This day in .....

29 August 1898 – The Goodyear tire company is founded in Akron, Ohio.

Goodyear Tire and Rubber Company

American multinational tire manufacturer

The Goodyear Tire & Rubber Company is an American multinational tire manufacturer headquartered in Akron, Ohio. Goodyear manufactures tires for passenger vehicles, aviation, commercial trucks, military and police vehicles, motorcycles, RVs, race cars, and heavy off-road machinery. It also licenses the Goodyear brand to bicycle tire manufacturers, returning from a break in production between 1976 and 2015.^[3] As of 2017, Goodyear is one of the top four tire manufacturers along with Bridgestone (Japan), Michelin (France), and Continental (Germany).^[4]

Founded in 1898 by Frank Seiberling, the company was named after American Charles Goodyear (1800–1860), inventor of vulcanized rubber. The first Goodyear tires became popular because they were easily detachable and required little maintenance.^[5] Though Goodyear had been manufacturing airships and balloons since the early 1900s, the first Goodyear advertising blimp flew in 1925. Today, it is one of the most recognizable advertising icons in America.^[6]

The company is the sole tire supplier for NASCAR series and the most successful tire supplier in Formula One history, with more starts, wins, and constructors' championships than any other tire supplier.^[7] They pulled out of the sport after the 1998 season. Goodyear was the first global tire manufacturer to enter China when it invested in a tire manufacturing plant in Dalian in 1994. Goodyear was a component of the Dow Jones Industrial Average between 1930 and 1999.^[8] The company opened a new global headquarters building in Akron in 2013.

1. ^ "Our Company".
2. ^ "The Goodyear Tire & Rubber Company 2017 Annual Report (Form 10-K)". sec.gov. U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission. February 2018.
3. ^ "Goodyear Returns to Bicycle Tires". Bloomberg.com. March 2, 2015. Retrieved January 19, 2018 – via www.bloomberg.com.
4. ^ "Leading tyre manufacturers". Tyrepress. September 26, 2013. Retrieved March 13, 2018.
5. ^ O'Reilly, Maurice (1983). The Goodyear Story. Benjamin Company. pp. 13–21. ISBN 978-0-87502-116-4.
6. ^ Terdiman, Daniel. "Goodyear bids goodbye to blimps, says hello to zeppelins". CNET. Retrieved December 30, 2014.
7. ^ "FormulaSPEED2.0". Archived from the original on March 27, 2012. Retrieved December 29, 2011.
8. ^ "History of DJIA". globalfinancialdata.com. Archived from the original on September 26, 2007.

Read More

 

30 August 1721 – The Great Northern War between Sweden and Russia ends in the Treaty of Nystad.

Great Northern War

18th century conflict between Sweden and Russia

This article is about the 1700–1721 war. For the related series of conflicts, see Northern Wars.

For other uses, see Northern War (disambiguation).

The Great Northern War (1700–1721) was a conflict in which a coalition led by the Tsardom of Russia successfully contested the supremacy of the Swedish Empire in Northern, Central and Eastern Europe. The initial leaders of the anti-Swedish alliance were Peter I of Russia, Frederick IV of Denmark–Norway and Augustus II the Strong of Saxony–Poland–Lithuania. Frederick IV and Augustus II were defeated by Sweden, under Charles XII, and forced out of the alliance in 1700 and 1706 respectively, but rejoined it in 1709 after the defeat of Charles XII at the Battle of Poltava. George I of Great Britain and the Electorate of Hanover joined the coalition in 1714 for Hanover and in 1717 for Britain, and Frederick William I of Brandenburg-Prussia joined it in 1715.

Charles XII led the Swedish army. Swedish allies included Holstein-Gottorp, several Polish magnates under Stanislaus I Leszczyński (1704–1710) and Cossacks under the Ukrainian Hetman Ivan Mazepa (1708–1710). The Ottoman Empire temporarily hosted Charles XII of Sweden and intervened against Peter I.

The war began when an alliance of Denmark–Norway, Saxony and Russia, sensing an opportunity as Sweden was ruled by the young Charles XII, declared war on the Swedish Empire and launched a threefold attack on Swedish Holstein-Gottorp, Swedish Livonia, and Swedish Ingria. Sweden parried the Danish and Russian attacks at Travendal (August 1700) and Narva (November 1700) respectively, and in a counter-offensive pushed Augustus II's forces through the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth to Saxony, dethroning Augustus on the way (September 1706) and forcing him to acknowledge defeat in the Treaty of Altranstädt (October 1706). The treaty also secured the extradition and execution of Johann Reinhold Patkul, architect of the alliance seven years earlier. Meanwhile, the forces of Peter I had recovered from defeat at Narva and gained ground in Sweden's Baltic provinces, where they cemented Russian access to the Baltic Sea by founding Saint Petersburg in 1703. Charles XII moved from Saxony into Russia to confront Peter, but the campaign ended in 1709 with the destruction of the main Swedish army at the decisive Battle of Poltava (in present-day Ukraine) and Charles' exile in the Ottoman town of Bender. The Ottoman Empire defeated the Russian-Moldavian army in the Pruth River Campaign, but that peace treaty was in the end without great consequence to Russia's position.

After Poltava, the anti-Swedish coalition revived and subsequently Hanover and Prussia joined it. The remaining Swedish forces in plague-stricken areas south and east of the Baltic Sea were evicted, with the last city, Tallinn, falling in the autumn of 1710. The coalition members partitioned most of the Swedish dominions among themselves, destroying the Swedish dominium maris baltici. Sweden proper was invaded from the west by Denmark–Norway and from the east by Russia, which had occupied Finland by 1714. Sweden defeated the Danish invaders at the Battle of Helsingborg. Charles XII opened up a Norwegian front but was killed in the Siege of Fredriksten in 1718.

The war ended with the defeat of Sweden, leaving Russia as the new dominant power in the Baltic region and as a new major force in European politics. The Western powers, Great Britain and France, became caught up in the separate War of the Spanish Succession (1701–1714), which broke out over the Bourbon Philip of Anjou's succession to the Spanish throne and a possible joining of France and Spain. The formal conclusion of the Great Northern War came with the Swedish-Hanoverian and Swedish-Prussian Treaties of Stockholm (1719), the Dano-Swedish Treaty of Frederiksborg (1720), and the Russo-Swedish Treaty of Nystad (1721). By these treaties Sweden ceded its exemption from the Sound Dues^[17] and lost the Baltic provinces and the southern part of Swedish Pomerania. The peace treaties also ended its alliance with Holstein-Gottorp. Hanover gained Bremen-Verden, Brandenburg-Prussia incorporated the Oder estuary (Stettin Lagoons), Russia secured the Baltic Provinces, and Denmark strengthened its position in Schleswig-Holstein. In Sweden, the absolute monarchy had come to an end with the death of Charles XII, and Sweden's Age of Liberty began.^[18]

1. ^ Larsson 2009, p. 78
2. ^ Liljegren 2000
3. ^ From 2007, p. 214
4. ^ A Military History of Russia: From Ivan the Terrible to the War in Chechnya, David R. Stone. Greenwood Publishing Group (2006). p. 57.
5. ^ From 2007, p. 240
6. ^ ^{a b} Ericson, Sjöslag och rysshärjningar (2011) Stockholm, Norstedts. p. 55. ISBN 978-91-1-303042-5
7. ^ ^{a b} Grigorjev & Bespalov 2012, p. 52
8. ^ Höglund & Sallnäs 2000, p. 51
9. ^ Józef Andrzej Gierowski – Historia Polski 1505–1764 (History of Poland 1505–1764), pp. 258–261
10. ^ "Tacitus.nu, Örjan Martinsson. Danish force". Tacitus.nu. Archived from the original on 13 October 2014. Retrieved 24 August 2014.
11. ^ Höglund & Sallnäs 2000, p. 132
12. ^ Ericson, Lars, Svenska knektar (2004) Lund: Historiska media^{[page needed]}
13. ^ Teemu Keskisarja (2019). Murhanenkeli. p. 244. Kustannusosakeyhtiö Siltala. ISBN 978-952-234-638-4.
14. ^ Урланис Б. Ц. (1960). Войны и народонаселение Европы. Moscow: Изд-во соц.-экон. лит-ры. p. 55.
15. ^ Pitirim Sorokin "Social and Cultural Dynamics", vol. 3
16. ^ Lindegren, Jan, Det danska och svenska resurssystemet i komparation (1995) Umeå : Björkås : Mitthögsk^{[page needed]}
17. ^ Gosse 1911, p. 206.
18. ^ Gosse 1911, p. 216.

Read More

 

31 August 1888 – Mary Ann Nichols is murdered. She is the first of Jack the Ripper's confirmed victims.

Jack the Ripper

Unidentified serial killer in London in 1888

This article is about the serial killer. For other uses, see Jack the Ripper (disambiguation). For the murders in or near Whitechapel between 1888 and 1891, see Whitechapel murders.

Jack the Ripper was an unidentified serial killer active in and around the impoverished Whitechapel district of London, England, in 1888. In both criminal case files and the contemporaneous journalistic accounts, the killer was also called the Whitechapel Murderer and Leather Apron.

Attacks ascribed to Jack the Ripper typically involved women working as prostitutes who lived and worked in the slums of the East End of London. Their throats were cut prior to abdominal mutilations. The removal of internal organs from at least three of the victims led to speculation that their killer had some anatomical or surgical knowledge. Rumours that the murders were connected intensified in September and October 1888, and numerous letters were received by media outlets and Scotland Yard from individuals purporting to be the murderer.

The name "Jack the Ripper" originated in the "Dear Boss letter" written by an individual claiming to be the murderer, which was disseminated in the press. The letter is widely believed to have been a hoax and may have been written by journalists to heighten interest in the story and increase their newspapers' circulation. The "From Hell letter" received by George Lusk of the Whitechapel Vigilance Committee came with half of a preserved human kidney, purportedly taken from one of the victims. The public came increasingly to believe in the existence of a single serial killer known as Jack the Ripper, mainly because of both the extraordinarily brutal nature of the murders and media coverage of the crimes.

Extensive newspaper coverage bestowed widespread and enduring international notoriety on the Ripper, and the legend solidified. A police investigation into a series of eleven brutal murders committed in Whitechapel and Spitalfields between 1888 and 1891 was unable to connect all the killings conclusively to the murders of 1888. Five victims—Mary Ann Nichols, Annie Chapman, Elizabeth Stride, Catherine Eddowes, and Mary Jane Kelly—are known as the "canonical five" and their murders between 31 August and 9 November 1888 are often considered the most likely to be linked. The murders were never solved, and the legends surrounding these crimes became a combination of historical research, folklore, and pseudohistory, capturing public imagination to the present day.

Read More

 

1 September 1894 – Over 400 people die in the Great Hinckley Fire, a forest fire in Hinckley, Minnesota.

Great Hinckley Fire

1894 forest fire in Minnesota, U.S.

The Great Hinckley Fire was a conflagration in the pine forests of the U.S. state of Minnesota in September 1894, which burned an area of at least 200,000 acres (810 km²; 310 sq mi)^[1] (perhaps more than 250,000 acres [1,000 km²; 390 sq mi]), including the town of Hinckley. The official death count was 418; the actual number of fatalities was likely higher.^[2] Other sources put the death toll at 476.^[3]

1. ^ Haines, Donald A.; Sando, Rodney W. (1969). "Climatic Conditions Preceding Historical Great Fires in the North Central Region". North Central Experimentation Forest Service. US Department of Agriculture.
2. ^ "The Great Hinckley Fire of 1894". Archived from the original on August 7, 2014. Retrieved March 24, 2015.
3. ^ Headlines and Heros. A Treasury of Railroad Folklore. New York, Bonaza Books, 1953

Read More

 

2 September 1985 – Sri Lankan Civil War: Sri Lankan Tamil politicians and former MPs M. Alalasundaram and V. Dharmalingam are shot dead.

Sri Lankan Civil War

1983–2009 conflict

The Sri Lankan Civil War (Tamil: இலங்கை உள்நாட்டுப் போர், romanized: Ilaṅkai uḷnāṭṭup pōr; Sinhala: ශ්‍රී ලංකාවේ සිවිල් යුද්ධය, romanized: śrī laṁkāvē sivil yuddhaya) was a civil war fought in Sri Lanka from 1983 to 2009. Beginning on 23 July 1983, it was an intermittent insurgency against the government by the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE, also known as the Tamil Tigers) led by Velupillai Prabhakaran. The LTTE fought to create an independent Tamil state called Tamil Eelam in the north-east of the island, due to the continuous discrimination and violent persecution against Sri Lankan Tamils by the Sinhalese-dominated Sri Lanka government.^[68][69][70]

Violent persecution erupted in the form of the 1956, 1958, 1977, 1981 and 1983 anti-Tamil pogroms, as well as the 1981 burning of the Jaffna Public Library. These were carried out by the majority Sinhalese mobs often with state support, in the years following Sri Lanka's independence from the British Empire in 1948.^[71] Shortly after gaining independence, Sinhalese was recognized as the sole official language of the nation.^[72] After a 26-year military campaign, the Sri Lankan military defeated the Tamil Tigers in May 2009, bringing the civil war to an end.^[24]

Up to 70,000 had been killed by 2007.^[73][74][75] Immediately following the end of war, on 20 May 2009, the UN estimated a total of 80,000–100,000 deaths.^[76][49][77] However, in 2011, referring to the final phase of the war in 2009, the Report of the Secretary-General's Panel of Experts on Accountability in Sri Lanka stated, "A number of credible sources have estimated that there could have been as many as 40,000 civilian deaths."^[78] The Sri Lankan government has repeatedly refused an independent, international investigation to ascertain the full impact of the war,^[79][80] with some reports claiming that government forces were raping and torturing Tamils involved in collating deaths and disappearances.^[81][82]

Since the end of the civil war, the Sri Lankan state has been subject to much global criticism for violating human rights as a result of committing war crimes through bombing civilian targets, usage of heavy weaponry, the abduction and massacres of Sri Lankan Tamils and sexual violence.^[83][84][85] The LTTE gained notoriety for carrying out numerous attacks against civilians of all ethnicities, particularly those of Sinhalese and Sri Lankan Muslim ethnicity, using child soldiers, assassinations of politicians and dissenters, and the use of suicide bombings against military, political and civilian targets.^[86]

