Research on carbon fiber plates in running shoes

NewsBot · Jul 13, 2023

Is there a benefit of super spikes in long jump performance?
Svensson, Erik
Student thesis

Background and aim

The pace of development of distance running shoes has been fast-forward since 2016 when Nike introduced their model Nike Zoom Vaporfly, with an imbedded carbon fiber plate and an advanced newly developed Pebax®-foam. The shoe-development has continued to track events, with the introduction of carbon fiber plate in several shoe-models for running and sprint- events. The research area for track events has not reached the level as for distance running shoes, therefore the aim of this study was to examine the effects on long jump performance when using long jump spikes with (AFT) compared to without (non-AFT) a carbon fiber plate.

Method

Nine experienced male (n=6, age 22 ± 4.8 years, body mass 76.4 ± 3.5 kg, height 182 ± 4.9 cm), and female (n=3, age 20.3 ± 3.5 years, body mass 64.8 ± 6.0 kg, height 172 ± 2.0 cm) Swedish long jumpers performed three maximal effort long jumps in AFT and non-AFT long jump shoes. Three-dimensional kinematic data was captured with eight markerless motion capture cameras, and the take-off was performed from a force plate. Run-up velocity was measured using a lidar laser and step characteristics using an optical contact grid. Pearson’s correlation coefficient was calculated for jump distance and maximal run-up velocity and paired samples t-tests and a Wilcoxon rank sum test were conducted to examine differences between the shoes.

Results

Peak run-up velocity correlated with jump distance both for AFT (Pearson’s r=0.919, p<0.001) and non-AFT shoes (Pearson’s r=0.910, p<0.001). At a group-level no statistical differences were found between the shoes for the run-up variables. The AFT shoes showed significantly greater horizontal velocity at touchdown (p=0.046) and vertical velocity difference from touchdown to toe-off (p=0.029) compared to the non-AFT shoes. No other significant difference was found on group level for the take-off variables.

Conclusion

The results in this study did not show a longer jump distance in long jump specific AFT shoes compared to non-AFT on a group level, but individual differences were seen. To further understand the effect of AFT shoes on long jump performance, more studies on different individual characteristics and their relation to long jump performance is needed.
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terigreen · Jul 13, 2023

terigreen said: ↑

We have found that carbon fiber rigid insoles are more beneficial for forefoot pathology. We have not found that it helps with improving running economy.

Teri Green
Atlas Biomechanics
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Carbon fiber plates have become increasingly popular in running shoes due to their potential to enhance performance and improve running efficiency. These plates are typically embedded in the midsole of the shoe and are designed to provide several benefits to runners. Here are some key points about carbon fiber plates in running shoes:

Energy Return: Carbon fiber plates are known for their excellent energy return properties. They store and release energy with each foot strike, providing a spring-like effect that propels the runner forward. This can result in improved running efficiency and potentially faster times.

Stiffness and Stability: Carbon fiber plates offer a high level of stiffness, which helps reduce bending and twisting of the shoe's midsole during toe-off. This increased stability can enhance running mechanics and reduce fatigue over long distances.

Enhanced Propulsion: The rigidity of carbon fiber plates facilitates a more efficient transfer of force from the foot to the ground. This can lead to a more powerful toe-off and an increased sensation of propulsion, allowing runners to maintain or increase their speed with less effort.

Impact Absorption: While carbon fiber plates are not primarily designed for impact absorption, they are often incorporated into shoes with other cushioning materials. This combination aims to strike a balance between responsiveness and comfort, ensuring that the runner receives some degree of shock absorption during foot strikes.

Potential Injury Prevention: Some runners claim that carbon fiber plates can help reduce the risk of certain injuries, such as calf strains or Achilles tendon issues. The plates may provide added support and reduce the load on these areas during running.

It's important to note that the effects of carbon fiber rigid stabilizer plates can vary between individuals, and not all runners may experience the same benefits. Furthermore, the design, thickness, and placement of the plate within the shoe can also influence its impact on performance. It's always recommended to try on different shoe models and consult with experts or professionals to find the right shoe that suits your running style and needs.

NewsBot · Jul 18, 2023

”SUPER SPIKES” INCREASE 40-M SPRINT PERFORMANCE IN NATIONALLEVEL WOMEN ATHLETES
Alba Herrero-Molleda, Ángela García Sancho and Juan García-López
Source

The aim of this work was to quantify the effect of adding carbon fiber plates in the midsole
of spike shoes (i.e., "super spikes") on 40-m sprint performance. Eight female national level
athletes completed four 40-m sprints using two different types of footwear (i.e., traditional
spikes and “super spikes”). The main results showed an improvement of 0.6% in
performance when the athletes wore "super spikes" (i.e., 0.031 s in 0-40 m), mainly in the
flying phase (i.e., 0.026 s in the 20-40 m), which could be due to an increase in leg and
vertical stiffness (i.e., greater in the "super spikes") and a reduction in the ground contact
time (i.e., less time with “super spikes”). Also, this improvement seems to be related to the
sprinter’s performance level. In conclusion, wearing "super spikes" has a positive effect on
40-m sprint performance compared to conventional spikes
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NewsBot · Jul 20, 2023

THE EFFECT OF CARBON-PLATED RUNNING SHOES ON PERFORMANCE
D Collichio et al
IJESAB > Vol. 16 > Iss. 2 (2023)

