This day in .....

29 August 1898 – The Goodyear tire company is founded in Akron, Ohio.

Goodyear Tire and Rubber Company

American multinational tire manufacturer

The Goodyear Tire & Rubber Company is an American multinational tire manufacturer headquartered in Akron, Ohio. Goodyear manufactures tires for passenger vehicles, aviation, commercial trucks, military and police vehicles, motorcycles, RVs, race cars, and heavy off-road machinery. It also licenses the Goodyear brand to bicycle tire manufacturers, returning from a break in production between 1976 and 2015.^[3] As of 2017, Goodyear is one of the top four tire manufacturers along with Bridgestone (Japan), Michelin (France), and Continental (Germany).^[4]

Founded in 1898 by Frank Seiberling, the company was named after American Charles Goodyear (1800–1860), inventor of vulcanized rubber. The first Goodyear tires became popular because they were easily detachable and required little maintenance.^[5] Though Goodyear had been manufacturing airships and balloons since the early 1900s, the first Goodyear advertising blimp flew in 1925. Today, it is one of the most recognizable advertising icons in America.^[6]

The company is the sole tire supplier for NASCAR series and the most successful tire supplier in Formula One history, with more starts, wins, and constructors' championships than any other tire supplier.^[7] They pulled out of the sport after the 1998 season. Goodyear was the first global tire manufacturer to enter China when it invested in a tire manufacturing plant in Dalian in 1994. Goodyear was a component of the Dow Jones Industrial Average between 1930 and 1999.^[8] The company opened a new global headquarters building in Akron in 2013.

1. ^ "Our Company".
2. ^ "The Goodyear Tire & Rubber Company 2017 Annual Report (Form 10-K)". sec.gov. U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission. February 2018.
3. ^ "Goodyear Returns to Bicycle Tires". Bloomberg.com. March 2, 2015. Retrieved January 19, 2018 – via www.bloomberg.com.
4. ^ "Leading tyre manufacturers". Tyrepress. September 26, 2013. Retrieved March 13, 2018.
5. ^ O'Reilly, Maurice (1983). The Goodyear Story. Benjamin Company. pp. 13–21. ISBN 978-0-87502-116-4.
6. ^ Terdiman, Daniel. "Goodyear bids goodbye to blimps, says hello to zeppelins". CNET. Retrieved December 30, 2014.
7. ^ "FormulaSPEED2.0". Archived from the original on March 27, 2012. Retrieved December 29, 2011.
8. ^ "History of DJIA". globalfinancialdata.com. Archived from the original on September 26, 2007.

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30 August 1721 – The Great Northern War between Sweden and Russia ends in the Treaty of Nystad.

Great Northern War

1700–1721 conflict between Sweden and Russia

This article is about the 1700–1721 war. For the related series of conflicts, see Northern Wars.

For other uses, see Northern War (disambiguation).

The Great Northern War (1700–1721) was a conflict in which a coalition led by the Tsardom of Russia successfully contested the supremacy of the Swedish Empire in Northern, Central and Eastern Europe. The initial leaders of the anti-Swedish alliance were Peter I of Russia, Frederick IV of Denmark–Norway and Augustus II the Strong of Saxony–Poland–Lithuania. Frederick IV and Augustus II were defeated by Sweden, under Charles XII, and forced out of the alliance in 1700 and 1706 respectively, but rejoined it in 1709 after the defeat of Charles XII at the Battle of Poltava. George I of Great Britain and the Electorate of Hanover joined the coalition in 1714 for Hanover and in 1717 for Britain, and Frederick William I of Brandenburg-Prussia joined it in 1715.

Charles XII led the Swedish army. Swedish allies included Holstein-Gottorp, several Polish magnates under Stanislaus I Leszczyński (1704–1710) and Cossacks under the Ukrainian Hetman Ivan Mazepa (1708–1710). The Ottoman Empire temporarily hosted Charles XII of Sweden and intervened against Peter I.

The war began when an alliance of Denmark–Norway, Saxony and Russia, sensing an opportunity as Sweden was ruled by the young Charles XII, declared war on the Swedish Empire and launched a threefold attack on Swedish Holstein-Gottorp, Swedish Livonia, and Swedish Ingria. Sweden parried the Danish and Russian attacks at Travendal (August 1700) and Narva (November 1700) respectively, and in a counter-offensive pushed Augustus II's forces through the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth to Saxony, dethroning Augustus on the way (September 1706) and forcing him to acknowledge defeat in the Treaty of Altranstädt (October 1706). The treaty also secured the extradition and execution of Johann Reinhold Patkul, architect of the alliance seven years earlier. Meanwhile, the forces of Peter I had recovered from defeat at Narva and gained ground in Sweden's Baltic provinces, where they cemented Russian access to the Baltic Sea by founding Saint Petersburg in 1703. Charles XII moved from Saxony into Russia to confront Peter, but the campaign ended in 1709 with the destruction of the main Swedish army at the decisive Battle of Poltava (in present-day Ukraine) and Charles' exile in the Ottoman town of Bender. The Ottoman Empire defeated the Russian-Moldavian army in the Pruth River Campaign, but that peace treaty was in the end without great consequence to Russia's position.

After Poltava, the anti-Swedish coalition revived and subsequently Hanover and Prussia joined it. The remaining Swedish forces in plague-stricken areas south and east of the Baltic Sea were evicted, with the last city, Tallinn, falling in the autumn of 1710. The coalition members partitioned most of the Swedish dominions among themselves, destroying the Swedish dominium maris baltici. Sweden proper was invaded from the west by Denmark–Norway and from the east by Russia, which had occupied Finland by 1714. Sweden defeated the Danish invaders at the Battle of Helsingborg. Charles XII opened up a Norwegian front but was killed in the Siege of Fredriksten in 1718.

The war ended with the defeat of Sweden, leaving Russia as the new dominant power in the Baltic region and as a new major force in European politics. The Western powers, Great Britain and France, became caught up in the separate War of the Spanish Succession (1701–1714), which broke out over the Bourbon Philip of Anjou's succession to the Spanish throne and a possible joining of France and Spain. The formal conclusion of the Great Northern War came with the Swedish-Hanoverian and Swedish-Prussian Treaties of Stockholm (1719), the Dano-Swedish Treaty of Frederiksborg (1720), and the Russo-Swedish Treaty of Nystad (1721). By these treaties Sweden ceded its exemption from the Sound Dues^[17] and lost the Baltic provinces and the southern part of Swedish Pomerania. The peace treaties also ended its alliance with Holstein-Gottorp. Hanover gained Bremen-Verden, Brandenburg-Prussia incorporated the Oder estuary (Stettin Lagoons), Russia secured the Baltic Provinces, and Denmark strengthened its position in Schleswig-Holstein. In Sweden, the absolute monarchy had come to an end with the death of Charles XII, and Sweden's Age of Liberty began.^[18]

1. ^ Larsson 2009, p. 78
2. ^ Liljegren 2000
3. ^ From 2007, p. 214
4. ^ A Military History of Russia: From Ivan the Terrible to the War in Chechnya, David R. Stone. Greenwood Publishing Group (2006). p. 57.
5. ^ From 2007, p. 240
6. ^ ^{a b} Ericson, Sjöslag och rysshärjningar (2011) Stockholm, Norstedts. p. 55. ISBN 978-91-1-303042-5
7. ^ ^{a b} Grigorjev & Bespalov 2012, p. 52
8. ^ Höglund & Sallnäs 2000, p. 51
9. ^ Józef Andrzej Gierowski – Historia Polski 1505–1764 (History of Poland 1505–1764), pp. 258–261
10. ^ "Tacitus.nu, Örjan Martinsson. Danish force". Tacitus.nu. Archived from the original on 13 October 2014. Retrieved 24 August 2014.
11. ^ Höglund & Sallnäs 2000, p. 132
12. ^ Ericson, Lars, Svenska knektar (2004) Lund: Historiska media^{[page needed]}
13. ^ Teemu Keskisarja (2019). Murhanenkeli. p. 244. Kustannusosakeyhtiö Siltala. ISBN 978-952-234-638-4.
14. ^ Урланис Б. Ц. (1960). Войны и народонаселение Европы. Moscow: Изд-во соц.-экон. лит-ры. p. 55.
15. ^ Pitirim Sorokin "Social and Cultural Dynamics", vol. 3
16. ^ Lindegren, Jan, Det danska och svenska resurssystemet i komparation (1995) Umeå : Björkås : Mitthögsk^{[page needed]}
17. ^ Gosse 1911, p. 206.
18. ^ Gosse 1911, p. 216.

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31 August 1888 – Mary Ann Nichols is murdered. She is the first of Jack the Ripper's confirmed victims.

Jack the Ripper

Unidentified serial killer in London in 1888

This article is about the serial killer. For other uses, see Jack the Ripper (disambiguation). For the murders in or near Whitechapel between 1888 and 1891, see Whitechapel murders.

Jack the Ripper was an unidentified serial killer active in and around the impoverished Whitechapel district of London, England, in 1888. In both criminal case files and the contemporaneous journalistic accounts, the killer was also called the Whitechapel Murderer and Leather Apron.

Attacks ascribed to Jack the Ripper typically involved women working as prostitutes who lived and worked in the slums of the East End of London. Their throats were cut prior to abdominal mutilations. The removal of internal organs from at least three of the victims led to speculation that their killer had some anatomical or surgical knowledge. Rumours that the murders were connected intensified in September and October 1888, and numerous letters were received by media outlets and Scotland Yard from individuals purporting to be the murderer.

The name "Jack the Ripper" originated in the "Dear Boss letter" written by an individual claiming to be the murderer, which was disseminated in the press. The letter is widely believed to have been a hoax and may have been written by journalists to heighten interest in the story and increase their newspapers' circulation. Another letter, the "From Hell letter", was received by George Lusk of the Whitechapel Vigilance Committee and came with half of a preserved human kidney, purportedly taken from one of the victims. The public came increasingly to believe in the existence of a single serial killer known as Jack the Ripper, mainly because of both the extraordinarily brutal nature of the murders and media coverage of the crimes.

Extensive newspaper coverage bestowed widespread and enduring international notoriety on the Ripper, and the legend solidified. A police investigation into a series of eleven brutal murders committed in Whitechapel and Spitalfields between 1888 and 1891 was unable to connect all the killings conclusively to the murders of 1888. Five victims—Mary Ann Nichols, Annie Chapman, Elizabeth Stride, Catherine Eddowes, and Mary Jane Kelly—are known as the "canonical five" and their murders between 31 August and 9 November 1888 are often considered the most likely to be linked. The murders were never solved, and the legends surrounding these crimes became a combination of historical research, folklore, and pseudohistory, capturing public imagination to the present day.

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1 September 1894 – Over 400 people die in the Great Hinckley Fire, a forest fire in Hinckley, Minnesota.

Great Hinckley Fire

1894 forest fire in Minnesota, U.S.

The Great Hinckley Fire was a conflagration in the pine forests of the U.S. state of Minnesota in September 1894, which burned an area of at least 200,000 acres (810 km²; 310 sq mi)^[1] (perhaps more than 250,000 acres [1,000 km²; 390 sq mi]), including the town of Hinckley. The official death count was 418; the actual number of fatalities was likely higher.^[2] Other sources put the death toll at 476.^[3]

1. ^ Haines, Donald A.; Sando, Rodney W. (1969). "Climatic Conditions Preceding Historical Great Fires in the North Central Region". North Central Experimentation Forest Service. US Department of Agriculture.
2. ^ "The Great Hinckley Fire of 1894". Archived from the original on August 7, 2014. Retrieved March 24, 2015.
3. ^ Headlines and Heros. A Treasury of Railroad Folklore. New York, Bonaza Books, 1953

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2 September 1985 – Sri Lankan Civil War: Sri Lankan Tamil politicians and former MPs M. Alalasundaram and V. Dharmalingam are shot dead.

Sri Lankan Civil War

1983–2009 Sri Lankan internal conflict

The Sri Lankan Civil War (Tamil: இலங்கை உள்நாட்டுப் போர், romanized: Ilaṅkai uḷnāṭṭup pōr; Sinhala: ශ්‍රී ලංකාවේ සිවිල් යුද්ධය, romanized: śrī laṁkāvē sivil yuddhaya) was a civil war fought in Sri Lanka from 1983 to 2009. Beginning on 23 July 1983, it was an intermittent insurgency against the government by the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE, also known as the Tamil Tigers) led by Velupillai Prabhakaran. The LTTE fought to create an independent Tamil state called Tamil Eelam in the north-east of the island, due to the continuous discrimination and violent persecution against Sri Lankan Tamils by the Sinhalese-dominated Sri Lanka government.^[68][69][70]

Violent persecution erupted in the form of the 1956, 1958, 1977, 1981 and 1983 anti-Tamil pogroms, as well as the 1981 burning of the Jaffna Public Library. These were carried out by the majority Sinhalese mobs often with state support, in the years following Sri Lanka's independence from the British Empire in 1948.^[71] Shortly after gaining independence, Sinhalese was recognized as the sole official language of the nation.^[72] After a 26-year military campaign, the Sri Lankan military defeated the Tamil Tigers in May 2009, bringing the civil war to an end.^[24]

Up to 70,000 had been killed by 2007.^[73][74][75] Immediately following the end of war, on 20 May 2009, the UN estimated a total of 80,000–100,000 deaths.^[76][49][77] However, in 2011, referring to the final phase of the war in 2009, the Report of the Secretary-General's Panel of Experts on Accountability in Sri Lanka stated, "A number of credible sources have estimated that there could have been as many as 40,000 civilian deaths."^[78] The Sri Lankan government has repeatedly refused an independent, international investigation to ascertain the full impact of the war,^[79][80] with some reports claiming that government forces were raping and torturing Tamils involved in collating deaths and disappearances.^[81][82]

Since the end of the civil war, the Sri Lankan state has been subject to much global criticism for violating human rights as a result of committing war crimes through bombing civilian targets, usage of heavy weaponry, the abduction and massacres of Sri Lankan Tamils and sexual violence.^[83][84][85] The LTTE gained notoriety for carrying out numerous attacks against civilians of all ethnicities, particularly those of Sinhalese and Sri Lankan Muslim ethnicity, using child soldiers, assassinations of politicians and dissenters, and the use of suicide bombings against military, political and civilian targets.^[86]