1. ^ "Israeli complicity in Sri Lanka war crimes must be investigated". Al Jazeera. 27 June 2023. Retrieved 10 April 2024.
2. ^ "How China Won Sri Lanka's Civil War". The Independent. 23 May 2009. Retrieved 11 April 2024.
3. ^ "The Countries which funded Sri Lanka". 2020. Retrieved 10 April 2024.
4. ^ "Britain's Private Army operating in Sri Lanka earning millions". 2020. Retrieved 10 April 2024.
5. ^ "Ukrainian and Israeli Pilots operating war planes in Sri Lanka". 1997. Retrieved 10 April 2024.
6. ^ "Sri Lanka's Faustian bargain with Pakistan: Exit LTTE, enter ISI". Business Today. 22 April 2019. Retrieved 11 December 2023.
7. ^ "Pakistan played a key role in LTTE defeat".
8. ^ "'Pak played key role in Lanka's victory over Tamil Tigers'". 28 May 2009.
9. ^ "Israels major role in Sri Lankas War". 2023. Retrieved 10 April 2024.
10. ^ "Britain sold Arms during the final stages of the conflict". 2009. Retrieved 10 April 2024.
11. ^ "Page 75 onwards lists the 10 EU countries which supplied weapons to Sri Lanka. Spain being the only country were the true details of how the money was spent is still a mystery". 2008. Retrieved 10 April 2024.
12. ^ "Slovakia Sells Arms to Sri Lanka despite being in violation of EU Law". 2008. Retrieved 10 April 2024.
13. ^ "Bulgaria stops selling arms to Sri Lanka after humanitarian crisis unfolds". 2008. Retrieved 10 April 2024.
14. ^ "Have a personal rapport with the late Palestinian President, Yasser Arafat". 11 January 2005. Retrieved 11 April 2024.
15. ^ "Mapping Militant Organisations EROS and the PLO". 7 August 2013. Retrieved 11 April 2024.
16. ^ "We took Tea as a symbol for the Palestinians". 7 August 2002. Retrieved 11 April 2024.
17. ^ "The Untold Story". 7 August 2002. Retrieved 11 April 2024.
18. ^ "'China was the principal arms supplier to LTTE'". 16 May 2012.
19. ^ "The story of a North Korea-backed rebellion in Sri Lanka". 10 October 2017.
20. ^ "LTTE were set to get new aircraft". 23 September 2009.
21. ^ "LTTE got most of its arms from Ukraine: Karuna". 6 November 2009.
22. ^ Bonner, Raymond (3 August 1998). "Bulgaria Becomes a Weapons Bazaar". The New York Times. Retrieved 26 May 2024.
23. ^ "Sri Lankan president declares war 'victory'". CNN. Retrieved 28 February 2022.
24. ^ ^{a b} "LTTE defeated; Sri Lanka liberated from terror". Ministry of Defence. 18 May 2009. Archived from the original on 21 May 2009. Retrieved 18 May 2009.
25. ^ "Sri Lanka's Faustian bargain with Pakistan: Exit LTTE, enter ISI". Business Today. 22 April 2019. Retrieved 11 December 2023.
26. ^ ^{a b c} International Institute for Strategic Studies, Armed Conflicts Database. Archived 11 May 2006 at the Wayback Machine
27. ^ "MMP: Liberation Tigers of Tamil Elam".
28. ^ "Armed Conflict Database". Archived from the original on 11 May 2006.
29. ^ "Opposition leader rebutts [sic] Sri Lankan government claims". 26 December 2008. Archived from the original on 26 December 2008.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link)
30. ^ "Humanitarian Operation – Factual Analysis, July 2006 – May 2009" (PDF). Ministry of Defence (Sri Lanka). 1 August 2011. Archived from the original (PDF) on 4 March 2016.
31. ^ ^{a b} "Sri Lankan president showers praises on the military". 26 May 2018.
32. ^ "Sri Lanka Database – Casualties of Terrorist violence in Sri Lanka". Channel NewsAsia. Archived from the original on 6 June 2009. Retrieved 18 May 2018.
33. ^ Total Destruction of the Tamil Tigers: The Rare Victory of Sri Lanka's Long War. Pen and Sword. 19 March 2013. ISBN 9781783830749.
34. ^ "TamilNet".
35. ^ "Report on Sri Lanka's missing 'almost ready'". The Hindu. 31 August 2015.
36. ^ "Economic Burden by Sending IPKF in Sri Lanka" (PDF). Press Information Bureau of India – Archive. 15 December 1999. Retrieved 16 April 2020.
37. ^ Nakkawita, Wijitha (3 June 2009). "LTTE killing spree". Daily News. Archived from the original on 11 January 2013. Retrieved 29 April 2012.
38. ^ "Eelam War IV: Imminent End". Archived from the original on 12 October 2017.
39. ^ "Tamils mark 25-years of Tiger sacrifice" Tamilnet.
40. ^ 4073 LTTE cadres killed in ongoing battle.
41. ^ "LTTE leader pays homage on Heroes Day", Tamilnet
42. ^ "Sri Lankan experience proves nothing is impossible". The Sunday Observer. 5 June 2011. Archived from the original on 8 June 2011. Retrieved 5 June 2011.
43. ^ "UN 'failed Sri Lanka civilians', says internal probe". BBC News. 13 November 2012. Retrieved 13 November 2012.
44. ^ "Recorded figures of Arrests, Killings, Disappearances". www.tchr.net. Retrieved 17 March 2023.
45. ^ "Collection of NESoHR's Human Rights Reports 2005-2009" (PDF). NESHOR. pp. 659–861.
46. ^ "Sri Lanka's war 10 years on: Finding Father Francis". BBC News. London, U.K. 18 May 2019. Retrieved 22 March 2021.
47. ^ "UN rights chief seeks sanctions against Sri Lanka generals". France 24. Agence France-Presse. 27 January 2021. Retrieved 22 March 2021.
48. ^ "Open Wounds and Mounting Dangers". Human Rights Watch. New York, U.S. 1 February 2021. Retrieved 22 March 2021.
49. ^ ^{a b} "Up to 100,000 killed in Sri Lanka's civil war: UN". ABC Australia. 20 May 2009.
50. ^ "UN to collect evidence of alleged Sri Lanka war crimes". BBC. 23 March 2021. Retrieved 2 May 2021.
51. ^ "Report 124 – Sri Lanka: The Failure of the Peace Process". Brussels, Belgium: International Crisis Group. 28 November 2006. Retrieved 22 March 2021.
52. ^ Tramble, Rashunda (31 October 2006). "Sri Lankan talks stop on the A9 highway". International Relations and Security Network. ReliefWeb. Retrieved 22 March 2021.
53. ^ "Report of the Secretary-General's Panel of Experts on Accountability in Sri Lanka". Refworld/United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees. United Nations. 31 March 2011. p. 41. Retrieved 22 March 2021.
54. ^ "Sri Lanka Marks 10 Years Since Civil War's End". Voice of America. Washington, D.C., U.S.A. Agence France-Presse. 18 May 2019. Retrieved 22 March 2021.
55. ^ "Sri Lanka starts count of civil war dead". Al Jazeera. Doha, Qatar. Associated Press. 28 November 2013. Retrieved 22 March 2021.
56. ^ ^{a b} "Sri Lankan forces ended LTTE civil war through 'humanitarian operation': Gotabaya". The Hindu. 19 May 2022.
57. ^ Haviland, Charles (11 January 2011). "Sri Lanka's war panel arouses strong emotions". BBC News. London, U.K. Retrieved 4 July 2021.
58. ^ "Tamils remember war dead in Sri Lanka". Deutsche Welle. Bonn, Germany. 18 May 2019. Retrieved 4 July 2021.
59. ^ "TamilNet".
60. ^ Death Toll In Sri Lanka's 2009 War https://itjpsl.com/assets/ITJP_death_toll_A4_v6.pdf
61. ^ "Report of the Secretary-General's Internal Review Panel on United Nations Action in Sri Lanka". United Nations. November 2012. p. 14. Retrieved 22 March 2021.
62. ^ Macrae, Callum (3 September 2013). "Sri Lanka: Slaughter in the no fire zone". The Guardian. London, U.K. Retrieved 22 March 2021.
63. ^ Charbonneau, Louis (15 November 2012). "U.N. failed gravely in Sri Lanka – internal review panel". Reuters. London, U.K. Retrieved 22 March 2021.
64. ^ Hawdon, James; Ryan, John; Lucht, Marc (6 August 2014). The Causes and Consequences of Group Violence: From Bullies to Terrorists. Lexington Books. p. 98. ISBN 978-0-7391-8897-2.
65. ^ "Global Overview 2012: People internally displaced by conflict and violence – Sri Lanka". Norwegian Refugee Council/Internal Displacement Monitoring Centre (NRC/IDMC). 29 April 2013. Retrieved 29 March 2021.
66. ^ Cite error: The named reference voas was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
67. ^ Cite error: The named reference tonline1 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
68. ^ T. Sabaratnam, Pirapaharan, Volume 1, Introduction (2003)
69. ^ T. Sabaratnam, Pirapaharan, Volume 1, Chapter 1: Why didn't he hit back? (2003)
70. ^ T. Sabaratnam, Pirapaharan, Volume 2, Chapter 3: The Final Solution (2004)
71. ^ Thottam, Jyoti (19 May 2009). "Prabhakaran: The Life and Death of a Tiger". Time. ISSN 0040-781X. Retrieved 18 May 2020.
72. ^ Kearney, Robert N. (1 March 1986). "Tension and Conflict in Sri Lanka". Current History. ProQuest 1309776036.
73. ^ "UN, aid agencies appeal for civilian protection in Sri Lanka as over 100,000 flee". UN News. 12 March 2007.
74. ^ "Defiant Tigers cling to last bastion". 16 July 2007 – via BBC News.
75. ^ "Sri Lanka says 147 dead in recent fighting". Reuters. 15 October 2007.
76. ^ Mahr, Krista (28 November 2013). "Sri Lanka to Start Tally of Civil-War Dead". Time.
77. ^ "Sri Lanka PM will protect military on UN rights action". Canadian Broadcasting Corporation. 27 May 2011. Retrieved 5 February 2021.
78. ^ "Report of the Secretary-General's Panel of Experts on Accountability in Sri Lanka" (PDF). United Nations. 31 March 2011. Retrieved 5 February 2021.
79. ^ "Sri Lanka to refuse entry to UN investigators". www.telegraph.co.uk. 19 August 2014.
80. ^ "Sri Lanka rejects growing calls for UN war crimes investigation". www.telegraph.co.uk. 30 January 2014.
81. ^ "ITJP Press release" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 26 February 2021. Retrieved 20 May 2023.
82. ^ International Crimes Evidence Project (ICEP) Sri Lanka, Island of impunity? Investigation into international crimes in the final stages of the Sri Lankan civil war. (2014) https://piac.asn.au/2014/02/12/island-of-impunity/ p175
83. ^ "War on the Displaced". Human Rights Watch. 19 February 2009.
84. ^ "The Sri Lankan Civil War and Its History, Revisited in 2020". Harvard International Review. 31 August 2020. Retrieved 7 April 2024.
85. ^ "The Sri Lankan Conflict". Council on Foreign Relations. Retrieved 7 April 2024.
86. ^ "Report of the Secretary-General's Panel of Experts on Accountability in Sri Lanka" (PDF). United Nations. November 2012. p. 28. Retrieved 12 May 2021.

