This day in .....

13 June 1971 – Vietnam War: The New York Times begins publication of the Pentagon Papers.

Pentagon Papers

U.S. defense report on 1945–1967 U.S. involvement in Vietnam

Not to be confused with the Panama Papers.

This article is about the U.S. government documents. For the 2003 film about the documents, see The Pentagon Papers (film).

The Pentagon Papers, officially titled Report of the Office of the Secretary of Defense Vietnam Task Force, is a United States Department of Defense history of the United States' political and military involvement in Vietnam from 1945 to 1968. Released by Daniel Ellsberg, who had worked on the study, they were first brought to the attention of the public on the front page of The New York Times in 1971.^[1][2] A 1996 article in The New York Times said that the Pentagon Papers had demonstrated, among other things, that Lyndon B. Johnson's administration had "systematically lied, not only to the public but also to Congress."^[3]

The Pentagon Papers revealed that the U.S. had secretly enlarged the scope of its actions in the Vietnam War with coastal raids on North Vietnam and Marine Corps attacks—none of which were reported in the mainstream media. For his disclosure of the Pentagon Papers, Ellsberg was initially charged with conspiracy, espionage, and theft of government property; charges were later dismissed, after prosecutors investigating the Watergate scandal discovered that the staff members in the Nixon White House had ordered the so-called White House Plumbers to engage in unlawful efforts to discredit Ellsberg.^[4][5]

In June 2011, the documents forming the Pentagon Papers were declassified and publicly released.^[6][7]

1. ^ "The Pentagon Papers". United Press International (UPI). 1971. Archived from the original on July 29, 2010. Retrieved July 2, 2010.
2. ^ Sheehan, Neil (June 13, 1971). "Vietnam Archive: Pentagon Study Traces 3 Decades of Growing U.S. Involvement". The New York Times. Archived from the original on January 27, 2020. Retrieved August 3, 2015.
3. ^ Apple, R.W. (June 23, 1996). "25 Years Later;Lessons From the Pentagon Papers". The New York Times. Archived from the original on January 27, 2020. Retrieved October 23, 2013.
4. ^ "The Watergate Story". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on October 16, 2012. Retrieved October 26, 2013. Watergate prosecutors find a memo addressed to John Ehrlichman describing in detail the plans to burglarize the office of Pentagon Papers defendant Daniel Ellsberg's psychiatrist, The Post reports.
5. ^ "Pentagon Papers Charges Are Dismissed; Judge Byrne Frees Ellsberg and Russo, Assails 'Improper Government Conduct'". The New York Times. May 11, 1973. Archived from the original on February 20, 2023. Retrieved November 4, 2018.
6. ^ "Pentagon Papers". History (U.S. TV channel). Archived from the original on October 29, 2013. Retrieved October 26, 2013.
7. ^ "After 40 Years, Pentagon Papers Declassified In Full". NPR. Archived from the original on January 27, 2020. Retrieved November 4, 2018.

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14 June 1926 – Brazil leaves the League of Nations.

League of Nations

20th-century international organisation, predecessor to the United Nations

Not to be confused with Commonwealth of Nations or Nations League.

This article is about the intergovernmental organisation. For the group in professional wrestling, see League of Nations (professional wrestling).

The League of Nations (LN or LoN; French: Société des Nations [sɔsjete de nɑsjɔ̃], SdN) was the first worldwide intergovernmental organisation whose principal mission was to maintain world peace.^[1] It was founded on 10 January 1920 by the Paris Peace Conference that ended the First World War. The main organisation ceased operations on 18 April 1946 when many of its components were relocated into the new United Nations. As the template for modern global governance, the League profoundly shaped the modern world.

The League's primary goals were stated in its eponymous Covenant. They included preventing wars through collective security and disarmament and settling international disputes through negotiation and arbitration.^[2] Its other concerns included labour conditions, just treatment of native inhabitants, human and drug trafficking, the arms trade, global health, prisoners of war, and protection of minorities in Europe.^[3] The Covenant of the League of Nations was signed on 28 June 1919 as Part I of the Treaty of Versailles, and it became effective with the rest of the Treaty on 10 January 1920. Australia was granted the right to participate as an autonomous member nation, marking the start of Australian independence on the global stage.^[4] The first meeting of the Council of the League took place on 16 January 1920, and the first meeting of the Assembly of the League took place on 15 November 1920. In 1919, U.S. president Woodrow Wilson won the Nobel Peace Prize for his role as the leading architect of the League.

The diplomatic philosophy behind the League represented a fundamental shift from the preceding hundred years. The League lacked its own armed force and depended on the victorious Allied Powers of World War I (Britain, France, Italy and Japan were the initial permanent members of the Council) to enforce its resolutions, keep to its economic sanctions, or provide an army when needed. The Great Powers were often reluctant to do so. Sanctions could hurt League members, so they were reluctant to comply with them. During the Second Italo-Ethiopian War, when the League accused Italian soldiers of targeting International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement medical tents, Benito Mussolini responded that "the League is very well when sparrows shout, but no good at all when eagles fall out."^[5]

At its greatest extent from 28 September 1934 to 23 February 1935, it had 58 members. After some notable successes and some early failures in the 1920s, the League ultimately proved incapable of preventing aggression by the Axis powers in the 1930s. Its credibility was weakened because the United States never joined. Japan and Germany left in 1933, Italy left in 1937, and Spain left in 1939. The Soviet Union only joined in 1934 and was expelled in 1939 after invading Finland.^[6][7][8][9] Furthermore, the League demonstrated an irresolute approach to sanction enforcement for fear it might only spark further conflict, further decreasing its credibility. One example of this hesitancy was the Abyssinia Crisis, in which Italy's sanctions were only limited from the outset (coal and oil were not restricted), and later altogether abandoned despite Italy being declared the aggressors in the conflict. The onset of the Second World War in 1939 showed that the League had failed its primary purpose: to prevent another world war. It was largely inactive until its abolition. The League lasted for 26 years; the United Nations (UN) replaced it in 1946 and inherited several agencies and organisations founded by the League.

Current scholarly consensus views that, even though the League failed to achieve its main goal of world peace, it did manage to build new roads towards expanding the rule of law across the globe; strengthened the concept of collective security, gave a voice to smaller nations; fostered economic stabilisation and financial stability, especially in Central Europe in the 1920s; helped to raise awareness of problems like epidemics, slavery, child labour, colonial tyranny, refugee crises and general working conditions through its numerous commissions and committees; and paved the way for new forms of statehood, as the mandate system put the colonial powers under international observation.^[10] Professor David Kennedy portrays the League as a unique moment when international affairs were "institutionalised", as opposed to the pre-First World War methods of law and politics.^[11]

1. ^ Christian, Tomuschat (1995). The United Nations at Age Fifty: A Legal Perspective. Martinus Nijhoff Publishers. p. 77. ISBN 978-90-411-0145-7.
2. ^ "Covenant of the League of Nations". The Avalon Project. Archived from the original on 26 July 2011. Retrieved 30 August 2011.
3. ^ See Article 23, "Covenant of the League of Nations". Archived from the original on 26 July 2011. Retrieved 20 April 2009., Treaty of Versailles. Archived from the original on 19 January 2010. Retrieved 23 January 2010. and Minority Treaties.
4. ^ Rees, Dr Yves (2020). "The women of the League of Nations". www.latrobe.edu.au. Retrieved 28 October 2023.
5. ^ Jahanpour, Farhang. "The Elusiveness of Trust: the experience of Security Council and Iran" (PDF). Transnational Foundation of Peace and Future Research. p. 2. Archived (PDF) from the original on 27 July 2014. Retrieved 27 June 2008.
6. ^ Osakwe, C O (1972). The participation of the Soviet Union in universal international organizations.: A political and legal analysis of Soviet strategies and aspirations inside ILO, UNESCO and WHO. Springer. p. 5. ISBN 978-90-286-0002-7.
7. ^ Pericles, Lewis (2000). Modernism, Nationalism, and the Novel. Cambridge University Press. p. 52. ISBN 978-1-139-42658-9.
8. ^ Ginneken, Anique H. M. van (2006). Historical Dictionary of the League of Nations. Scarecrow Press. p. 174. ISBN 978-0-8108-6513-6.
9. ^ Ellis, Charles Howard (2003). The Origin, Structure & Working of the League of Nations. Lawbook Exchange Ltd. p. 169. ISBN 978-1-58477-320-7.
10. ^ Cite error: The named reference Pedersen2007 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
11. ^ Kennedy 1987.

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15 June 1219 – Northern Crusades: Danish victory at the Battle of Lindanise (modern-day Tallinn) establishes the Danish Duchy of Estonia.

Northern Crusades

12th/13th century crusades around the Baltic Sea

For the film, see Northern Crusades (film).

The Northern Crusades^[1] or Baltic Crusades^[2] were Christianization campaigns undertaken by Catholic Christian military orders and kingdoms, primarily against the pagan Baltic, Finnic and West Slavic peoples around the southern and eastern shores of the Baltic Sea.

The most notable campaigns were the Livonian and Prussian crusades. Some of these wars were called crusades during the Middle Ages, however others, including the 12th century First Swedish Crusade and several following military incursions by Scandinavian Christians against the then pagan Finns, were dubbed "crusades" only in the 19th century by romantic nationalist historians. However, crusades against Estonians and against "other pagans in those parts" were authorized by Pope Alexander III in the crusade bull Non parum animus noster,^[3] in 1171 or 1172.^[4]

1. ^ Christiansen, Erik (1997). The Northern Crusades. London: Penguin Books. p. 287. ISBN 0-14-026653-4.
2. ^ Hunyadi, Zsolt; József Laszlovszky (2001). The Crusades and the Military Orders: Expanding the Frontiers of Medieval Latin Christianity. Budapest: Central European University Press. p. 606. ISBN 963-9241-42-3.
3. ^ Pope Alexander III; Curtin, D. P. (May 2008). Non Parum Animus Noster. ISBN 9798869282217.
4. ^ Christiansen, Eric. The Northern Crusades. London: Penguin Books. p. 71

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16 June 1858 – Abraham Lincoln delivers his House Divided speech in Springfield, Illinois.

Lincoln's House Divided Speech

1858 speech by Abraham Lincoln

"House Divided" redirects here. For the episode of the TV series House, see House (season 5).

The House Divided Speech was an address given by senatorial candidate and future president of the United States Abraham Lincoln, on June 16, 1858, at what was then the Illinois State Capitol in Springfield, after he had accepted the Illinois Republican Party's nomination as that state's US senator. The nomination of Lincoln was the final item of business at the convention, which then broke for dinner, meeting again at 8 pm. "The evening session was mainly devoted to speeches",^[1] but the only speaker was Lincoln, whose address closed the convention, save for resolutions of thanks to the city of Springfield and others. His address was immediately published in full by newspapers,^[2][3][4] as a pamphlet,^[5] and in the published proceedings of the convention.^[6] It was the launching point of his unsuccessful campaign for the senatorial seat held by Stephen A. Douglas; the campaign would climax with the Lincoln–Douglas debates. When Lincoln collected and published his debates with Douglas as part of his 1860 presidential campaign, he prefixed them with relevant prior speeches. The "House Divided" speech opens the volume.^[7]

Lincoln's remarks in Springfield depict the danger of slavery-based disunion, and it rallied Republicans across the North. Along with the Gettysburg Address and his second inaugural address, the speech became one of the best-known of his career. It begins with the following words, which became the best-known passage of the speech:^[8]

"A house divided against itself, cannot stand."

I believe this government cannot endure permanently half slave and half free.

I do not expect the Union to be dissolved – I do not expect the house to fall – but I do expect it will cease to be divided.

It will become all one thing or all the other.

Either the opponents of slavery will arrest the further spread of it, and place it where the public mind shall rest in the belief that it is in the course of ultimate extinction; or its advocates will push it forward, till it shall become lawful in all the States, old as well as new – North as well as South.^[6]: 9

Lincoln's goals were to differentiate himself from Douglas – the incumbent – and to voice a prophecy publicly. Douglas had long advocated popular sovereignty, under which the settlers in each new territory would decide their own status as a slave or free state; he had repeatedly asserted that the proper application of popular sovereignty would prevent slavery-induced conflict and would allow Northern and Southern states to resume their peaceful coexistence. Lincoln, however, responded that the Dred Scott ruling had closed the door on Douglas's preferred option, leaving the Union with only two remaining outcomes: the country would inevitably become either all slave or all free. Now that the North and the South had come to hold distinct opinions on the question of slavery, and now that the issue had come to permeate every other political question, the Union would soon no longer be able to function.

1. ^ "Republican Convention". The Pantagraph (Bloomington, Illinois). June 18, 1858. p. 2 – via newspapers.com.
2. ^ "Conclusion of the Republican State Convention. Speech of Hon. Abraham Lincoln". Chicago Tribune. June 19, 1858. p. 2.
3. ^ "Republican principles. Speech of Hon. Abraham Lincoln, of Illinois, at the Republican state Convention, June 16, 1858". New-York Tribune. June 24, 1858. p. 3 – via newspapers.com.
4. ^ "Speech of Hon. Abraham Lincoln". Alton Weekly Telegraph (Alton, Illinois). June 24, 1858. p. 2 – via newspapers.com.
5. ^ Lincoln, Abraham (1858). Speech of Hon. Abram [sic] Lincoln before the Republican state convention, June 16, 1858. OCLC 2454620.
6. ^ ^{a b} Proceedings of the Republican state convention, held at Springfield, Illinois, June 16th, 1858. Springfield, Illinois. 1858.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
7. ^ Lincoln, Abraham; Douglas, Stephen A. (1860). Political Debates between Hon. Abraham Lincoln and Hon. Stephen A. Douglas, In the Celebrated Campaign of 1858, in Illinois; including the preceding speeches of each, at Chicago, Springfield, etc.; also, the two great speeches of Mr. Lincoln in Ohio, in 1859, as carefully prepared by the reporters of each party, and published at the times of their delivery. Columbus, Ohio: Follett, Foster and Company. pp. 1–5.
8. ^ Foner, Eric (2010). The Fiery Trial: Abraham Lincoln and American Slavery. W. W. Norton. pp. 99–100. ISBN 978-0-393-06618-0.

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17 June 1944 – Iceland declares independence from Denmark and becomes a republic.

Icelandic National Day

National holiday in Iceland commemorating independence from Denmark (17 June 1944)

Not to be confused with Þjóðhátíð.

Icelandic National Day (Icelandic: Þjóðhátíðardagurinn, the day of the nation's celebration) is an annual holiday in Iceland which commemorates the foundation of The Republic of Iceland on 17 June 1944. This date also marks the end of Iceland's centuries-old ties with Denmark.^[1] The date was chosen to coincide with the birthday of Jón Sigurðsson, a major figure of Icelandic culture and the leader of the 19th-century Icelandic independence movement.^[2]

1. ^ "Icelandic National Day: A Profile in Pictures | Britannica Blog". www.britannica.com. Archived from the original on 2011-06-20.
2. ^ Today is the Icelandic National Day Archived 2013-06-21 at the Wayback Machine Icelandic Review 6/17/2013

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18 June 1815 – Napoleonic Wars: The Battle of Waterloo results in the defeat of Napoleon Bonaparte by the Duke of Wellington and Gebhard Leberecht von Blücher forcing him to abdicate the throne of France for the second and last time.

Battle of Waterloo

1815 battle of the Napoleonic Wars

For other uses, see Battle of Waterloo (disambiguation).

Hundred Days:
Waterloo campaign

500km
300miles

Rochefort

7

6: Waterloo

5

4

3

Paris

2

Elba

1

  

  Napoleon in command

  Napoleon not in command

The Battle of Waterloo (Dutch: [ˈʋaːtərloː] ^ⓘ) was fought on Sunday 18 June 1815, near Waterloo (at that time in the United Kingdom of the Netherlands, now in Belgium), marking the end of the Napoleonic Wars. A French army under the command of Napoleon was defeated by two armies of the Seventh Coalition. One of these was a British-led force with units from the United Kingdom, the Netherlands, Hanover, Brunswick, and Nassau, under the command of Arthur Wellesley, Duke of Wellington (often referred to as the Anglo-allied army or Wellington's army). The other comprised three corps (the 1st, 2nd and 4th corps) of the Prussian army under Field Marshal Blücher; a fourth corps (the 3rd) of this army fought at the Battle of Wavre on the same day. The battle was known contemporarily as the Battle of Mont Saint-Jean in France (after the hamlet of Mont-Saint-Jean) and La Belle Alliance in Prussia ("the Beautiful Alliance"; after the inn of La Belle Alliance).^[15]

Upon Napoleon's return to power in March 1815 (beginning the Hundred Days), many states that had previously opposed him formed the Seventh Coalition and hurriedly mobilised their armies. Wellington's and Blücher's armies were cantoned close to the northeastern border of France. Napoleon planned to attack them separately, before they could link up and invade France with other members of the coalition.

On 16 June, Napoleon successfully attacked the bulk of the Prussian army at the Battle of Ligny with his main force, while a small portion of the French army contested the Battle of Quatre Bras to prevent the Anglo-allied army from reinforcing the Prussians. The Anglo-allied army held their ground at Quatre Bras, and on the 17th, the Prussians withdrew from Ligny in good order, while Wellington then withdrew in parallel with the Prussians northward to Waterloo on 17 June. Napoleon sent a third of his forces to pursue the Prussians, which resulted in the separate Battle of Wavre with the Prussian rear-guard on 18–19 June and prevented that French force from participating at Waterloo.

Upon learning that the Prussian Army was able to support him, Wellington decided to offer battle on the Mont-Saint-Jean^[16] escarpment across the Brussels Road, near the village of Waterloo. Here he withstood repeated attacks by the French throughout the afternoon of 18 June,^[17] and was eventually aided by the progressively arriving 50,000 Prussians who attacked the French flank and inflicted heavy casualties. In the evening, Napoleon assaulted the Anglo-allied line with his last reserves, the senior infantry battalions of the Imperial Guard. With the Prussians breaking through on the French right flank, the Anglo-allied army repulsed the Imperial Guard, and the French army was routed.

Waterloo was the decisive engagement of the Waterloo campaign and Napoleon's last. It was also the second bloodiest single day battle of the Napoleonic Wars, after Borodino. According to Wellington, the battle was "the nearest-run thing you ever saw in your life".^[18] Napoleon abdicated four days later, and coalition forces entered Paris on 7 July. The defeat at Waterloo marked the end of Napoleon's Hundred Days return from exile. It precipitated Napoleon's second and definitive abdication as Emperor of the French, and ended the First French Empire. It set a historical milestone between serial European wars and decades of relative peace, often referred to as the Pax Britannica. In popular culture, the phrase "meeting one's Waterloo" has become an expression for someone suffering a final defeat.

The battlefield is located in the Belgian municipalities of Braine-l'Alleud and Lasne,^[19] about 15 kilometres (9.3 mi) south of Brussels, and about 2 kilometres (1.2 mi) from the town of Waterloo. The site of the battlefield today is dominated by the monument of the Lion's Mound, a large artificial hill constructed from earth taken from the battlefield itself, but the topography of the battlefield near the mound has not been preserved.

1. ^ ^{a b c d e f} Bodart 1908, p. 487.
2. ^ Hofschröer 1999, pp. 68–69.
3. ^ ^{a b c d e f g h i} Clodfelter 2017, p. 169.
4. ^ Hofschröer 1999, p. 61 cites Siborne's numbers.
5. ^ Hamilton-Williams 1994, p. 256 gives 68,000.
6. ^ Barbero 2005, pp. 75–76.
7. ^ Hamilton-Williams 1994, p. 256.
8. ^ ^{a b c d e f} Clodfelter 2017, p. 170.
9. ^ Chesney 1874, p. 4.
10. ^ Bowden 1983, p. 329.
11. ^ ^{a b c} Barbero 2006, p. 312.
12. ^ Barbero 2005, p. 420.
13. ^ ^{a b c} Barbero 2005, p. 419.
14. ^ Clodfelter 2017, pp. 169–170.
15. ^ Albert Smith, Charles Dickens, William Harrison Ainsworth (eds.) (1851) Bentley's Miscellany, Volume 30, Publisher, Richard Bentley, p. 57
16. ^ "Battle of Waterloo – The Battles of Quatre-Bras and Ligny | Britannica". www.britannica.com. Archived from the original on 1 December 2022. Retrieved 1 December 2022.
17. ^ "Battle of Waterloo | National Army Museum". www.nam.ac.uk. Retrieved 15 March 2024.
18. ^ Wikiquote:Wellington citing Creevey Papers, ch. x, p. 236
19. ^ Marcelis 2015.

Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).
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19 June 1978 – Garfield's first comic strip, originally published locally as Jon in 1976, goes into nationwide syndication.

Garfield

Comic strip created by Jim Davis

This article is about the comic strip. For the title character, see Garfield (character). For the U.S. president, see James A. Garfield. For other uses, see Garfield (disambiguation).

Garfield is an American comic strip created by Jim Davis. Originally published locally as Jon in 1976 (later changed to Garfield in 1977), then in nationwide syndication from 1978, it chronicles the life of the title character Garfield the cat, Odie the dog, and their owner Jon Arbuckle. As of 2013, it was syndicated in roughly 2,580 newspapers and journals; the comic held the Guinness World Record for being the world's most widely syndicated comic strip.^[1]

Though its setting is rarely mentioned in print, Garfield takes place in Jim Davis's hometown of Muncie, Indiana, according to the television special Happy Birthday, Garfield. Common themes in the strip include Garfield's laziness, obsessive eating, love of coffee and lasagna, disdain of Mondays, and dieting. Garfield is also shown to manipulate people to get whatever he wants. The strip's focus is mostly on the interactions among Garfield, Jon, and Odie, but other recurring characters appear as well.

Garfield has been adapted into various other forms of media. Several half-hour television specials aired on CBS between 1982 and 1991, starting with Here Comes Garfield and ending with Garfield Gets a Life. Also airing on CBS from 1988 to 1994 was the animated series Garfield and Friends, which also adapted Davis's other comic strip U.S. Acres. All of these featured Lorenzo Music as the voice of Garfield. The feature film Garfield: The Movie was released in 2004 and Garfield: A Tail of Two Kitties two years later. Both were live-action movies featuring a computer-animated Garfield voiced by Bill Murray. Another animated adaptation for television, The Garfield Show, aired on France 3 in France and Cartoon Network in the United States from 2009 to 2016. In addition, Garfield has been the subject of merchandise, video games, books, and other spin-off merchandise. The strip has also been re-published in compilations; the first of these, Garfield at Large (1980), developed what came to be known as the "Garfield format" for re-publication of newspaper comics in book form.

On August 6, 2019, before its merger with CBS Corporation to become ViacomCBS (now Paramount Global), New York City–based Viacom announced that it would acquire Paws, Inc., including most rights to the Garfield franchise (the comics, merchandise and animated cartoons). The deal did not include the rights to the live-action Garfield films,^[2] which are still owned by The Walt Disney Company through its 20th Century Studios label, as well as The Garfield Movie which was released by Sony Pictures under its Columbia Pictures label in 2024.^[3] Jim Davis continues to make comics, and a new Garfield animated series is in production for Paramount Global subsidiary Nickelodeon.^[4]

1. ^ "Garfield Named World's Most Syndicated Comic Strip". Business Wire. January 22, 2002. Archived from the original on September 10, 2004. Retrieved July 26, 2008.
2. ^ Mullin, Benjamin (August 6, 2019). "Viacom, Hungry For Hits, Gobbles Garfield". The Wall Street Journal. Retrieved August 12, 2019.
3. ^ O'Rourke, Ryan (September 16, 2022). "Garfield Release Date Moved to Spring 2024". Collider. Retrieved September 16, 2022.
4. ^ Steinberg, Brian (August 6, 2019). "Viacom Acquires Comic-Strip Cat Garfield". Variety. Retrieved August 6, 2019.

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20 June 1622 – The Battle of Höchst takes place during the Thirty Years' War.

Battle of Höchst

1622 battle of the Thirty Years' War

This article is about the battle in 1622. For the battle in 1795, see Battle of Höchst (1795).

The Battle of Höchst (20 June 1622) was fought between a Catholic League army led by Johan Tzerclaes, Count of Tilly and a Protestant army commanded by Christian the Younger, Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg, close to the town of Höchst, today a suburb of the city of Frankfurt am Main. The result was a one-sided Catholic League victory. The action occurred during the Thirty Years' War.

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21 June 1798 – Irish Rebellion of 1798: The British Army defeats Irish rebels at the Battle of Vinegar Hill.

Battle of Vinegar Hill

Battle of the Irish Rebellion of 1798

The Battle of Vinegar Hill (Irish: Cath Chnoc Fhíodh na gCaor) was a military engagement during the Irish Rebellion of 1798 on 21 June 1798 between a force of approximately 13,000 government troops under the command of Gerard Lake and 16,000 United Irishmen rebels led by Anthony Perry. The battle, a major rebel defeat, took place on 21 June 1798 on a large rebel camp on Vinegar Hill and in the streets of Enniscorthy, County Wexford and marked the last major attempt by the rebels to hold and control territory taken in Wexford.

1. ^ ^{a b c} Cite error: The named reference Gardner was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
2. ^ Reinterpreting the 1798 Rebellion in County Wexford – Kevin Whelan, p. 28 in The Mighty Wave – The 1798 Rebellion in County Wexford (1996) ISBN 1851822534 (Eds. Keogh & Furlong)
3. ^ Cite error: The named reference MacLaren was invoked but never defined (see the help page).

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22 June 1941 – World War II: Nazi Germany invades the Soviet Union in Operation Barbarossa.

Operation Barbarossa

1941–1942 invasion of the Soviet Union by Nazi Germany and its allies

Operation Barbarossa^[g] was the invasion of the Soviet Union by Nazi Germany and many of its Axis allies, starting on Sunday, 22 June 1941, during World War II. It was the largest and costliest land offensive in human history, with around 10 million combatants taking part,^[26] and over 8 million casualties by the end of the operation.^[27][28]

The operation, code-named after Frederick I "Barbarossa" ("red beard"), a 12th-century Holy Roman Emperor and Crusader, put into action Nazi Germany's ideological goals of eradicating communism and conquering the western Soviet Union to repopulate it with Germans. The German Generalplan Ost aimed to use some of the conquered people as forced labour for the Axis war effort while acquiring the oil reserves of the Caucasus as well as the agricultural resources of various Soviet territories, including Ukraine and Byelorussia. Their ultimate goal was to create more Lebensraum (living space) for Germany, and the eventual extermination of the native Slavic peoples by mass deportation to Siberia, Germanisation, enslavement, and genocide.^[29][30]

In the two years leading up to the invasion, Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union signed political and economic pacts for strategic purposes. Following the Soviet occupation of Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina, the German High Command began planning an invasion of the Soviet Union in July 1940 (under the code-name Operation Otto). Over the course of the operation, over 3.8 million personnel of the Axis powers—the largest invasion force in the history of warfare—invaded the western Soviet Union, along a 2,900-kilometer (1,800 mi) front, with 600,000 motor vehicles and over 600,000 horses for non-combat operations. The offensive marked a major escalation of World War II, both geographically and with the Anglo-Soviet Agreement, which brought the USSR into the Allied coalition.

The operation opened up the Eastern Front, in which more forces were committed than in any other theatre of war in human history. The area saw some of history's largest battles, most horrific atrocities, and highest casualties (for Soviet and Axis forces alike), all of which influenced the course of World War II and the subsequent history of the 20th century. The German armies eventually captured five million Soviet Red Army troops^[31] and deliberately starved to death or otherwise killed 3.3 million Soviet prisoners of war, and millions of civilians, as the "Hunger Plan" worked to solve German food shortages and exterminate the Slavic population through starvation.^[32] Mass shootings and gassing operations, carried out by German death squads or willing collaborators,^[h] murdered over a million Soviet Jews as part of the Holocaust.^[34]

The failure of Operation Barbarossa reversed the fortunes of Nazi Germany.^[35] Operationally, German forces achieved significant victories and occupied some of the most important economic areas of the Soviet Union (mainly in Ukraine) and inflicted, as well as sustained, heavy casualties. The German offensive came to an end during the Battle of Moscow near the end of 1941,^[36][37] and the subsequent Soviet winter counteroffensive pushed the Germans about 250 km (160 mi) back. German high command anticipated a quick collapse of Soviet resistance as in the invasion of Poland, analogous to the reaction Russia had during World War I,^[38] but instead the Red Army absorbed the German Wehrmacht's strongest blows and bogged it down in a war of attrition for which the Germans were unprepared. Following the heavy losses and logistical strain of Barbarossa, the Wehrmacht's diminished forces could no longer attack along the entire Eastern Front, and subsequent operations to retake the initiative and drive deep into Soviet territory—such as Case Blue in 1942 and Operation Citadel in 1943—were weaker and eventually failed, which resulted in the Wehrmacht's defeat. These Soviet victories ended Germany's territorial expansion and presaged the eventual defeat and collapse of Nazi Germany in 1945.

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1. ^ ^{a b c} Clark 2012, p. 73.
2. ^ Glantz 2001, p. 9.
3. ^ ^{a b c} Glantz 2010a, p. 20.
4. ^ ^{a b c} Liedtke 2016, p. 220.
5. ^ ^{a b c d} Askey 2014, p. 80.
6. ^ Liedtke 2016, p. 220, of which 259 assault guns.
7. ^ Bergström 2007, p. 129.
8. ^ ^{a b} Glantz & House 2015, p. 384.
9. ^ Glantz 2001, p. 9, states 2.68 million.
10. ^ Glantz 1998, pp. 10–11, 101, 293, states 2.9 million.
11. ^ Mercatante 2012, p. 64.
12. ^ Clark 2012, p. 76.
13. ^ Glantz 2010a, p. 28, states 7,133 aircraft.
14. ^ Mercatante 2012, p. 64, states 9,100 aircraft.
15. ^ Clark 2012, p. 76, states 9,100 aircraft.
16. ^ ^{a b} Askey 2014, p. 178.
17. ^ ^{a b} Bergström 2007, p. 117.
18. ^ ^{a b} Askey 2014, p. 185.
19. ^ Axworthy 1995, pp. 58, 286.
20. ^ Vehviläinen 2002, p. 96.
21. ^ Ziemke 1959, p. 184.
22. ^ Kirchubel 2013, chpt. "Opposing Armies".
23. ^ Andaházi Szeghy 2016, pp. 151–152, 181.
24. ^ Krivosheev 1997, pp. 95–98.
25. ^ Sharp 2010, p. 89.
26. ^ Citino 2021.
27. ^ Anderson, Clark & Walsh 2018, pp. 67.
28. ^ Dimbleby 2021, p. xxxvii–xxxviii.
29. ^ Rich 1973, pp. 204–221.
30. ^ Snyder 2010, p. 416.
31. ^ Chapoutot 2018, p. 272.
32. ^ Snyder 2010, pp. 175–186.
33. ^ Hilberg 1992, pp. 58–61, 199–202.
34. ^ United States Holocaust Memorial Museum 1996, pp. 50–51.
35. ^ Rees 2010.
36. ^ Mawdsley 2015, p. 54.
37. ^ Anderson, Clark & Walsh 2018, pp. 48–49, 51.
38. ^ Clairmont 2003, pp. 2818–2823.

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23 June 1961 – The Antarctic Treaty System, which sets aside Antarctica as a scientific preserve and limits military activity on the continent, its islands and ice shelves, comes into force.

Antarctic Treaty System

International treaties concerning Antarctica

The Antarctic Treaty and related agreements, collectively known as the Antarctic Treaty System (ATS), regulate international relations with respect to Antarctica, Earth's only continent without a native human population. It was the first arms control agreement established during the Cold War, designating the continent as a scientific preserve, establishing freedom of scientific investigation, and banning military activity; for the purposes of the treaty system, