Guardian. UK. Retrieved 13 July 2008.
3. ^ Katwala, Sunder (7 February 2012). "The monarchy is more secure than ever". The New Statesman. Retrieved 14 September 2022.
4. ^ Tobitt, Charlotte; Majid, Aisha (25 January 2023). "National press ABCs: December distribution dive for freesheets Standard and City AM". Press Gazette. Retrieved 15 February 2023.
5. ^ "The Observer under review". BBC News. 4 August 2009. Retrieved 27 March 2010.

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5 December 1848 – California Gold Rush: In a message to the United States Congress, U.S. President James K. Polk confirms that large amounts of gold had been discovered in California.

California Gold Rush

Redirect to:

• California gold rush

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6 December 1971 – Pakistan severs diplomatic relations with India, initiating the Indo-Pakistani War of 1971.

Indo-Pakistani War of 1971

Redirect to:

• Indo-Pakistani war of 1971

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7 December 1842 – First concert of the New York Philharmonic, founded by Ureli Corelli Hill.

New York Philharmonic

American symphony orchestra in New York City

The New York Philharmonic, officially the Philharmonic-Symphony Society of New York, Inc.,^[1] globally known as New York Philharmonic Orchestra (NYPO)^[2][3] or New York Philharmonic-Symphony Orchestra,^[4] is a symphony orchestra based in New York City. It is one of the leading American orchestras popularly called the "Big Five".^[5] The Philharmonic's home is David Geffen Hall, at New York's Lincoln Center for the Performing Arts.^[6]

Founded in 1842, the orchestra is one of the oldest musical institutions in the United States and the oldest of the "Big Five" orchestras. Its 14,000th concert was given in December 2004.^[7]

1. ^ "Company Overview of Philharmonic-Symphony Society of New York, Inc". Bloomberg Businessweek. Archived from the original on June 28, 2013. Retrieved May 6, 2013.
2. ^ "New York Philharmonic Orchestra, The". discog.com. Archived from the original on May 8, 2013. Retrieved May 6, 2013.
3. ^ "New York Philharmonic Orchestra (Symphony Orchestra)". bach-cantatas.com. Archived from the original on March 25, 2013. Retrieved May 6, 2013.
4. ^ "New York Philharmonic-Symphony Orchestra". Columbia University Press. Archived from the original on August 12, 2014. Retrieved May 6, 2013 – via yahoo.com.
5. ^ Michael Walsh (April 25, 1983). "Which U.S. Orchestras are Best?". Time. Archived from the original on April 15, 2008. Retrieved March 26, 2008.
6. ^ Smith, Jennifer (September 24, 2015). "Lincoln Center Concert Hall Renamed for David Geffen". The Wall Street Journal. Archived from the original on October 16, 2015. Retrieved October 11, 2015.
7. ^ "New York Philharmonic: A Distinguished History". Archived from the original on April 28, 2007. Retrieved April 9, 2007.

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8 December 1907 – King Gustaf V of Sweden accedes to the Swedish throne.

Gustaf V

King of Sweden from 1907 to 1950

Gustaf V (Oscar Gustaf Adolf; 16 June 1858 – 29 October 1950) was King of Sweden from 8 December 1907 until his death in 1950. He was the eldest son of King Oscar II of Sweden and Sophia of Nassau, a half-sister of Adolphe, Grand Duke of Luxembourg. Reigning from the death of his father Oscar II in 1907 to his own death nearly 43 years later, he holds the record of being the oldest monarch of Sweden with the third-longest reign after Magnus IV (1319–1364) and Carl XVI Gustaf (1973–present). He was also the last Swedish monarch to exercise his royal prerogatives, which largely died with him, although they were formally abolished only with the remaking of the Swedish constitution in 1974. He was the first Swedish king since the High Middle Ages not to have a coronation and so never wore the king's crown, a practice that has continued ever since.

Gustaf's early reign saw the rise of parliamentary rule in Sweden although the leadup to World War I induced his dismissal of Liberal Prime Minister Karl Staaff in 1914, replacing him with his own figurehead, Hjalmar Hammarskjöld, the father of Dag Hammarskjöld, for most of the war. However, after the Liberals and Social Democrats secured a parliamentary majority under Staaff's successor, Nils Edén, he allowed Edén to form a new government which de facto stripped the monarchy of virtually all powers and enacted universal and equal suffrage, including for women, by 1919. Bowing to the principles of parliamentary democracy, he remained a popular figurehead for the remaining 31 years of his rule, although not completely without influence. Gustaf V had pro-German and anti-Communist stances which were outwardly expressed during World War I and the Russian Civil War. During World War II, he allegedly urged Per Albin Hansson's coalition government to accept requests from Nazi Germany for logistics support, arguing that refusing might provoke an invasion. His intervention remains controversial.

An avid hunter and sportsman, Gustaf presided over the 1912 Olympic Games and chaired the Swedish Association of Sports from 1897 to 1907. Most notably, he represented Sweden (under the alias of Mr G.) as a competitive tennis player, keeping up competitive tennis until his 80s, when his eyesight deteriorated rapidly.^[1][2] He was succeeded by his son, Gustaf VI Adolf.

1. ^ "Gustaf V". NE Nationalencyklopedin AB (in Swedish). Retrieved 26 April 2021.
2. ^ "Haijbyaffären". NE Nationalencyklopedin AB (in Swedish). Retrieved 26 April 2021.

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9 December 1531 – The Virgin of Guadalupe first appears to Juan Diego at Tepeyac, Mexico City.

Our Lady of Guadalupe

Marian apparitions in December 1531

This article is about the Mexican Marian title. For the Spanish Marian title, see Our Lady of Guadalupe in Extremadura.

19°29′04″N 99°07′02″W / 19.48444°N 99.11722°W / 19.48444; -99.11722

Our Lady of Guadalupe (Spanish: Nuestra Señora de Guadalupe), also known as the Virgin of Guadalupe (Spanish: Virgen de Guadalupe), is a Catholic title of Mary, mother of Jesus associated with a series of five Marian apparitions to a Mexican peasant named Juan Diego and his uncle, Juan Bernardino, which are believed to have occurred in December 1531, when the Mexican territories were under the Spanish Empire.

A venerated image on a cloak (tilmahtli) associated with the apparition is enshrined within the Basilica of Our Lady of Guadalupe in Mexico City. Pope Leo XIII granted the image a decree of canonical coronation on February 8, 1887, and it was pontifically crowned on October 12, 1895. The basilica is the most-visited Catholic shrine in the world, and the world's third most-visited sacred site.^[3][4]

1. ^ "Not only Catholic churches celebrate the feast of Our Lady of Guadalupe". Religion News Service. Retrieved December 13, 2023.
2. ^ "Iglesia Episcopal Anglicana de Chile". Instagram. Retrieved December 13, 2023.
3. ^ "World's Most-Visited Sacred Sites", Travel and Leisure, January 2012
4. ^ ""Shrine of Guadalupe Most Popular in the World", Zenit, June 13, 1999". Archived from the original on May 7, 2016. Retrieved June 12, 2009.

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9 December 1531 – The Virgin of Guadalupe first appears to Juan Diego at Tepeyac, Mexico City.

Our Lady of Guadalupe

Marian apparitions in December 1531

This article is about the Mexican Marian title. For the Spanish Marian title, see Our Lady of Guadalupe in Extremadura.

19°29′04″N 99°07′02″W / 19.48444°N 99.11722°W / 19.48444; -99.11722

Our Lady of Guadalupe (Spanish: Nuestra Señora de Guadalupe), also known as the Virgin of Guadalupe (Spanish: Virgen de Guadalupe), is a Catholic title of Mary, mother of Jesus associated with a series of five Marian apparitions to a Mexican peasant named Juan Diego and his uncle, Juan Bernardino, which are believed to have occurred in December 1531, when the Mexican territories were under the Spanish Empire.

A venerated image on a cloak (tilmahtli) associated with the apparition is enshrined within the Basilica of Our Lady of Guadalupe in Mexico City. Pope Leo XIII granted the image a decree of canonical coronation on February 8, 1887, and it was pontifically crowned on October 12, 1895. The basilica is the most-visited Catholic shrine in the world, and the world's third most-visited sacred site.^[3][4]

1. ^ "Not only Catholic churches celebrate the feast of Our Lady of Guadalupe". Religion News Service. Retrieved December 13, 2023.
2. ^ "Iglesia Episcopal Anglicana de Chile". Instagram. Retrieved December 13, 2023.
3. ^ "World's Most-Visited Sacred Sites", Travel and Leisure, January 2012
4. ^ ""Shrine of Guadalupe Most Popular in the World", Zenit, June 13, 1999". Archived from the original on May 7, 2016. Retrieved June 12, 2009.

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10 December 1652 – Defeat at the Battle of Dungeness causes the Commonwealth of England to reform its navy.

Battle of Dungeness

First Anglo-Dutch War naval battle

Not to be confused with the Battle of Dungeness (1666).

The naval Battle of Dungeness took place on 30 November 1652 (10 December in the Gregorian calendar) ^[a] during the First Anglo-Dutch War near the cape of Dungeness in Kent.

1. ^ Battle of Dungeness

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11 December 1792 – French Revolution: King Louis XVI of France is put on trial for treason by the National Convention.

Louis XVI

King of France from 1774 to 1792

Louis XVI (Louis Auguste; French: [lwi sɛːz]; 23 August 1754 – 21 January 1793) was the last king of France before the fall of the monarchy during the French Revolution.

The son of Louis, Dauphin of France (son and heir-apparent of King Louis XV), and Maria Josepha of Saxony, Louis became the new Dauphin when his father died in 1765. He became King of France and Navarre on his grandfather's death on 10 May 1774, and reigned until the abolition of the monarchy on 21 September 1792. From 1791 onwards, he used the style of King of the French.

The first part of Louis XVI's reign was marked by attempts to reform the French government in accordance with Enlightenment ideas. These included efforts to increase tolerance toward non-Catholics as well as abolish the death penalty for deserters.^[5][6] The French nobility reacted to the proposed reforms with hostility, and successfully opposed their implementation. Louis implemented deregulation of the grain market, advocated by his economic liberal minister Turgot, but it resulted in an increase in bread prices. In periods of bad harvests, it led to food scarcity which, during a particularly bad harvest in 1775, prompted the masses to revolt. From 1776, Louis XVI actively supported the North American colonists, who were seeking their independence from Great Britain, which was realised in the 1783 Treaty of Paris. The ensuing debt and financial crisis contributed to the unpopularity of the Ancien Régime. This led to the convening of the Estates-General of 1789. Discontent among the members of France's middle and lower classes resulted in strengthened opposition to the French aristocracy and to the absolute monarchy, of which Louis and his wife, Marie Antoinette, were representatives. Increasing tensions and violence were marked by events such as the storming of the Bastille, during which riots in Paris forced Louis to definitively recognize the legislative authority of the National Assembly.

Louis's indecisiveness and conservatism led some elements of the people of France to view him as a symbol of the perceived tyranny of the Ancien Régime, and his popularity deteriorated progressively. His unsuccessful flight to Varennes in June 1791, four months before the constitutional monarchy was declared, seemed to justify the rumors that the king tied his hopes of political salvation to the prospects of foreign intervention. His credibility was deeply undermined, and the abolition of the monarchy and the establishment of a republic became an ever-increasing possibility. The growth of anti-clericalism among revolutionaries resulted in the abolition of the dîme (religious land tax) and several government policies aimed at the dechristianization of France.

In a context of civil and international war, Louis XVI was suspended and arrested at the time of the Insurrection of 10 August 1792. One month later, the monarchy was abolished and the First French Republic was proclaimed on 21 September 1792. The former king became a desacralized French citizen, addressed as Citoyen Louis Capet (Citizen Louis Capet) in reference to his ancestor Hugh Capet. Louis was tried by the National Convention (self-instituted as a tribunal for the occasion), found guilty of high treason and executed by guillotine on 21 January 1793. Louis XVI was the only king of France ever to be executed, and his death brought an end to more than a thousand years of continuous French monarchy. Both of his sons died in childhood, before the Bourbon Restoration; his only child to reach adulthood, Marie Thérèse, was given over to the Austrians in exchange for French prisoners of war, eventually dying childless in 1851.

1. ^ Collection complète des lois, décrets, ordonnances, réglemens, avis du Conseil-d'Etat (in French). 1834. p. 57.
2. ^ Archives parlementaires: de 1787 à 1860 ; recueil complet des débats législatifs et politiques des chambres françaises. 1787 à 1799. 1. Série (in French). CNRS Ed. 1877. p. 397.
3. ^ LA CONSTITUTION DU 3 SEPTEMBRE 1791, CHAPITRE II, Art. 2. Élysée
4. ^ Lalanne, Ludovic (1877). Dictionnaire historique de la France (in French). Hachette. p. 845.
5. ^ Berkovich, Ilya (2 February 2017). Motivation in War: The Experience of Common Soldiers in Old-Regime Europe. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 85. ISBN 9781107167735.
6. ^ Delon, Michel, ed. (4 December 2013). Encyclopedia of the Enlightenment. Vol. I. London: Routledge. p. 1246. ISBN 9781135959982.

Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

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11 December 1792 – French Revolution: King Louis XVI of France is put on trial for treason by the National Convention.

Louis XVI

King of France from 1774 to 1792

Louis XVI (Louis Auguste; French: [lwi sɛːz]; 23 August 1754 – 21 January 1793) was the last king of France before the fall of the monarchy during the French Revolution.

The son of Louis, Dauphin of France (son and heir-apparent of King Louis XV), and Maria Josepha of Saxony, Louis became the new Dauphin when his father died in 1765. He became King of France and Navarre on his grandfather's death on 10 May 1774, and reigned until the abolition of the monarchy on 21 September 1792. From 1791 onwards, he used the style of King of the French.

The first part of Louis XVI's reign was marked by attempts to reform the French government in accordance with Enlightenment ideas. These included efforts to increase tolerance toward non-Catholics as well as abolish the death penalty for deserters.^[5][6] The French nobility reacted to the proposed reforms with hostility, and successfully opposed their implementation. Louis implemented deregulation of the grain market, advocated by his economic liberal minister Turgot, but it resulted in an increase in bread prices. In periods of bad harvests, it led to food scarcity which, during a particularly bad harvest in 1775, prompted the masses to revolt. From 1776, Louis XVI actively supported the North American colonists, who were seeking their independence from Great Britain, which was realised in the 1783 Treaty of Paris. The ensuing debt and financial crisis contributed to the unpopularity of the Ancien Régime. This led to the convening of the Estates-General of 1789. Discontent among the members of France's middle and lower classes resulted in strengthened opposition to the French aristocracy and to the absolute monarchy, of which Louis and his wife, Marie Antoinette, were representatives. Increasing tensions and violence were marked by events such as the storming of the Bastille, during which riots in Paris forced Louis to definitively recognize the legislative authority of the National Assembly.

Louis's indecisiveness and conservatism led some elements of the people of France to view him as a symbol of the perceived tyranny of the Ancien Régime, and his popularity deteriorated progressively. His unsuccessful flight to Varennes in June 1791, four months before the constitutional monarchy was declared, seemed to justify the rumors that the king tied his hopes of political salvation to the prospects of foreign intervention. His credibility was deeply undermined, and the abolition of the monarchy and the establishment of a republic became an ever-increasing possibility. The growth of anti-clericalism among revolutionaries resulted in the abolition of the dîme (religious land tax) and several government policies aimed at the dechristianization of France.

In a context of civil and international war, Louis XVI was suspended and arrested at the time of the Insurrection of 10 August 1792. One month later, the monarchy was abolished and the First French Republic was proclaimed on 21 September 1792. The former king became a desacralized French citizen, addressed as Citoyen Louis Capet (Citizen Louis Capet) in reference to his ancestor Hugh Capet. Louis was tried by the National Convention (self-instituted as a tribunal for the occasion), found guilty of high treason and executed by guillotine on 21 January 1793. Louis XVI was the only king of France ever to be executed, and his death brought an end to more than a thousand years of continuous French monarchy. Both of his sons died in childhood, before the Bourbon Restoration; his only child to reach adulthood, Marie Thérèse, was given over to the Austrians in exchange for French prisoners of war, eventually dying childless in 1851.

1. ^ Collection complète des lois, décrets, ordonnances, réglemens, avis du Conseil-d'Etat (in French). 1834. p. 57.
2. ^ Archives parlementaires: de 1787 à 1860 ; recueil complet des débats législatifs et politiques des chambres françaises. 1787 à 1799. 1. Série (in French). CNRS Ed. 1877. p. 397.
3. ^ LA CONSTITUTION DU 3 SEPTEMBRE 1791, CHAPITRE II, Art. 2. Élysée
4. ^ Lalanne, Ludovic (1877). Dictionnaire historique de la France (in French). Hachette. p. 845.
5. ^ Berkovich, Ilya (2 February 2017). Motivation in War: The Experience of Common Soldiers in Old-Regime Europe. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 85. ISBN 9781107167735.
6. ^ Delon, Michel, ed. (4 December 2013). Encyclopedia of the Enlightenment. Vol. I. London: Routledge. p. 1246. ISBN 9781135959982.

Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

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12 December 1979 – Coup d'état of December Twelfth occurs in South Korea.

Coup d'état of December Twelfth

1979 coup d'état in South Korea that brought Chun Doo-hwan to power

The Coup d'état of December Twelfth or the 12.12 Military Insurrection (Korean: 12.12 군사 반란; Hanja: 十二十二軍事反亂) was a military mutiny which took place on December 12, 1979, in South Korea.

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13 December 1943 – World War II: The Massacre of Kalavryta by German occupying forces in Greece.

Kalavryta massacre

1943 razing of Kalavryta by Nazi troops during the Axis occupation of Greece

The Kalavryta massacre (Greek: Σφαγή των Καλαβρύτων), or the Holocaust of Kalavryta (Ολοκαύτωμα των Καλαβρύτων), was the near-extermination of the male population and the total destruction of the town of Kalavryta, Axis-occupied Greece, by the 117th Jäger Division (Wehrmacht) during World War II, on 13 December 1943.^[1].

1. ^ Stephan D. Yada-McNeal, Places of Shame-German and Bulgarian war crimes in Greece 1941-1945. (2018) online

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14 December 1780 – Founding Father Alexander Hamilton marries Elizabeth Schuyler Hamilton at the Schuyler Mansion in Albany, New York.

Alexander Hamilton

American Founding Father and statesman (1755/1757–1804)

For other uses, see Alexander Hamilton (disambiguation).

Alexander Hamilton (January 11, 1755, or 1757^[a] – July 12, 1804) was an American military officer, statesman, and Founding Father who served as the first secretary of the treasury from 1789 to 1795 during George Washington's presidency.

Born out of wedlock in Charlestown, Nevis, Hamilton was orphaned as a child and taken in by a prosperous merchant. He pursued his education in New York City where, despite his young age, he was a prolific and widely read pamphleteer advocating for the American revolutionary cause, though an anonymous one. He then served as an artillery officer in the American Revolutionary War, where he saw military action against the British in the New York and New Jersey campaign, served for years as an aide to General George Washington, and helped secure American victory at the climactic Siege of Yorktown. After the Revolutionary War, Hamilton served as a delegate from New York to the Congress of the Confederation in Philadelphia. He resigned to practice law and founded the Bank of New York. In 1786, Hamilton led the Annapolis Convention to replace the Articles of Confederation with the Constitution of the United States, which he helped ratify by writing 51 of the 85 installments of The Federalist Papers.

As a trusted member of President Washington's first cabinet, Hamilton served as the first U.S. secretary of the treasury. He envisioned a central government led by an energetic president, a strong national defense, and an industrial economy. He successfully argued that the implied powers of the Constitution provided the legal authority to fund the national debt, assume the states' debts, and create the First Bank of the United States, which was funded by a tariff on imports and a whiskey tax. He opposed American entanglement with the succession of unstable French Revolutionary governments and advocated in support of the Jay Treaty under which the U.S. resumed friendly trade relations with the British Empire. He also persuaded Congress to establish the Revenue Cutter Service. Hamilton's views became the basis for the Federalist Party, which was opposed by the Democratic-Republican Party led by Thomas Jefferson. Hamilton and other Federalists supported the Haitian Revolution, and Hamilton helped draft the constitution of Haiti.

After resigning as Secretary of the Treasury, Hamilton resumed his legal and business activities. He was a leader in the abolition of the international slave trade. In the Quasi-War, Hamilton called for mobilization against France, and President John Adams appointed him major general. The army, however, did not see combat. Outraged by Adams' response to the crisis, Hamilton opposed his reelection campaign. Jefferson and Aaron Burr tied for the presidency in the electoral college and, despite philosophical differences, Hamilton endorsed Jefferson over Burr, whom he found unprincipled. When Burr ran for governor of New York in 1804, Hamilton again campaigned against him, arguing that he was unworthy. Taking offense, Burr challenged Hamilton to a duel. In the July 11, 1804, duel in Weehawken, New Jersey, Burr shot Hamilton in the stomach. Hamilton was immediately transported to the home of William Bayard Jr. in Greenwich Village for medical attention, but succumbed to his wounds the following day.

Scholars generally regard Hamilton as an astute and intellectually brilliant administrator, politician, and financier who was sometimes impetuous. His ideas are credited with laying the foundation for American government and finance.

1. ^ "Alexander Hamilton". National Portrait Gallery. Archived from the original on January 31, 2023. Retrieved February 2, 2023.
2. ^ ^{a b} Chernow, p. 17.
3. ^ Logan, Erin B. (July 12, 2018). "Alexander Hamilton, immigrant and statesman, dies at 47 — or 49". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on September 9, 2018. Retrieved September 5, 2018.
4. ^ ^{a b} Brookhiser, Richard (2000). Alexander Hamilton, American. Simon and Schuster. p. 16. ISBN 978-1-4391-3545-7.
5. ^ Newton (2015), pp. 19–30.

Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

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15 December 1970 – Soviet spacecraft Venera 7 successfully lands on Venus. It is the first successful soft landing on another planet.

Venera 7

Soviet Venus spacecraft

Venera 7 (Russian: Венера-7, lit. 'Venus 7') was a Soviet spacecraft, part of the Venera series of probes to Venus. When it landed the Venusian surface on 15 December 1970, it became the first spacecraft to soft land on another planet and the first to transmit data from there back to Earth.^[2][3]

1. ^ ^{a b} Siddiqi 2018, p. 93.
2. ^ "Science: Onward from Venus". Time. 8 February 1971. Archived from the original on 21 December 2008. Retrieved 2 January 2013.
3. ^ Siddiqi 2018, pp. 1, 3.

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16 December 1850 – The Charlotte Jane and the Randolph bring the first of the Canterbury Pilgrims to Lyttelton, New Zealand.

Canterbury Association

English colonial venture in New Zealand (1848–55)

The Canterbury Association was formed in 1848 in England by members of parliament, peers, and Anglican church leaders, to establish a colony in New Zealand. The settlement was to be called Canterbury, with its capital to be known as Christchurch. Organised emigration started in 1850 and the colony was established in the South Island, with the First Four Ships bringing out settlers steeped in the region's history. The Association was not a financial success for the founding members and the organisation was wound up in 1855.

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17 December 1892 – First issue of Vogue is published.

Vogue (magazine)

American fashion and lifestyle magazine

For any other use, see Vogue (disambiguation).

Vogue U.S., also known as American Vogue, or simply Vogue, is a monthly fashion and lifestyle magazine that covers style news, including haute couture fashion, beauty, culture, living, and runway. It is part of the global collection of Condé Nast's VOGUE media.

Headquartered at One World Trade Center in the Financial District of Lower Manhattan, Vogue began in 1892 as a weekly newspaper before becoming a monthly magazine years later. Since its founding, Vogue has featured numerous actors, musicians, models, athletes, and other prominent celebrities. The largest issue published by Vogue magazine was the September 2012 edition featuring Lady Gaga in the cover, which contained 900 pages.

British Vogue, launched in 1916, was the first international edition, while the Italian version Vogue Italia has been called the top fashion magazine in the world.^[2] As of March 2024, there are 28 international editions. 11 of these editions are published by Condé Nast (British Vogue, Vogue China, Vogue France, Vogue Germany, Vogue India, Vogue Japan, Vogue México y Latinoamérica, Vogue Spain, Vogue Taiwan, and Vogue U.S.). The remaining 17 editions are published as licensees of VOGUE.

1. ^ "Consumer Magazines". Alliance for Audited Media. Archived from the original on January 23, 2017. Retrieved July 5, 2017.
2. ^ Press, Debbie (2004). Your Modeling Career: You Don't Have to Be a Superstar to Succeed. New York: Allworth Press. ISBN 978-1-58115-359-0. Archived from the original on August 10, 2023. Retrieved February 11, 2018.

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18 December 1958 – Project SCORE, the world's first communications satellite, is launched.

SCORE (satellite)

First ever communications satellite

SCORE (Signal Communications by Orbiting Relay Equipment) was the world's first purpose-built communications satellite. Launched aboard an American Atlas rocket on December 18, 1958, SCORE provided the second test of a communications relay system in space (the first having been provided by the USAF/NASA's Pioneer 1),^[3] the first broadcast of a human voice from space, and the first successful use of the Atlas as a launch vehicle. It captured world attention by broadcasting a Christmas message via shortwave radio from U.S. President Dwight D. Eisenhower through an on-board tape recorder.^[4] The satellite was popularly dubbed "The Talking Atlas"^{[citation needed]} as well as "Chatterbox".^[5] SCORE, as a geopolitical strategy, placed the United States at an even technological par with the Soviet Union as a highly functional response to the Sputnik 1 and Sputnik 2 satellites.

1. ^ Cite error: The named reference Display was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
2. ^ Cite error: The named reference Trajectory was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
3. ^ Marcus, Gideon. "Pioneering Space II" (PDF). Quest Space Quarterly.)
4. ^ "SCORE (Signal Communications by Orbiting Relay Equipment)". GlobalSecurity.org. 20 September 2006. Retrieved 2010-12-16.
5. ^ "Today in History: December 18, Donald Trump is impeached for the first time". WTOP-FM. December 18, 2023. Retrieved December 18, 2023 – via Associated Press.

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19 December 1932 – BBC World Service begins broadcasting as the BBC Empire Service.

BBC World Service

International radio division of the BBC

For the BBC television network that was previously known as BBC World News, see BBC News (international TV channel).

"World Service" redirects here. For other uses, see World Service (disambiguation).

The BBC World Service is an international broadcaster owned and operated by the BBC. It is the world's largest external broadcaster in terms of reception area, language selection and audience reach.^[1] It broadcasts radio news, speech and discussions in more than 40 languages^[2][3] to many parts of the world on analogue and digital shortwave platforms, internet streaming, podcasting, satellite, DAB, FM and MW relays. In 2015, the World Service reached an average of 210 million people a week (via TV, radio and online).^[4] In November 2016, the BBC announced that it would start broadcasting in additional languages including Amharic and Igbo, in its biggest expansion since the 1940s.^[5]

BBC World Service English maintains eight regional feeds with several programme variations, covering, respectively, East and South Africa; West and Central Africa; Europe and Middle East; the Americas and Caribbean; East Asia; South Asia; Australasia; and the United Kingdom. There are also two separate online-only streams with one being more news-oriented, known as News Internet. The service broadcasts 24 hours a day.

The World Service claims that its aim is to be "the world's best-known and most-respected voice in international broadcasting",^[6] while retaining a "balanced British view" of international developments.^[7] Former director Peter Horrocks visualised the organisation as fighting an "information war" of soft power against Russian and Chinese international state media, including RT.^[8][9][10] As such, the BBC has been banned in both Russia and China, the former following its 2022 invasion of Ukraine and the latter for having "violated regulations that news bulletins should be 'truthful and fair".^[11][12]

The director of the BBC World Service is Liliane Landor;^[13] the controller of the BBC World Service in English is Jon Zilkha.

1. ^ "The Work of the BBC World Service 2008-09" (PDF). House of Commons Foreign Affairs Committee. 5 February 2010. Archived (PDF) from the original on 21 October 2020. Retrieved 16 February 2011.
2. ^ "News in your language". BBC News. Archived from the original on 22 May 2019. Retrieved 31 October 2019.
3. ^ "BBC World Service". Facebook. Archived from the original on 13 February 2021. Retrieved 31 October 2019.
4. ^ "BBC's combined global audience revealed at 308 million". BBC. 15 May 2015. Archived from the original on 26 June 2019. Retrieved 13 February 2016.
5. ^ "BBC World Service announces biggest expansion 'since the 1940s'", BBC News, 16 November 2016.Archived 18 November 2020 at the Wayback Machine.
6. ^ "Annual Review 2008/2009". BBC News. Archived from the original on 2 June 2010. Retrieved 8 April 2010.
7. ^ "BBC protocol". Bbc.co.uk. Archived from the original on 22 July 2012. Retrieved 20 December 2019.
8. ^ "The Implications of Cuts to the BBC World Service: Responses from the Government and the BBC to the Committee's Sixth Report of Session 2010–12" (PDF). Foreign Affairs Committee. UK Parliament. 17 May 2011. HC 1058. Retrieved 26 March 2024.
9. ^ Lewis, Gavin (April 2016). "The Broken BBC". The Monthly Review. Archived from the original on 17 February 2022. Retrieved 17 February 2022.
10. ^ Halliday, Josh (21 December 2014). "BBC World Service fears losing information war as Russia Today ramps up pressure". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 17 February 2022. Retrieved 17 February 2022.
11. ^ "China bans BBC World News from broadcasting inside the country". South China Morning Post. Bloomberg. 12 February 2021. Retrieved 3 April 2022.
12. ^ "Russia blocks access to BBC and Voice of America websites". Reuters. Reuters. 4 March 2022. Retrieved 3 April 2022.
13. ^ "BBC announces Liliane Landor as Senior Controller of BBC News International Services". BBC World News. BBC. Archived from the original on 21 October 2021. Retrieved 19 February 2022.

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19 December 1932 – BBC World Service begins broadcasting as the BBC Empire Service.

BBC World Service

International radio division of the BBC

For the BBC television network that was previously known as BBC World News, see BBC News (international TV channel).

"World Service" redirects here. For other uses, see World Service (disambiguation).

The BBC World Service is an international broadcaster owned and operated by the BBC. It is the world's largest external broadcaster in terms of reception area, language selection and audience reach.^[1] It broadcasts radio news, speech and discussions in more than 40 languages^[2][3] to many parts of the world on analogue and digital shortwave platforms, internet streaming, podcasting, satellite, DAB, FM and MW relays. In 2015, the World Service reached an average of 210 million people a week (via TV, radio and online).^[4] In November 2016, the BBC announced that it would start broadcasting in additional languages including Amharic and Igbo, in its biggest expansion since the 1940s.^[5]

BBC World Service English maintains eight regional feeds with several programme variations, covering, respectively, East and South Africa; West and Central Africa; Europe and Middle East; the Americas and Caribbean; East Asia; South Asia; Australasia; and the United Kingdom. There are also two separate online-only streams with one being more news-oriented, known as News Internet. The service broadcasts 24 hours a day.

The World Service claims that its aim is to be "the world's best-known and most-respected voice in international broadcasting",^[6] while retaining a "balanced British view" of international developments.^[7] Former director Peter Horrocks visualised the organisation as fighting an "information war" of soft power against Russian and Chinese international state media, including RT.^[8][9][10] As such, the BBC has been banned in both Russia and China, the former following its 2022 invasion of Ukraine and the latter for having "violated regulations that news bulletins should be 'truthful and fair".^[11][12]

The director of the BBC World Service is Liliane Landor;^[13] the controller of the BBC World Service in English is Jon Zilkha.

1. ^ "The Work of the BBC World Service 2008-09" (PDF). House of Commons Foreign Affairs Committee. 5 February 2010. Archived (PDF) from the original on 21 October 2020. Retrieved 16 February 2011.
2. ^ "News in your language". BBC News. Archived from the original on 22 May 2019. Retrieved 31 October 2019.
3. ^ "BBC World Service". Facebook. Archived from the original on 13 February 2021. Retrieved 31 October 2019.
4. ^ "BBC's combined global audience revealed at 308 million". BBC. 15 May 2015. Archived from the original on 26 June 2019. Retrieved 13 February 2016.
5. ^ "BBC World Service announces biggest expansion 'since the 1940s'", BBC News, 16 November 2016.Archived 18 November 2020 at the Wayback Machine.
6. ^ "Annual Review 2008/2009". BBC News. Archived from the original on 2 June 2010. Retrieved 8 April 2010.
7. ^ "BBC protocol". Bbc.co.uk. Archived from the original on 22 July 2012. Retrieved 20 December 2019.
8. ^ "The Implications of Cuts to the BBC World Service: Responses from the Government and the BBC to the Committee's Sixth Report of Session 2010–12" (PDF). Foreign Affairs Committee. UK Parliament. 17 May 2011. HC 1058. Retrieved 26 March 2024.
9. ^ Lewis, Gavin (April 2016). "The Broken BBC". The Monthly Review. Archived from the original on 17 February 2022. Retrieved 17 February 2022.
10. ^ Halliday, Josh (21 December 2014). "BBC World Service fears losing information war as Russia Today ramps up pressure". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 17 February 2022. Retrieved 17 February 2022.
11. ^ "China bans BBC World News from broadcasting inside the country". South China Morning Post. Bloomberg. 12 February 2021. Retrieved 3 April 2022.
12. ^ "Russia blocks access to BBC and Voice of America websites". Reuters. Reuters. 4 March 2022. Retrieved 3 April 2022.
13. ^ "BBC announces Liliane Landor as Senior Controller of BBC News International Services". BBC World News. BBC. Archived from the original on 21 October 2021. Retrieved 19 February 2022.

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20 December 2007 – The Portrait of Suzanne Bloch (1904), by the Spanish artist Pablo Picasso, and O Lavrador de Café by Brazilian modernist painter Cândido Portinari, are stolen from the São Paulo Museum of Art in Brazil. Both will be recovered a few weeks later

Portrait of Suzanne Bloch

1904 painting by Pablo Picasso

Portrait of Suzanne Bloch is an oil on canvas painting executed by the Spanish artist Pablo Picasso in Paris in 1904, towards the end of his Blue Period. The subject, Suzanne Bloch, was a singer known for her Wagner interpretations, and the sister of the violinist Henri Bloch.^[2] The painting is housed in the São Paulo Museum of Art.

1. ^ "MASP". MASP (in Portuguese). Retrieved 2019-12-05.
2. ^ Marques, 1998, pp. 205–206.

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21 December 1913 – Arthur Wynne's "word-cross", the first crossword puzzle, is published in the New York World.

Crossword

Grid-based word puzzle

For other uses, see Crossword (disambiguation).

A crossword (or crossword puzzle) is a word game consisting of a grid of black and white squares, into which solvers enter words or phrases ("entries") crossing each other horizontally ("across") and vertically ("down") according to a set of clues. Each white square is typically filled with one letter, while the black squares are used to separate entries. The first white square in each entry is typically numbered to correspond to its clue.

Crosswords commonly appear in newspapers and magazines. The earliest crosswords that resemble their modern form were popularized by the New York World in the 1910s. Many variants of crosswords are popular around the world, including cryptic crosswords and many language-specific variants.

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22 December 1942 – World War II: Adolf Hitler signs the order to develop the V-2 rocket as a weapon.

V-2 rocket

World's first long-range ballistic missile

"V-2" redirects here. For other uses, see V2.

The V2 (German: Vergeltungswaffe 2, lit. 'Retaliation Weapon 2'), with the technical name Aggregat 4 (A4), was the world's first long-range^[4] guided ballistic missile. The missile, powered by a liquid-propellant rocket engine, was developed during the Second World War in Nazi Germany as a "vengeance weapon" and assigned to attack Allied cities as retaliation for the Allied bombings of German cities. The V2 rocket also became the first artificial object to travel into space by crossing the Kármán line (edge of space) with the vertical launch of MW 18014 on 20 June 1944.^[5]

Research of military use of long-range rockets began when the graduate studies of Wernher von Braun were noticed by the Wehrmacht Heer. A series of prototypes culminated in the A4, which went to war as the V2. Beginning in September 1944, more than 3,000 V2s were launched by the Wehrmacht against Allied targets, first London and later Antwerp and Liège. According to a 2011 BBC documentary,^[6] the attacks from V-2s resulted in the deaths of an estimated 9,000 civilians and military personnel, while a further 12,000 laborers and concentration camp prisoners died as a result of their forced participation in the production of the weapons.^[7]

The rockets travelled at supersonic speeds, impacted without audible warning, and proved unstoppable, as no effective defense existed. Teams from the Allied forces—the United States, the United Kingdom, France and the Soviet Union—raced to seize major German manufacturing facilities, procure the Germans' missile technology, and capture the V-2s' launching sites. Von Braun and more than 100 core R&D V-2 personnel surrendered to the Americans, and many of the original V-2 team transferred their work to the Redstone Arsenal, where they were relocated as part of Operation Paperclip. The US also captured enough V-2 hardware to build approximately 80 of the missiles. The Soviets gained possession of the V-2 manufacturing facilities after the war, re-established V-2 production, and moved it to the Soviet Union.

1. ^ Cite error: The named reference Kennedy was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
2. ^ 10% of the Mittelwerk rockets used a guide beam for cutoff.
3. ^ Cite error: The named reference Neufeld was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
4. ^ "Long-range" in the context of the time. See NASA history article Archived 7 January 2009 at the Wayback Machine
5. ^ Neufeld, 1995 pp 158, 160–162, 190
6. ^ Ramsey 2016, p. 89.
7. ^ "Am Anfang war die V2. Vom Beginn der Weltraumschifffahrt in Deutschland". In: Utz Thimm (ed.): Warum ist es nachts dunkel? Was wir vom Weltall wirklich wissen. Kosmos, 2006, p. 158, ISBN 3-440-10719-1.

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22 December 1942 – World War II: Adolf Hitler signs the order to develop the V-2 rocket as a weapon.

V-2 rocket

World's first long-range ballistic missile

"V-2" redirects here. For other uses, see V2.

The V2 (German: Vergeltungswaffe 2, lit. 'Retaliation Weapon 2'), with the technical name Aggregat 4 (A4), was the world's first long-range^[4] guided ballistic missile. The missile, powered by a liquid-propellant rocket engine, was developed during the Second World War in Nazi Germany as a "vengeance weapon" and assigned to attack Allied cities as retaliation for the Allied bombings of German cities. The V2 rocket also became the first artificial object to travel into space by crossing the Kármán line (edge of space) with the vertical launch of MW 18014 on 20 June 1944.^[5]

Research of military use of long-range rockets began when the graduate studies of Wernher von Braun were noticed by the Wehrmacht Heer. A series of prototypes culminated in the A4, which went to war as the V2. Beginning in September 1944, more than 3,000 V2s were launched by the Wehrmacht against Allied targets, first London and later Antwerp and Liège. According to a 2011 BBC documentary,^[6] the attacks from V-2s resulted in the deaths of an estimated 9,000 civilians and military personnel, while a further 12,000 laborers and concentration camp prisoners died as a result of their forced participation in the production of the weapons.^[7]

The rockets travelled at supersonic speeds, impacted without audible warning, and proved unstoppable, as no effective defense existed. Teams from the Allied forces—the United States, the United Kingdom, France and the Soviet Union—raced to seize major German manufacturing facilities, procure the Germans' missile technology, and capture the V-2s' launching sites. Von Braun and more than 100 core R&D V-2 personnel surrendered to the Americans, and many of the original V-2 team transferred their work to the Redstone Arsenal, where they were relocated as part of Operation Paperclip. The US also captured enough V-2 hardware to build approximately 80 of the missiles. The Soviets gained possession of the V-2 manufacturing facilities after the war, re-established V-2 production, and moved it to the Soviet Union.

1. ^ Cite error: The named reference Kennedy was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
2. ^ 10% of the Mittelwerk rockets used a guide beam for cutoff.
3. ^ Cite error: The named reference Neufeld was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
4. ^ "Long-range" in the context of the time. See NASA history article Archived 7 January 2009 at the Wayback Machine
5. ^ Neufeld, 1995 pp 158, 160–162, 190
6. ^ Ramsey 2016, p. 89.
7. ^ "Am Anfang war die V2. Vom Beginn der Weltraumschifffahrt in Deutschland". In: Utz Thimm (ed.): Warum ist es nachts dunkel? Was wir vom Weltall wirklich wissen. Kosmos, 2006, p. 158, ISBN 3-440-10719-1.

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23 December 1793 – The Battle of Savenay: A decisive defeat of the royalist counter-revolutionaries in War in the Vendée during the French Revolution.

Battle of Savenay

Part of the French Revolution

The Battle of Savenay took place on 23 December 1793, and marks the end of the Virée de Galerne operational phase of the first war in the Vendée after the French Revolution. A Republican force of approximately 18,000 decisively defeated the Armée Catholique et Royale force of 6,000 at Savenay.

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24 December 1951 – Libya becomes independent. Idris I is proclaimed King of Libya

Idris of Libya

First and only king of Libya from 1951 to 1969

Muhammad Idris bin Muhammad al-Mahdi as-Senussi (Arabic: إدريس, romanized: Idrīs; 13 March 1890 – 25 May 1983)^[1] was a Libyan political and religious leader who was King of Libya from 24 December 1951 until his ouster in the 1 September 1969 coup d'état. He ruled over the United Kingdom of Libya from 1951 to 1963, after which the country became known as simply the Kingdom of Libya. Idris had served as Emir of Cyrenaica and Tripolitania from the 1920s until 1951.^[2] He was the chief of the Senussi Muslim order.

Idris was born into the Senussi Order. When his cousin Ahmed Sharif as-Senussi abdicated as leader of the Order, Idris took his position. The Senussi campaign was taking place, with the British and Italians fighting the Order. Idris put an end to the hostilities and, through the Modus vivendi of Acroma, abandoned Ottoman protection. Between 1919 and 1920, Italy recognized Senussi control over most of Cyrenaica in exchange for the recognition of Italian sovereignty by Idris. Idris then led his Order in an unsuccessful attempt to conquer the eastern part of the Tripolitanian Republic.

Following the Second World War, the United Nations General Assembly called for Libya to be granted independence. It established the United Kingdom of Libya through the unification of Cyrenaica, Tripolitania and Fezzan, appointing Idris to rule it as king. Wielding significant political influence in the impoverished country, he banned political parties and, in 1963, replaced Libya's federal system with a unitary state. He established links to the Western powers, allowing the United Kingdom and United States to open military bases in the country in return for economic aid. After oil was discovered in Libya in 1959, he oversaw the emergence of a growing oil industry that rapidly aided economic growth. Idris's regime was weakened by growing Arab nationalist and Arab socialist sentiment in Libya as well as rising frustration at the country's high levels of corruption and close links with Western nations. While in Turkey for medical treatment, Idris was deposed in a 1969 coup d'état by army officers led by Muammar Gaddafi.

1. ^ "Idris I | Libya, Biography, & History". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 12 September 2021.
2. ^ Schnelzer, Nadine (2016). Libya in the Arab Spring: The Constitutional Discourse since the Fall of Gaddafi. Springer. p. 31. ISBN 978-3-658-11381-0.

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25 December 800 – The coronation of Charlemagne as Holy Roman Emperor, in Rome

Charlemagne

King of the Franks, first Holy Roman Emperor

For other uses, see Charlemagne (disambiguation).