1. ^ "Israeli complicity in Sri Lanka war crimes must be investigated". Al Jazeera. 27 June 2023. Retrieved 10 April 2024.
2. ^ "How China Won Sri Lanka's Civil War". The Independent. 23 May 2009. Retrieved 11 April 2024.
3. ^ "The Countries which funded Sri Lanka". 2020. Retrieved 10 April 2024.
4. ^ "Britain's Private Army operating in Sri Lanka earning millions". 2020. Retrieved 10 April 2024.
5. ^ "Ukrainian and Israeli Pilots operating war planes in Sri Lanka". 1997. Retrieved 10 April 2024.
6. ^ "Sri Lanka's Faustian bargain with Pakistan: Exit LTTE, enter ISI". Business Today. 22 April 2019. Retrieved 11 December 2023.
7. ^ "Pakistan played a key role in LTTE defeat".
8. ^ "'Pak played key role in Lanka's victory over Tamil Tigers'". 28 May 2009.
9. ^ "Israels major role in Sri Lankas War". 2023. Retrieved 10 April 2024.
10. ^ "Britain sold Arms during the final stages of the conflict". 2009. Retrieved 10 April 2024.
11. ^ "Page 75 onwards lists the 10 EU countries which supplied weapons to Sri Lanka. Spain being the only country were the true details of how the money was spent is still a mystery". 2008. Retrieved 10 April 2024.
12. ^ "Slovakia Sells Arms to Sri Lanka despite being in violation of EU Law". 2008. Retrieved 10 April 2024.
13. ^ "Bulgaria stops selling arms to Sri Lanka after humanitarian crisis unfolds". 2008. Retrieved 10 April 2024.
14. ^ "Have a personal rapport with the late Palestinian President, Yasser Arafat". 11 January 2005. Retrieved 11 April 2024.
15. ^ "Mapping Militant Organisations EROS and the PLO". 7 August 2013. Retrieved 11 April 2024.
16. ^ "We took Tea as a symbol for the Palestinians". 7 August 2002. Retrieved 11 April 2024.
17. ^ "The Untold Story". 7 August 2002. Retrieved 11 April 2024.
18. ^ "'China was the principal arms supplier to LTTE'". 16 May 2012.
19. ^ "The story of a North Korea-backed rebellion in Sri Lanka". 10 October 2017.
20. ^ "LTTE were set to get new aircraft". 23 September 2009.
21. ^ "LTTE got most of its arms from Ukraine: Karuna". 6 November 2009.
22. ^ Bonner, Raymond (3 August 1998). "Bulgaria Becomes a Weapons Bazaar". The New York Times. Retrieved 26 May 2024.
23. ^ "Sri Lankan president declares war 'victory'". CNN. Retrieved 28 February 2022.
24. ^ ^{a b} "LTTE defeated; Sri Lanka liberated from terror". Ministry of Defence. 18 May 2009. Archived from the original on 21 May 2009. Retrieved 18 May 2009.
25. ^ "Sri Lanka's Faustian bargain with Pakistan: Exit LTTE, enter ISI". Business Today. 22 April 2019. Retrieved 11 December 2023.
26. ^ ^{a b c} International Institute for Strategic Studies, Armed Conflicts Database. Archived 11 May 2006 at the Wayback Machine
27. ^ "MMP: Liberation Tigers of Tamil Elam".
28. ^ "Armed Conflict Database". Archived from the original on 11 May 2006.
29. ^ "Opposition leader rebutts [sic] Sri Lankan government claims". 26 December 2008. Archived from the original on 26 December 2008.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link)
30. ^ "Humanitarian Operation – Factual Analysis, July 2006 – May 2009" (PDF). Ministry of Defence (Sri Lanka). 1 August 2011. Archived from the original (PDF) on 4 March 2016.
31. ^ ^{a b} "Sri Lankan president showers praises on the military". 26 May 2018.
32. ^ "Sri Lanka Database – Casualties of Terrorist violence in Sri Lanka". Channel NewsAsia. Archived from the original on 6 June 2009. Retrieved 18 May 2018.
33. ^ Total Destruction of the Tamil Tigers: The Rare Victory of Sri Lanka's Long War. Pen and Sword. 19 March 2013. ISBN 9781783830749.
34. ^ "TamilNet".
35. ^ "Report on Sri Lanka's missing 'almost ready'". The Hindu. 31 August 2015.
36. ^ "Economic Burden by Sending IPKF in Sri Lanka" (PDF). Press Information Bureau of India – Archive. 15 December 1999. Retrieved 16 April 2020.
37. ^ Nakkawita, Wijitha (3 June 2009). "LTTE killing spree". Daily News. Archived from the original on 11 January 2013. Retrieved 29 April 2012.
38. ^ "Eelam War IV: Imminent End". Archived from the original on 12 October 2017.
39. ^ "Tamils mark 25-years of Tiger sacrifice" Tamilnet.
40. ^ 4073 LTTE cadres killed in ongoing battle.
41. ^ "LTTE leader pays homage on Heroes Day", Tamilnet
42. ^ "Sri Lankan experience proves nothing is impossible". The Sunday Observer. 5 June 2011. Archived from the original on 8 June 2011. Retrieved 5 June 2011.
43. ^ "UN 'failed Sri Lanka civilians', says internal probe". BBC News. 13 November 2012. Retrieved 13 November 2012.
44. ^ "Recorded figures of Arrests, Killings, Disappearances". www.tchr.net. Retrieved 17 March 2023.
45. ^ "Collection of NESoHR's Human Rights Reports 2005-2009" (PDF). NESHOR. pp. 659–861.
46. ^ "Sri Lanka's war 10 years on: Finding Father Francis". BBC News. London, U.K. 18 May 2019. Retrieved 22 March 2021.
47. ^ "UN rights chief seeks sanctions against Sri Lanka generals". France 24. Agence France-Presse. 27 January 2021. Retrieved 22 March 2021.
48. ^ "Open Wounds and Mounting Dangers". Human Rights Watch. New York, U.S. 1 February 2021. Retrieved 22 March 2021.
49. ^ ^{a b} "Up to 100,000 killed in Sri Lanka's civil war: UN". ABC Australia. 20 May 2009.
50. ^ "UN to collect evidence of alleged Sri Lanka war crimes". BBC. 23 March 2021. Retrieved 2 May 2021.
51. ^ "Report 124 – Sri Lanka: The Failure of the Peace Process". Brussels, Belgium: International Crisis Group. 28 November 2006. Retrieved 22 March 2021.
52. ^ Tramble, Rashunda (31 October 2006). "Sri Lankan talks stop on the A9 highway". International Relations and Security Network. ReliefWeb. Retrieved 22 March 2021.
53. ^ "Report of the Secretary-General's Panel of Experts on Accountability in Sri Lanka". Refworld/United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees. United Nations. 31 March 2011. p. 41. Retrieved 22 March 2021.
54. ^ "Sri Lanka Marks 10 Years Since Civil War's End". Voice of America. Washington, D.C., U.S.A. Agence France-Presse. 18 May 2019. Retrieved 22 March 2021.
55. ^ "Sri Lanka starts count of civil war dead". Al Jazeera. Doha, Qatar. Associated Press. 28 November 2013. Retrieved 22 March 2021.
56. ^ ^{a b} "Sri Lankan forces ended LTTE civil war through 'humanitarian operation': Gotabaya". The Hindu. 19 May 2022.
57. ^ Haviland, Charles (11 January 2011). "Sri Lanka's war panel arouses strong emotions". BBC News. London, U.K. Retrieved 4 July 2021.
58. ^ "Tamils remember war dead in Sri Lanka". Deutsche Welle. Bonn, Germany. 18 May 2019. Retrieved 4 July 2021.
59. ^ "TamilNet".
60. ^ Death Toll In Sri Lanka's 2009 War https://itjpsl.com/assets/ITJP_death_toll_A4_v6.pdf
61. ^ "Report of the Secretary-General's Internal Review Panel on United Nations Action in Sri Lanka". United Nations. November 2012. p. 14. Retrieved 22 March 2021.
62. ^ Macrae, Callum (3 September 2013). "Sri Lanka: Slaughter in the no fire zone". The Guardian. London, U.K. Retrieved 22 March 2021.
63. ^ Charbonneau, Louis (15 November 2012). "U.N. failed gravely in Sri Lanka – internal review panel". Reuters. London, U.K. Retrieved 22 March 2021.
64. ^ Hawdon, James; Ryan, John; Lucht, Marc (6 August 2014). The Causes and Consequences of Group Violence: From Bullies to Terrorists. Lexington Books. p. 98. ISBN 978-0-7391-8897-2.
65. ^ "Global Overview 2012: People internally displaced by conflict and violence – Sri Lanka". Norwegian Refugee Council/Internal Displacement Monitoring Centre (NRC/IDMC). 29 April 2013. Retrieved 29 March 2021.
66. ^ Cite error: The named reference voas was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
67. ^ Cite error: The named reference tonline1 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
68. ^ T. Sabaratnam, Pirapaharan, Volume 1, Introduction (2003)
69. ^ T. Sabaratnam, Pirapaharan, Volume 1, Chapter 1: Why didn't he hit back? (2003)
70. ^ T. Sabaratnam, Pirapaharan, Volume 2, Chapter 3: The Final Solution (2004)
71. ^ Thottam, Jyoti (19 May 2009). "Prabhakaran: The Life and Death of a Tiger". Time. ISSN 0040-781X. Retrieved 18 May 2020.
72. ^ Kearney, Robert N. (1 March 1986). "Tension and Conflict in Sri Lanka". Current History. ProQuest 1309776036.
73. ^ "UN, aid agencies appeal for civilian protection in Sri Lanka as over 100,000 flee". UN News. 12 March 2007.
74. ^ "Defiant Tigers cling to last bastion". 16 July 2007 – via BBC News.
75. ^ "Sri Lanka says 147 dead in recent fighting". Reuters. 15 October 2007.
76. ^ Mahr, Krista (28 November 2013). "Sri Lanka to Start Tally of Civil-War Dead". Time.
77. ^ "Sri Lanka PM will protect military on UN rights action". Canadian Broadcasting Corporation. 27 May 2011. Retrieved 5 February 2021.
78. ^ "Report of the Secretary-General's Panel of Experts on Accountability in Sri Lanka" (PDF). United Nations. 31 March 2011. Retrieved 5 February 2021.
79. ^ "Sri Lanka to refuse entry to UN investigators". www.telegraph.co.uk. 19 August 2014.
80. ^ "Sri Lanka rejects growing calls for UN war crimes investigation". www.telegraph.co.uk. 30 January 2014.
81. ^ "ITJP Press release" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 26 February 2021. Retrieved 20 May 2023.
82. ^ International Crimes Evidence Project (ICEP) Sri Lanka, Island of impunity? Investigation into international crimes in the final stages of the Sri Lankan civil war. (2014) https://piac.asn.au/2014/02/12/island-of-impunity/ p175
83. ^ "War on the Displaced". Human Rights Watch. 19 February 2009.
84. ^ "The Sri Lankan Civil War and Its History, Revisited in 2020". Harvard International Review. 31 August 2020. Retrieved 7 April 2024.
85. ^ "The Sri Lankan Conflict". Council on Foreign Relations. Retrieved 7 April 2024.
86. ^ "Report of the Secretary-General's Panel of Experts on Accountability in Sri Lanka" (PDF). United Nations. November 2012. p. 28. Retrieved 12 May 2021.

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3 September 1666 – The Royal Exchange burns down in the Great Fire of London.

Great Fire of London

Conflagration in 1666

This article is about the 1666 Fire of London. For other "Great Fires", see List of historic fires. For other notable fires in London, see Early fires of London and Second Great Fire of London. For the Peter Ackroyd novel, see The Great Fire of London (novel).

The Great Fire of London was a major conflagration that swept through central London from Sunday 2 September to Thursday 6 September 1666,^[1] gutting the medieval City of London inside the old Roman city wall, while also extending past the wall to the west. The death toll is generally thought to have been relatively small,^[2][3] although some historians have challenged this belief.^[4]

The fire started in a bakery in Pudding Lane shortly after midnight on Sunday 2 September, and spread rapidly. The use of the major firefighting technique of the time, the creation of firebreaks by means of removing structures in the fire's path, was critically delayed due to the indecisiveness of the Lord Mayor, Sir Thomas Bloodworth. By the time large-scale demolitions were ordered on Sunday night, the wind had already fanned the bakery fire into a firestorm which defeated such measures. The fire pushed north on Monday into the heart of the City. Order in the streets broke down as rumours arose of suspicious foreigners setting fires. The fears of the homeless focused on the French and Dutch, England's enemies in the ongoing Second Anglo-Dutch War; these substantial immigrant groups became victims of street violence. On Tuesday, the fire spread over nearly the whole city, destroying St Paul's Cathedral and leaping the River Fleet to threaten Charles II's court at Whitehall. Coordinated firefighting efforts were simultaneously getting underway. The battle to put out the fire is considered to have been won by two key factors: the strong east wind dropped, and the Tower of London garrison used gunpowder to create effective firebreaks, halting further spread eastward.

The social and economic problems created by the disaster were overwhelming. Flight from London and settlement elsewhere were strongly encouraged by Charles II, who feared a London rebellion amongst the dispossessed refugees. Various schemes for rebuilding the city were proposed, some of them very radical. After the fire, London was reconstructed on essentially the same medieval street plan, which still exists today.^[5]

Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

1. ^ All dates are given according to the Julian calendar. When recording British history, it is usual to use the dates recorded at the time of the event. Any dates between 1 January and 25 March have their year adjusted to start on 1 January according to the New Style.
2. ^ Cite error: The named reference tindeath was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
3. ^ Cite error: The named reference porterdeath was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
4. ^ Cite error: The named reference Hanson 2001, 326–33 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
5. ^ Reddaway, 27

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4 September 1923 – Maiden flight of the first U.S. airship, the USS Shenandoah.

USS Shenandoah (ZR-1)

United States Navy rigid airship

For other ships with the same name, see USS Shenandoah.

"ZR-1" redirects here. For the automobile trim, see Chevrolet Corvette ZR-1.

USS Shenandoah was the first of four United States Navy rigid airships. It was constructed during 1922–1923 at Lakehurst Naval Air Station, and first flew in September 1923. It developed the U.S. Navy's experience with rigid airships and made the first crossing of North America by airship. On the 57th flight,^[2] Shenandoah was destroyed in a squall line over Ohio in September 1925.^[3]

1. ^ "NPS Focus". National Register of Historic Places. National Park Service. Retrieved 3 August 2013.
2. ^ Hayward (1978) p. 67
3. ^ Hayward (1978) p. 66

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5 September 1836 – Sam Houston is elected as the first president of the Republic of Texas.

Republic of Texas

Historical republic, 1836–1846

Not to be confused with Texas.

The Republic of Texas (Spanish: República de Tejas), or simply Texas, was a breakaway state in North America. It existed for just under 10 years, from March 2, 1836 to February 19, 1846. It shared borders with Mexico, the Republic of the Rio Grande (another Mexican breakaway republic), and the United States of America.

Much of its territory was controlled by Mexico or Comancheria; Mexico considered it a rebellious province during its entire existence. It was bordered by Mexico to the west and southwest, the Gulf of Mexico to the southeast, the two U.S. states of Louisiana and Arkansas to the east and northeast, and United States territories encompassing parts of the current U.S. states of Oklahoma, Kansas, Colorado, Wyoming, and New Mexico to the north and west. The Anglo residents of the area and of the republic were referred to as Texians.^[4]

The Mexican state of Coahuila y Tejas declared its independence from Mexico during the Texas Revolution in 1835–1836, when the Centralist Republic of Mexico abolished autonomy from states of the Mexican federal republic. Major fighting ended on April 21, 1836, but the Mexican Congress refused to recognize the independence of the Republic of Texas, as the Treaties of Velasco was signed by Mexican President General Antonio López de Santa Anna under duress as prisoner of the Texians. The majority of the Mexican Congress did not approve the agreement.

Intermittent conflicts between Mexico and Texas continued into the 1840s. The United States recognized the Republic of Texas in March 1837 but declined to annex the territory at that time.^[5][6]

Texas was annexed by the United States on December 29, 1845,^[7] and was admitted to the Union as the 28th state on that day, with the transfer of power from the Republic to the new state of Texas formally taking place on February 19, 1846.^[8] However, the United States inherited the southern and western border-disputes with Mexico, which had refused to recognize Texas's independence or to accept U.S. offers to purchase the territory. Consequently, the annexation led to the Mexican–American War (1846–1848).

1. ^ "Flags and Other Symbols | TX Almanac". www.texasalmanac.com. 2023. Archived from the original on January 22, 2022. Retrieved September 26, 2023.
2. ^ Greenfield, David (March 1, 2001). "Texas Tidbits". Texas Monthly. Archived from the original on October 3, 2015. Retrieved September 26, 2023.
3. ^ ^{a b c} "Flags of Texas". Handbook of Texas Online. Texas State Historical Association. Retrieved June 3, 2016.
4. ^ "Texian". Oxford English Dictionary (Online ed.). Oxford University Press. (Subscription or participating institution membership required.) – the term "Texian" dates from at least 1835.
5. ^ Henderson (2008), p. 121.
6. ^ Crapol, Edward P. (2012) [2006]. "Texas". John Tyler, the Accidental President. Legal classics library (revised ed.). University of North Carolina Press. p. 177. ISBN 978-0807872239. Retrieved May 18, 2022. After Van Buren was safely elected, Jackson granted formal diplomatic recognition to the Lone Star Republic. A few months later, in August 1837, the Texians officially requested annexation, but Van Buren, fearing an anti-slavery backlash and domestic turmoil, rebuffed them.
7. ^ O'Neill, R. (2011). Texas War of Independence. Rosen Publishing Group. p. 85. ISBN 978-1448813322.
8. ^ Kelly F. Himmel (1999). The Conquest of the Karankawas and the Tonkawas: 1821–1859. Texas A&M University Press. p. 93. ISBN 978-0-89096-867-3.

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6 September 1972 – Munich massacre: Nine Israeli athletes die (along with a German policeman) at the hands of the Palestinian "Black September" terrorist group after being taken hostage at the Munich Olympic Games. Two other Israeli athletes were slain in the initial attack the previous day.

Munich massacre

1972 Summer Olympics murder of Israeli athletes

This article is about the 1972 massacre. For other uses, see Munich attack.