Read More

 

3 September 1666 – The Royal Exchange burns down in the Great Fire of London.

Great Fire of London

Conflagration in 1666

This article is about the 1666 Fire of London. For other "Great Fires", see List of historic fires. For other notable fires in London, see Early fires of London and Second Great Fire of London. For the Peter Ackroyd novel, see The Great Fire of London (novel).

The Great Fire of London was a major conflagration that swept through central London from Sunday 2 September to Thursday 6 September 1666,^[1] gutting the medieval City of London inside the old Roman city wall, while also extending past the wall to the west. The death toll is generally thought to have been relatively small,^[2][3] although some historians have challenged this belief.^[4]

The fire started in a bakery in Pudding Lane shortly after midnight on Sunday 2 September, and spread rapidly. The use of the major firefighting technique of the time, the creation of firebreaks by means of removing structures in the fire's path, was critically delayed due to the indecisiveness of the Lord Mayor, Sir Thomas Bloodworth. By the time large-scale demolitions were ordered on Sunday night, the wind had already fanned the bakery fire into a firestorm which defeated such measures. The fire pushed north on Monday into the heart of the City. Order in the streets broke down as rumours arose of suspicious foreigners setting fires. The fears of the homeless focused on the French and Dutch, England's enemies in the ongoing Second Anglo-Dutch War; these substantial immigrant groups became victims of street violence. On Tuesday, the fire spread over nearly the whole city, destroying St Paul's Cathedral and leaping the River Fleet to threaten Charles II's court at Whitehall. Coordinated firefighting efforts were simultaneously getting underway. The battle to put out the fire is considered to have been won by two key factors: the strong east wind dropped, and the Tower of London garrison used gunpowder to create effective firebreaks, halting further spread eastward.

The social and economic problems created by the disaster were overwhelming. Flight from London and settlement elsewhere were strongly encouraged by Charles II, who feared a London rebellion amongst the dispossessed refugees. Various schemes for rebuilding the city were proposed, some of them very radical. After the fire, London was reconstructed on essentially the same medieval street plan, which still exists today.^[5]

Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

1. ^ All dates are given according to the Julian calendar. When recording British history, it is usual to use the dates recorded at the time of the event. Any dates between 1 January and 25 March have their year adjusted to start on 1 January according to the New Style.
2. ^ Cite error: The named reference tindeath was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
3. ^ Cite error: The named reference porterdeath was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
4. ^ Cite error: The named reference Hanson 2001, 326–33 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
5. ^ Reddaway, 27

Read More

 

4 September 1923 – Maiden flight of the first U.S. airship, the USS Shenandoah.

USS Shenandoah (ZR-1)

United States Navy rigid airship

For other ships with the same name, see USS Shenandoah.

"ZR-1" redirects here. For the automobile trim, see Chevrolet Corvette ZR-1.

USS Shenandoah was the first of four United States Navy rigid airships. It was constructed during 1922–1923 at Lakehurst Naval Air Station, and first flew in September 1923. It developed the U.S. Navy's experience with rigid airships and made the first crossing of North America by airship. On the 57th flight,^[2] Shenandoah was destroyed in a squall line over Ohio in September 1925.^[3]

1. ^ "NPS Focus". National Register of Historic Places. National Park Service. Retrieved 3 August 2013.
2. ^ Hayward (1978) p. 67
3. ^ Hayward (1978) p. 66

Read More

 

5 September 1836 – Sam Houston is elected as the first president of the Republic of Texas.

Republic of Texas

Historical republic, 1836–1846

Not to be confused with Texas.

The Republic of Texas (Spanish: República de Tejas), or simply Texas, was a breakaway state in North America. It existed for just under 10 years, from March 2, 1836 to February 19, 1846. It shared borders with Mexico, the Republic of the Rio Grande (another Mexican breakaway republic), and the United States of America.

Much of its territory was controlled by Mexico or Comancheria; Mexico considered it a rebellious province during its entire existence. It was bordered by Mexico to the west and southwest, the Gulf of Mexico to the southeast, the two U.S. states of Louisiana and Arkansas to the east and northeast, and United States territories encompassing parts of the current U.S. states of Oklahoma, Kansas, Colorado, Wyoming, and New Mexico to the north and west. The Anglo residents of the area and of the republic were referred to as Texians.^[4]

The Mexican state of Coahuila y Tejas declared its independence from Mexico during the Texas Revolution in 1835–1836, when the Centralist Republic of Mexico abolished autonomy from states of the Mexican federal republic. Major fighting ended on April 21, 1836, but the Mexican Congress refused to recognize the independence of the Republic of Texas, as the Treaties of Velasco was signed by Mexican President General Antonio López de Santa Anna under duress as prisoner of the Texians. The majority of the Mexican Congress did not approve the agreement.

Intermittent conflicts between Mexico and Texas continued into the 1840s. The United States recognized the Republic of Texas in March 1837 but declined to annex the territory at that time.^[5][6]

Texas was annexed by the United States on December 29, 1845,^[7] and was admitted to the Union as the 28th state on that day, with the transfer of power from the Republic to the new state of Texas formally taking place on February 19, 1846.^[8] However, the United States inherited the southern and western border-disputes with Mexico, which had refused to recognize Texas's independence or to accept U.S. offers to purchase the territory. Consequently, the annexation led to the Mexican–American War (1846–1848).