Charlemagne^[b] (/ˈʃɑːrləmeɪn, ˌʃɑːrləˈmeɪn/ SHAR-lə-mayn, -⁠MAYN; 2 April 748^[a] – 28 January 814) was King of the Franks from 768, King of the Lombards from 774, and Emperor of the Carolingian Empire from 800, holding all these titles until his death in 814. Charlemagne succeeded in uniting the majority of Western Central Europe, and was the first recognized emperor to rule in the west after the fall of the Western Roman Empire approximately three centuries earlier. Charlemagne's rule saw a program of political and social changes that had a lasting impact on Europe in the Middle Ages.

A member of the Frankish Carolingian dynasty, Charlemagne was the eldest son of Pepin the Short and Bertrada of Laon. With his brother Carloman I, he became king of the Franks in 768 following Pepins's death, and became sole ruler in 771. As king, he continued his father's policy to provide protection for the papacy and became its chief defender, removing the Lombards from power in northern Italy in 774. Charlemagne's reign saw a period of expansion that led to the conquests of Bavaria, Saxony, and northern Spain, as well as other campaigns that led Charlemagne to extend his rule over a vast area of Europe. He spread Christianity to his new conquests, often by force, as seen at the Massacre of Verden, perpetrated against the Saxons.

In 800, Charlemagne was crowned as emperor in Rome by Pope Leo III. While historians debate about the exact significance of the coronation, the title represented the height of the prestige and authority he had achieved. Charlemagne's position as the first emperor in the West in over 300 years brought him into conflict with the contemporary Eastern Roman Empire based in Constantinople. Through his assumption of the imperial title, he is considered the forerunner of the line of Holy Roman Emperors that lasted into the nineteenth century. As king and emperor, Charlemagne engaged in a number of reforms in administration, law, education, military organization, and religion which shaped Europe for centuries. The stability of his reign saw the beginning of a period of significant cultural activity known as the Carolingian Renaissance.

Charlemagne died in 814, and was laid to rest in the Aachen Cathedral, within his imperial capital city Aachen. He was succeeded by his only surviving son Louis the Pious. After Louis, the Frankish kingdom would be divided, eventually coalescing into West and East Francia, which would respectively become France and the Holy Roman Empire. Charlemagne's profound impact on the Middle Ages, and the influence on the vast territory he ruled has led him to be called the "Father of Europe". He is seen as a folk hero and founding figure by many European states, and a number of historical royal houses of Europe trace their lineage back to him. Charlemagne has been the subject of artworks, monuments and literature, during and after the medieval period, and has received veneration in the Catholic Church.

Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

1. ^ Nelson 2019, p. 2.

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25 December 800 – The coronation of Charlemagne as Holy Roman Emperor, in Rome

Charlemagne

King of the Franks, first Holy Roman Emperor

For other uses, see Charlemagne (disambiguation).

Charlemagne^[b] (/ˈʃɑːrləmeɪn, ˌʃɑːrləˈmeɪn/ SHAR-lə-mayn, -⁠MAYN; 2 April 748^[a] – 28 January 814) was King of the Franks from 768, King of the Lombards from 774, and Emperor of the Carolingian Empire from 800, holding all these titles until his death in 814. Charlemagne succeeded in uniting the majority of Western Central Europe, and was the first recognized emperor to rule in the west after the fall of the Western Roman Empire approximately three centuries earlier. Charlemagne's rule saw a program of political and social changes that had a lasting impact on Europe in the Middle Ages.

A member of the Frankish Carolingian dynasty, Charlemagne was the eldest son of Pepin the Short and Bertrada of Laon. With his brother Carloman I, he became king of the Franks in 768 following Pepins's death, and became sole ruler in 771. As king, he continued his father's policy to provide protection for the papacy and became its chief defender, removing the Lombards from power in northern Italy in 774. Charlemagne's reign saw a period of expansion that led to the conquests of Bavaria, Saxony, and northern Spain, as well as other campaigns that led Charlemagne to extend his rule over a vast area of Europe. He spread Christianity to his new conquests, often by force, as seen at the Massacre of Verden, perpetrated against the Saxons.

In 800, Charlemagne was crowned as emperor in Rome by Pope Leo III. While historians debate about the exact significance of the coronation, the title represented the height of the prestige and authority he had achieved. Charlemagne's position as the first emperor in the West in over 300 years brought him into conflict with the contemporary Eastern Roman Empire based in Constantinople. Through his assumption of the imperial title, he is considered the forerunner of the line of Holy Roman Emperors that lasted into the nineteenth century. As king and emperor, Charlemagne engaged in a number of reforms in administration, law, education, military organization, and religion which shaped Europe for centuries. The stability of his reign saw the beginning of a period of significant cultural activity known as the Carolingian Renaissance.

Charlemagne died in 814, and was laid to rest in the Aachen Cathedral, within his imperial capital city Aachen. He was succeeded by his only surviving son Louis the Pious. After Louis, the Frankish kingdom would be divided, eventually coalescing into West and East Francia, which would respectively become France and the Holy Roman Empire. Charlemagne's profound impact on the Middle Ages, and the influence on the vast territory he ruled has led him to be called the "Father of Europe". He is seen as a folk hero and founding figure by many European states, and a number of historical royal houses of Europe trace their lineage back to him. Charlemagne has been the subject of artworks, monuments and literature, during and after the medieval period, and has received veneration in the Catholic Church.

Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

1. ^ Nelson 2019, p. 2.

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27 December 1935 – Regina Jonas is ordained as the first female rabbi in the history of Judaism.

Regina Jonas

First woman to be ordained as a rabbi (1902–1944)

Regina Jonas (German: [ʀeˈɡiːna ˈjoːnas]; German: Regine Jonas;^[1] 3 August 1902 – 12 October/12 December 1944) was a Berlin-born Reform rabbi.^[2] In 1935, she became the first woman to be ordained as a rabbi.^[2] Jonas was murdered in the Holocaust.^[2]

1. ^ ^{a b} As documented by Landesarchiv Berlin; Berlin, Deutschland; Personenstandsregister Geburtsregister; Laufendenummer 892 which reads:
   

   "In front of the signed registrar appeared today... Wolff Jonas... and... Sara Jonas née Hess... on the 3rd day of August in the year 1902... a girl was born and (that) the child was given the first name Regine..."

   The full document can be found here.
2. ^ ^{a b c} Klapheck, Elisa. "Regina Jonas 1902–1944". Jewish Women's Archive. Retrieved 3 April 2011.

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28 December 1958 – "Greatest Game Ever Played": The Baltimore Colts defeat the New York Giants in the first ever National Football League sudden death

1958 NFL Championship Game

Renowned American football event

See also: 1958 NFL playoffs

Yankee 
Stadium

class=notpageimage|

Location in the United States

The 1958 NFL Championship Game was the 26th NFL championship game, played on December 28 at Yankee Stadium in New York City. It was the first NFL playoff game to be decided in sudden death overtime.^[9] The Baltimore Colts defeated the New York Giants 23–17 in what soon became widely known as "the Greatest Game Ever Played".^[16] Its legendary status in the pantheon of historic NFL games was again confirmed by a nationwide poll of 66 media members in 2019, who voted it the best game in the league's first 100 years.^[17][18]

It marked the beginning of the NFL's popularity surge and eventual rise to the top of the United States sports market.^[11][18] A major reason was that the game was televised across the nation by NBC. Baltimore receiver Raymond Berry recorded 12 receptions for 178 yards and a touchdown. His 12 receptions set a championship record that stood for 55 years until it was broken by Denver Broncos wide receiver Demaryius Thomas in Super Bowl XLVIII.

1. ^ Cite error: The named reference cthpt was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
2. ^ Sandomir, Richard (December 4, 2008). "The 'Greatest Game' in Collective Memory". The New York Times. Retrieved December 13, 2008.
3. ^ Gifford and Richmond, p. 217.
4. ^ "Unitas hero as Colts get 23-17 title win". Reading Eagle. (Pennsylvania). UPI. December 29, 1958. p. 18.
5. ^ Livingston, Pat (December 29, 1958). "Colts reap big payoff from $2-a-game Unitas". Pittsburgh Press. p. 24.
6. ^ Strickler, George (December 29, 1958). "Colts win title in sudden death, 23-17!". Chicago Tribune. p. 1, part 4.
7. ^ "Colts win 23-17 in overtime". Milwaukee Sentinel. Associated Press. December 29, 1958. p. 4, part 2.
8. ^ Maule, Tex (January 5, 1959). "The best football game ever played". Sports Illustrated. p. 8.
9. ^ ^{[4][5][6][7][8]}
10. ^ "Greatest Game Ever Played". ProFootballHOF.com. NFL Enterprises, LLC. January 1, 2005. Retrieved August 15, 2020.
11. ^ ^{a b} Barnidge, Tom. "1958 Colts remember the 'Greatest Game'". NFL.com. NFL Enterprises, LLC. Archived from the original on June 24, 2007. Retrieved August 15, 2020.
12. ^ Total Football: The Official Encyclopedia of the National Football League (ISBN 0-06-270174-6)
13. ^ "Dec. 28, 1958: A legend is born". NFL.com. NFL Enterprises, LLC. Archived from the original on September 17, 2002. Retrieved August 15, 2020.
14. ^ "Title game wasn't that great for '58 Colts" by Eddie Epstein, espn.com
15. ^ Gregory, Sean (December 29, 2008). "The Football Game that Changed It All". Time. Retrieved January 18, 2017.
16. ^ ^{[10][11][12][13][14][15]}
17. ^ George R.R. Martin. "NFL CHAMPIONSHIP - "THE GREATEST GAME EVER PLAYED"". NFL.com. NFL Enterprises, LLC. Retrieved August 15, 2020.
18. ^ ^{a b} Wilner, Barry (October 6, 2019). "This will come as no surprise in Baltimore, but Colts' 1958 title win over Giants is voted NFL's greatest game". The Baltimore Sun. Associated Press. Retrieved October 6, 2019.