The Munich massacre was a terrorist attack during the 1972 Summer Olympics in Munich, West Germany, carried out by eight members of the Palestinian militant organization Black September. The militants infiltrated the Olympic Village, killed two members of the Israeli Olympic team, and took nine others hostage, who were later killed in a failed rescue attempt.^[1][2][3][4]

Black September commander and negotiator Luttif Afif named the operation "Iqrit and Biram",^[5][6][7] after two Palestinian Christian villages whose inhabitants were expelled by Israel during the 1948 Palestine war.^[8][9][10] West German neo-Nazis provided logistical assistance to the group.^[11] Shortly after the hostages were taken, Afif demanded the release of a significant number of Palestinians and non-Arab prisoners held in Israel, as well as West German–imprisoned founders of the Red Army Faction, Andreas Baader and Ulrike Meinhof. The list included 328 detainees.^[12]

West German police from the regular Bavarian State Police ambushed the terrorists, killing five of the eight Black September members. But the rescue attempt failed, resulting in the deaths of all the hostages.^[13]

A West German police officer was also killed in the crossfire. The West German government faced criticism for the rescue attempt and its handling of the incident. The three surviving perpetrators were arrested but were released the following month in a hostage exchange after the hijacking of Lufthansa Flight 615.

By then the Israeli government had launched an assassination campaign, which authorized Mossad to track down and kill anyone who had played a role in the attack.^[14][15]

Two days before the start of the 2016 Summer Olympics, Brazilian and Israeli officials led a ceremony where the International Olympic Committee honored the eleven Israelis and one German killed at Munich.^[16] During the 2020 Summer Olympics, a moment of silence was observed in the opening ceremony.^[17]

1. ^ Juan Sanchez (2007). Terrorism & Its Effects. Global Media. p. 144. ISBN 978-81-89940-93-5. Retrieved 16 December 2012.^{[permanent dead link]}
2. ^ Aubrey, Stefan M. (2001). The New Dimension of International Terrorism. vdf Hochschulverlag AG. ISBN 978-3-7281-2949-9. Archived from the original on 1 August 2023. Retrieved 22 June 2010.
3. ^ Encyclopedia of terrorism. Sage Publications. 2003. p. 248. ISBN 978-0-7619-2408-1. Retrieved 22 June 2010 – via Internet Archive.
4. ^ Simon, Jeffrey David (1976). The Terrorist Trap: America's Experience with Terrorism. Indiana University Press. ISBN 978-0-253-21477-5. Retrieved 22 June 2010.
5. ^ Germany and Israel: Whitewashing and Statebuilding. Oxford University Press. 30 March 2020. p. 146. ISBN 978-0-19-754000-8.
6. ^ Sylas, Eluma Ikemefuna (2006). Terrorism: A Global Scourge. AuthorHouse. ISBN 978-1-4259-0530-9. Archived from the original on 1 August 2023. Retrieved 7 June 2010.
7. ^ Black, Ian; Morris, Benny (1991). Israel's secret wars: a history of Israel's intelligence services. New York: Grove Weidenfeld. ISBN 978-0-8021-1159-3.
8. ^ Benveniśtî, Mêrôn (2000). Sacred landscape: the buried history of the Holy Land since 1948. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-23422-2. pp. 325–326.
9. ^ "Justice for Ikrit and Biram" Archived 12 October 2017 at the Wayback Machine, Haaretz, 10 October 2001.
10. ^ Elias Chacour with David Hazard: Blood Brothers: A Palestinian Struggles for Reconciliation in the Middle East. ISBN 978-0-8007-9321-0. Foreword by Secretary James A. Baker III. 2nd Expanded ed. 2003. pp. 44–61.
11. ^ Latsch, Gunther; Wiegrefe, Klaus (18 June 2012), "Files Reveal Neo-Nazis Helped Palestinian Terrorists", Spiegel Online, archived from the original on 12 December 2013, retrieved 30 July 2012
12. ^ "The hostage-takers' demands; Original typewritten English-language communiqués (with German translations) of 'Black September' and the complete name list of the 328 detainees to be released". Fürstenfeldbruck: Fürstenfeldbruck District Office, Munich State Archives, Munich Public Prosecutor's Office. 2022. Retrieved 15 August 2024.
13. ^ Cite error: The named reference :0 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
14. ^ James Montague (5 September 2012). "The Munich massacre: A survivor's story". CNN. Archived from the original on 21 June 2018. Retrieved 25 February 2013.
15. ^ "The Mossad's secret wars". Al Jazeera. 20 February 2010. Archived from the original on 8 August 2017. Retrieved 26 July 2022.
16. ^ "First official Olympic ceremony held in memory of Munich victims" Archived 14 August 2016 at the Wayback Machine, The Jerusalem Post; accessed 5 September 2017.
17. ^ Spungin, Tal (23 July 2021). "Olympics: Moment of silence for Munich massacre victims for first time". The Jerusalem Post. Archived from the original on 7 May 2022. Retrieved 23 July 2021.

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7 September 1921 – In Atlantic City, New Jersey, the first Miss America Pageant, a two-day event, is held.

Miss America

Annual competition in the United States

Not to be confused with Miss USA or Miss United States.

For the most recent competition, see Miss America 2024. For other uses, see Miss America (disambiguation).

Miss America is an annual competition that is open to women from the United States between the ages of 18 and 28.^[1] Originating in 1921 as a "bathing beauty revue",^[2] the contest is judged on competition segments with scoring percentages: Private Interview (30%) – a 10-minute press conference-style interview with a panel of judges, On Stage Question (10%) – answering a judge's question onstage, Talent or HER Story (20%) – a performance talent or 90 second speech, Health and Fitness (20%) – demonstrated physical fitness onstage dressed in athletic wear, and Evening Gown (20%) – modeling evening-wear onstage.^[3][4][5]

The previous year's titleholder crowns the winner. Miss America 2024 is Madison Marsh of Colorado, who was crowned on January 14, 2024. She will crown her successor at Miss America 2025.

1. ^ "Become a Participant". Retrieved June 12, 2023.
2. ^ Cite error: The named reference early was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
3. ^ "Areas of Competition". Miss District of Columbia Scholarship Organization. Retrieved June 13, 2023.
4. ^ "Miss Delegates". Miss Vermont Scholarship Organization. July 29, 2016. Retrieved June 13, 2023.
5. ^ "Learn How to Become a Miss Contestant In the Miss Wisconsin Pageant". Miss Wisconsin. Retrieved June 13, 2023.

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8 September 1966 – The landmark American science fiction television series Star Trek premieres with its first-aired episode, "The Man Trap".

Star Trek: The Original Series

American science fiction television series

Star Trek is an American science fiction television series created by Gene Roddenberry that follows the adventures of the starship USS Enterprise (NCC-1701) and its crew. It acquired the retronym of Star Trek: The Original Series (TOS) to distinguish the show within the media franchise that it began.^[3]

The show is set in the Milky Way galaxy, c. 2266–2269. The ship and crew are led by Captain James T. Kirk (William Shatner), First Officer and Science Officer Spock (Leonard Nimoy), and Chief Medical Officer Leonard H. "Bones" McCoy (DeForest Kelley). Shatner's voice-over introduction during each episode's opening credits stated the starship's purpose:

Space: the final frontier. These are the voyages of the starship Enterprise. Its five-year mission: to explore strange new worlds, to seek out new life and new civilizations, to boldly go where no man has gone before.

Norway Productions and Desilu Productions produced the series from September 1966 to December 1967. Paramount Television produced the show from January 1968 to June 1969. Star Trek aired on NBC from September 8, 1966, to June 3, 1969.^[4] It was first broadcast on September 6, 1966, on Canada's CTV network.^[5] While on NBC, Star Trek's Nielsen ratings were low and the network canceled it after three seasons and 79 episodes. In the United Kingdom the series was not broadcast until July 12, 1969, coinciding with the Apollo 11 mission to land the first humans on the Moon.^[6] Through broadcast syndication it became an international success in the 1970s, achieving cult classic status and a developing influence on popular culture. Star Trek eventually spawned a media franchise consisting of 11 television series, 13 feature films, and numerous books, games, and toys, and is now widely considered one of the most popular and influential television series of all time.^[7]

1. ^ "Star Trek". imdb.com. September 8, 1966. Archived from the original on July 21, 2010. Retrieved July 19, 2010.
2. ^ 1634–1699: McCusker, J. J. (1997). How Much Is That in Real Money? A Historical Price Index for Use as a Deflator of Money Values in the Economy of the United States: Addenda et Corrigenda (PDF). American Antiquarian Society. 1700–1799: McCusker, J. J. (1992). How Much Is That in Real Money? A Historical Price Index for Use as a Deflator of Money Values in the Economy of the United States (PDF). American Antiquarian Society. 1800–present: Federal Reserve Bank of Minneapolis. "Consumer Price Index (estimate) 1800–". Retrieved February 29, 2024.
3. ^ Strauss, Larry (September 3, 1998). "Trekkers' paradise found on local TV". News-Press. Fort Myers, Florida. p. E1. Archived from the original on September 5, 2019. Retrieved September 5, 2019 – via newspapers.com. (Strauss:) ... thanks ... to the Sci-Fi Channel ... which brought the original series back to TV Tuesday night. Dubbed 'Star Trek: The Original Series', scenes that were cut from episodes that aired in syndication have been restored, and shows have been digitally remastered and color-corrected.
4. ^ "Star Trek (a titles & telecast dates guide)". epguides.com. Archived from the original on February 24, 2010. Retrieved April 4, 2010.
5. ^ "Today's TV Previews". Montreal Gazette. September 6, 1966. p. 36. Archived from the original on April 8, 2017. Retrieved September 8, 2016.
6. ^ Williams, Michael (July 10, 1969). "Switching from fact to fiction... Star Trek – introducing a space series packed with pointers to our galaxy-trotting future". Radio Times. No. 2383. London: British Broadcasting Corporation. p. 32. (See also listing at the BBC Genome Project).
7. ^ Asherman, Allan (1981). The Star Trek Compendium. New York: Simon & Schuster. ISBN 0-671-79145-1.

Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

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9 September 1845 – Possible start of the Great Famine of Ireland.

Great Famine (Ireland)

Famine in Ireland from 1845 to 1852

"Irish famine" and "Great Hunger" redirect here. For other famines in Ireland, see Irish famine (disambiguation). For the book written by Cecil Woodham-Smith, see The Great Hunger: Ireland 1845–1849.

The Great Famine, also known as the Great Hunger (Irish: an Gorta Mór [ənˠ ˈɡɔɾˠt̪ˠə ˈmˠoːɾˠ]), the Famine and the Irish Potato Famine,^[1][2] was a period of starvation and disease in Ireland lasting from 1845 to 1852 that constituted a historical social crisis and subsequently had a major impact on Irish society and history as a whole.^[3] The most severely affected areas were in the western and southern parts of Ireland—where the Irish language was dominant—and hence the period was contemporaneously known in Irish as an Drochshaol,^[4] which literally translates to "the bad life" and loosely translates to "the hard times". The worst year of the famine was 1847, which became known as "Black '47".^[5][6] The population of Ireland on the eve of the famine was about 8.5 million, by 1901 it was just 4.4 million.^[7] During the Great Hunger, roughly 1 million people died and more than 1 million more fled the country,^[8] causing the country's population to fall by 20–25% (in some towns, populations fell as much as 67%) between 1841 and 1871.^[9][10][11] Between 1845 and 1855, at least 2.1 million people left Ireland, primarily on packet ships but also on steamboats and barques—one of the greatest exoduses from a single island in history.^[12][13]

The proximate cause of the famine was the infection of potato crops by blight (Phytophthora infestans)^[14] throughout Europe during the 1840s. Blight infection caused 100,000 deaths outside Ireland and influenced much of the unrest that culminated in European Revolutions of 1848.^[15] Longer-term reasons for the massive impact of this particular famine included the system of absentee landlordism^[16][17] and single-crop dependence.^[18][19] Initial limited but constructive government actions to alleviate famine distress were ended by a new Whig administration in London, which pursued a laissez-faire economic doctrine, but also because some in power believed in divine providence or that the Irish lacked moral character,^[20][21] with aid only resuming to some degree later. Large amounts of food were exported from Ireland during the famine and the refusal of London to bar such exports, as had been done on previous occasions, was an immediate and continuing source of controversy, contributing to anti-British sentiment and the campaign for independence. Additionally, the famine indirectly resulted in tens of thousands of households being evicted, exacerbated by a provision forbidding access to workhouse aid while in possession of more than one-quarter acre of land.

The famine was a defining moment in the history of Ireland,^[3] which was part of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland from 1801 to 1922. The famine and its effects permanently changed the island's demographic, political, and cultural landscape, producing an estimated 2 million refugees and spurring a century-long population decline.^{[22][23][24][25]} For both the native Irish and those in the resulting diaspora, the famine entered folk memory.^[26] The strained relations between many Irish people and the then ruling British government worsened further because of the famine, heightening ethnic and sectarian tensions and boosting nationalism and republicanism both in Ireland and among Irish emigrants around the world. English documentary maker John Percival said that the famine "became part of the long story of betrayal and exploitation which led to the growing movement in Ireland for independence." Scholar Kirby Miller makes the same point.^[27][28] Debate exists regarding nomenclature for the event, whether to use the term "Famine", "Potato Famine" or "Great Hunger", the last of which some believe most accurately captures the complicated history of the period.^[29]

The potato blight returned to Europe in 1879 but, by this time, the Land War (one of the largest agrarian movements to take place in 19th-century Europe) had begun in Ireland.^[30] The movement, organized by the Land League, continued the political campaign for the Three Fs which was issued in 1850 by the Tenant Right League during the Great Famine. When the potato blight returned to Ireland in the 1879 famine, the League boycotted "notorious landlords" and its members physically blocked the evictions of farmers; the consequent reduction in homelessness and house demolition resulted in a drastic reduction in the number of deaths.^[31]

1. ^ Kinealy 1994, p. 5.
2. ^ O'Neill 2009, p. 1.
3. ^ ^{a b} Kinealy 1994, p. xv.
4. ^ [1]Archived 12 May 2020 at the Wayback Machine The great famine (An Drochshaol). Dúchas.ie
5. ^ Éamon Ó Cuív, [2]Archived 17 May 2020 at the Wayback Machine An Gorta Mór – the impact and legacy of the Great Irish Famine
6. ^ An Fháinleog Archived 18 August 2020 at the Wayback Machine Chapter 6. "drochshaol, while it can mean a hard life, or hard times, also, with a capital letter, has a specific, historic meaning: Bliain an Drochshaoil means The Famine Year, particularly 1847; Aimsir an Drochshaoil means the time of the Great Famine (1847–52)."
7. ^ "Black '47 Ireland's Great Famine and its after-effects - Department of Foreign Affairs". www.dfa.ie. Retrieved 29 August 2024.
8. ^ Ross 2002, p. 226.
9. ^ Kinealy 1994, p. 357.
10. ^ "Census of Ireland 1871 : Part I, Area, Population, and Number of Houses; Occupations, Religion and Education volume I, Province of Leinster". HMSO. 11 March 1872. Retrieved 11 March 2023 – via Internet Archive.
11. ^ Carolan, Michael. Éireann's Exiles: Reconciling generations of secrets and separations. Archived 30 January 2021 at the Wayback Machine 3 April 2020. Accessed 15 January 2021.
12. ^ James S. Donnelly Jr., The Great Irish Potato Famine (Thrupp, Stroud: Sutton Publishing, 2001) p. 181.
13. ^ Hollett, David. Passage to the New World: packet ships and Irish famine emigrants, 1845–1851. United Kingdom, P.M. Heaton, 1995, p. 103.
14. ^ Ó Gráda 2006, p. 7.
15. ^ Ó Gráda, Cormac; Vanhaute, Eric; Paping, Richard (August 2006). The European subsistence crisis of 1845–1850: a comparative perspective (PDF). XIV International Economic History Congress of the International Economic History Association: Session 123. Helsinki. Archived from the original (PDF) on 17 April 2017.
16. ^ Laxton 1997, p. ^{[page needed]}.
17. ^ Litton 1994, p. ^{[page needed]}.
18. ^ Póirtéir 1995, pp. 19–20.
19. ^ Fraser, Evan D. G. (30 October 2003). "Social vulnerability and ecological fragility: building bridges between social and natural sciences using the Irish Potato Famine as a case study". Conservation Ecology. 2 (7). Archived from the original on 14 February 2020. Retrieved 28 May 2019.
20. ^ "British History in depth: The Irish Famine". BBC History. Retrieved 5 June 2023.
21. ^ "Racism and Anti-Irish Prejudice in Victorian England". victorianweb.org. Retrieved 5 June 2023.
22. ^ Kelly, M.; Fotheringham, A. Stewart (2011). "The online atlas of Irish population change 1841–2002: A new resource for analysing national trends and local variations in Irish population dynamics". Irish Geography. 44 (2–3): 215–244. doi:10.1080/00750778.2011.664806. population declining dramatically from 8.2 million to 6.5 million between 1841 and 1851 and then declining gradually and almost continuously to 4.5 million in 1961
23. ^ "The Vanishing Irish: Ireland's population from the Great Famine to the Great War". 28 January 2013. Archived from the original on 12 May 2020. Retrieved 3 September 2018.
24. ^ K. H. Connell, The Population of Ireland 1750–1845 (Oxford, 1951).^{[page needed]}
25. ^ T. Guinnane, The Vanishing Irish: Households, Migration, and the Rural Economy in Ireland, 1850–1914 (Princeton, 1997)^{[page needed]}
26. ^ Kinealy 1994, p. 342.
27. ^ Percival, John (1995). Great Famine: Ireland's Potato Famine 1845–51. Diane Publishing Company. ISBN 978-0788169625. Archived from the original on 15 April 2021. Retrieved 29 July 2020 – via Google Books.
28. ^ Miller, Kerby A. Ireland and Irish America: Culture, Class, and Transatlantic Migration. Ireland, Field Day, 2008, p. 49.
29. ^ Egan, Casey. The Irish Potato Famine, the Great Hunger, genocide – what should we call it? Potato blight played a role, but there was much more at play in Ireland's Great Hunger of 1845–1852. What should it be called? IrishCentral.com Archived 11 February 2021 at the Wayback Machine. 31 May 2015. Accessed 29 January 2021.
30. ^ Tebrake, Janet K. (May 1992). "Irish peasant women in revolt: The Land League years". Irish Historical Studies. 28 (109): 63–80. doi:10.1017/S0021121400018587. S2CID 156376321.
31. ^ Curtis, L. Perry (Lewis Perry) (11 June 2007). "The Battering Ram and Irish Evictions, 1887–90". Irish-American Cultural Institute. 42 (3): 207–228. doi:10.1353/eir.2007.0039. S2CID 161069346. Archived from the original on 30 March 2019. Retrieved 2 September 2018 – via Project MUSE.