Purpose: The purpose of this study was to determine the effects of a carbon fiber plate on running economy (RE) in commercially available shoes of nearly identical midsole composition, geometry, and stack height. Three running shoes were compared; a traditional running shoe, no carbon plate, Razor 3 (R3), a half carbon plated shoe Razor Speed Elite Hyper (SE), and a full carbon plated shoe, Nike Vaporfly (VF). Methods: Nine male participants (18-35 years old) who had completed a 5 Km run in under 18 minutes and no injury or training disruption within a 6-month period of participation completed this 3-visit study. Participants completed a familiarization session, followed by a second visit in which a VO2max test was performed to determine ventilatory threshold (VT). Visit three included a shoe comparison of three different shoes running on a treadmill at a prescribed intensity: 5-10%% above and below VT for a total of six running bouts. Data were collected on VO2, RPE, shoe comfort, and running economy. Data were analyzed using a linear mixed model. Results: When comparing SE vs. R3, the carbon fiber plate did not change RE, when running at intensities below (p = 0.355) and above VT (p = 0.715). There were no differences in heart rate (HR) and rating of perceived exertion (RPE) in either the R3 (p = 0.875) or VF (p = 0.054) relative to the SE when performing below VT. However, relative to the SE, the VF showed a 2.8 % and 1.6% improvement in RE below (p = 0.005) and above VT (p = 0.019) respectively. The main effect of running intensity (above vs. below VT) was observed for VO2 (p < 0.001) and HR (p < 0.001). R3 remained unchanged independent of running speed relative to the SE (p = 0.827), while RE in the VF was increased (p = 0.046). No shoe condition x speed interaction was observed for HR (p = 0.323) or RPE (p = 0.125). Conclusion: The current findings of this study suggest that a carbon fiber plate alone may not account for RE improvements but play a contributory role in racing. While not statistically significant, the SE may provide physiologically significant improvements at faster running speeds. The current study is ongoing, and additional data are necessary to determine the true benefit or lack thereof of a carbon fiber plate on performance metrics.
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NewsBot · Aug 4, 2023

Navigating the challenges and opportunities with ‘super shoes’: balancing performance gains with injury risk

NewsBot · Aug 7, 2023

Effect of Carbon Plated Running Shoes on Half-Hour Treadmill Time Trial Performance
Hoeft, Owen.
Thesis

Purpose: Performance in distance running events has been substantially impacted by innovative
shoe technology using a combination of carbon fiber plates and lighter, more resilient cushioning
materials. Times have been getting faster at a rapid rate, and it has been established that these
shoes reduce the energetic cost of running. Very limited research has attempted to quantify these
savings in terms of speed or pace, which are the most relevant performance outcomes. This study
was designed to examine the performance effects of carbon plated racing flats on speed and pace
compared to a non-plated racing flat, providing a quantitative estimate of how much faster these
shoes make distance runners. Methods: This study used a randomized order, crossover design,
with participants blinded to their running speed. Eight trained distance runners (m=5, f=3)
completed two 30-min treadmill time trials, approximately one week apart. One time trial was
run in a carbon plated shoe (Nike Vaporfly or Asics Metaspeed Sky), and the other was run in a
non-plated flat. Average speed, running economy, RPE, RER, and HR were measured during
both trials. Results: During the carbon plated time trial, participants covered 0.1188 km (+/-
0.14), ran 0.2373 kph faster (+/- 0.2462), and averaged 3.5 seconds per km faster (p<0.05), and
saw no significant change in running economy (RE), RPE, RER, or HR. These improvements
indicated a 1.5% (+/- 1.54%) speed improvement in carbon plated shoes. Additionally, a 3.17%
improvement in RE was observed during a submaximal warmup period when participants were
wearing the carbon plated shoe (d = 0.276), though this difference was not significant (p =
0.184). Conclusion: These data provide a scientific estimate of the performance benefits of
carbon plated racing flats. The 3.5 seconds per km identified in this study can provide a basis for
coaches, athletes, and distance running regulatory bodies to establish rules, and to contextualize
performances between eras and shoes conditions.
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NewsBot · Aug 10, 2023

Determining the effect and magnitude of advanced footwear technology on female distance running performance
Jamie O. Langley,Helen R. Branthwaite,Nachiappan Chockalingam &Jacky J. Forsyth
Footwear Science: 19 Jul 2023

There is limited work, to date, in which the potential performance-enhancing effects of Advanced Footwear Technology (AFT) in the female elite athlete has been considered. This study aimed to retrospectively explore publicly available race data for a marathon, half-marathon, and 10-km elite events to analyse the effect of AFT, along with athlete and event characteristics, to determine the effect on female running performance. Race performance times for the top 20 female athletes within the world were extracted from 1990 to 2020 (n = 1722), along with athlete and event characteristics from 2010 to 2020 (n = 660). Data for race shoes were available for 655 of the 660 performances. The changes in grouped mean performance times over the years that AFT had been adopted were compared with the grouped mean of the corresponding number of years immediately prior show marathon, half-marathon, and 10-km performance times were 1.7, 1.72, and 1.75% (p < 0.001, pη2 > 0.220) faster during the AFT period. Repeated performance analysis comparing the improvement in race times between the control group and athletes who adopted AFT showed athletes who adopted AFT improved significantly more over the marathon (2.64%, p < 0.001) and half-marathon (1.67%, p < 0.002). Advanced Footwear Technology correlated (r > 0.50) with improvements in the marathon and half-marathon, but not the 10-km. Based on multiple regression modelling, it can be suggested that wearing AFT improves marathon race time by 78 s (0.93%), and half-marathon race time by 28 s (0.71%). Based on these results, we observe a small but meaningful performance-enhancing effect of AFT within elite female athletes.
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NewsBot · Sep 28, 2023

Recreational Runners Gain Physiological and Biomechanical Benefits From Super Shoes at Marathon Paces
Giorgos P. Paradisis et al
International Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance 21 Sep 2023

Purpose: Advanced footwear technology is prevalent in distance running, with research focusing on these “super shoes” in competitive athletes, with less understanding of their value for slower runners. The aim of this study was to compare physiological and biomechanical variables between a model of super shoes (Saucony Endorphin Speed 2) and regular running shoes (Saucony Cohesion 13) in recreational athletes. Methods: We measured peak oxygen uptake (VO2peak) in 10 runners before testing each subject 4 times in a randomly ordered crossover design (ie, Endorphin shoe or Cohesion shoe, running at 65% or 80% of velocity at VO2peak [vVO2peak]). We recorded video data using a high-speed camera (300 Hz) to calculate vertical and leg stiffnesses. Results: 65% vVO2peak was equivalent to a speed of 9.4 km·h−1 (0.4), whereas 80% vVO2peak was equivalent to 11.5 km·h−1 (0.5). Two-way mixed-design analysis of variance showed that oxygen consumption in the Endorphin shoe was 3.9% lower than in the Cohesion shoe at 65% vVO2peak, with an interaction between shoes and speed (P = .020) meaning an increased difference of 5.0% at 80% vVO2peak. There were small increases in vertical and leg stiffnesses in the Endorphin shoes (P < .001); the Endorphin shoe condition also showed trivial to moderate differences in step length, step rate, contact time, and flight time (P < .001). Conclusions: There was a physiological benefit to running in the super shoes even at the slower speed. There were also spatiotemporal and global stiffness improvements indicating that recreational runners benefit from wearing super shoes.
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NewsBot · Oct 26, 2023