1. ^ "Flags and Other Symbols | TX Almanac". www.texasalmanac.com. 2023. Archived from the original on January 22, 2022. Retrieved September 26, 2023.
2. ^ Greenfield, David (March 1, 2001). "Texas Tidbits". Texas Monthly. Archived from the original on October 3, 2015. Retrieved September 26, 2023.
3. ^ ^{a b c} "Flags of Texas". Handbook of Texas Online. Texas State Historical Association. Retrieved June 3, 2016.
4. ^ "Texian". Oxford English Dictionary (Online ed.). Oxford University Press. (Subscription or participating institution membership required.) – the term "Texian" dates from at least 1835.
5. ^ Henderson (2008), p. 121.
6. ^ Crapol, Edward P. (2012) [2006]. "Texas". John Tyler, the Accidental President. Legal classics library (revised ed.). University of North Carolina Press. p. 177. ISBN 978-0807872239. Retrieved May 18, 2022. After Van Buren was safely elected, Jackson granted formal diplomatic recognition to the Lone Star Republic. A few months later, in August 1837, the Texians officially requested annexation, but Van Buren, fearing an anti-slavery backlash and domestic turmoil, rebuffed them.
7. ^ O'Neill, R. (2011). Texas War of Independence. Rosen Publishing Group. p. 85. ISBN 978-1448813322.
8. ^ Kelly F. Himmel (1999). The Conquest of the Karankawas and the Tonkawas: 1821–1859. Texas A&M University Press. p. 93. ISBN 978-0-89096-867-3.

Read More

 

6 September 1972 – Munich massacre: Nine Israeli athletes die (along with a German policeman) at the hands of the Palestinian "Black September" terrorist group after being taken hostage at the Munich Olympic Games. Two other Israeli athletes were slain in the initial attack the previous day.

Munich massacre

1972 Summer Olympics murder of Israeli athletes

This article is about the 1972 massacre. For other uses, see Munich attack.

The Munich massacre was a terrorist attack during the 1972 Summer Olympics in Munich, West Germany, carried out by eight members of the Palestinian militant organization Black September. The militants infiltrated the Olympic Village, killed two members of the Israeli Olympic team, and took nine others hostage, who were later killed in a failed rescue attempt.^[1][2][3][4]

Black September commander and negotiator Luttif Afif named the operation "Iqrit and Biram",^[5][6][7] after two Palestinian Christian villages whose inhabitants were expelled by Israel during the 1948 Palestine war.^[8][9][10] West German neo-Nazis provided logistical assistance to the group.^[11] Shortly after the hostages were taken, Afif demanded the release of a significant number of Palestinians and non-Arab prisoners held in Israel, as well as West German–imprisoned founders of the Red Army Faction, Andreas Baader and Ulrike Meinhof. The list included 328 detainees.^[12]

West German police from the regular Bavarian State Police ambushed the terrorists, killing five of the eight Black September members. However, the rescue attempt failed, resulting in the deaths of all the hostages.^[13]

A West German police officer was also killed in the crossfire. The West German government faced criticism for the rescue attempt and its handling of the incident. The three surviving perpetrators were arrested but were released the following month in a hostage exchange after the hijacking of Lufthansa Flight 615.

By then, the Israeli government had launched an assassination campaign, which authorized Mossad to track down and kill anyone who had played a role in the attack.^[14][15]

Two days before the start of the 2016 Summer Olympics, Brazilian and Israeli officials led a ceremony where the International Olympic Committee honored the eleven Israelis and one German killed at Munich.^[16] During the 2020 Summer Olympics, a moment of silence was observed in the opening ceremony.^[17]

1. ^ Juan Sanchez (2007). Terrorism & Its Effects. Global Media. p. 144. ISBN 978-81-89940-93-5. Retrieved 16 December 2012.^{[permanent dead link]}
2. ^ Aubrey, Stefan M. (2001). The New Dimension of International Terrorism. vdf Hochschulverlag AG. ISBN 978-3-7281-2949-9. Archived from the original on 1 August 2023. Retrieved 22 June 2010.
3. ^ Encyclopedia of terrorism. Sage Publications. 2003. p. 248. ISBN 978-0-7619-2408-1. Retrieved 22 June 2010 – via Internet Archive.
4. ^ Simon, Jeffrey David (1976). The Terrorist Trap: America's Experience with Terrorism. Indiana University Press. ISBN 978-0-253-21477-5. Retrieved 22 June 2010.
5. ^ Germany and Israel: Whitewashing and Statebuilding. Oxford University Press. 30 March 2020. p. 146. ISBN 978-0-19-754000-8.
6. ^ Sylas, Eluma Ikemefuna (2006). Terrorism: A Global Scourge. AuthorHouse. ISBN 978-1-4259-0530-9. Archived from the original on 1 August 2023. Retrieved 7 June 2010.
7. ^ Black, Ian; Morris, Benny (1991). Israel's secret wars: a history of Israel's intelligence services. New York: Grove Weidenfeld. ISBN 978-0-8021-1159-3.
8. ^ Benveniśtî, Mêrôn (2000). Sacred landscape: the buried history of the Holy Land since 1948. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-23422-2. pp. 325–326.
9. ^ "Justice for Ikrit and Biram" Archived 12 October 2017 at the Wayback Machine, Haaretz, 10 October 2001.
10. ^ Elias Chacour with David Hazard: Blood Brothers: A Palestinian Struggles for Reconciliation in the Middle East. ISBN 978-0-8007-9321-0. Foreword by Secretary James A. Baker III. 2nd Expanded ed. 2003. pp. 44–61.
11. ^ Latsch, Gunther; Wiegrefe, Klaus (18 June 2012), "Files Reveal Neo-Nazis Helped Palestinian Terrorists", Spiegel Online, archived from the original on 12 December 2013, retrieved 30 July 2012
12. ^ "The hostage-takers' demands; Original typewritten English-language communiqués (with German translations) of 'Black September' and the complete name list of the 328 detainees to be released". Fürstenfeldbruck: Fürstenfeldbruck District Office, Munich State Archives, Munich Public Prosecutor's Office. 2022. Retrieved 15 August 2024.
13. ^ Cite error: The named reference :0 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
14. ^ James Montague (5 September 2012). "The Munich massacre: A survivor's story". CNN. Archived from the original on 21 June 2018. Retrieved 25 February 2013.
15. ^ "The Mossad's secret wars". Al Jazeera. 20 February 2010. Archived from the original on 8 August 2017. Retrieved 26 July 2022.
16. ^ "First official Olympic ceremony held in memory of Munich victims" Archived 14 August 2016 at the Wayback Machine, The Jerusalem Post; accessed 5 September 2017.
17. ^ Spungin, Tal (23 July 2021). "Olympics: Moment of silence for Munich massacre victims for first time". The Jerusalem Post. Archived from the original on 7 May 2022. Retrieved 23 July 2021.

Read More

 

7 September 1921 – In Atlantic City, New Jersey, the first Miss America Pageant, a two-day event, is held.

Miss America

Annual competition in the United States

Not to be confused with Miss USA or Miss United States.

For the most recent competition, see Miss America 2024. For other uses, see Miss America (disambiguation).

Miss America is an annual competition that is open to women from the United States between the ages of 18 and 28.^[1] Originating in 1921 as a "bathing beauty revue",^[2] the contest is judged on competition segments with scoring percentages: Private Interview (30%) – a 10-minute press conference-style interview with a panel of judges, On Stage Question (10%) – answering a judge's question onstage, Talent or HER Story (20%) – a performance talent or 90 second speech, Health and Fitness (20%) – demonstrated physical fitness onstage dressed in athletic wear, and Evening Gown (20%) – modeling evening-wear onstage.^[3][4][5]

The previous year's titleholder crowns the winner. Miss America 2024 is Madison Marsh of Colorado, who was crowned on January 14, 2024. She will crown her successor at Miss America 2025.

1. ^ "Become a Participant". Retrieved June 12, 2023.
2. ^ Cite error: The named reference early was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
3. ^ "Areas of Competition". Miss District of Columbia Scholarship Organization. Retrieved June 13, 2023.
4. ^ "Miss Delegates". Miss Vermont Scholarship Organization. July 29, 2016. Retrieved June 13, 2023.
5. ^ "Learn How to Become a Miss Contestant In the Miss Wisconsin Pageant". Miss Wisconsin. Retrieved June 13, 2023.

Read More

 

8 September 1966 – The landmark American science fiction television series Star Trek premieres with its first-aired episode, "The Man Trap".