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10 September 1573 – German pirate Klein Henszlein and 33 of his crew are beheaded in Hamburg

Klein Henszlein

16th-century German pirate

Klein Henszlein [Klaus Hanslein] (died 1573) was a German pirate active from 1560 to 1573 who raided shipping in the North Sea until his defeat and capture by a fleet from Hamburg. Taken back to Hamburg, Henszlein and his men were paraded through the city streets before being beheaded on September 10, 1573; their heads were then impaled on stakes. In a later account, the executioner described how he "flicked off" the heads of the thirty-three pirates (not including Henszlein) in only 45 minutes, then proceeding to behead the bodies of those pirates killed during their capture. He later claimed to have been "standing in blood so deep that it well nigh in his shoes did creep".

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11 September 1297 – Battle of Stirling Bridge: Scots jointly led by William Wallace and Andrew Moray defeat the English.

Battle of Stirling Bridge

Battle of the First War of Scottish Independence

The Battle of Stirling Bridge (Scottish Gaelic: Blàr Drochaid Shruighlea) was fought during the First War of Scottish Independence. On 11 September 1297, the forces of Andrew Moray and William Wallace defeated the combined English forces of John de Warenne, 6th Earl of Surrey, and Hugh de Cressingham near Stirling, on the River Forth.

1. ^ ^{a b c} BBC History Magazine July 2014, pp. 24–25
2. ^ ^{a b} Cowan, Edward J., The Wallace Book, 2007, John Donald, ISBN 978-0-85976-652-4, p. 69

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12 September 1940 – Cave paintings are discovered in Lascaux, France.

Lascaux

Caves in France containing Paleolithic cave paintings

For Lascaux in the Corrèze department, see Lascaux, Corrèze.

Lascaux (English: /læˈskoʊ/ la-SKOH,^[1] US also /lɑːˈskoʊ/ lah-SKOH;^[2] French: Grotte de Lascaux [ɡʁɔt də lasko],^[3] "Lascaux Cave") is a network of caves near the village of Montignac, in the department of Dordogne in southwestern France. Over 600 parietal wall paintings cover the interior walls and ceilings of the cave. The paintings represent primarily large animals, typical local contemporary fauna that correspond with the fossil record of the Upper Paleolithic in the area. They are the combined effort of many generations. With continued debate, the age of the paintings is now usually estimated at around 17,000 years (early Magdalenian).^[4][5][6] Because of the outstanding prehistoric art in the cave, Lascaux was inducted into the UNESCO World Heritage List in 1979, as an element of the Prehistoric Sites and Decorated Caves of the Vézère Valley.^[7]

The original caves have been closed to the public since 1963, as their condition was deteriorating, but there are now a number of replicas.

1. ^ "American English Dictionary: Definition of Lascaux". Collins. Archived from the original on 27 September 2013. Retrieved 18 August 2013.
2. ^ "Lascaux". Lexico US English Dictionary. Oxford University Press. Archived from the original on 16 April 2021.
3. ^ "English Dictionary: Definition of Lascaux". Collins. Archived from the original on 27 September 2013. Retrieved 18 August 2013.
4. ^ "Lascaux Cave Paintings: Layout, Meaning, Photographs – Dating – Chronological questions about the age of Lascaux's cave paintings, over what period they were created, and the identity of the oldest art in the complex, are still being debated..." Visual arts cork com. Archived from the original on 30 December 2016. Retrieved 28 December 2016.
5. ^ "Ice Age star map discovered – thought to date back 16,500 years". BBC. 9 August 2000. Archived from the original on 18 April 2020. Retrieved 27 December 2016.
6. ^ Lascaux, France. These paintings are estimated to be around 17,300 years old. Ancient-wisdom. 2000. Archived from the original on 28 December 2016. Retrieved 27 December 2016.
7. ^ "Prehistoric Sites and Decorated Caves of the Vézère Valley". UNESCO World Heritage Centre. Archived from the original on 7 October 2019. Retrieved 30 December 2012.

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13 September 2007 – The Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples is adopted by the United Nations General Assembly.

Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples

Declaration adopted in 2007 by the United Nations General Assembly

The Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples (UNDRIP or DOTROIP^[1]) is a legally non-binding resolution passed by the United Nations in 2007.^[2] It delineates and defines the individual and collective rights of indigenous peoples, including their ownership rights to cultural and ceremonial expression, identity, language, employment, health, education, and other issues. Their ownership also extends to the protection of their intellectual and cultural property.^[3] The declaration "emphasizes the rights of Indigenous peoples to maintain and strengthen their own institutions, cultures and traditions, and to pursue their development in keeping with their own needs and aspirations."^[4] It "prohibits discrimination against indigenous peoples," and it "promotes their full and effective participation in all matters that concern them and their right to remain distinct and to pursue their own visions of economic and social development".^[4][5]

The goal of the declaration is to encourage countries to work alongside indigenous peoples to solve global issues, such as development, multicultural democracy, and decentralization.^[4]

On Thursday, September 13, 2007, the United Nations voted by a vast majority of 143 in favor (4 against, 11 abstained, and 34 absent) of the declaration.^[6][7]

Since 2007, Australia, Canada, New Zealand, and the United States have reversed their position and now support the declaration. As of February 2020, the United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Indigenous Peoples describe (A/RES/61/295) as "...the most comprehensive international instrument on the rights of indigenous peoples. It establishes a universal framework of minimum standards for the survival, dignity and well-being of the indigenous peoples of the world and it elaborates on existing human rights standards and fundamental freedoms as they apply to the specific situation of indigenous peoples."^[8]

As a General Assembly declaration, UNDRIP is not a legally binding instrument under international law.^[4][9] According to a UN press release it does "represent the dynamic development of international legal norms and it reflects the commitment of the UN's member states to move in certain directions"; the UN describes it as setting "an important standard for the treatment of indigenous peoples that will undoubtedly be a significant tool toward eliminating human rights violations against the planet's 370 million indigenous people, and assisting them in combating discrimination and marginalization."

UNDRIP codifies "Indigenous historical grievances, contemporary challenges and socio-economic, political and cultural aspirations" and is the "culmination of generations-long efforts by Indigenous organizations to get international attention, to secure recognition for their aspirations, and to generate support for their political agendas."^[10] Canada Research Chair and faculty member at the University of Saskatchewan^[11][12] Ken Coates argues that UNDRIP resonates powerfully with indigenous peoples, while national governments have not yet fully understood its impact.^[10]

1. ^ "DOTROIP-24-2-PDF" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on September 3, 2018. Retrieved September 3, 2018.
2. ^ "United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples". United Nations Permanent Forum on Indigenous Issues. Archived from the original on November 1, 2015. Retrieved December 11, 2015.
3. ^ "United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples: United Nations Resolution adopted by the General Assembly on 13 September 2007" (PDF). United Nations. 2007. pp. 22–23.
4. ^ ^{a b c d} United Nations Permanent Forum on Indigenous Issues. "Frequently Asked Questions – Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on January 15, 2012. Retrieved March 5, 2012.
5. ^ United Nations adopts Declaration on Rights of Indigenous Peoples Archived March 13, 2017, at the Wayback Machine United Nations News Centre, 13 September 2007.
6. ^ "General Assembly adopts Declaration on Rights of Indigenous Peoples; 'Major Step Forward' towards human rights for all, says President". UN General Assembly GA/10612. September 13, 2007. Archived from the original on November 17, 2007. Retrieved July 21, 2021.
7. ^ Reyhner, J.; Singh, N. (2010). "Cultural genocide in Australia, Canada, New Zealand, and the United States". Indigenous Policy Journal. S2CID 141340015.
8. ^ "United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples | United Nations For Indigenous Peoples". www.un.org. Retrieved February 16, 2020.
9. ^ Barnabas, Sylvanus Gbendazhi (December 7, 2017). "The Legal Status of the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples (2007) in Contemporary International Human Rights Law". International Human Rights Law Review. 6 (2): 253. doi:10.1163/22131035-00602006. ISSN 2213-1027.
10. ^ ^{a b} Coates, Ken (September 18, 2013), Ken Coates; Terry Mitchell (eds.), From aspiration to inspiration: UNDRIP finding deep traction in Indigenous communities, The Rise of the Fourth World, The Centre for International Governance Innovation (CIGI), archived from the original on September 23, 2013, retrieved September 20, 2013
11. ^ Ferguson, Mark (October 12, 2011). "News". News.usask.ca. Archived from the original on September 25, 2013. Retrieved December 24, 2013.
12. ^ "Home". University of Waterloo. November 3, 2016. Archived from the original on October 22, 1997. Retrieved August 26, 2017.

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14 September 1402 – Battle of Homildon Hill results in an English victory over Scotland.

Battle of Homildon Hill

Conflict between English and Scottish armies in England, in 1402

Not to be confused with Battle of Halidon Hill.

The Battle of Holmedon Hill or Battle of Homildon Hill was a conflict between English and Scottish armies on 14 September 1402 in Northumberland, England. The battle was recounted in William Shakespeare's Henry IV, Part 1. Although Humbleton Hill is the modern name of the site, over the centuries it has been variously named Homildon, Hameldun, Holmedon, and Homilheugh.

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15 September 1971 – The first Greenpeace ship departs from Vancouver to protest against the upcoming Cannikin nuclear weapon test in Alaska.

Cannikin

1971 underground nuclear weapons test on Amchitka island, Alaska, United States

Cannikin was an underground nuclear weapons test performed on November 6, 1971, on Amchitka island, Alaska, by the United States Atomic Energy Commission.^[1] The experiment, part of the Operation Grommet nuclear test series, tested the unique W71 warhead design for the LIM-49 Spartan anti-ballistic missile.^[2][3] With an explosive yield of almost 5 megatons of TNT (21 PJ), the test was the largest underground explosion ever detonated by the United States.^[4]

Prior to the main five-megaton test in 1971, a 1 Mt (4.2 PJ) test took place on the island on October 2, 1969, for calibration purposes, and to ensure the subsequent Cannikin test could be contained.^[4] This test, Milrow, was included in the Operation Mandrel nuclear test series.

The Cannikin test faced considerable opposition on environmental grounds. The campaigning environmental organization Greenpeace grew out of efforts to oppose the test.

1. ^ Mark Nuttall (2004). Encyclopedia of the Arctic. Routledge. ISBN 1579584365. the AEC instituted an extensive bioenvironmental program on Amchitka, and within a few years had completed Project Milrow, Project Long Shot, and Project Cannikin
2. ^ "Accomplishments in the 1970s: Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory". Archived from the original on February 17, 2005. Retrieved October 9, 2006.
3. ^ Robert Rogalski (March 14, 2007). Classification Bulletin – TNP-29 – The fact that the Cannikin event was a proof test of the W71 warhead for the Spartan missile system (Report). Archived from the original on April 26, 2023. Pursuant to section 142d of the Atomic Energy Act of 1954, you determine that the following information can be published without undue risk to the common defense and security and can therefore be declassified and removed from the Formerly Restricted Data category: The fact that the Cannikin event was a proof test of the W71 warhead for the Spartan missile system.
4. ^ ^{a b} The containment of underground nuclear explosions. 1989. This test, by far the highest-yield underground test ever conducted by the United States, was too large to be safely conducted in Nevada

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16 September 1979 – Eight people escape from East Germany to the west in a homemade hot air balloon.

East Germany balloon escape

1979 crossing into West Germany

On 16 September 1979, eight people from two families escaped from East Germany by crossing the border into West Germany at night in a homemade hot air balloon. The unique feat was the result of over a year and a half of preparations involving three different balloons, various modifications, and a first, unsuccessful attempt. The failed attempt alerted the East German authorities to the plot, but the police were unable to identify the escapees before their second, successful flight two months later.

1. ^ ^{a b} Wetzel, Günter. "Die Nacht der Flucht". Ballonflucht.de. Archived from the original on 19 September 2020. Retrieved 16 September 2019.

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17 September 1861 – Argentine Civil Wars: The State of Buenos Aires defeats the Argentine Confederation at the Battle of Pavón.

Argentine Civil Wars

Conflicts within Argentina from 1814 to 1880

Not to be confused with Dirty War.

The Argentine Civil Wars were a series of civil conflicts of varying intensity that took place through the territories of Argentina from 1814 to 1853. Beginning concurrently with the Argentine War of Independence (1810–1818), the conflict prevented the formation of a stable governing body until the signing of the Argentine Constitution of 1853, followed by low-frequency skirmishes that ended with the Federalization of Buenos Aires. The period saw heavy intervention from the Brazilian Empire that fought against state and provinces in multiple wars. Breakaway nations, former territories of the viceroyalty, such as the Banda Oriental, Paraguay and the Upper Peru were involved to varying degrees. Foreign powers such as the British and French empires put heavy pressure on the fledgling nations at times of international war.

Initially, conflict arose from tensions over the organization and powers of the United Provinces of South America. The May 1810 revolution sparked the breakdown of the Viceroyalty's intendencies (regional administrations) into local cabildos. These rejected the notion that the central government should be able to instate and remove governors of the new provinces; a general opposition to centralism. Escalation resulted in the dissolution of the directorship and the congress leaving the Argentine provinces under the leadership of personalist strongmen called caudillos, leading to sporadic skirmishes until the reestablishment of relative peace after the war between the League of the Interior and the Federal Pact. However, conflicting interests did not permit the creation of a governing body until the pact's defeat during the Platine War. Later conflicts centered around commercial control of the riverways in the Paraná and Uruguay rivers and the country's only port, which saw the secession of Buenos Aires from the Argentine Confederation, its unification and subsequent de-escalation of hostilities as the battleground moved from mutinies to debates within the political system of the Argentine Republic.

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18 September 1809 – The Royal Opera House in London opens.

Royal Ballet and Opera

Performing arts venue in London, England

This article is about the opera house in London. For the post-1945 opera company, see The Royal Opera. For other uses, see Royal Opera (disambiguation).

The Royal Ballet and Opera, formerly the Royal Opera House (ROH), is a historic opera house and major performing arts venue in Covent Garden, central London. The large building is often referred to as simply Covent Garden, after a previous use of the site. It is the home of The Royal Opera, The Royal Ballet, and the Orchestra of the Royal Opera House. The first theatre on the site, the Theatre Royal (1732), served primarily as a playhouse for the first hundred years of its history. In 1734, the first ballet was presented. A year later, the first season of operas, by George Frideric Handel, began. Many of his operas and oratorios were specifically written for Covent Garden and had their premieres there.