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29 December 1913 – Cecil B. DeMille starts filming Hollywood's first feature film, The Squaw Man.

The Squaw Man (1914 film)

1914 film

For other uses, see The Squaw Man (disambiguation).

The Squaw Man (known as The White Man in the United Kingdom) is a 1914 American silent Western film directed by Cecil B. DeMille and Oscar C. Apfel, and starring Dustin Farnum. It was DeMille's directorial debut and one of the first feature films to be shot in what is now Hollywood.

1. ^ "AFI|Catalog".
2. ^ "Obituaries: Jesse L. Lasky". Variety. January 15, 1958. p. 70. Retrieved October 19, 2021 – via Archive.org.

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30 December 1813 – War of 1812: British soldiers burn Buffalo, New York.

Battle of Buffalo

Battle during the War of 1812

The Battle of Buffalo (also known as the Battle of Black Rock) took place during the War of 1812 on December 30, 1813, in the State of New York, near the Niagara River. The British forces drove off the American defenders and destroyed many buildings and ships. The operation was retaliation for American troops burning the Canadian village of Newark (present day Niagara-on-the-Lake).

1. ^ Cruikshank, p. 70
2. ^ Cruikshank, p. 93
3. ^ Cruikshank, p. 73
4. ^ Cruikshank, p. 79
5. ^ Eaton, p. 16
6. ^ Cruikshank, p. 88

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31 December 1907 – The first ever ball drop in Times Square.

Times Square Ball

Time ball in New York City's Times Square

The Times Square Ball is a time ball located in New York City's Times Square. Located on the roof of One Times Square, the ball is a prominent part of a New Year's Eve celebration in Times Square commonly referred to as the ball drop, where the ball descends down a specially designed flagpole, beginning at 11:59:00 p.m. ET, and resting at midnight to signal the start of the new year. In recent years, the ball drop has been preceded by live entertainment, including performances by musicians. Over 1,000,000 people from around the world attend.

The event was first organized by Adolph Ochs, owner of The New York Times, as a successor to a series of New Year's Eve fireworks displays he held at the building to promote its status as the new headquarters of the Times, while the ball itself was designed by Artkraft Strauss. First held on December 31, 1907, to welcome 1908, the ball drop has been held annually since, except in 1942 and 1943 in observance of wartime blackouts.

The ball's design has been updated four times to reflect improvements in lighting technology; the original ball was 5 feet (1.5 m) in diameter, constructed from wood and iron, and illuminated with 100 incandescent light bulbs. By contrast, the current ball is 12 feet (3.7 m) in diameter, and uses over 32,000 LED lamps. Since 1999–2000, the ball has featured an outer surface consisting of triangular panels manufactured by Waterford Crystal, which contain inscriptions representing a yearly theme.

The event is organized by the Times Square Alliance and Countdown Entertainment, a company led by Jeff Strauss.^[1] Since 2009, the ball has been displayed atop One Times Square nearly year-round, while the original, smaller version of the current ball that was used in 2008 has been on display inside the Times Square visitor's center. The prevalence of the Times Square ball drop has inspired similar "drops" at other local New Year's Eve events across the country; while some use balls, some instead drop objects that represent local culture or history.

1. ^ "Nearly 800 Hard At Work On Times Square New Year's Eve Celebration". CBS New York. Retrieved December 31, 2013.

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1 January 1808 – The United States bans the importation of slaves.

Act Prohibiting Importation of Slaves

US Congressional Act of 1807

For the British statute passed the same year, see Slave Trade Act 1807.

The Act Prohibiting Importation of Slaves of 1807 (2 Stat. 426, enacted March 2, 1807) is a United States federal law that prohibited the importation of slaves into the United States. It took effect on January 1, 1808, the earliest date permitted by the United States Constitution.

This legislation was promoted by President Thomas Jefferson, who called for its enactment in his 1806 State of the Union Address. He and others had promoted the idea since the 1770s. It reflected the force of the general trend toward abolishing the international slave trade, which Virginia, followed by all the other states, had prohibited or restricted since then. South Carolina, however, had reopened its trade. Congress first regulated against the trade in the Slave Trade Act of 1794. The 1794 Act ended the legality of American ships participating in the trade. The 1807 law did not change that—it made all importation from abroad, even on foreign ships, a federal crime.

The domestic slave trade within the United States was not affected by the 1807 law. Indeed, with the legal supply of imported slaves terminated, the domestic trade increased in importance. In addition, some smuggling of slaves persisted.

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2 December 1993 – Colombian drug lord Pablo Escobar is shot and killed by police in Medellín.

Pablo Escobar

Colombian drug lord (1949–1993)

This article is about the Colombian drug lord. For other uses, see Pablo Escobar (disambiguation).

In this Spanish name, the first or paternal surname is Escobar and the second or maternal family name is Gaviria.

Pablo Emilio Escobar Gaviria (/ˈɛskəbɑːr/; Spanish: [ˈpaβlo eskoˈβaɾ]; 1 December 1949 – 2 December 1993) was a Colombian drug lord, narcoterrorist, and politician, who was the founder and sole leader of the Medellín Cartel. Dubbed "the king of cocaine", Escobar was one of the wealthiest criminals in history, having amassed an estimated net worth of US$30 billion by the time of his death—equivalent to $70 billion as of 2022—while his drug cartel monopolized the cocaine trade into the United States in the 1980s and early 1990s.^[1][2]

Born in Rionegro and raised in Medellín, Escobar studied briefly at Universidad Autónoma Latinoamericana of Medellín, but left without graduating; he instead began engaging in criminal activity, selling illegal cigarettes and fake lottery tickets, as well as participating in motor vehicle theft. In the early 1970s, he began to work for various drug smugglers, often kidnapping and holding people for ransom.

In 1976, Escobar founded the Medellín Cartel, which distributed powder cocaine, and established the first smuggling routes from Peru, Bolivia and Ecuador, through Colombia and eventually into the United States. Escobar's infiltration into the U.S. created exponential demand for cocaine and by the 1980s it was estimated Escobar led monthly shipments of 70 to 80 tons of cocaine into the country from Colombia. As a result, he quickly became one of the richest people in the world,^[1][3] but constantly battled rival cartels domestically and abroad, leading to massacres and the murders of police officers, judges, locals, and prominent politicians.^[4]

In the 1982 Colombian parliamentary election, Escobar was elected as an alternate member of the Chamber of Representatives as part of the Liberal Party. Through this, he was responsible for community projects such as the construction of houses and football fields, which gained him popularity among the locals of the towns that he frequented. However, Escobar's political ambitions were thwarted by the Colombian and U.S. governments, who routinely pushed for his arrest, with Escobar widely believed to have orchestrated the Avianca Flight 203 and DAS Building bombings in retaliation.

In 1991, Escobar surrendered to authorities, and was sentenced to five years' imprisonment on a host of charges, but struck a deal of no extradition with Colombian President César Gaviria, with the ability of being housed in his own, self-built prison, La Catedral. In 1992, Escobar escaped and went into hiding when authorities attempted to move him to a more standard holding facility, leading to a nationwide manhunt.^[5] As a result, the Medellín Cartel crumbled, and in 1993, Escobar was killed in his hometown by Colombian National Police, a day after his 44th birthday.^[6]

Escobar's legacy remains controversial; while many denounce the heinous nature of his crimes, he was seen as a "Robin Hood-like" figure for many in Colombia, as he provided many amenities to the poor. His killing was mourned and his funeral attended by over 25,000 people.^[7] Additionally, his private estate, Hacienda Nápoles, has been transformed into a theme park.^[8] His life has also served as inspiration for or has been dramatized widely in film, television, and in music.

1. ^ ^{a b} Macias, Amanda (21 September 2015). "10 facts reveal the absurdity of Pablo Escobar's wealth". businessinsider.com. Insider Inc. Archived from the original on 18 October 2023. Retrieved 28 July 2018.
2. ^ "Here's How Rich Pablo Escobar Would Be If He Was Alive Today". UNILAD. 13 September 2016. Archived from the original on 29 July 2018. Retrieved 28 July 2018.
3. ^ Escobar, Juan Pablo (2014). Pablo Escobar, My Father. New York: St. Martin's Press. p. 469.
4. ^ "Pablo Escobar Gaviria – English Biography – Articles and Notes". ColombiaLink.com. Archived from the original on 8 November 2006. Retrieved 16 March 2011.
5. ^ "Familiares exhumaron cadáver de Pablo Escobar para verificar plenamente su identidad". El Tiempo.^{[permanent dead link]}
6. ^ "Decline of the Medellín Cartel and the Rise of the Cali Mafia". U.S. Drug Enforcement Administration. Archived from the original on 18 January 2006. Retrieved 13 February 2010.
7. ^ "Pablo Escobar: Biography". Biography.com. Archived from the original on 30 June 2023. Retrieved 17 July 2019.
8. ^ "Escobar's Former Mansion Will Now Be A Theme Park". Medellín Living. 13 January 2014. Archived from the original on 18 October 2023. Retrieved 17 July 2019.

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3 January 1999 – The Mars Polar Lander is launched by NASA.

Mars Polar Lander

Failed 1999 robotic Mars lander

The Mars Polar Lander, also known as the Mars Surveyor '98 Lander, was a 290-kilogram robotic spacecraft lander launched by NASA on January 3, 1999, to study the soil and climate of Planum Australe, a region near the south pole on Mars. It formed part of the Mars Surveyor '98 mission. On December 3, 1999, however, after the descent phase was expected to be complete, the lander failed to reestablish communication with Earth. A post-mortem analysis determined the most likely cause of the mishap was premature termination of the engine firing prior to the lander touching the surface, causing it to strike the planet at a high velocity.^[2]

The total cost of the Mars Polar Lander was US$165 million. Spacecraft development cost US$110 million, launch was estimated at US$45 million, and mission operations at US$10 million.^[3]

1. ^ "Mars Polar Lander". NASA Space Science Data Coordinated Archive. Retrieved 2022-12-01.
2. ^ "Report on the Loss of the Mars Polar Lander and Deep Space 2 Missions" (PDF). Jet Propulsion Laboratory. March 22, 2000. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-03-16.
3. ^ "Mars Polar Lander Mission Costs". The Associated Press. December 8, 1999. Retrieved 2020-09-30.

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4 January 1912 – The Scout Association is incorporated throughout the British Empire by royal charter.

The Scout Association

Scouting organisation in the United Kingdom

This article is about the scouting organisation in the United Kingdom calling itself The Scout Association. For other Scouting organisations in the United Kingdom, see Scouting in the United Kingdom. For other Scouting organisations with 'The Scout Association' as part of the name, see The Scout Association (disambiguation).

The Scout Association, which also uses the name Scouts UK, is the largest Scout organisation in the United Kingdom. It's the World Organization of the Scout Movement's recognised member for the United Kingdom. Following the origins of the Scout movement in 1907, The Scout Association was formed in 1910 and incorporated in 1912 by a royal charter under its previous name of The Boy Scouts Association.^[1]

The organisation is the largest national Scout organisation in Europe, representing 35% of the membership of the European Scout Region.^[5] As of 2021^[update], the organisation claimed to provide activities to 362,752 young people (aged 4–25) in the UK with over 141,659 adults leaders, which is more than one adult for each 2.5 children.^[6] This represents a significant 22% decline from 464,700 young adults in 2018,^[7] despite commencing a programme for even younger children.

Its programmes now include Squirrels (aged 4–6), Beavers (aged 6–8), Cubs (aged 8–10+1⁄2), Scouts (aged 10+1⁄2–14), Explorer Scouts (aged 14–18) and adult Network members (aged 18–25).

The organisation's current aim is to provide "fun, adventure and skills for life and give young people the opportunity to enjoy new adventures, experience outdoors and take part in a range of creative, community and international activities, interact with others, make new friends, gain confidence and have the opportunity to reach their full potential".^[8] The organisation and its activities are regulated through its "Policy, Organisation and Rules" (POR).^[9]

The organisation is led by its Chief Scout, currently the television presenter, adventurer and author Bear Grylls, alongside a UK chief commissioner, Carl Hankinson, and chief executive, Matt Hyde. The association's joint presidents are the Duke of Kent and the Princess of Wales, and its patron was the late Queen Elizabeth II.^{[10][11][12][13][14]}

1. ^ ^{a b} "Royal Charter of The Boy Scouts Association". Scoutdocs. Retrieved 15 August 2007.
2. ^ "Scouts - Our members: 2022-2023 Annual Report". www.scouts.org.uk. Retrieved 22 February 2024.
3. ^ ^{a b} UK Chief Commissioner Handover Ceremony 2021 (video). The Scout Association – via facebook.
4. ^ ^{a b} "Scouts - Welcome to our new UK Chief Commissioner and our new Chair of the Board of Trustees".
5. ^ Atanackovic, Mihajlo (12 August 2013). "Membership Report 2013 (p. 13)" (PDF). Retrieved 23 October 2013.
6. ^ Cite error: The named reference Scouts - Our members - 2021 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
7. ^ "The Scout Association's Annual Report and Accounts 2016–2017" (PDF). The Scout Association. Retrieved 3 January 2018. (pp. 58)
8. ^ "What we do". The Scout Association. Retrieved 11 September 2016.
9. ^ The Scout Association, Policy, Organisation and Rules, updated September 2021, accessed 8 January 2022
10. ^ "Chapter 6 – The Structure of the Headquarters of The Scout Association" (PDF). Policy, Organisation and Rules. The Scout Association. Retrieved 10 January 2012.
11. ^ "New UK Chief Commissioner Tim Kidd takes up role". Scout Association. 4 September 2016. Archived from the original on 4 September 2016. Retrieved 4 September 2016.
12. ^ "Search Charities and Patronages". royal.gov.uk – The Official website of the British Monarchy. Archived from the original on 25 September 2011. Retrieved 8 October 2011.
13. ^ "HM Queen unveils centenary bronze". The Scout Association. 6 May 2008. Retrieved 8 October 2011. Contains reference in text to the fact of the Queens patronage.
14. ^ "Duchess Kate toasts new scout appointment with marshmallows". Reuters. 29 September 2020. Retrieved 29 September 2020.

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5 January 1976 – The Khmer Rouge announce that the new Constitution of Democratic Kampuchea is ratified.

Democratic Kampuchea

1975–1979 state in Southeast Asia

This article is about Cambodia under the governance of the Khmer Rouge. For the regime generally, see Khmer Rouge. For the ruling party, see Communist Party of Kampuchea.

Kampuchea,^[a] officially Democratic Kampuchea (DK)^[b] from 1976 onward, was the Cambodian state from 1975 to 1979, under the totalitarian dictatorship of Pol Pot and the Communist Party of Kampuchea (CPK), commonly known as the Khmer Rouge (KR). It was established following the Khmer Rouge's capture of the capital Phnom Penh, effectively ending the United States-backed Khmer Republic of Lon Nol. After Vietnam took Phnom Penh in 1979, it was disestablished in 1982 with the creation of the CGDK in its place.

From 1975 to 1979, the Khmer Rouge's one-party regime killed millions of its own people through mass executions, forced labour, and starvation, in an event which has come to be known as the Cambodian genocide. The killings ended when the Khmer Rouge were ousted from Phnom Penh by the Vietnamese army.

The Khmer Rouge subsequently established a government-in-exile in neighbouring Thailand and retained Kampuchea's seat at the United Nations (UN). In response, Vietnamese-backed communists created a rival government, the People's Republic of Kampuchea, but failed to gain international recognition. In 1982, the Khmer Rouge established the Coalition Government of Democratic Kampuchea (CGDK) with two non-communist guerrilla factions, broadening the exiled government of Democratic Kampuchea.^[5] The exiled government renamed itself the National Government of Cambodia in 1990, in the run-up to the UN-sponsored 1991 Paris Peace Agreements.

1. ^ "Cambodia – Religion". Britannica. Retrieved 29 June 2020.
2. ^ Jackson, Karl D. (1989). Cambodia, 1975–1978: Rendezvous with Death. Princeton University Press. p. 219. ISBN 0-691-02541-X.
3. ^ "Khmer Rouge's Slaughter in Cambodia Is Ruled a Genocide". The New York Times. 15 November 2018. Archived from the original on 13 April 2019. Retrieved 13 April 2019.
4. ^ Kiernan, B. (2004) How Pol Pot came to Power. New Haven: Yale University Press, p. xix
5. ^ "Cambodia – COALITION GOVERNMENT OF DEMOCRATIC KAMPUCHEA". countrystudies.us. Retrieved 3 October 2020.

Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

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