Star Trek: The Original Series

American science fiction television series

Star Trek is an American science fiction television series created by Gene Roddenberry that follows the adventures of the starship USS Enterprise (NCC-1701) and its crew. It acquired the retronym of Star Trek: The Original Series (TOS) to distinguish the show within the media franchise that it began.^[3]

The show is set in the Milky Way galaxy, c. 2266–2269. The ship and crew are led by Captain James T. Kirk (William Shatner), First Officer and Science Officer Spock (Leonard Nimoy), and Chief Medical Officer Leonard H. "Bones" McCoy (DeForest Kelley). Shatner's voice-over introduction during each episode's opening credits stated the starship's purpose:

Space: the final frontier. These are the voyages of the starship Enterprise. Its five-year mission: to explore strange new worlds, to seek out new life and new civilizations, to boldly go where no man has gone before.

Norway Productions and Desilu Productions produced the series from September 1966 to December 1967. Paramount Television produced the show from January 1968 to June 1969. Star Trek aired on NBC from September 8, 1966, to June 3, 1969.^[4] It was first broadcast on September 6, 1966, on Canada's CTV network.^[5] While on NBC, Star Trek's Nielsen ratings were low and the network canceled it after three seasons and 79 episodes. In the United Kingdom the series was not broadcast until July 12, 1969, coinciding with the Apollo 11 mission to land the first humans on the Moon.^[6] Through broadcast syndication it became an international success in the 1970s, achieving cult classic status and a developing influence on popular culture. Star Trek eventually spawned a media franchise consisting of 11 television series, 13 feature films, and numerous books, games, and toys, and is now widely considered one of the most popular and influential television series of all time.^[7]

1. ^ "Star Trek". imdb.com. September 8, 1966. Archived from the original on July 21, 2010. Retrieved July 19, 2010.
2. ^ 1634–1699: McCusker, J. J. (1997). How Much Is That in Real Money? A Historical Price Index for Use as a Deflator of Money Values in the Economy of the United States: Addenda et Corrigenda (PDF). American Antiquarian Society. 1700–1799: McCusker, J. J. (1992). How Much Is That in Real Money? A Historical Price Index for Use as a Deflator of Money Values in the Economy of the United States (PDF). American Antiquarian Society. 1800–present: Federal Reserve Bank of Minneapolis. "Consumer Price Index (estimate) 1800–". Retrieved February 29, 2024.
3. ^ Strauss, Larry (September 3, 1998). "Trekkers' paradise found on local TV". News-Press. Fort Myers, Florida. p. E1. Archived from the original on September 5, 2019. Retrieved September 5, 2019 – via newspapers.com. (Strauss:) ... thanks ... to the Sci-Fi Channel ... which brought the original series back to TV Tuesday night. Dubbed 'Star Trek: The Original Series', scenes that were cut from episodes that aired in syndication have been restored, and shows have been digitally remastered and color-corrected.
4. ^ "Star Trek (a titles & telecast dates guide)". epguides.com. Archived from the original on February 24, 2010. Retrieved April 4, 2010.
5. ^ "Today's TV Previews". Montreal Gazette. September 6, 1966. p. 36. Archived from the original on April 8, 2017. Retrieved September 8, 2016.
6. ^ Williams, Michael (July 10, 1969). "Switching from fact to fiction... Star Trek – introducing a space series packed with pointers to our galaxy-trotting future". Radio Times. No. 2383. London: British Broadcasting Corporation. p. 32. (See also listing at the BBC Genome Project).
7. ^ Asherman, Allan (1981). The Star Trek Compendium. New York: Simon & Schuster. ISBN 0-671-79145-1.

Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

Read More

 

9 September 1845 – Possible start of the Great Famine of Ireland.

Great Famine (Ireland)

Famine in Ireland from 1845 to 1852

"Irish famine" and "Great Hunger" redirect here. For other famines in Ireland, see Irish famine (disambiguation). For the book written by Cecil Woodham-Smith, see The Great Hunger: Ireland 1845–1849.

The Great Famine, also known as the Great Hunger (Irish: an Gorta Mór [ənˠ ˈɡɔɾˠt̪ˠə ˈmˠoːɾˠ]), the Famine and the Irish Potato Famine,^[1][2] was a period of starvation and disease in Ireland lasting from 1845 to 1852 that constituted a historical social crisis and subsequently had a major impact on Irish society and history as a whole.^[3] The most severely affected areas were in the western and southern parts of Ireland—where the Irish language was dominant—and hence the period was contemporaneously known in Irish as an Drochshaol,^[4] which literally translates to "the bad life" and loosely translates to "the hard times". The worst year of the famine was 1847, which became known as "Black '47".^[5][6] The population of Ireland on the eve of the famine was about 8.5 million, by 1901 it was just 4.4 million.^[7] During the Great Hunger, roughly 1 million people died and more than 1 million more fled the country,^[8] causing the country's population to fall by 20–25% (in some towns, populations fell as much as 67%) between 1841 and 1871.^[9][10][11] Between 1845 and 1855, at least 2.1 million people left Ireland, primarily on packet ships but also on steamboats and barques—one of the greatest exoduses from a single island in history.^[12][13]

The proximate cause of the famine was the infection of potato crops by blight (Phytophthora infestans)^[14] throughout Europe during the 1840s. Blight infection caused 100,000 deaths outside Ireland and influenced much of the unrest that culminated in European Revolutions of 1848.^[15] Longer-term reasons for the massive impact of this particular famine included the system of absentee landlordism^[16][17] and single-crop dependence.^[18][19] Initial limited but constructive government actions to alleviate famine distress were ended by a new Whig administration in London, which pursued a laissez-faire economic doctrine, but also because some in power believed in divine providence or that the Irish lacked moral character,^[20][21] with aid only resuming to some degree later. Large amounts of food were exported from Ireland during the famine and the refusal of London to bar such exports, as had been done on previous occasions, was an immediate and continuing source of controversy, contributing to anti-British sentiment and the campaign for independence. Additionally, the famine indirectly resulted in tens of thousands of households being evicted, exacerbated by a provision forbidding access to workhouse aid while in possession of more than one-quarter acre of land.

The famine was a defining moment in the history of Ireland,^[3] which was part of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland from 1801 to 1922. The famine and its effects permanently changed the island's demographic, political, and cultural landscape, producing an estimated 2 million refugees and spurring a century-long population decline.^{[22][23][24][25]} For both the native Irish and those in the resulting diaspora, the famine entered folk memory.^[26] The strained relations between many Irish people and the then ruling British government worsened further because of the famine, heightening ethnic and sectarian tensions and boosting nationalism and republicanism both in Ireland and among Irish emigrants around the world. English documentary maker John Percival said that the famine "became part of the long story of betrayal and exploitation which led to the growing movement in Ireland for independence." Scholar Kirby Miller makes the same point.^[27][28] Debate exists regarding nomenclature for the event, whether to use the term "Famine", "Potato Famine" or "Great Hunger", the last of which some believe most accurately captures the complicated history of the period.^[29]

The potato blight returned to Europe in 1879 but, by this time, the Land War (one of the largest agrarian movements to take place in 19th-century Europe) had begun in Ireland.^[30] The movement, organized by the Land League, continued the political campaign for the Three Fs which was issued in 1850 by the Tenant Right League during the Great Famine. When the potato blight returned to Ireland in the 1879 famine, the League boycotted "notorious landlords" and its members physically blocked the evictions of farmers; the consequent reduction in homelessness and house demolition resulted in a drastic reduction in the number of deaths.^[31]

1. ^ Kinealy 1994, p. 5.
2. ^ O'Neill 2009, p. 1.
3. ^ ^{a b} Kinealy 1994, p. xv.
4. ^ [1]Archived 12 May 2020 at the Wayback Machine The great famine (An Drochshaol). Dúchas.ie
5. ^ Éamon Ó Cuív, [2]Archived 17 May 2020 at the Wayback Machine An Gorta Mór – the impact and legacy of the Great Irish Famine
6. ^ An Fháinleog Archived 18 August 2020 at the Wayback Machine Chapter 6. "drochshaol, while it can mean a hard life, or hard times, also, with a capital letter, has a specific, historic meaning: Bliain an Drochshaoil means The Famine Year, particularly 1847; Aimsir an Drochshaoil means the time of the Great Famine (1847–52)."
7. ^ "Black '47 Ireland's Great Famine and its after-effects - Department of Foreign Affairs". www.dfa.ie. Retrieved 29 August 2024.
8. ^ Ross 2002, p. 226.
9. ^ Kinealy 1994, p. 357.
10. ^ "Census of Ireland 1871 : Part I, Area, Population, and Number of Houses; Occupations, Religion and Education volume I, Province of Leinster". HMSO. 11 March 1872. Retrieved 11 March 2023 – via Internet Archive.
11. ^ Carolan, Michael. Éireann's Exiles: Reconciling generations of secrets and separations. Archived 30 January 2021 at the Wayback Machine 3 April 2020. Accessed 15 January 2021.
12. ^ James S. Donnelly Jr., The Great Irish Potato Famine (Thrupp, Stroud: Sutton Publishing, 2001) p. 181.
13. ^ Hollett, David. Passage to the New World: packet ships and Irish famine emigrants, 1845–1851. United Kingdom, P.M. Heaton, 1995, p. 103.
14. ^ Ó Gráda 2006, p. 7.
15. ^ Ó Gráda, Cormac; Vanhaute, Eric; Paping, Richard (August 2006). The European subsistence crisis of 1845–1850: a comparative perspective (PDF). XIV International Economic History Congress of the International Economic History Association: Session 123. Helsinki. Archived from the original (PDF) on 17 April 2017.
16. ^ Laxton 1997, p. ^{[page needed]}.
17. ^ Litton 1994, p. ^{[page needed]}.
18. ^ Póirtéir 1995, pp. 19–20.
19. ^ Fraser, Evan D. G. (30 October 2003). "Social vulnerability and ecological fragility: building bridges between social and natural sciences using the Irish Potato Famine as a case study". Conservation Ecology. 2 (7). Archived from the original on 14 February 2020. Retrieved 28 May 2019.
20. ^ "British History in depth: The Irish Famine". BBC History. Retrieved 5 June 2023.
21. ^ "Racism and Anti-Irish Prejudice in Victorian England". victorianweb.org. Retrieved 5 June 2023.
22. ^ Kelly, M.; Fotheringham, A. Stewart (2011). "The online atlas of Irish population change 1841–2002: A new resource for analysing national trends and local variations in Irish population dynamics". Irish Geography. 44 (2–3): 215–244. doi:10.1080/00750778.2011.664806. population declining dramatically from 8.2 million to 6.5 million between 1841 and 1851 and then declining gradually and almost continuously to 4.5 million in 1961
23. ^ "The Vanishing Irish: Ireland's population from the Great Famine to the Great War". 28 January 2013. Archived from the original on 12 May 2020. Retrieved 3 September 2018.
24. ^ K. H. Connell, The Population of Ireland 1750–1845 (Oxford, 1951).^{[page needed]}
25. ^ T. Guinnane, The Vanishing Irish: Households, Migration, and the Rural Economy in Ireland, 1850–1914 (Princeton, 1997)^{[page needed]}
26. ^ Kinealy 1994, p. 342.
27. ^ Percival, John (1995). Great Famine: Ireland's Potato Famine 1845–51. Diane Publishing Company. ISBN 978-0788169625. Archived from the original on 15 April 2021. Retrieved 29 July 2020 – via Google Books.
28. ^ Miller, Kerby A. Ireland and Irish America: Culture, Class, and Transatlantic Migration. Ireland, Field Day, 2008, p. 49.
29. ^ Egan, Casey. The Irish Potato Famine, the Great Hunger, genocide – what should we call it? Potato blight played a role, but there was much more at play in Ireland's Great Hunger of 1845–1852. What should it be called? IrishCentral.com Archived 11 February 2021 at the Wayback Machine. 31 May 2015. Accessed 29 January 2021.
30. ^ Tebrake, Janet K. (May 1992). "Irish peasant women in revolt: The Land League years". Irish Historical Studies. 28 (109): 63–80. doi:10.1017/S0021121400018587. S2CID 156376321.
31. ^ Curtis, L. Perry (Lewis Perry) (11 June 2007). "The Battering Ram and Irish Evictions, 1887–90". Irish-American Cultural Institute. 42 (3): 207–228. doi:10.1353/eir.2007.0039. S2CID 161069346. Archived from the original on 30 March 2019. Retrieved 2 September 2018 – via Project MUSE.

Read More

 

10 September 1573 – German pirate Klein Henszlein and 33 of his crew are beheaded in Hamburg

Klein Henszlein

16th-century German pirate

Klein Henszlein [Klaus Hanslein] (died 1573) was a German pirate active from 1560 to 1573 who raided shipping in the North Sea until his defeat and capture by a fleet from Hamburg. Taken back to Hamburg, Henszlein and his men were paraded through the city streets before being beheaded on September 10, 1573; their heads were then impaled on stakes. In a later account, the executioner described how he "flicked off" the heads of the thirty-three pirates (not including Henszlein) in only 45 minutes, then proceeding to behead the bodies of those pirates killed during their capture. He later claimed to have been "standing in blood so deep that it well nigh in his shoes did creep".

Read More

 

11 September 1297 – Battle of Stirling Bridge: Scots jointly led by William Wallace and Andrew Moray defeat the English.

Battle of Stirling Bridge

Battle of the First War of Scottish Independence

The Battle of Stirling Bridge (Scottish Gaelic: Blàr Drochaid Shruighlea) was fought during the First War of Scottish Independence. On 11 September 1297, the forces of Andrew Moray and William Wallace defeated the combined English forces of John de Warenne, 6th Earl of Surrey, and Hugh de Cressingham near Stirling, on the River Forth.

1. ^ ^{a b c} BBC History Magazine July 2014, pp. 24–25
2. ^ ^{a b} Cowan, Edward J., The Wallace Book, 2007, John Donald, ISBN 0-85976-652-7, 978-0-85976-652-4, p. 69

Read More

 

12 September 1940 – Cave paintings are discovered in Lascaux, France.

Lascaux

Caves in France with Paleolithic cave paintings

For Lascaux in the Corrèze department, see Lascaux, Corrèze.

Lascaux (English: /læˈskoʊ/ la-SKOH,^[1] US also /lɑːˈskoʊ/ lah-SKOH;^[2] French: Grotte de Lascaux [ɡʁɔt də lasko],^[3] "Lascaux Cave") is a network of caves near the village of Montignac, in the department of Dordogne in southwestern France. Over 600 parietal wall paintings cover the interior walls and ceilings of the cave. The paintings represent primarily large animals, typical local contemporary fauna that correspond with the fossil record of the Upper Paleolithic in the area. They are the combined effort of many generations. With continued debate, the age of the paintings is now usually estimated at around 17,000 years (early Magdalenian).^[4][5][6] Because of the outstanding prehistoric art in the cave, Lascaux was inducted into the UNESCO World Heritage List in 1979, as an element of the Prehistoric Sites and Decorated Caves of the Vézère Valley.^[7]

The original caves have been closed to the public since 1963, as their condition was deteriorating, but there are now a number of replicas.

1. ^ "American English Dictionary: Definition of Lascaux". Collins. Archived from the original on 27 September 2013. Retrieved 18 August 2013.
2. ^ "Lascaux". Lexico US English Dictionary. Oxford University Press. Archived from the original on 16 April 2021.
3. ^ "English Dictionary: Definition of Lascaux". Collins. Archived from the original on 27 September 2013. Retrieved 18 August 2013.
4. ^ "Lascaux Cave Paintings: Layout, Meaning, Photographs - Dating - Chronological questions about the age of Lascaux's cave paintings, over what period they were created, and the identity of the oldest art in the complex, are still being debated..." Visual arts cork com. Archived from the original on 30 December 2016. Retrieved 28 December 2016.
5. ^ "Ice Age star map discovered - thought to date back 16,500 years". BBC. 9 August 2000. Archived from the original on 18 April 2020. Retrieved 27 December 2016.
6. ^ Lascaux, France. These paintings are estimated to be around 17,300 years old. Ancient-wisdom. 9 August 2000. Archived from the original on 28 December 2016. Retrieved 27 December 2016.
7. ^ "Prehistoric Sites and Decorated Caves of the Vézère Valley". UNESCO World Heritage Centre. Archived from the original on 7 October 2019. Retrieved 30 December 2012.

Read More

 

13 September 2007 – The Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples is adopted by the United Nations General Assembly.

Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples

Declaration adopted in 2007 by the United Nations General Assembly

The Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples (UNDRIP or DOTROIP^[1]) is a legally non-binding resolution passed by the United Nations in 2007.^[2] It delineates and defines the individual and collective rights of indigenous peoples, including their ownership rights to cultural and ceremonial expression, identity, language, employment, health, education, and other issues. Their ownership also extends to the protection of their intellectual and cultural property.^[3] The declaration "emphasizes the rights of Indigenous peoples to maintain and strengthen their own institutions, cultures and traditions, and to pursue their development in keeping with their own needs and aspirations."^[4] It "prohibits discrimination against indigenous peoples," and it "promotes their full and effective participation in all matters that concern them and their right to remain distinct and to pursue their own visions of economic and social development".^[4][5]

The goal of the declaration is to encourage countries to work alongside indigenous peoples to solve global issues, such as development, multicultural democracy, and decentralization.^[4]

On Thursday, September 13, 2007, the United Nations voted by a vast majority of 143 in favor (4 against, 11 abstained, and 34 absent) of the declaration.^[6][7]

Since 2007, Australia, Canada, New Zealand, and the United States have reversed their position and now support the declaration. As of February 2020, the United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Indigenous Peoples describe (A/RES/61/295) as "...the most comprehensive international instrument on the rights of indigenous peoples. It establishes a universal framework of minimum standards for the survival, dignity and well-being of the indigenous peoples of the world and it elaborates on existing human rights standards and fundamental freedoms as they apply to the specific situation of indigenous peoples."^[8]

As a General Assembly declaration, UNDRIP is not a legally binding instrument under international law.^[4][9] According to a UN press release it does "represent the dynamic development of international legal norms and it reflects the commitment of the UN's member states to move in certain directions"; the UN describes it as setting "an important standard for the treatment of indigenous peoples that will undoubtedly be a significant tool toward eliminating human rights violations against the planet's 370 million indigenous people, and assisting them in combating discrimination and marginalization."

UNDRIP codifies "Indigenous historical grievances, contemporary challenges and socio-economic, political and cultural aspirations" and is the "culmination of generations-long efforts by Indigenous organizations to get international attention, to secure recognition for their aspirations, and to generate support for their political agendas."^[10] Canada Research Chair and faculty member at the University of Saskatchewan^[11][12] Ken Coates argues that UNDRIP resonates powerfully with indigenous peoples, while national governments have not yet fully understood its impact.^[10]

1. ^ "DOTROIP-24-2-PDF" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on September 3, 2018. Retrieved September 3, 2018.
2. ^ "United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples". United Nations Permanent Forum on Indigenous Issues. Archived from the original on November 1, 2015. Retrieved December 11, 2015.
3. ^ "United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples: United Nations Resolution adopted by the General Assembly on 13 September 2007" (PDF). United Nations. 2007. pp. 22–23.
4. ^ ^{a b c d} United Nations Permanent Forum on Indigenous Issues. "Frequently Asked Questions – Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on January 15, 2012. Retrieved March 5, 2012.
5. ^ United Nations adopts Declaration on Rights of Indigenous Peoples Archived March 13, 2017, at the Wayback Machine United Nations News Centre, 13 September 2007.
6. ^ "General Assembly adopts Declaration on Rights of Indigenous Peoples; 'Major Step Forward' towards human rights for all, says President". UN General Assembly GA/10612. September 13, 2007. Archived from the original on November 17, 2007. Retrieved July 21, 2021.
7. ^ Reyhner, J.; Singh, N. (2010). "Cultural genocide in Australia, Canada, New Zealand, and the United States". Indigenous Policy Journal. S2CID 141340015.
8. ^ "United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples | United Nations For Indigenous Peoples". www.un.org. Retrieved February 16, 2020.
9. ^ Barnabas, Sylvanus Gbendazhi (December 7, 2017). "The Legal Status of the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples (2007) in Contemporary International Human Rights Law". International Human Rights Law Review. 6 (2): 253. doi:10.1163/22131035-00602006. ISSN 2213-1027.
10. ^ ^{a b} Coates, Ken (September 18, 2013), Ken Coates; Terry Mitchell (eds.), From aspiration to inspiration: UNDRIP finding deep traction in Indigenous communities, The Rise of the Fourth World, The Centre for International Governance Innovation (CIGI), archived from the original on September 23, 2013, retrieved September 20, 2013
11. ^ Ferguson, Mark (October 12, 2011). "News". News.usask.ca. Archived from the original on September 25, 2013. Retrieved December 24, 2013.
12. ^ "Home". University of Waterloo. November 3, 2016. Archived from the original on October 22, 1997. Retrieved August 26, 2017.

Read More

 

14 September 1402 – Battle of Homildon Hill results in an English victory over Scotland.

Battle of Homildon Hill

Conflict between English and Scottish armies on 14 September 1402 in Northumberland, England

Not to be confused with Battle of Halidon Hill.

The Battle of Holmedon Hill or Battle of Homildon Hill was a conflict between English and Scottish armies on 14 September 1402 in Northumberland, England. The battle was recounted in William Shakespeare's Henry IV, Part 1. Although Humbleton Hill is the modern name of the site, over the centuries it has been variously named Homildon, Hameldun, Holmedon, and Homilheugh.

Read More

 

15 September 1971 – The first Greenpeace ship departs from Vancouver to protest against the upcoming Cannikin nuclear weapon test in Alaska.

Cannikin

1971 underground nuclear weapons test on Amchitka island, Alaska, United States

Cannikin was an underground nuclear weapons test performed on November 6, 1971, on Amchitka island, Alaska, by the United States Atomic Energy Commission.^[1] The experiment, part of the Operation Grommet nuclear test series, tested the unique W71 warhead design for the LIM-49 Spartan anti-ballistic missile.^[2][3] With an explosive yield of almost 5 megatons of TNT (21 PJ), the test was the largest underground explosion ever detonated by the United States.^[4]

Prior to the main five-megaton test in 1971, a 1 Mt (4.2 PJ) test took place on the island on October 2, 1969, for calibration purposes, and to ensure the subsequent Cannikin test could be contained.^[4] This test, Milrow, was included in the Operation Mandrel nuclear test series.

The Cannikin test faced considerable opposition on environmental grounds. The campaigning environmental organization Greenpeace grew out of efforts to oppose the test.

1. ^ Mark Nuttall (2004). Encyclopedia of the Arctic. Routledge. ISBN 1579584365. the AEC instituted an extensive bioenvironmental program on Amchitka, and within a few years had completed Project Milrow, Project Long Shot, and Project Cannikin
2. ^ "Accomplishments in the 1970s: Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory". Archived from the original on February 17, 2005. Retrieved October 9, 2006.
3. ^ Robert Rogalski (March 14, 2007). Classification Bulletin – TNP-29 – The fact that the Cannikin event was a proof test of the W71 warhead for the Spartan missile system (Report). Archived from the original on April 26, 2023. Pursuant to section 142d of the Atomic Energy Act of 1954, you determine that the following information can be published without undue risk to the common defense and security and can therefore be declassified and removed from the Formerly Restricted Data category: The fact that the Cannikin event was a proof test of the W71 warhead for the Spartan missile system.
4. ^ ^{a b} The containment of underground nuclear explosions. 1989. This test, by far the highest-yield underground test ever conducted by the United States, was too large to be safely conducted in Nevada

Read More