Responses of male recreational runners during outdoor running in three
shoes: Quantitative and qualitative studies
Hannah Knighton
Thesis

The introduction of advanced footwear technologies (AFT) in running shoes has sparked debate due
to their significant impact on performance. However, there is a lack of research on how runners
perceive them, especially compared to their own shoes and minimal shoes, which are also used in
racing. Most research surrounding shoes with AFT is conducted in a laboratory environment, despite
being designed for outdoor running. Therefore, this study aimed to provide a quantitative (Chapter 2)
and qualitative (Chapter 3) assessment of runners running outdoors wearing three different shoes:
Nike Vaporfly 4% (VP4), the original shoe with AFT; Saucony Endorphin Racer 2, a minimalist
lightweight racing flat (FLAT); and runners’ habitual running shoes (OWN). The thesis aimed to
compare biomechanical and subjective measures between shoes and explore possible correlations
between comfort measures and biomechanical and subjective measures. Additionally, the thesis aimed
to provide qualitative insights into shoe comfort and preferences of recreational runners wearing novel
footwear.
Chapter One briefly reviews the evolution of running shoes and research investigating the design,
performance, comfort, and injury of minimalist shoes and shoes with AFT. Minimalist shoes are
designed to mimic barefoot running and have been shown to improve running economy due to being
lightweight. These shoes are perceived as potentially preventing injuries for being “closer to nature”.
Shoes with AFT typically contain a thick midsole of polyamide block elastomer foam and curved stiff
plate. Shoes with AFT are reported to improve running economy; however, individual responses vary,
especially in recreational runners. Comfort is a critical factor for runners when purchasing shoes and
is proposed to enhance performance and minimise injury risk. However, comfort is multifaceted, and
individuals value different factors during footwear selection.
Chapter Two is a quantitative study. In a cross-sectional study, 18 male recreational runners (age:
31.2 ± 10.5 y) ran three 1.5 km trials outdoors in OWN first, followed by FLAT and VP4 in random
order. The first 1.1 km was run at a comfortable self-selected pace, and the final 400 m at a perceived
5 km race pace with a 30-second rest between speeds and 12-minutes rest between shoe conditions.
Biomechanical measures were collected approximately 700 m into the 1.1 km run and 300 m into the
400 m run. Foot-strike angles were smaller in FLAT at both speeds (small to large effect size, ES)
compared to both other shoes. The propulsion phase was shorter in VP4 (moderate to large ES) than
in the other shoes. FLAT was ranked as being the least comfortable at the slower speed and perceived
as the most likely to cause injury. OWN was ranked as the most comfortable at the slower speed and
perceived as the shoe with the lowest injury risk. Comfort measures were more strongly correlated
with subjective than biomechanical measures, illustrating the subjective nature of comfort.
Chapter Three is a qualitative study. The 18 male recreational runners were interviewed before and
after running the 1.5 km trials in the three shoes (OWN, FLAT, and VP4). From the interviews, four
main themes emerged with regards to comfort, performance, and injury risk: familiarity, cushioning,
support, and ease of running. VP4 had the highest number of participants who most favoured it for
performance as well as least favoured it for performance, exhibiting the divergent perceptions of
runners with regards to the shoe (i.e., runners either liked or disliked them). The FLAT was described
as light and quick, while the VP4 was described as bouncy and quick. Regarding cushioning,
participants perceived OWN as balanced and reflecting a middle ground between the two extreme
novel shoes. OWN provided a sense of familiarity and reassurance to runners regarding injury risk,
while the lack of cushioning in the FLAT was perceived to increase injury risk. Overall, the
interviews revealed the perceived link between comfort and performance in recreational runners and
the variability in runners' footwear preferences.
The results of this thesis provide a more holistic understanding of running footwear comfort and
performance in recreational runners. Comfort is a critical factor for shoe selection in runners,
however, there is little association between comfort and biomechanics. Additionally, runners appear
more likely to purchase shoes with AFT than minimalist possibly due to these being more similar to
traditional running shoes and having more cushioning. Combining qualitative and quantitative
analysis enables the extraction of a meaningful and nuanced interpretation from data. Furthermore, the
valuable insights attained can help inform future shoe design and enhance the overall running
experience for recreational runners.
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NewsBot · Nov 20, 2023

How Long Do Super Shoes Last? Here’s What the Latest Data Says

NewsBot · Dec 17, 2023

Biomechanics and subjective measures of recreational male runners in three shoes running outdoors: a randomised crossover study
Kim Hébert-Losier et al27
Nov 2023

We compared biomechanical and subjective data from outdoor running in: habitual (OWN), Saucony Endorphin Racer 2 minimal (FLAT) and Nike Vaporfly 4% (VP4) shoes. We also explored relationships between comfort measures and the collected data. Eighteen male recreational runners ran three 1.5-km trials outdoors, once per shoe. The first 1.1 km was run at a self-selected comfortable (slower) speed, and last 400 m at perceived 5-km race pace (faster). A GPS-enabled smartwatch, 15-m Optojump system, high-speed camera and tibial accelerometer collected biomechanical data. Subjective data on comfort, shoe properties and overall running experience were collected using visual analogue scales (VAS) and rankings. Cadence, leg stiffness and vertical stiffness were greater in FLAT than both OWN and VP4 at the slower speed (trivial to small ES). At both speeds, footstrike angles were smaller in FLAT (small to large ES), while propulsion phase was shorter in VP4 (moderate to large ES). FLAT was ranked as the least comfortable at the slower speed and most likely to cause injury, whereas OWN as the most comfortable and least likely to cause injury. Comfort was not significantly different at the faster speed between shoes. Comfort measures were more strongly correlated to subjective than biomechanical data. The two experimental shoes generally had non-significant or small effects on running biomechanics versus OWN. As VP4 are more like traditional than minimal shoes, these were perceived as more comfortable. Running speed appeared to affect subjective measures. Speed should be considered when prescribing and selecting shoes.
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NewsBot · Dec 24, 2023

The ‘Super Shoe’ Will Thrive in 2024 — How Nike, Puma, New Balance and Other Running Brands Will Capitalize

NewsBot · Dec 26, 2023

Enhancing dynamic energy return and performance of running shoes: Replacing talc with multi-walled carbon nanotubes derived from plastic wastes in midsole foam
Boon Peng Chang et al
Source

Boosting both the lightweight and rebound of a shoe's midsole without compromising its durability is regarded as a challenging aspect of developing excellent running shoes. This study explores the replacement of talc, a conventional reinforcing and nucleating agent for polymers, with multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs) derived from plastics in the midsole foam of running shoes to enhance lightweight, rebound, and durability. Two types of MWCNTs, non-functionalized and oxygen-functionalized, derived from upcycling mixed plastics were processed with copolymer of ethyl-vinyl acetate (EVA) to create nanocomposite foams. The foam reinforced with non-functionalized MWCNTs exhibited higher dynamic stiffness and similar energy return to oxygen-functionalized MWCNTs. The running shoe prototypes with EVA midsole foam containing 0.5 wt% MWCNTs was 13 % lighter and returned more than 10 % higher energy than the conventional EVA midsole foam with mineral fillers. Additionally, the midsole foam produced from EVA/MWCNTs demonstrated greater flexibility, and durability after 500 km of dynamic impact cycles. The cost difference per pair of running shoe midsole is merely 0.08 USD, considering the exceptional performance of the EVA/MWCNTs midsole as compared to conventional mineral filled EVA midsole. These findings indicate the potential for commercializing EVA/MWCNTs nanocomposite foam as a viable option for high-performance running shoe midsoles, offering athletes improved running performance.
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NewsBot · Jan 11, 2024

Do Carbon Plated Running Shoes Improve Running Economy and Performance Following the Bike-Run Transition in Long-Distance Triathletes?
Zhu, Fangcheng
AUT DIsertation

Background Carbon ‘super shoes’ improve running economy and running performance compared with traditional running shoes. However, the influence of carbon shoes on running economy and performance after prolonged cycling for triathletes remains to be investigated.

Purpose To 1) compare the running economy and muscle oxygenation before and after a 2-hour cycling session wearing carbon ‘super shoes’ vs standard neutral running shoes, and 2) compare the post-cycle running performance in a self-paced 10-km time-trial wearing carbon ‘super shoes vs standard neutral running shoes, in male long-distance triathletes.

Methods Eight active trained male triathletes participated in the study. Participants visited the laboratory on three separate occasions to perform a variety of assessments and trials while wearing either a neutral or carbon shoe during the running assessments. The first visit was a baseline anthropometric measurement that included an incremental bike test for V̇O2peak. Visits two and three were prolonged trials that aimed to replicate triathlon demands. This included a fresh (pre) treadmill running economy assessment, a 2-hour fatiguing cycle on a stationary bike, and a post-cycle running economy assessment, followed by a self-paced 10-km treadmill time-trial wearing either neutral or carbon shoes.

Results There was no shoe*time interaction (p > 0.05). However, a significant main effect of shoe on both mean running economy relative to body mass (mL.kg-1.min-1; p = 0.05, ηp2=0.49), and running speed (mL.kg-1.km-1; p < 0.05, np2=0.55), indicating a lower running economy for carbon shoes compared to neutral shoes during running, was observed. There was a significant difference between the gastrocnemius muscle oxygenation during the 5-min running economy assessment before and after the fatiguing cycle (F=8.206, p < 0.05, np2=0.58). However, for quadriceps muscle oxygenation, there were no significant differences between the two shoe conditions (F=0.931, p > 0.05), in an unfatigued or fatigued state (F=3.781, p > 0.05), and no linear relationship between the two different shoe conditions in an unfatigued or fatigued state (F = 0,099, p > 0.05). The mean post-cycling 10km running performance time when wearing carbon shoes was significantly faster than neutral shoes (49.0 ± 5.0 for carbon vs 51.6 ± 5.6 min for neutral shoes; 5.0%, p=0.02, Cohen’s d=1.06).

Discussion and Conclusion In summary, carbon shoes, when compared to neutral shoes, elicited a main effect indicating enhanced running economy. However, there were no differences in running economy between shoes over time in the unfatigued and fatigued state (pre- and post-prolonged cycling respectively). Despite this, the majority of participants improved their running performance wearing carbon shoes compared to neutral shoes indicating their beneficial effect in recreational and trained triathletes.
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NewsBot · Feb 21, 2024

The Influence of "Super-Shoes" and Foot Strike Pattern on Metabolic Cost and Joint Mechanics in Competitive Female Runners
Eduardo Martinez et al
Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2024 Feb 8

Purpose: To assess the influence of "super-shoes" on metabolic cost and joint mechanics in competitive female runners, and to understand how foot strike pattern may influence the footwear effects.

Methods: Eighteen competitive female runners ran four 5-minute bouts on a force instrumented treadmill at 12.9 km·h-1 in: 1) Nike Vaporfly Next% 2TM (SUPER) and 2) Nike Pegasus 38TM (CON) in a randomized and mirrored order.

Results: Metabolic power was improved by 4.2% (p < 0.001; d = 0.43) and MTP negative work (p < 0.001; d = 1.22), ankle negative work (p = 0.001; d = 0.67), and ankle positive work (p < 0.001; d = 0.97) were all smaller when running in SUPER compared to CON. There was no correlation between foot strike pattern and the between-shoe (CON to SUPER) percent change for metabolic power (r = 0.093, p = 0.715).

Conclusions: Metabolic power improved by 4.2% in "super-shoes" (but only by ~3.2% if controlling for shoe mass differences) in this cohort of competitive female runners which is a smaller improvement than previously observed in men. The reduced mechanical demand at the MTP and ankle in "super-shoes" are consistent with previous literature and may explain or contribute to the metabolic improvements observed in "super-shoes", however foot strike pattern was not a moderating factor for the metabolic improvements of "super-shoes". Future studies should directly compare the metabolic response among different types of "super-shoes" between men and women.
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NewsBot · Feb 26, 2024

The Fallacy of Single Trials: The Need for Multiple Trials in Assessing Running Economy Responses in Advanced Footwear Technology
Zach B. Barrons, Victor Rodrigo-Carranza, Montgomery Bertschy & Wouter Hoogkamer
Source

In the quest to uncover the underlying mechanisms responsible for the performance-enhancing benefits imparted by advanced footwear technology (AFT), footwear researchers are employing an individual-level approach. In doing so, they hope to unveil individual-specific responses to AFT otherwise masked by a group-level approach. Classifying an individual’s response on the basis of running economy (RE) is a logical strategy given that the intended purpose of AFT is to enhance performance; however, caution should be taken when doing so. Metabolic measurement devices are far from perfect, and given the known errors associated with metabolic measurements we would like to reiterate a suggestion first made 40 years ago: when seeking to quantify the interindividual variability of improvement in RE associated with running in AFT, the best practice is to rely on a minimum of two same-day measurements of RE.
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NewsBot · Feb 29, 2024

Super-Shoes: Do Male Triathletes Reap the Benefits?
Sheerin, Kelly
Thesis

Background: Running performance is the greatest contributor to overall race time in long-distance triathlon. Therefore, triathletes are constantly on the search for strategies to enhance their running performance, and recent advances in running footwear (‘super shoes’) appear to offer a potential solution. There is evidence from studies of runners to support a positive impact of super shoes on performance, but there is no evidence to suggest that these improvements necessarily carry over to long-distance triathletes, where their effect could be moderated by the preceding cycle. Additionally, much of the running-related evidence is related to elite-level athletes, and there is a need to examine the effects of super shoes in age-group (non-elite) athletes.

Objective: The broad aim of this study is to determine if male age-group triathletes reap the benefits of super shoes, with the specific research question being: Do carbon-plated running shoes improve running performance and performance-related kinematic variables in a simulated cycle-run transition in age-group long-distance triathletes?

Methods: Eight male age-group long-distance triathletes visited the laboratory on three occasions in an acute randomised balanced crossover design. The first session served as a characterisation trial, which involved a maximal incremental cycling assessment. Sessions two and three were experimental trials, consisting of an initial treadmill running economy assessment, a two-hour fatiguing cycle on a stationary bike, a post-fatigue running economy assessment, and finishing with a 10km treadmill time-trial in either a super shoe (Asics Metaspeed Sky) or a control traditional racing shoe (Asics Evoride 3). Running economy and biomechanical variables were recorded during both running economy assessments.

Results: Time-trial performance was significantly better in the super shoe compared to the control shoe (p=0.002). Mean ground contact time (p=0.001, ηp2 = 0.793) and running economy (p=0.034, ηp2 =0.554) were significantly different between shoe conditions when averaged across the pre- and post-fatiguing cycle. The fatiguing cycle significantly differed in mean cadence (0.011, ηp2 =0.630), flight time (p=0.006, ηp2 =0.677), and stride length (p=0.012, ηp2 =0.621).

Conclusion: Super shoes improve running performance and influence biomechanical variables of running performance in male age-group long-distance triathletes.
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NewsBot · Mar 2, 2024

Does Advanced Footwear Technology Improve Track and Road Racing Performance? An Explorative Analysis Based on the 100 Best Yearly Performances in the World Between 2010 and 2022
Steffen Willwacher, Patrick Mai, Janina Helwig, Markus Hipper, Burkay Utku & Johanna Robbin
Sports Medicine - Open volume 10, Article number: 14 (2024)

Advanced footwear technology (AFT) is currently being debated in sports. There is a direct evidence that distance running in AFT improves running economy. In addition, there is indirect evidence from competition performance for improved running performance from using AFTs in middle- and long-distance running and sprinting events. However, the extent to which world-class performance is affected across the full range of track and road racing events between genders has not been systematically analyzed. This study examined publicly available performance datasets of annual best track and road performances for evidence of potential systematic performance effects following the introduction of AFT. The analysis was based on the 100 best performances per year for men and women in outdoor events from 2010 to 2022, provided by the world governing body of athletics (World Athletics). We found evidence of progressing improvements in track and road running performances after the introduction of AFT for road races in 2016 and AFT for track racing in 2019. This evidence is more pronounced for distances longer than 1500 m in women and longer than 5000 m in men. Women seem to benefit more from AFT in distance running events than men. For the sprint events (100 m to 400 m hurdles), the peak performance gains in 2021 and 2022 compared to the pre-AFT period ranged from 0.6 to 1.1% and from 0.4 to 0.7% for women and men, respectively. For middle-distance events (400 m to 3000 m steeplechase), peak performance gains ranged from 0.6 to 1.9% and from 0.6 to 0.7% for women and men, respectively. For distances from 5000 m to the marathon, performance gains ranged from 2.2% to 3.5% and 0.7% to 1.4% for women and men, respectively. While the observational study design limits causal inference, this study provides a database on potential systematic performance effects after introducing advanced shoes/spikes in track and road running events in world-class athletes. Further research is needed to examine the underlying mechanisms and, in particular, potential gender differences in the performance effects of AFT.
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NewsBot · Apr 24, 2024

Injury and performance-related running biomechanics in advanced footwear technology compared to minimalist footwear
J.J. Hannigan et al
Footwear Science: 14 Mar 2024

Road racing shoes have recently evolved to incorporate maximal midsole cushioning and an embedded carbon fibre plate. Shoes in this category have been labelled ‘Advanced Footwear Technology’ (AFT) and may significantly contribute to improvements in running economy, in part due to biomechanical changes at the foot and ankle. However, little is currently known regarding the effect of AFT on common biomechanical risk factors for injury. In addition, most biomechanical research on AFT to date has focused on early prototypes, with less research on more recent versions of these shoes, such as the Nike Vaporfly NEXT%. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to compare lower extremity running biomechanics in the Nike Vaporfly NEXT% (NEXT%) to a minimally cushioned road shoe. Twelve competitive runners ran overground in a laboratory at their current estimated marathon pace while three-dimensional ankle, knee, and hip kinematics and kinetics were collected. Regarding injury-related metrics, eversion excursion was significantly greater in the NEXT% shoe, which has been observed in runners with a history of navicular stress fracture. For performance-related metrics, significantly less peak dorsiflexion and dorsiflexion excursion, as well as a smaller peak plantar flexion moment and lower positive and negative ankle joint work, were found in the NEXT% shoe compared to the minimal shoe. These findings may help biomechanically explain the performance benefits of AFT and support previous research on prototype AFT. However, we also observed a significantly higher peak knee extensor moment in the NEXT% shoe, which was a novel finding and may offset some of the performance benefits seen at the ankle.
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NewsBot · May 3, 2024

CARBON FIBER PLATE SHOES HOAX OR HUNTING FOR HOPE?

NewsBot · May 17, 2024

Super shoe world records

NewsBot · Jun 12, 2024

Curved carbon-plated shoe may further reduce forefoot loads compared to flat plate during running
Yang Song et al
Sci Rep. 2024 Jun 8;14(1):13215.

Using a curved carbon-fiber plate (CFP) in running shoes may offer notable performance benefit over flat plates, yet there is a lack of research exploring the influence of CFP geometry on internal foot loading during running. The objective of this study was to investigate the effects of CFP mechanical characteristics on forefoot biomechanics in terms of plantar pressure, bone stress distribution, and contact force transmission during a simulated impact peak moment in forefoot strike running. We employed a finite element model of the foot-shoe system, wherein various CFP configurations, including three stiffnesses (stiff, stiffer, and stiffest) and two shapes (flat plate (FCFP) and curved plate (CCFP)), were integrated into the shoe sole. Comparing the shoes with no CFP (NCFP) to those with CFP, we consistently observed a reduction in peak forefoot plantar pressure with increasing CFP stiffness. This decrease in pressure was even more notable in a CCFP demonstrating a further reduction in peak pressure ranging from 5.51 to 12.62%, compared to FCFP models. Both FCFP and CCFP designs had a negligible impact on reducing the maximum stress experienced by the 2nd and 3rd metatarsals. However, they greatly influenced the stress distribution in other metatarsal bones. These CFP designs seem to optimize the load transfer pathway, enabling a more uniform force transmission by mainly reducing contact force on the medial columns (the first three rays, measuring 0.333 times body weight for FCFP and 0.335 for CCFP in stiffest condition, compared to 0.373 in NCFP). We concluded that employing a curved CFP in running shoes could be more beneficial from an injury prevention perspective by inducing less peak pressure under the metatarsal heads while not worsening their stress state compared to flat plates.
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NewsBot · Jun 13, 2024

A validation of a novel running economy protocol and comparison of two carbon plated running shoes in female long-distance runners.

NewsBot · Jul 4, 2024

Curved carbon plates inside running shoes modified foot and shank angular velocity improving mechanical efficiency at the ankle joint
Tomohiro Miyazaki et al
Journal of Biomechanics 3 July 2024, 112224

Recent technologically advanced running shoes have been designed with higher stack height and curved carbon plate-reinforced toe springs to enhance running performance. The purpose of this study was to examine how curved carbon-plate reinforcement modulated mechanical efficiency at the ankle joint during the running stance phase. We prepared two footwear conditions: Non and Carbon, both had a 3D-printed midsole (40-mm heel thickness). A full-length curved carbon plate was inserted along the toe spring in Carbon. The participants included 14 non-rearfoot long-distance athletes. They were required to run at a speed of 12 km/h on a 20-m runway with both shoes. Mechanical-energy expenditure (MEE, indicating mechanical work) and compensation (MEC, indicating mechanical efficiency) were calculated in the following mechanical-energy transfer phases: concentric, eccentric, and no-transfer. Running with Carbon exhibited improved MEC and reduced MEE at the ankle joint during the concentric transfer phase than with Non. The improvement in the concentric MEC at the ankle joint indicates that a larger amount of mechanical energy is transferred from the shank into the foot segment that compensates for the force exerted by the plantar flexor muscles, which implies more mechanically efficient plantarflexion movement. As the ankle joint is the largest energetic contributor in the running stance phase, greater MEC and lower MEE and torque at the ankle joint could improve running performance. Hence, the curved carbon plate may be a key feature of advanced footwear technology.
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NewsBot · Jul 8, 2024

Effects of technological running shoes versus barefoot running on the intrinsic foot muscles, ankle mobility, and dynamic control: a novel cross-sectional research
María García-Arrabé et al
Braz J Phys Ther. 2024 Jun 16;28(4):101092

Background: Technological running shoes have become increasingly popular, leading to improvements in performance. However, their long-term effects on foot musculature and joint mobility have not been thoroughly studied.

Objective: To compare the activation of the intrinsic foot muscles between runners wearing technological footwear and barefoot runners. Secondary objectives included assessing ankle dorsiflexion (DF) range of motion (ROM) and dynamic postural control in both groups.

Methods: A cross-sectional study was conducted involving 22 technological footwear runners and 22 barefoot runners. Ultrasonography was used to measure the thickness of the plantar fascia (PF) and the quadratus plantae (QP), abductor digiti minimus (ADM), abductor hallucis (AH), and flexor hallucis longus (FHL) muscles. Ankle mobility and dynamic postural control were also recorded.

Results: Ultrasonography measurements showed statistically significant differences for PF thickness (mean difference [MD]: -0.10 cm; 95% CI: -0.13, -0.05 cm), QP cross-sectional area (CSA) (MD: -0.45 cm2; 95% CI: -0.77, -0.12 cm2), ADM CSA (MD: -0.49 cm2; 95% CI: -0.70, -0.17 cm2), and FHL thickness (MD: 0.82 cm; 95% CI: 0.53, 1.09 cm), with all measurements being lower in the group wearing technological footwear compared to the barefoot runners. Ankle DF ROM was also significantly greater for the barefoot runners (MD: -5.1°; 95% CI: -8.6, -1.7°).

Conclusions: These findings suggest potential implications for the foot musculature and ankle mobility in runners using technological footwear.
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NewsBot · Aug 5, 2024

Advanced footwear technology and its impacts on running mechanics, running economy and perception of male and female recreational runners
Joshua Isherwood,SeungSeok Woo,MinKyoo Cho,MyeongJu Cha,SuYeon Park,SeongJun Kim
Footwear Science: 31 Jul 2024

Studies on advanced footwear technology (AFT) often investigate potential performance benefits for constraint populations, and high running speeds. This research compared running biomechanics, running economy and perception between males and females, when wearing three different AFT conditions at recreational running speeds. An innovation shoe sample (IM) at confirmation stage in the product creation process was compared to two commercial running shoes (MM, MF). Gender and shoe variable means were compared for main and interaction effects (p < 0.05) by a mixed 2 × 3 repeated measures analysis of variance (RM ANOVA), and effect size estimation. A main effect was seen for shoe condition, both the IM and MF showed higher vertical loading rates than MM, and higher peak vertical force 1. IM had less frontal plane rearfoot motion than both the MM and MF. At the MTPJ, IM had lower maximum dorsiflexion angle, dorsiflexion velocity leading to lower negative power and negative work than both the MM and MF. IM and MF showed significantly lower oxygen consumption than the MM. Perception measurements showed IM and MF to be significantly softer, responsive and had better propulsion than the MM. A main effect was seen for gender, females exhibited higher vertical loading rates, reduced frontal plane ankle motion and lower MTPJ motion, and lower oxygen consumption compared to males. There was no gender effect for perception. Despite biomechanical differences, both IM and MF showed improved performance compared to the MM. Males and females exhibit different biomechanics when wearing AFT, however this did not lead to differences in subjective perception. It is concluded that the specific AFT applied for IM samples in this research functions for both groups largely similarly.
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NewsBot · Aug 7, 2024

Gastrocnemius Medialis During Running in Highly Cushioned Shoes With Carbon-Fiber Plates
Keiichiro Hata et al
Journal of Applied Biomechanics

The purposes of this study were to clarify the electromyography (EMG) of plantar flexors and to analyze the fascicle and tendon behaviors of the gastrocnemius medialis (GM) during running in the carbon-fiber plate embedded in thicker midsole racing shoes, such as the Nike ZoomX Vaporfly (VF) and traditional racing shoes (TRAD). We compared the fascicle and series elastic element behavior of the GM and EMG of the lower limb muscles during running (14 km/h, 45 s) in athletes wearing VF or TRAD. GM EMGs in the push-off phase were approximately 50% lower in athletes wearing VF than in TRAD. Although the series elastic element behavior and/or mean fascicle-shortening velocity during the entire stance phase were not significantly different between VF and TRAD, a significant difference was found in both the mean EMG and integral EMG of the GM during the push-off phase. EMG of the gastrocnemius lateralis (GL) during the first half of the push-off phase was significantly different between VF and TRAD. Present results suggest that VF facilitates running propulsion, resulting in a decrease in GM and GL EMGs at a given running velocity during the push-off phase, leading to a reduction in metabolic cost.
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NewsBot · Sep 6, 2024

Self-perceived middle-distance race pace is faster in advanced footwear technology spikes
Montgomery Bertschy et al
Source

Highlights

•

We introduce a novel approach to assess the benefits of advanced footwear technology spikes in middle-distance running events.
•

Participants perform a series of 200-m runs at self-perceived middle-distance race pace in different spike models with 10 min recovery.
•

This effort-based methodology allows for valid and reliable comparison between spikes for middle-distance running events.
•

Advance footwear technology track spikes are significantly faster than traditional track spikes, primarily due to increases in step length.
•

Group-level results were consistent across days, but at least 2 separate sessions are needed to evaluate individual responses.
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Background

Quantifying the potential benefits of advanced footwear technology (AFT) track shoes (i.e., “spikes”) in middle-distance events is challenging, because repeated maximal effort trials (as in sprinting) or aerobic running economy trials (as in long-distance running) are not feasible.
Methods

We introduce a novel approach to assess the benefits of AFT spikes, consisting of a series of 200-m runs at self-perceived middle-distance race pace with 10 min recovery, and conduct 4 experiments to evaluate its validity, sensitivity, reproducibility, and utility.
Results

In Experiment 1, participants ran 1.2% slower in spikes with 200 g added mass vs. control spikes, which is exactly equal to the known effects of shoe mass on running performance. In Experiment 2, participants ran significantly faster in AFT prototype spikes vs. traditional spikes. In Experiment 3, we compared 2 other AFT prototype spikes against traditional spikes on 3 separate days. Group-level results were consistent across days, but our data indicates that at least 2 separate sessions are needed to evaluate individual responses. In Experiment 4, participants ran significantly faster in 2 AFT spike models vs. traditional spikes (2.1% and 1.6%). Speed was similar between a third AFT spike model and the traditional spikes. These speed results were mirrored by changes in step length as participants took significantly longer steps in the 2 faster AFT spike models (2.3% and 1.9%), while step length was similar between the other spikes.
Conclusion

Our novel, interval-based approach is a valid and reliable method for quantifying differences between spikes at middle-distance running intensity.
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NewsBot · Sep 10, 2024

Injury and performance-related running biomechanics in advanced footwear technology compared to minimalist footwear
J.J. Hannigan,Luisa Westley &Li Jin
Footwear Science

Road racing shoes have recently evolved to incorporate maximal midsole cushioning and an embedded carbon fibre plate. Shoes in this category have been labelled ‘Advanced Footwear Technology’ (AFT) and may significantly contribute to improvements in running economy, in part due to biomechanical changes at the foot and ankle. However, little is currently known regarding the effect of AFT on common biomechanical risk factors for injury. In addition, most biomechanical research on AFT to date has focused on early prototypes, with less research on more recent versions of these shoes, such as the Nike Vaporfly NEXT%. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to compare lower extremity running biomechanics in the Nike Vaporfly NEXT% (NEXT%) to a minimally cushioned road shoe. Twelve competitive runners ran overground in a laboratory at their current estimated marathon pace while three-dimensional ankle, knee, and hip kinematics and kinetics were collected. Regarding injury-related metrics, eversion excursion was significantly greater in the NEXT% shoe, which has been observed in runners with a history of navicular stress fracture. For performance-related metrics, significantly less peak dorsiflexion and dorsiflexion excursion, as well as a smaller peak plantar flexion moment and lower positive and negative ankle joint work, were found in the NEXT% shoe compared to the minimal shoe. These findings may help biomechanically explain the performance benefits of AFT and support previous research on prototype AFT. However, we also observed a significantly higher peak knee extensor moment in the NEXT% shoe, which was a novel finding and may offset some of the performance benefits seen at the ankle
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NewsBot · Sep 16, 2024

A biomechanical comparison of track spikes with advanced footwear technology to a traditional track spike in female distance runners
Christina Geisler, J J Hannigan
Sports Biomech. 2024 Aug 27:1-13

The addition of highly responsive lightweight foam and a stiff plate in the midsole of long-distance road racing shoes has yielded significant energetic cost savings that have translated to notable improvements in performance. This new foam and stiff plate technology have since been implemented in long-distance track spikes, where performances have also improved. However, the impact of spikes with advanced footwear technology (AFT) on distance running biomechanics has been studied minimally to date. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to compare running biomechanics between two spikes which incorporate AFT (Nike ZoomX Dragonfly, Nike Air Zoom Victory) to a traditional spike (Nike Zoom Matumbo). Seventeen competitive collegiate female runners completed 60 m trials at their 5k race pace in each spike condition while outfitted with IMU sensors and plantar pressure insoles. We observed significantly lower peak ankle dorsiflexion in the Dragonfly and Victory compared to the Matumbo and lower whole foot, forefoot and rearfoot peak and average pressure in the Dragonfly compared to the Matumbo and Victory. The acute biomechanical alterations observed in this study warrant future investigation into the association between running biomechanics and racing performance in track spikes with advanced footwear technology.
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NewsBot · Sep 18, 2024

NewsBot said: ↑

Teeter-totter effect: a new mechanism
to understand shoe-related
improvements in long-distance running
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A methodological proof-of-concept of the teeter-totter effect
Ashna Subramanium,Jordyn Vienneau,Sandro R. Nigg &Benno M. Nigg
29 Aug 2024

The Nike Vaporfly 4% (VP4) shoe is popular due to its unique design and reported performance benefits. However, the underlying mechanisms responsible for the improvements remain unclear. One proposed mechanism is the teeter-totter effect. This study aimed to 1) experimentally test the teeter-totter theory by estimating the teeter-totter moment (MTT) in the VP4 compared to a flat shoe (CONTROL) and 2) quantify the change in the anterior-posterior position of the centre of pressure (Δxa-p) in the VP4 compared to the CONTROL. Plantar pressures and high-speed video were recorded from 15 runners in two shoe conditions. The VP4 generated a larger propulsion moment, MP, (∫MPdt
= 90.46 ± 38.87 Nms; p < 0.001, d = 1.95), suggesting the presence of an MTT in the VP4 (∫MTTdt
= 57.16 ± 24.35 Nms) when compared to the CONTROL (∫MPdt
= 33.30 ± 14.52 Nms). Δxa-p was greater in the VP4 (Δxa-p = 9.48 ± 6.08 mm; p < 0.001, d = 2.07) compared to the CONTROL (Δxa-p = 0.54 ± 0.67 mm). This study provides a methodological proof-of-concept for the teeter-totter theory. The findings highlight the possibility of a teeter-totter effect resulting in greater heel propulsion while running in an AFT shoe construction, assuming a constant muscle moment and pivot point.
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NewsBot · Sep 18, 2024

Energy return in footwear – revisited
Martyn R. Shorten
Footwear Science

Advanced Footwear Technologies (AFTs) have enhanced running economy in the laboratory and improved performance in long distance events. Their resilient midsoles have renewed interest in ‘energy return’, the idea that elasticity in shoe soles could benefit athletic performance. This paper examines the concept of energy return, it’s definition, measurement and interpretation. ‘Energy return’ itself is a misnomer. Running shoe cushioning is entropically elastic, not energetically elastic and a net dissipator of energy. The term is easily confused with ‘rebound’ and ‘coefficient of restitution’, but neither are equivalent. Energy return is not a material property but a nonlinear, system dynamic outcome that depends on inertia, initial conditions, geometry, pre-test conditioning and other factors. Consequently, measurements are sensitive to test protocol variations. Results from quasi-static compression tests and standard impact tests of identical ethylene vinyl acetate foam specimens give different results. Impact tests of 180 running shoe models reveal that energy return overestimates rebound height by 57%, on average. The difference is due to the potential energy deficit (Edef) created as the shoe sole is compressed, which accounts for 25–45% of total energy output. AFT shoes reduce energy expenditure by exploiting the known effects of shoe weight, cushioning and bending stiffness. The magnitude of energy return is small and differences among shoes even smaller. Any direct effects of ‘energy return’ on running economy remain unknown. Low density AFT foams store less energy per unit volume than conventional materials. They must be thicker and more compressible to accommodate the same input loads. Regardless of any effects on running economy, the higher energy return of AFT shoes is a necessary compensation for their inherently greater energy deficit.
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NewsBot · Sep 19, 2024

Effect of Advanced Footwear Technology Spikes on Sprint Acceleration: A Multiple N-of-1 Trial
Benjamin Bernuz, Steven Laujac, Cedric Sirial, Stephane Auffret, Cristian Preda, Jean Slawinski, Benjamin Millot, Didier Pradon, Laure Coudrat & Olivier Gavarry
Sports Medicine - Open volume 10, Article number: 92 (2024)

Background
In contrast with Advanced Footwear Technology-AFT running shoes for long-distance, little is known about AFT sprint spikes on performance and acceleration parameters. However, their use has become widespread since the Tokyo 2020 Olympics, and knowledge of their effects would seem to be an essential starting point before any clinical or socio-economic considerations.

Objectives
Our objectives were to determine intra- and inter-subject sprinting performance modifications with Nike® AFT spikes (NAS) compared to standard spiked-shoes (SS).

Methods
Healthy regional to national sprint athletes (n = 21, ≥ 750 pts World Athletics) performed 16 repetitions of 30-m sprints with either the NAS or SS condition during a single session, based on the multiple N-of-1 method, with pairwise randomisation and double-blind procedure. Time on 30-m sprints (Stalker radar), force-velocity profile (F0, V0, Vmax, Pmax, RF, DRF and FVP slope), and confounding factors (wind and shoe mass) were measured. Statistical analyses included a mixed linear regression model for group analyses, and randomisation test inversion and non-overlap-of-all-pair (NAP) methods for intra-individual analysis.

Results
NAS improved 30-m time by a mean of − 0.02 s (SMD = 0.4, p = 0.014), with no interaction with any confounding factors. Significant changes were seen in velocity (Vmax : SMD = 0.9, p < 0.001; V0: SMD = 0.7, p < 0.001) and the horizontal ratio of force (RFmax: SMD = 0.5, p = 0.043), with no changes observed in force production. Whatever the footwear, one unit of positive wind (+ 1 m.s− 1 ) improved performance by − 0.03 s (p < 0.001). At an individual level, four athletes improved (NAP ≥ 0.69), and one had a statistical decrease in performance. Changes in F-V profiles were largely individual.

Conclusions
A positive effect on sprint acceleration characteristics was observed when using Nike® AFT spikes, due to an increase in velocity and the horizontal ratio of force. A major variability in inter-individual response justifies single-case experimental designs for research on the topic.
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Research on carbon fiber plates in running shoes

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