The current building is the third theatre on the site, following disastrous fires in 1808 and 1856 to previous buildings.^[2] The façade, foyer, and auditorium date from 1858, but almost every other element of the present complex dates from an extensive reconstruction in the 1990s. The main auditorium seats 2,256 people, making it the third largest in London, and consists of four tiers of boxes and balconies and the amphitheatre gallery. The proscenium is 14.80 metres (48 ft 7 in) wide, with the stage of the same depth and 12.20 metres (40 ft 0 in) high. The main auditorium is a Grade I listed building.^[3]

The Royal Opera House was rebranded as the Royal Ballet and Opera in 2024.^[4]

1. ^ Historic England (9 January 1970). "The Royal Opera House (1066392)". National Heritage List for England. Retrieved 9 July 2015.
2. ^ "11 Secrets of London's Royal Opera House". Londonist. 16 February 2017.
3. ^ "Royal Opera House (London)" Archived 23 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine description on theatrestrust.org.uk Retrieved 10 May 2013
4. ^ "Royal Ballet and Opera announces ambitious new season – and name change". 30 April 2024. Retrieved 17 September 2024.

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19 September 1970 – Michael Eavis hosts the first Glastonbury Festival.

Glastonbury Festival

Performing arts festival in Somerset, England

For the early 20th-century classical music and theatre festivals, see Glastonbury Festival (1914–1925).

The Glastonbury Festival (formally the Glastonbury Festival of Contemporary Performing Arts and known colloquially as Glasto) is a five-day festival of contemporary performing arts held near Pilton, Somerset, England, in most summers. In addition to contemporary music, the festival hosts dance, comedy, theatre, circus, cabaret, and other arts. Leading pop and rock artists have headlined, alongside thousands of others appearing on smaller stages and performance areas. Films and albums have been recorded at the festival, and it receives extensive television and newspaper coverage.

Glastonbury takes place on 1500 acres of farmland^[3] and is attended by around 200,000 people,^[4] requiring extensive security, transport, water, and electricity-supply infrastructure. While the number of attendees is sometimes swollen by gatecrashers, a record of 300,000 people was set at the 1994 festival, headlined by the Levellers, who performed on the Pyramid Stage.^[5] Most festival staff are unpaid volunteers, helping the festival to raise millions of pounds for charity organisations.^[6]

Regarded as a major event in contemporary British culture, the festival is inspired by the ethos of the hippie, the counterculture of the 1960s, and the free festival movement. Vestiges of these traditions are retained in the Green Fields area, which includes sections known as the Green Futures, the Stone Circle and Healing Field.^[7] Michael Eavis hosted the first festival, then called the Pilton Festival, after seeing an open-air Led Zeppelin concert in 1970 at the Bath Festival of Blues and Progressive Music.

The festival was held intermittently from 1970 until 1981 and has been held most years since, except for "fallow years" taken mostly at five-year intervals, intended to give the land, local population, and organisers a break. 2018 was a "fallow year", and the 2019 festival took place from 26 to 30 June.^[8] There were then two consecutive "fallow years" due to the COVID-19 pandemic.^[9] The festival returned for 22–26 June 2022 with the headliners Billie Eilish, Paul McCartney and Kendrick Lamar. The next festival took place between 21 and 25 June 2023, headlined by Arctic Monkeys, Guns N' Roses and Elton John in his final UK performance.

1. ^ Farrant, Theo (26 June 2023). "Glastonbury 2023: Here are the biggest moments you might have missed". Euronews. Archived from the original on 21 April 2024.
2. ^ Malloy, Tomas (16 April 2023). "Glastonbury Festival 2023 capacity: How many people attend the world-famous Somerset event?". www.somersetlive.co.uk.
3. ^ Digital, Pretty Good. "Glastonbury Festival – Site Layout & Distances". Glastonbury Festival – 21st–25th June, 2023.
4. ^ "The Worlds's Biggest Music Festivals". CNBC. 24 March 2011. Archived from the original on 23 April 2014. Retrieved 20 May 2014.
5. ^ Hann, Michael (31 January 2018). "The Levellers: 'I'll rag our Brexiteer fans till they cry – or never come back'". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 31 March 2018. Retrieved 31 March 2018.
6. ^ "Thousands of people descend on Worthy Farm for Glastonbury Festival". Bathchronicle.co.uk. 24 June 2015. Archived from the original on 12 July 2015. Retrieved 30 June 2015.
7. ^ Stevens, Jenny (27 June 2015). "Glastonbury's Healing Fields: festivalgoer wellbeing is not just for hippies". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 29 December 2019. Retrieved 3 September 2020.
8. ^ "Glastonbury Confirms Details of Next Festival". radiox.co.uk. 5 July 2019. Archived from the original on 5 July 2019. Retrieved 5 July 2019.
9. ^ "Glastonbury 2021 officially cancelled due to Covid pandemic". The Guardian. 21 January 2021. Retrieved 21 January 2021.

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20 September 1586 – A number of conspirators in the Babington Plot are hanged, drawn and quartered

Babington Plot

1586 plot to assassinate Queen Elizabeth I of England

The Babington Plot was a plan in 1586 to assassinate Queen Elizabeth I, a Protestant, and put Mary, Queen of Scots, her Catholic cousin, on the English throne. It led to Mary's execution, a result of a letter sent by Mary (who had been imprisoned for 19 years since 1568 in England at the behest of Elizabeth) in which she consented to the assassination of Elizabeth.^[1]

The long-term goal of the plot was the invasion of England by the Spanish forces of King Philip II and the Catholic League in France, leading to the restoration of the old religion. The plot was discovered by Elizabeth's spymaster Sir Francis Walsingham and used to entrap Mary for the purpose of removing her as a claimant to the English throne.

The chief conspirators were Anthony Babington and John Ballard. Babington, a young recusant, was recruited by Ballard, a Jesuit priest who hoped to rescue the Scottish queen. Working for Walsingham were double agents Robert Poley and Gilbert Gifford, as well as Thomas Phelippes, a spy agent and cryptanalyst, and the Puritan spy Maliverey Catilyn. The turbulent Catholic deacon Gifford had been in Walsingham's service since the end of 1585 or the beginning of 1586. Gifford obtained a letter of introduction to Queen Mary from a confidant and spy for her, Thomas Morgan. Walsingham then placed double agent Gifford and spy decipherer Phelippes inside Chartley Castle, where Queen Mary was imprisoned. Gifford organised the Walsingham plan to place Babington's and Queen Mary's encrypted communications into a beer barrel cork which were then intercepted by Phelippes, decoded and sent to Walsingham.^[2]

On 7 July 1586, the only Babington letter that was sent to Mary was decoded by Phelippes. Mary responded in code on 17 July 1586 ordering the would-be rescuers to assassinate Queen Elizabeth. The response letter also included deciphered phrases indicating her desire to be rescued: "The affairs being thus prepared" and "I may suddenly be transported out of this place". At the Fotheringay trial in October 1586, Elizabeth's Lord High Treasurer William Cecil – Lord Burghley – and Walsingham used the letter against Mary who refused to admit that she was guilty. However, Mary was betrayed by her secretaries Nau and Curle, who confessed under pressure that the letter was mainly truthful.^[3]

1. ^ Somerest, Anne (1991). Elizabeth One. pp. 545–548.
2. ^ Anthony Babington, Dictionary of National Biography (1895). http://www.tudorplace.com.ar/Bios/AnthonyBabington.htm Archived 21 January 2017 at the Wayback Machine
3. ^ Fraser, Antonia (1985). Mary Queen of Scots. pp. 575–577.

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21 September 1942 – The Boeing B-29 Superfortress makes its maiden flight.

Boeing B-29 Superfortress

"Superfortress" and "B-29" redirect here. For the derivate post-war-bomber, see Boeing B-50 Superfortress. For other uses, see B29 (disambiguation).

US heavy bomber aircraft, 1942

The Boeing B-29 Superfortress is an American four-engined propeller-driven heavy bomber, designed by Boeing and flown primarily by the United States during World War II and the Korean War. Named in allusion to its predecessor, the B-17 Flying Fortress, the Superfortress was designed for high-altitude strategic bombing, but also excelled in low-altitude night incendiary bombing, and in dropping naval mines to blockade Japan. B-29s dropped the atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki, the only aircraft ever to drop nuclear weapons in combat.

One of the largest aircraft of World War II, the B-29 was designed with state-of-the-art technology, which included a pressurized cabin, dual-wheeled tricycle landing gear, and an analog computer-controlled fire-control system that allowed one gunner and a fire-control officer to direct four remote machine gun turrets. The $3 billion cost of design and production (equivalent to $51 billion in 2022),^[3] far exceeding the $1.9 billion cost of the Manhattan Project, made the B-29 program the most expensive of the war.^[4][5] The B-29 remained in service in various roles throughout the 1950s, being retired in the early 1960s after 3,970 had been built. A few were also used as flying television transmitters by the Stratovision company. The Royal Air Force flew the B-29 with the service name Washington from 1950 to 1954 when the jet-powered Canberra entered service.

The B-29 was the progenitor of a series of Boeing-built bombers, transports, tankers, reconnaissance aircraft, and trainers. For example, the re-engined B-50 Superfortress Lucky Lady II became the first aircraft to fly around the world non-stop, during a 94-hour flight in 1949. The Boeing C-97 Stratofreighter airlifter, which was first flown in 1944, was followed in 1947 by its commercial airliner variant, the Boeing Model 377 Stratocruiser. This bomber-to-airliner derivation was similar to the B-17/Model 307 evolution. In 1948, Boeing introduced the KB-29 tanker, followed in 1950 by the Model 377-derivative KC-97. A line of outsized-cargo variants of the Stratocruiser is the Guppy / Mini Guppy / Super Guppy, which remain in service with NASA and other operators. The Soviet Union produced 847 Tupolev Tu-4s, an unlicensed reverse-engineered copy of the B-29. Twenty B-29s remain as static displays, but only two, FIFI and Doc, still fly.^[6]

1. ^ "Boeing B-29." Boeing. Retrieved: 5 August 2010.
2. ^ LeMay and Yenne 1988, p. 60.
3. ^ 1634–1699: McCusker, J. J. (1997). How Much Is That in Real Money? A Historical Price Index for Use as a Deflator of Money Values in the Economy of the United States: Addenda et Corrigenda (PDF). American Antiquarian Society. 1700–1799: McCusker, J. J. (1992). How Much Is That in Real Money? A Historical Price Index for Use as a Deflator of Money Values in the Economy of the United States (PDF). American Antiquarian Society. 1800–present: Federal Reserve Bank of Minneapolis. "Consumer Price Index (estimate) 1800–". Retrieved 29 February 2024.
4. ^ O'Brien, Phillips Payson (2015). How the War Was Won (First ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 47–48. ISBN 978-1-107-01475-6.
5. ^ "B-29 Superfortress, U.S. Heavy Bomber". The Pacific War Online Encyclopedia. Kent G. Budge. Retrieved 1 April 2018.
6. ^ Waller, Staff Sgt. Rachel (17 July 2016). "B-29 'Doc' takes to the skies from McConnell". McConnell AFB. Retrieved 3 January 2024.

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22 September 1965 – The Indo-Pakistani War of 1965 between India and Pakistan over Kashmir ends after the United Nations calls for a ceasefire.

Indo-Pakistani war of 1965

1965 war between India and Pakistan

The Indo-Pakistani war of 1965, also known as the second India–Pakistan war, was an armed conflict between Pakistan and India that took place from August 1965 to September 1965. The conflict began following Pakistan's unsuccessful Operation Gibraltar,^[15] which was designed to infiltrate forces into Jammu and Kashmir to precipitate an insurgency against Indian rule.^[16] The seventeen-week war caused thousands of casualties on both sides and witnessed the largest engagement of armoured vehicles and the largest tank battle since World War II.^[17][18] Hostilities between the two countries ended after a ceasefire was declared through UNSC Resolution 211 following a diplomatic intervention by the Soviet Union and the United States, and the subsequent issuance of the Tashkent Declaration.^[19] Much of the war was fought by the countries' land forces in Kashmir and along the border between India and Pakistan. This war saw the largest amassing of troops in Kashmir since the Partition of India in 1947, a number that was overshadowed only during the 2001–2002 military standoff between India and Pakistan. Most of the battles were fought by opposing infantry and armoured units, with substantial backing from air forces, and naval operations.

India had the upper hand over Pakistan when the ceasefire was declared.^{[20][21][22][23][24][25][26]} However, in terms of aerial warfare, the PAF managed an upper hand over the combat zones despite being numerically inferior.^{[27][28][29][30]} Although the two countries fought to a standoff, the conflict is seen as a strategic and political defeat for Pakistan,^{[31][21][32][33][34][35][36]} as it had not succeeded in fomenting an insurrection in Kashmir and was instead forced to shift gears in the defence of Lahore.^[37] India also failed to achieve its objective of military deterrence and did not capitalise on its advantageous military situation before the ceasefire was declared.^[38][39][40]

Internationally, the war was viewed in the context of the greater Cold War, and resulted in a significant geopolitical shift in the subcontinent.^[41] Before the war, the United States and the United Kingdom had been major material allies of both India and Pakistan, as their primary suppliers of military hardware and foreign developmental aid. During and after the conflict, both India and Pakistan felt betrayed by the perceived lack of support by the western powers for their respective positions; those feelings of betrayal were increased with the imposition of an American and British embargo on military aid to the opposing sides.^[41][42] As a consequence, India and Pakistan openly developed closer relationships with the Soviet Union and China, respectively.^[42] The perceived negative stance of the western powers during the conflict, and during the 1971 war, has continued to affect relations between the West and the subcontinent. Despite improved relations with the US and Britain since the end of the Cold War, the conflict generated a deep distrust of both countries within the subcontinent which to an extent lingers until now.^[43][44][45]

1. ^ Nordeen, Lon O. (1985), Air Warfare in the Missile Age, Smithsonian Institution Press, pp. 68–69, ISBN 978-0-87474-680-8, archived from the original on 7 February 2023
2. ^ ^{a b c d e f} Rakshak, Bharat. "Page 15" (PDF). Official History. Times of India. Archived from the original (PDF) on 9 June 2011. Retrieved 14 July 2011.
3. ^ ^{a b} T. V. Paul 1994, p. 107.
4. ^ ^{a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p} Singh, Harbaksh (1991). War Despatches. New Delhi: Lancer International. p. 7. ISBN 978-81-7062-117-1.
5. ^ ^{a b} Rakshak, Bharat. "Page 14" (PDF). Official History. Times of India. Archived from the original (PDF) on 9 June 2011. Retrieved 14 July 2011.
6. ^ ^{a b} "M48 Patton vs Centurion: Indo-Pakistani War 1965 - Osprey Duel 71, Page 36".
7. ^ ^{a b c d e f} Thomas M. Leonard (2006). Encyclopedia of the developing world. Taylor & Francis. pp. 806–. ISBN 978-0-415-97663-3. Archived from the original on 5 February 2023. Retrieved 14 April 2011.
8. ^ "Indo-Pakistan Wars". Archived from the original on 8 May 2009.
9. ^ "Are India's plans to celebrate 1965 war 'victory' in 'bad taste'?". BBC News. 13 August 2015.
10. ^ ^{a b} Praagh 2003, p. 294.
11. ^ ^{a b} Jamal, Shadow War 2009, p. 86.
12. ^ "Are India's plans to celebrate 1965 war 'victory' in 'bad taste'?". BBC News. 13 August 2015.
13. ^ Tucker, Spencer (2004). Tanks: An Illustrated History of Their Impact. ABC-CLIO. p. 172. ISBN 978-1-57607-9959.
14. ^ "Are India's plans to celebrate 1965 war 'victory' in 'bad taste'?". BBC News. 13 August 2015.
15. ^ Montgomery, Evan Braden (24 May 2016). In the Hegemon's Shadow: Leading States and the Rise of Regional Powers. Cornell University Press. ISBN 978-1-5017-0400-0. Archived from the original on 7 February 2023. Retrieved 22 September 2021.
16. ^ Hali, S. M. (2011). "Operation Gibraltar – an unmitigated disaster?". Defence Journal. 15 (1–2): 10–34 – via EBSCO.
17. ^ David R. Higgins 2016.
18. ^ Rachna Bisht 2015.
19. ^ Lyon, Peter (2008). Conflict between India and Pakistan: an encyclopedia. ABC-CLIO. p. 82. ISBN 978-1-57607-712-2. Archived from the original on 7 February 2023. Retrieved 30 October 2011.
20. ^ Dijink, Gertjan (2002). National Identity and Geopolitical Visions: Maps of Pride and Pain. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-134-77129-5. The superior Indian forces, however, won a decisive victory and the army could have even marched on into Pakistani territory had external pressure not forced both combatants to cease their war efforts.
21. ^ ^{a b} McGarr 2013, p. 331.
22. ^ Pakistan: The Indo-Pakistani War of 1965. Library of Congress Country Studies, United States of America. April 1994. Archived from the original on 7 January 2016. Retrieved 2 October 2010. "Losses were relatively heavy—on the Pakistani side, twenty aircraft, 200 tanks, and 3,800 troops. Pakistan's army had been able to withstand Indian pressure, but a continuation of the fighting would only have led to further losses and ultimate defeat for Pakistan."
23. ^ Hagerty, Devin (2005). South Asia in world politics. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 26. ISBN 978-0-7425-2587-0. Archived from the original on 7 February 2023. Retrieved 12 November 2020. Quote: The invading Indian forces outfought their Pakistani counterparts and halted their attack on the outskirts of Lahore, Pakistan's second-largest city. By the time the United Nations intervened on 20 September, Pakistan had suffered a clear defeat.
24. ^ Wolpert, Stanley (2005). India (3rd ed.). Berkeley: University of California Press. p. 235. ISBN 978-0-520-24696-6. Archived from the original on 17 January 2023. Retrieved 15 November 2015. Quote: India, however, was in a position to inflict grave damage to, if not capture, Pakistan's capital of the Punjab when the cease-fire was called, and controlled Kashmir's strategic Uri-Poonch bulge, much to Ayub's chagrin.
25. ^ Kux, Dennis (1992). India and the United States : Estranged democracies, 1941–1991. Washington, DC: National Defense University Press. p. 238. ISBN 978-0-7881-0279-0. Archived from the original on 17 January 2023. Retrieved 15 November 2015. Quote: India had the best of the war.
26. ^ "Asia: Silent Guns, Wary Combatants". Time. 1 October 1965. Archived from the original on 7 January 2016. Retrieved 30 August 2013. India, by contrast, is still the big gainer in the war. Alternate link content.time.com Archived 2 November 2018 at the Wayback Machine
27. ^ Jogindar Singh (1993). Behind the Scene:An Analysis of India's Military Operations, 1947-1971. p. 238. In the final analysis Pakistan maintained air superiority over the combat zones from 6 September onwards
28. ^ John Andreas Olsen (2018). Routledge Handbook of Air Power. Routledge. Careful analysis available in the public domain tends to list IAF losses as sixty-five aircraft to all causes and PAF losses at twenty-five aircraft….Finally, there was agreement that the losses suffered by the IAF were not commensurate with the value gained in terms of the effect on the adversary and its combat efficiency.
29. ^ Kaushik Roy (2017). Conventional Warfare in South Asia, 1947 to the present. Routledge. point that the PAF's superior strategy enabled it to win air superiority by 5 September bears serious consideration. The preemptive air strike over the Indian air fields and the subsequent provocation of the IAF to fight over the heavily defended Pakistani airfields did indeed result in heavy attrition of the IAF's aircraft.
30. ^ Jeremy Black (2016). Air Power:A Global History. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. ISBN 9781442250970. In the brief 1965 war between India and Pakistan, the two air forces were heavily engaged. The Pakistan Air Force (PAF) was able to inflict greater casualties despite being smaller. This owed much to the technical superiority of the PAF's F-86 Sabres over the IAF's Hunters and Mysteres.
31. ^ Kux, Dennis (2006). India-Pakistan Negotiations: Is Past Still Prologue?. US Institute of Peace Press. p. 30. ISBN 978-1-929223-87-9. The conflict was short, but nasty. After seventeen days, both sides accepted a UN Security Council call for a cease-fire. Although the two militaries fought to a standoff, India won by not losing.
32. ^ Small, Andrew (2015). The China-Pakistan Axis: Asia's New Geopolitics. Oxford University Press. p. 17. ISBN 978-0-19-021075-5. "... the war itself was a disaster for Pakistan, from the first failed attempts by Pakistani troops to precipitate an insurgency in Kashmir to the appearance of Indian artillery within range of Lahore International Airport."
33. ^ Cite error: The named reference Conley was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
34. ^ Profile of Pakistan Archived 2 August 2018 at the Wayback Machine – U.S. Department of State, Failure of U.S.'s Pakistan Policy Archived 12 July 2010 at the Wayback Machine – Interview with Steve Coll
35. ^ Speech of Bill McCollum Archived 4 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine in United States House of Representatives 12 September 1994
36. ^ South Asia in World Politics By Devin T. Hagerty, 2005 Rowman & Littlefield, ISBN 0-7425-2587-2, p. 26
37. ^ McGarr 2013, p. 315.
38. ^ Ganguly, Sumit (1990) [Published online: 24 Jan 2008]. "Deterrence failure revisited: The Indo-Pakistani war of 1965". Journal of Strategic Studies. 13 (4): 77–93. doi:10.1080/01402399008437432. ISSN 0140-2390.
39. ^ Tarapore, Arzan (2023) [Published online: 1 Oct 2019]. "Defence without deterrence: India's strategy in the 1965 war". Journal of Strategic Studies. 46 (1): 150–179. doi:10.1080/01402390.2019.1668274. ISSN 0140-2390. S2CID 211312207.
40. ^ Awan, Ayesha Azmat (7 September 2022). "Looking back at India's failed strategy in 1965 War". Global Village Space. Retrieved 27 July 2023.
41. ^ ^{a b} Riedel, Bruce (2013). Avoiding Armageddon: America, India, and Pakistan to the Brink and Back. Brookings Institution Press. pp. 67–70. ISBN 978-0-8157-2408-7.
42. ^ ^{a b} McGarr 2013, pp. 324–326.
43. ^ McGarr 2013, pp. 350–353.
44. ^ McGarr 2013, pp. 360–363.
45. ^ Riedel, Bruce (2013). Avoiding Armageddon: America, India, and Pakistan to the Brink and Back. Brookings Institution Press. pp. 69–70. ISBN 978-0-8157-2408-7. "The legacy of the Johnson arms cut-off remains alive today. Indians simply do not believe that America will be there when India needs military help … the legacy of the U.S. “betrayal” still haunts U.S.-Pakistan relations today."

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23 September 1905 – Norway and Sweden sign the Karlstad Treaty, peacefully dissolving the Union between the two countries

Dissolution of the union between Norway and Sweden

1905 dissolution of the kingdoms' personal union

The dissolution of the union (Bokmål: unionsoppløsningen; Nynorsk: unionsoppløysinga; Landsmål: unionsuppløysingi; Swedish: unionsupplösningen) between the kingdoms of Norway and Sweden under the House of Bernadotte, was set in motion by a resolution of the Storting on 7 June 1905. Following some months of tension and fear of an outbreak of war between the neighbouring kingdoms (then in personal union) – and a Norwegian plebiscite held on 13 August which overwhelmingly backed dissolution – negotiations between the two governments led to Sweden's recognition of Norway as an independent constitutional monarchy on 26 October 1905. On that date, King Oscar II renounced his claim to the Norwegian throne, effectively dissolving the United Kingdoms of Sweden and Norway, and this event was swiftly followed, on 18 November, by the accession to the Norwegian throne of Prince Carl of Denmark, taking the name of Haakon VII.

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24 September 1946 – The top-secret Clifford-Elsey Report on the Soviet Union is delivered to President Truman.

X Article

1947 anti-communist article by American diplomat George F. Kennan

Wikisource has original text related to this article:

The Long Telegram

Wikisource has original text related to this article:

The Sources of Soviet Conduct

The "X Article" is an article, formally titled "The Sources of Soviet Conduct", written by George F. Kennan and published under the pseudonym "X" in the July 1947 issue of Foreign Affairs magazine. It introduced the term "containment" to widespread use and advocated the strategic use of that concept against the Soviet Union. It expanded on ideas expressed by Kennan in a confidential February 1946 telegram, formally identified by Kennan's State Department number, "511", but informally dubbed the "long telegram" for its size.

Kennan composed the long telegram to respond to inquiries about the implications of a February 1946 speech by Joseph Stalin.^{[note 1]} Though the speech was in line with previous statements by Stalin, it provoked fear in the American press and public; Time magazine called it "the most warlike pronouncement uttered by any top-rank statesman since V-J Day".^[5] The long telegram explained Soviet motivations by recounting the history of Russian rulers as well as the ideology of Marxism–Leninism. It argued that the Soviet leaders used the ideology to characterize the external world as hostile, allowing them to justify their continued hold on power despite a lack of popular support. Washington bureaucrats quickly read the confidential message and accepted it as the best explanation of Soviet behavior. The reception elevated Kennan's reputation within the State Department as one of the government's foremost Soviet experts.

After hearing Kennan speak about Soviet foreign relations at the Council on Foreign Relations in January 1947, international banker R. Gordon Wasson suggested that he share his views in an article for Foreign Affairs. Kennan revised a piece he had submitted to Secretary of the Navy James Forrestal in late January 1947, but his role in government precluded him from publishing under his name. His superiors granted him approval to publish the piece provided it was released anonymously; Foreign Affairs attributed the article only to "X". Expressing similar sentiments to that of the long telegram, the piece was strong in its anti-communism, introducing and outlining a basic theory of containment. The article was widely read; though it does not mention the Truman Doctrine, having mostly been written before Truman's speech, it quickly became seen as an expression of the doctrine's policy. Retrospective commentators dispute the impact of the article; Henry Kissinger referred to it as "the diplomatic doctrine of the era",^[6] but some historians write that its impact in shaping governmental policy has been overstated.

1. ^ Kennan 1983, quoted in Gaddis 2011, p. 216.
2. ^ ^{a b} Gaddis 2011, p. 718n40.
3. ^ Gaddis 1997, p. 193.
4. ^ Gaddis 2011, p. 216.
5. ^ Gaddis 2011, p. 227.
6. ^ Kissinger 1979, p. 135, quoted in Gaddis 2011, p. 249.

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25 September 1237 – England and Scotland sign the Treaty of York, establishing the location of their common border.

Treaty of York

1237 treaty between England and Scotland

The Treaty of York was an agreement between the kings Henry III of England and Alexander II of Scotland, signed at York on 25 September 1237, which affirmed that Northumberland (which at the time also encompassed County Durham),^[1] Cumberland, and Westmorland were subject to English sovereignty. This established the Anglo-Scottish border in a form that remains almost unchanged to modern times (the only modifications have been regarding the Debatable Lands and Berwick-upon-Tweed).^[2] The treaty detailed the future status of several feudal properties and addressed other issues between the two kings, and historically marked the end of the Kingdom of Scotland's attempts to extend its frontier southward.

The treaty was one of a number of agreements made in the ongoing relationship between the two kings. The papal legate Otho of Tonengo was already in the Kingdom of England at Henry's request, to attend a synod in London in November 1237. Otho was informed in advance by Henry of the September meeting at York, which he attended. This meeting was recorded by the contemporary chronicler Matthew Paris, who disparaged both Alexander and Otho.

1. ^ Green, Adrian (2007). Regional Identities in North-East England, 1300–2000. The Boydell Press. p. 224. ISBN 978-1843833352.
2. ^ "Treaty of York – 1237". BBC. Retrieved 24 September 2017.

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26 September 1933 – As gangster Machine Gun Kelly surrenders to the FBI, he shouts out, "Don't shoot, G-Men!", which becomes a nickname for FBI agents.

Machine Gun Kelly (gangster)

American gangster (1900–1954)

George Kelly Barnes (July 18, 1900^[1][2] – July 17, 1954),^[3] better known by his nickname "Machine Gun Kelly", was an American gangster from Memphis, Tennessee, active during the Prohibition era. His nickname came from his favorite weapon, a Thompson submachine gun. He is best known for the kidnapping of oil tycoon and businessman Charles F. Urschel in July 1933, from which he and his gang collected a $200,000 ransom (equivalent to $4.71 million in 2023).^[4] Urschel had collected and left considerable evidence that assisted the subsequent FBI investigation, which eventually led to Kelly's arrest in Memphis on September 26, 1933.^[3] His crimes also included bootlegging and armed robbery.

1. ^ Barnes, Bruce. Machine Gun Kelly: To Right A Wrong, Tipper Publications, 1991. p. 49
2. ^ Draft Registration Card of George Kelley (sic) Barnes, dated September 12, 1918
3. ^ ^{a b} "George 'Machine Gun' Kelly". Alcatraz History.com. 2015. Retrieved August 16, 2015.
4. ^ O'Dell, Larry. "Urschel Kidnapping". Encyclopedia of Oklahoma History and Culture. Oklahoma Historical Society. Archived from the original on December 28, 2014. Retrieved May 11, 2012.

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27 September 1540 – The Society of Jesus (Jesuits) receives its charter from Pope Paul III.

Jesuits

Male religious congregation of the Catholic Church

This article is about the Society of Jesus, also known as Jesuit Order. For philosophy concerning the teachings of Jesus, see Jesuism. For the band, see Jesuit (band). For the pastry, see Jésuite. For the sandwich, see Jesuita (sandwich).

The Society of Jesus (Latin: Societas Iesu; abbreviation: SJ), also known as the Jesuit Order or the Jesuits (/ˈdʒɛʒuɪts, ˈdʒɛzju-/ JEZH-oo-its, JEZ-ew-;^[2] Latin: Iesuitae),^[3] is a religious order of clerics regular of pontifical right for men in the Catholic Church headquartered in Rome. It was founded in 1540 by Ignatius of Loyola and six companions, with the approval of Pope Paul III. The society is engaged in evangelization and apostolic ministry in 112 nations. Jesuits work in education, research, and cultural pursuits. Jesuits also conduct retreats, minister in hospitals and parishes, sponsor direct social and humanitarian ministries, and promote ecumenical dialogue.

The Society of Jesus is consecrated under the patronage of Madonna della Strada, a title of the Blessed Virgin Mary, and it is led by a superior general.^[4][5] The headquarters of the society, its general curia, is in Rome.^[6] The historic curia of Ignatius is now part of the Collegio del Gesù attached to the Church of the Gesù, the Jesuit mother church.

Members of the Society of Jesus make profession of "perpetual poverty, chastity, and obedience" and "promise a special obedience to the sovereign pontiff in regard to the missions" to the effect that a Jesuit is expected to be directed by the pope "perinde ac cadaver" ("as if he was a lifeless body") and to accept orders to go anywhere in the world, even if required to live in extreme conditions. This was so because Ignatius, its leading founder, was a nobleman who had a military background. Accordingly, the opening lines of the founding document declared that the society was founded for "whoever desires to serve as a soldier of God,^[a] to strive especially for the defense and propagation of the faith, and for the progress of souls in Christian life and doctrine".^[7] Jesuits are thus sometimes referred to colloquially as "God's soldiers",^[8] "God's marines",^[9] or "the Company".^[10] The society participated in the Counter-Reformation and, later, in the implementation of the Second Vatican Council.

Jesuit missionaries established missions around the world from the 16th to the 18th century and had both successes and failures in Christianizing the native peoples. The Jesuits have always been controversial within the Catholic Church and have frequently clashed with secular governments and institutions. Beginning in 1759, the Catholic Church expelled Jesuits from most countries in Europe and from European colonies. Pope Clement XIV officially suppressed the order in 1773. In 1814, the Church lifted the suppression.

1. ^ ^{a b c} "Society of Jesus (Institute of Consecrated Life – Men) [Catholic-Hierarchy]". www.catholic-hierarchy.org. Archived from the original on 23 January 2003. Retrieved 15 October 2018.
2. ^ "Jesuit". Dictionary.com Unabridged (Online). n.d.
3. ^ "Jesuit". Cambridge Dictionary of English. Cambridge University Press. Archived from the original on 3 May 2022. Retrieved 22 May 2021.
4. ^ "News on the elections of the new Superior General". Sjweb.info. Archived from the original on 25 April 2023. Retrieved 4 December 2011.
5. ^ "africa.reuters.com, Spaniard becomes Jesuits' new 'black pope'". Reuters. 9 February 2009. Archived from the original on 3 January 2009. Retrieved 4 December 2011.
6. ^ "The General Curia". Archived from the original on 6 October 2022. Retrieved 7 October 2022.
7. ^ O'Malley 2006, p. xxxv.
8. ^ "Poverty and Chastity for Every Occasion". Weekend Edition Saturday. National Public Radio. 5 March 2010. Archived from the original on 20 June 2013. Retrieved 15 May 2013.
9. ^ "The Jesuits: 'God's marines'". The Week. New York. 23 March 2013. Archived from the original on 11 June 2017. Retrieved 19 June 2017.
10. ^ "About Our Jesuits". Atlanta, Georgia: Ignatius House Retreat Center. Archived from the original on 11 April 2013. Retrieved 15 May 2013.

Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

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28 September 1889 – The General Conference on Weights and Measures (CGPM) defines the length of a metre

General Conference on Weights and Measures

International metrological authority

The General Conference on Weights and Measures (abbreviated CGPM from the French: Conférence générale des poids et mesures)^[1]: 117 is the supreme authority of the International Bureau of Weights and Measures (BIPM), the intergovernmental organization established in 1875 under the terms of the Metre Convention through which member states act together on matters related to measurement science and measurement standards. The CGPM is made up of delegates of the governments of the member states and observers from the Associates of the CGPM. It elects the International Committee for Weights and Measures (abbreviated CIPM from the Comité international des poids et mesures)^[1]: 117 as the supervisory board of the BIPM to direct and supervise it.

Initially the Metre Convention was only concerned with the kilogram and the metre, but in 1921 the scope of the treaty was extended to accommodate all physical measurements and hence all aspects of the metric system. In 1960 the 11th CGPM approved the International System of Units, usually known as "SI".

The General Conference receives the report of the CIPM on work accomplished; it discusses and examines the arrangements required to ensure the propagation and improvement of the International System of Units (SI); it endorses the results of new fundamental metrological determinations and various scientific resolutions of international scope; and it decides all major issues concerning the organization and development of the BIPM, including its financial endowment.^[2]

The CGPM meets in Paris, usually once every four years. The 25th meeting of the CGPM took place from 18 to 20 November 2014,^[3] the 26th meeting of the CGPM took place in Versailles from 13 to 16 November 2018,^[4] and the 27th meeting of the CGPM took place from 15 to 18 November 2022.^[5]

1. ^ ^{a b} Cite error: The named reference SIBrochure9th was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
2. ^ "BIPM – official reports". bipm.org. Archived from the original on 30 December 2020. Retrieved 26 April 2018.
3. ^ "BIPM – 25th meeting of the CGPM: 18–20 November 2014". bipm.org. Retrieved 21 November 2022.
4. ^ "BIPM – 26th meeting of the CGPM (2018)". bipm.org. Retrieved 21 November 2022.
5. ^ "27th meeting of the CGPM (2022)". BIPM. Retrieved 21 November 2022.

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29 September 1829 – The Metropolitan Police of London, later also known as the Met, is founded

Metropolitan Police

Territorial police force of Greater London

Not to be confused with City of London Police.

For other metropolitan police departments, see Metropolitan Police (disambiguation).

Law enforcement agency

The Metropolitan Police Service (MPS), formerly known as the Metropolitan Police, which is still its common name, serves as the territorial police force responsible for law enforcement and crime prevention within Greater London. In addition, it is responsible for specialised tasks throughout the United Kingdom, such as dealing with counter-terrorism throughout the UK, and the protection of certain individuals, including the monarch, royal family, governmental officials,^[10] and other designated figures. Commonly referred to as the Met, it is also referred to as Scotland Yard or the Yard, after the location of its original headquarters in Great Scotland Yard, Whitehall in the 19th century.^[11] The Met is presently headquartered at New Scotland Yard, on the Victoria Embankment.^[12]

The main geographical area covered by the Met, the Metropolitan Police District, consists of the 32 London boroughs,^[13] and excludes the square mile of the City of London – a largely non-residential and financial district, overseen by the City of London Police. As the force responsible for the majority of UK's capital, the Met has significant responsibilities and unique challenges, such as protecting 164 foreign embassies and High Commissions,^[14] policing London City and Heathrow airports, protecting the Palace of Westminster, and managing a higher volume of protests and events than any other British police force, with 3,500 such events in 2016.^[14]

The force, by officer numbers, ranks as the largest police force within the United Kingdom and among the largest globally.^[15] Excluding its national roles, the Met oversees the eighth-smallest primary geographic area (police area) compared to other territorial police forces in the UK.

The force operates under the leadership of the Commissioner of Police of the Metropolis, directly accountable to the Mayor of London, through the Mayor's Office for Policing and Crime and the Home Office. The post of commissioner was first held jointly by Sir Charles Rowan and Sir Richard Mayne, with Sir Mark Rowley currently holding the position since July 2022.^[16]

1. ^ "Metropolitan Police Service – Homepage". Metropolitan Police. 2 April 2009. Archived from the original on 8 July 2017. Retrieved 6 May 2009.
2. ^ "Contacts: MPS". MPA. Archived from the original on 14 January 2012. Retrieved 2 June 2010.
3. ^ "Metropolitan Police Service – History of the Metropolitan Police Service". Metropolitan Police. Archived from the original on 26 April 2009. Retrieved 6 May 2009.
4. ^ "The Bow street runners – Victorian Policeman by Simon Dell OBE QCB – Devon & Cornwall Constabulary". Devon-cornwall.police.uk. Archived from the original on 13 October 2003. Retrieved 6 May 2009.
5. ^ "Policing the Port of London – Crime and punishment". Port Cities. Archived from the original on 5 October 2012. Retrieved 6 May 2009.
6. ^ ^{a b c d} "The structure | the Met". www.met.police.uk. Archived from the original on 25 June 2017. Retrieved 23 June 2020.
7. ^ "London Police Budget 2023". Archived from the original on 18 September 2023. Retrieved 14 September 2023.
8. ^ "Metropolitan Police Service". His Majesty's Inspectorate of Constabulary and Fire & Rescue Services. Archived from the original on 9 May 2021. Retrieved 26 May 2021.
9. ^ "Dame Lynne Owens announced as Met Deputy Commissioner". Metropolitan Police. 20 February 2023. Archived from the original on 29 March 2023. Retrieved 21 February 2023.
10. ^ "MPA – Metropolitan Police dedicated to protecting the United Kingdom from terrorism". whitehallpages.net. Archived from the original on 24 July 2011. Retrieved 22 July 2011.
11. ^ Douglas Browne (1956) The Rise of Scotland Yard: A History of the Metropolitan Police
12. ^ "New Met HQ officially 'Topped Out' by Commissioner and Deputy Mayor". December 2015. Archived from the original on 9 July 2021. Retrieved 17 March 2021.
13. ^ "The Met's area of jurisdiction | The Met". www.met.police.uk. Archived from the original on 23 October 2020. Retrieved 6 March 2019.
14. ^ ^{a b} "MPS Business Plan 2017–18" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 23 March 2019. Retrieved 6 October 2018.
15. ^ "Metropolitan Police Authority". MPA. Archived from the original on 19 July 2006. Retrieved 20 July 2006.
16. ^ "Mark Rowley appointed new commissioner of Met police". TheGuardian.com. 8 July 2022. Archived from the original on 25 March 2023. Retrieved 20 December 2023.

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30 September 1863 – Georges Bizet's opera Les pêcheurs de perles, premiered in Paris.

Les pêcheurs de perles

1863 opera by Georges Bizet

"The Pearl Fishers" redirects here. For the film, see The Pearl Fishers (film). For the band, see Pearlfishers (band).

Les pêcheurs de perles (The Pearl Fishers) is an opera in three acts by the French composer Georges Bizet, to a libretto by Eugène Cormon and Michel Carré. It was premiered on 30 September 1863 at the Théâtre Lyrique in Paris, and was given 18 performances in its initial run. Set in ancient times on the island of Ceylon (Sri Lanka), the opera tells the story of how two men's vow of eternal friendship is threatened by their love for the same woman, whose own dilemma is the conflict between secular love and her sacred oath as a priestess. The friendship duet "Au fond du temple saint", generally known as "The Pearl Fishers Duet", is one of the best-known in Western opera.

At the time of the premiere, Bizet (born on 25 October 1838) was not yet 25 years old: he had yet to establish himself in the Parisian musical world. The commission to write Les pêcheurs arose from his standing as a former winner of the prestigious Prix de Rome. Despite a good reception by the public, press reactions to the work were generally hostile and dismissive, although other composers, notably Hector Berlioz, found considerable merit in the music. The opera was not revived in Bizet's lifetime, but from 1886 onwards it was performed with some regularity in Europe and North America, and from the mid-20th century has entered the repertory of opera houses worldwide. Because the autograph score was lost, post-1886 productions were based on amended versions of the score that contained significant departures from the original. Since the 1970s, efforts have been made to reconstruct the score in accordance with Bizet's intentions.

Modern critical opinion has been kinder than that of Bizet's day. Commentators describe the quality of the music as uneven and at times unoriginal, but acknowledge the opera as a work of promise in which Bizet's gifts for melody and evocative instrumentation are clearly evident. They have identified clear foreshadowings of the composer's genius which would culminate, 10 years later, in Carmen. Since 1950 the work has been recorded on numerous occasions, in both the revised and original versions.

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1 October 1861 – Mrs Beeton's Book of Household Management is published, going on to sell 60,000 copies in its first year and remaining in print until the present day.

Mrs. Beeton's Book of Household Management

1861 book by Isabella Beeton

Mrs. Beeton's Book of Household Management, also published as Mrs. Beeton's Cookery Book, is an extensive guide to running a household in Victorian Britain, edited by Isabella Beeton and first published as a book in 1861. Previously published in parts, it initially and briefly bore the title Beeton's Book of Household Management, as one of the series of guidebooks published by her husband, Samuel Beeton. The recipes were highly structured, in contrast to those in earlier cookbooks. It was illustrated with many monochrome and colour plates.

Although Mrs. Beeton died in 1865, the book continued to be a best-seller. The first editions after her death contained an obituary notice, but later editions did not, allowing readers to imagine that every word was written by an experienced Mrs. Beeton personally. Many of the recipes were copied from the most successful cookery books of the day, including Eliza Acton's Modern Cookery for Private Families (first published in 1845), Elizabeth Raffald's The Experienced English Housekeeper (originally published in 1769), Marie-Antoine Carême's Le Pâtissier royal Parisien (1815), Hannah Glasse's The Art of Cookery Made Plain and Easy (1747), Maria Eliza Rundell's A New System of Domestic Cookery (1806), and the works of Charles Elmé Francatelli (1805–1876). This practice of Mrs. Beeton's has in modern times repeatedly been described as plagiarism.^{[citation needed]}

The book expanded steadily in length until by 1907 it reached 74 chapters and over 2,000 pages. Nearly two million copies were sold by 1868, and as of 2016^[update] it remained in print. Between 1875 and 1914 it was probably the most often-consulted cookery book. Mrs. Beeton has been compared on the strength of the book with modern "domestic goddesses"^[1] like Nigella Lawson and Delia Smith.^[1]

1. ^ ^{a b} Cite error: The named reference ftimes was invoked but never defined (see the help page).

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2 October 1928 – The "Prelature of the Holy Cross and the Work of God", commonly known as Opus Dei, is founded

Opus Dei

Institution of the Catholic Church

For other uses, see Opus Dei (disambiguation).

Opus Dei (Work of God) is an institution of the Catholic Church that was founded in Spain in 1928 by Catholic priest Josemaría Escrivá.^[2] Its own stated mission is to help its lay and clerical members to seek Christian perfection in their everyday occupations and within their societies.

Opus Dei is officially recognized within the Catholic Church, though its status has evolved. It received final approval by the Catholic Church in 1950 by Pope Pius XII.^[3] Pope Saint John Paul II made it a personal prelature in 1982 by the apostolic constitution Ut sit; that is, the jurisdiction of the Opus Dei's head covers members wherever they are, rather than geographical dioceses.^[3]: 1–9 On 14 July 2022, Pope Francis issued the apostolic letter Ad charisma tuendum, which transferred responsibility for the Opus Dei from the Dicastery for Bishops to the Dicastery for the Clergy and decreed that the head of the Opus Dei cannot become a bishop.^[4] While Opus Dei has met controversies, it remains influential within the Church.

Lay people make up the majority of its membership; the remainder are secular priests under the governance of a prelate elected by specific members and appointed by the Pope.^[5] Opus Dei is Latin for "Work of God"; hence the organization is often referred to by members and supporters as the Work.^[6][7]

As of 2023, there are 95,890 members of the Prelature: 93,784 lay persons and 2,106 priests.^[1] These figures do not include the diocesan priest members of Opus Dei's Priestly Society of the Holy Cross, estimated to number 2,000 in the year 2005.^[8] Members are located in more than 90 countries.^[9] About 70% of Opus Dei members live in their own homes, leading family lives with secular careers,^[10][11] while the other 30% are celibate, of whom the majority live in Opus Dei centers. Aside from their personal charity and social work, Opus Dei members organize training in Catholic spirituality applied to daily life; members are involved in running universities, university residences, schools, publishing houses, hospitals, and technical and agricultural training centers.

1. ^ ^{a b} "Opus Dei (Personal Prelature) [Catholic-Hierarchy]". www.catholic-hierarchy.org. Retrieved 8 June 2019.
2. ^ "Apostolic constitution "Ut sit" - Opus Dei".
3. ^ ^{a b} Berglar, Peter (1994). Opus Dei: Life and Work of Its Founder, Josemaria Escriva. Translated by Browne, Bernard; Chessman, Stuart; Junge, John; Gottschalk, Mary. Princeton, NJ: Scepter Publishers, Inc. p. 189. ISBN 0-933932-64-2. Archived from the original on 20 August 2018. Retrieved 29 March 2008.
4. ^ Cite error: The named reference :2 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
5. ^ "Upon whom does the prelate of Opus Dei depend? Who appoints him?". Opus Dei.
6. ^ "Decoding secret world of Opus Dei". BBC News. 16 September 2005. Retrieved 27 November 2006.
7. ^ Bill Tammeus (19 October 2005). "Bishop confirms connection to group". Kansas City Star.
8. ^ John Allen (2005). Opus Dei: An Objective Look Behind the Myths and Reality of the Most Controversial Force in the Catholic Church. Doubleday Religion. ISBN 0-385-51449-2.
9. ^ "Opus Dei to produce Italian cartoon and mini-series on St. Josemaria Escriva". Retrieved 11 December 2016.
10. ^ "Opus Dei". BBC Religion and Ethics. Retrieved 27 November 2006.
11. ^ Terry Mattingly. "'Da Vinci Code' mania opened up Opus Dei". Albuquerque Tribune. Archived from the original on 29 September 2007. Retrieved 2 April 2007.

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3 October 52 BC – Gallic Wars: Vercingetorix, leader of the Gauls, surrenders to the Romans under Julius Caesar, ending the siege and battle of Alesia.

Gallic Wars

58–50 BC, Rome vs. Gallic tribes

This article is about Caesar's military campaigns of 58 to 50 BC. For Julius Caesar's writings, see Commentarii de Bello Gallico. For the earlier Romano-Gallic conflicts, see Roman–Gallic wars.

The Gallic Wars^[a] were waged between 58 and 50 BC by the Roman general Julius Caesar against the peoples of Gaul (present-day France, Belgium, Germany and Switzerland). Gallic, Germanic, and Brittonic tribes fought to defend their homelands against an aggressive Roman campaign. The Wars culminated in the decisive Battle of Alesia in 52 BC, in which a complete Roman victory resulted in the expansion of the Roman Republic over the whole of Gaul. Though the collective Gallic armies were as strong as the Roman forces, the Gallic tribes' internal divisions eased victory for Caesar. Gallic chieftain Vercingetorix's attempt to unite the Gauls under a single banner came too late. Caesar portrayed the invasion as being a preemptive and defensive action, but historians agree that he fought the wars primarily to boost his political career and to pay off his debts. Still, Gaul was of significant military importance to the Romans. Native tribes in the region, both Gallic and Germanic, had attacked Rome several times. Conquering Gaul allowed Rome to secure the natural border of the river Rhine.

The wars began with conflict over the migration of the Helvetii in 58 BC, which drew in neighboring tribes and the Germanic Suebi. By 57 BC, Caesar had resolved to conquer all of Gaul. He led campaigns in the east, where the Nervii almost defeated him. In 56 BC, Caesar defeated the Veneti in a naval battle and took most of northwest Gaul. In 55 BC, Caesar sought to boost his public image. He undertook first-of-their-kind expeditions across the Rhine and the English Channel. Rome hailed Caesar as a hero upon his return from Britain, though he had achieved little beyond landing because his army had been too small. The next year, he returned with a proper army and conquered much of Britain. Tribes rose up on the continent, and the Romans suffered a humiliating defeat. 53 BC saw a brutal pacification campaign. This failed, and Vercingetorix led a revolt in 52 BC. Gallic forces won a notable victory at the Battle of Gergovia, but the Romans' indomitable siege works at the Battle of Alesia crushed the Gallic coalition.

In 51 and 50 BC, there was limited resistance, and Caesar's troops mainly engaged in mop-up operations. Gaul was conquered, although it would not become a Roman province until 27 BC, and resistance would continue until as late as 70 AD. There is no precise end date to the war, but the imminent Roman Civil War led to the withdrawal of Caesar's troops in 50 BC. Caesar's wild successes in the war had made him wealthy and provided a legendary reputation. The Gallic Wars were a key factor in Caesar's ability to win the Civil War and make himself dictator, which culminated in the end of the Roman Republic and the establishment of the Roman Empire.

Julius Caesar described the Gallic Wars in his book Commentarii de Bello Gallico. It is the primary source for the conflict, but modern historians consider it prone to exaggeration. Caesar makes impossible claims about the number of Gauls killed (over a million), while claiming almost zero Roman casualties. Modern historians believe that Gallic forces were far smaller than the Romans claimed, and that the Romans suffered significant casualties. Historian David Henige regards the entire account as clever propaganda meant to boost Caesar's image, and suggests it is of minimal historical accuracy. Regardless of the accuracy of the Commentarii, the campaign was still exceptionally brutal. Untold numbers of Gauls were killed, enslaved, or mutilated, including large numbers of civilians.

1. ^ Delbrück 1990, p. 46.
2. ^ Dodge 1997, pp. 276–295.
3. ^ Keppie 1998, p. 97.
4. ^ Appian 2016.
5. ^ ^{a b} Fields 2010.
6. ^ McCarty 2008.
7. ^ Caesar 1982, p. 15.
8. ^ Henige 1998.
9. ^ Webster, Jane (1996). "Ethnographic barbarity: colonial discourse and 'Celtic warrior societies'.". In Cooper, Nick (ed.). Roman Imperialism: Post-Colonial Perspectives (PDF). School of Archaeological Studies, University of Leicester. pp. 117–118. Retrieved 5 April 2023.

Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

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4 October 2006 – WikiLeaks is launched.

WikiLeaks

News leak publishing organisation

WikiLeaks (/ˈwɪkiliːks/) is a non-profit media organisation and publisher of leaked documents. It is funded by donations^[13] and media partnerships. It has published classified documents and other media provided by anonymous sources.^[14] It was founded in 2006 by Julian Assange, an Australian editor, publisher, and activist.^[15] Since September 2018, Kristinn Hrafnsson has served as its editor-in-chief.^[16][17] Its website states that it has released more than ten million documents and associated analyses.^[18] WikiLeaks' most recent publication of original documents was in 2019 and its most recent publication was in 2021.^[19] From November 2022, numerous documents on the organisation's website became inaccessible.^[19][20] In 2023, Assange said that WikiLeaks is no longer able to publish due to his imprisonment and the effect that US government surveillance and WikiLeaks' funding restrictions were having on potential whistleblowers.^[21]

WikiLeaks has released document caches and media, that exposed serious violations of human rights and civil liberties by various governments. It released footage of the 12 July 2007 Baghdad airstrike, titling it Collateral Murder, in which Iraqi Reuters journalists and several civilians were killed by a U.S. helicopter crew.^[22] It published thousands of US military field logs from the war in Afghanistan and Iraq war, diplomatic cables from the United States and Saudi Arabia,^[23][24] and emails from the governments of Syria^[25][26] and Turkey.^[27][28][29] WikiLeaks has also published documents exposing corruption in Kenya^[30][31] and at Samherji,^[32] cyber warfare and surveillance tools created by the CIA,^[33][34] and surveillance of the French president by the National Security Agency.^[35][36] During the 2016 U.S. presidential election campaign, WikiLeaks released emails from the Democratic National Committee (DNC) and from Hillary Clinton's campaign manager, showing that the party's national committee had effectively acted as an arm of the Clinton campaign during the primaries, seeking to undercut the campaign of Bernie Sanders. These releases resulted in the resignation of the chairwoman of the DNC and caused significant harm to the Clinton campaign.^[37] During the campaign, WikiLeaks promoted false conspiracy theories about Hillary Clinton, the Democratic Party and the murder of Seth Rich.^[38][39][40]

WikiLeaks has won awards and been commended for exposing state and corporate secrets, increasing transparency, assisting freedom of the press, and enhancing democratic discourse while challenging powerful institutions. The organisation has been the target of campaigns to discredit it, including aborted ones by Palantir and HBGary. WikiLeaks has also had its donation systems interrupted by payment processors. As a result, the Wau Holland Foundation helps process WikiLeaks' donations.

The organisation has been criticised for inadequately curating content and violating personal privacy. WikiLeaks has, for instance, revealed Social Security numbers, medical information, credit card numbers and details of suicide attempts.^[41][42][43] News organisations, activists, journalists and former members have also criticised WikiLeaks over allegations of anti-Clinton and pro-Trump bias, various associations with the Russian government, buying and selling of leaks, and a lack of internal transparency. Journalists have also criticised the organisation for promotion of conspiracy theories, and what they describe as exaggerated and misleading descriptions of the contents of leaks. The US CIA and United States Congress defined the organisation as a "non-state hostile intelligence service" after the release of Vault 7.^[44]

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1. ^ "Log in - our.wikileaks.org". our.wikileaks.org. Archived from the original on 12 July 2023. Retrieved 12 July 2023.
2. ^ "Getting Started - our.wikileaks.org". our.wikileaks.org. Archived from the original on 29 May 2024. Retrieved 12 July 2023.
3. ^ Cardoso, Gustavo; Jacobetty, Pedro (2012). "Surfing the Crisis: Cultures of Belonging and Networked Social Change". In Castells, Manuel; Caraça, João; Cardoso, Gustavo (eds.). Aftermath: The Cultures of the Economic Crisis. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 177–209. ISBN 9780199658411. Archived from the original on 29 May 2024. Retrieved 9 May 2023. WikiLeaks is also based on an openness culture, as it is a crowd-sourced, crowd-funded non-profit organization operating internationally.
4. ^ Pogrebna, Ganna; Skilton, Mark (2019). Navigating New Cyber Risks: How Businesses Can Plan, Build and Manage Safe Spaces in the Digital Age. Cham, Switzerland: Palgrave MacMillan. p. 2. doi:10.1007/978-3-030-13527-0. ISBN 9783030135270. S2CID 197966404. Archived from the original on 8 May 2023. Retrieved 7 May 2023. WikiLeaks is an international non profit organization that receives and subsequently shares on its website confidential documents from large organizations or governments.
5. ^ Braccini, Alessio Maria; Federici, Tommaso (2013). "New Internet-Based Relationships Between Citizens". In Baskerville, Richard; De Marco, Marco; Spagnoletti, Paolo (eds.). Designing Organizational Systems: An Interdisciplinary Discourse. Berlin: Springer Nature. pp. 157–179. doi:10.1007/978-3-642-33371-2. ISBN 978-3-642-33370-5. Archived from the original on 9 May 2023. Retrieved 7 May 2023. Julian Assange had introduced a new term into the lexicon of several generations. This term was 'WikiLeaks' and described an international non-profit organisation, committed to publishing secret information, news leaks, and classified media provided by anonymous sources.
6. ^ Hindman, Elizabeth Blanks; Thomas, Ryan J (June 2014). "When Old and New Media Collide: The Case of WikiLeaks". New Media & Society. 16 (4). SAGE Publishing: 541–558. doi:10.1177/1461444813489504. ISSN 1461-4448. S2CID 30711318. WikiLeaks was founded in 2006 as an international non-profit organization specializing in the publication of 'classified, censored or otherwise restricted material of political, diplomatic or ethical significance' obtained via anonymous sources
7. ^ Dodds, Klaus J. (2012). "The WikiLeaks Arctic Cables". Polar Record. 48 (2). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press: 199–201. Bibcode:2012PoRec..48..199D. doi:10.1017/S003224741100043X. S2CID 129682201. With a keen sense of timing, given the Greenlandic and Danish governments' hosting of the 7th Arctic Council ministerial meeting, seven 'sensitive' US diplomatic cables were leaked by WikiLeaks, an international non-profit organisation that publishes materials from anonymous sources, news leaks, and whistleblowers
8. ^ Benkler, Yochai (2011). "A Free Irresponsible Press: Wikileaks and the Battle over the Soul of the Networked Fourth Estate". Harvard Civil Rights–Civil Liberties Law Review. 46 (2). Cambridge: Harvard Law School: 311–397. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 9 May 2023 – via Harvard Library. Wikileaks is a nonprofit that depends on donations from around the world to fund its operation. A second system that came under attack on a model parallel to the attack on technical infrastructure was the payment system... Like the Sunlight Foundation and similar transparency-focused organizations, Wikileaks is a nonprofit focused on bringing to light direct, documentary evidence about government behavior so that many others, professional and otherwise, can analyze the evidence and search for instances that justify public criticism.
9. ^ Fuchs, Christian (2014). "WikiLeaks: Can We Make Power Transparent?". Social Media: A Critical Introduction. London/Thousand Oaks: SAGE Publishing. pp. 210–233. ISBN 978-1-4462-5730-2. Archived from the original on 9 January 2023. Retrieved 9 May 2023. WikiLeaks (www.wikileaks.org) is a non-commercial and non-profit Internet whistleblowing platform that has been online since 2006. Julian Assange founded it. It is funded by online donations.
10. ^ Beckett, Charlie (2012). Wikileaks: News in the Networked Era. Cambridge: Wiley. p. 26. ISBN 978-0-745-65975-6. WikiLeaks is independent of commercial, corporate, government or lobbygroup control or ownership. It is a non-membership, non-profit organisation funded by donations
11. ^ Flesher Fominaya, Cristina (2020). Social Movements in a Globalized World (Second ed.). London: Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 177. ISBN 9781352009347. Archived from the original on 13 July 2023. Retrieved 9 May 2023. As a non-profit organization, Wikileaks is funded by crowdfunding donations, which were subsequently blocked by PayPal, Mastercard, a Swiss Bank and Bank of America in protest over their political activity, a troubling example of 'the ability of private infrastructure companies to restrict speech without being bound by the constraints of legality, and the possibility that government actors will take advantage of this affordance in an extra-legal public-private partnership for censorship'.
12. ^ Daly, Angela (2014). "The Privatization of the Internet, WikiLeaks and Free Expression". International Journal of Communication. 8. Los Angeles: USC Annenberg Press: 2693–2703. SSRN 2496707. Archived from the original on 12 May 2023. Retrieved 9 May 2023 – via European University Institute. In late 2010, the online nonprofit media organization WikiLeaks published classified documents detailing correspondence between the U.S. State Department and its diplomatic missions around the world, numbering around 250,000 cables.
13. ^ ^{[3][4][5][6][7][8][9][10][11][12]}
14. ^ "WikiLeaks". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 30 January 2016. Retrieved 17 April 2022.
15. ^ McGreal, Chris (5 April 2010). "Wikileaks reveals video showing US air crew shooting down Iraqi civilians". The Guardian. London. Archived from the original on 26 June 2011. Retrieved 15 December 2010.
16. ^ "WikiLeaks names one-time spokesman as editor-in-chief". Associated Press. Archived from the original on 13 September 2019. Retrieved 26 September 2018.
17. ^ Bridge, Mark (27 September 2018). "Loss of internet forces Assange to step down from Wikileaks editor role". The Times. Archived from the original on 15 February 2022. Retrieved 11 April 2019.
18. ^ "What is Wikileaks". WikiLeaks. Archived from the original on 23 October 2016. Retrieved 14 April 2020.^{[self-published source]}
19. ^ ^{a b} "WikiLeaks' Website Is Falling Apart". Gizmodo. 22 November 2022. Archived from the original on 15 April 2024. Retrieved 24 December 2022.
20. ^ Burgess, Matt. "Apple Tracks You More Than You Think". Wired. ISSN 1059-1028. Archived from the original on 4 November 2023. Retrieved 24 December 2022.
21. ^ Cite error: The named reference Glass-2024 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
22. ^ "Reporters Sans Frontières – Open letter to Wikileaks founder Julian Assange: A bad precedent for the Internet's future". Archived from the original on 15 August 2010. Retrieved 1 May 2022.
23. ^ Hubbard, Ben (20 June 2015). "Cables Released by WikiLeaks Reveal Saudis' Checkbook Diplomacy". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 13 May 2019. Retrieved 20 April 2019.
24. ^ Zorthian, Julia (19 June 2015). "WikiLeaks Begins Releasing Leaked Saudi Arabia Cables". Time. Archived from the original on 21 April 2019. Retrieved 20 April 2019.
25. ^ "Syria files: Wikileaks releases 2m 'embarrassing' emails". BBC News. 5 July 2012. Archived from the original on 22 July 2022. Retrieved 20 April 2019.
26. ^ Greenberg, Andy (5 July 2012). "WikiLeaks Announces Massive Release With The 'Syria Files': 2.4 Million Emails From Syrian Officials And Companies". Forbes. Archived from the original on 10 July 2012. Retrieved 20 April 2019.
27. ^ Yeung, Peter (20 July 2016). "President Erdogan emails: What is in the Wikileaks release about Turkey's government?". The Independent. Archived from the original on 22 April 2019. Retrieved 20 April 2019.
28. ^ Doctorow, Cory (29 July 2016). "Wikileaks' dump of "Erdogan emails" turn out to be public mailing list archives". BoingBoing. Archived from the original on 21 April 2019. Retrieved 20 April 2019.
29. ^ Gramer, Robbie (7 December 2016). "Latest Wikileaks Dump Sheds New Light on Erdogan's Power In Turkey". Foreign Policy. Archived from the original on 3 May 2019. Retrieved 20 April 2019.
30. ^ Dahir, Abdi Latif (13 April 2019). "It all started in Nairobi: How Kenya gave Julian Assange's WikiLeaks its first major global scoop". Quartz Africa. Archived from the original on 3 July 2019. Retrieved 20 April 2019.
31. ^ Rice, Xan (31 August 2007). "The looting of Kenya". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 31 January 2008. Retrieved 20 April 2019.
32. ^ PPLAAF (7 March 2022). "The Fishrot scandal". pplaaf.org. Archived from the original on 29 May 2024. Retrieved 13 March 2022.
33. ^ Menn, Joseph (29 March 2017). "A scramble at Cisco exposes uncomfortable truths about U.S. cyber defense". Reuters. Archived from the original on 8 May 2019. Retrieved 20 April 2019.
34. ^ Shane, Scott; Rosenberg, Matthew; Lehren, Andrew W. (7 March 2017). "WikiLeaks Releases Trove of Alleged C.I.A. Hacking Documents". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 7 March 2017. Retrieved 20 April 2019.
35. ^ Regan, James; John, Mark (23 June 2015). "NSA spied on French presidents: WikiLeaks". Reuters. Archived from the original on 21 April 2019. Retrieved 20 April 2019.
36. ^ Rubin, Alyssa J.; Shane, Scott (24 June 2015). "Hollande Condemns Spying by U.S., but Not Too Harshly". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 21 April 2019. Retrieved 20 April 2019.
37. ^ "Why it's entirely predictable that Hillary Clinton's emails are back in the news". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on 20 June 2018. Retrieved 12 November 2016.
38. ^ Ohlheiser, Abby (4 November 2016). "No, John Podesta didn't drink bodily fluids at a secret Satanist dinner". The Washington Post. ISSN 0190-8286. Archived from the original on 14 January 2021. Retrieved 8 November 2016.
39. ^ "WikiLeaks Fuels Conspiracy Theories About DNC Staffer's Death". NBC News. Archived from the original on 12 February 2021. Retrieved 8 November 2016. WikiLeaks ... is fueling Internet conspiracy theories by offering a $20,000 reward for information on a Democratic National Committee staffer who was killed last month ... in what police say was robbery gone wrong ... Assange implied this week in an interview that Rich was the source of the leak and even offered a $20,000 reward for information leading to the arrest of his murderer. Meanwhile, the Russian government funded propaganda outlet RT had already been covering Rich's murder two weeks prior. RT and other Russian government propaganda outlets have also been working hard to deny the Russian government was the source of the leak, including by interviewing Assange about the Rich murder. ... The original conspiracy theory can be traced back to a notoriously unreliable conspiracy website
40. ^ Chafkin, Max; Silver, Vernon (10 October 2016). "How Julian Assange turned WikiLeaks into Trump's best friend". Bloomberg. Archived from the original on 9 November 2016. Retrieved 17 April 2022.
41. ^ Brustein, Joshua (29 July 2016). "Why Wikileaks Is Losing Its Friends". Bloomberg. Archived from the original on 21 July 2019. Retrieved 6 January 2017.
42. ^ Satter, Raphael; Michael, Maggie (23 August 2016). "Private lives are exposed as WikiLeaks spills its secrets". Associated Press. Archived from the original on 7 January 2017. Retrieved 6 January 2017.
43. ^ Peterson, Andrea. "Snowden and WikiLeaks clash over leaked Democratic Party emails". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on 22 August 2016. Retrieved 28 July 2016.
44. ^ "U.S. prosecution of alleged WikiLeaks 'Vault 7' source hits multiple roadblocks". news.yahoo.com. 6 October 2021. Archived from the original on 7 October 2021. Retrieved 16 October 2022.

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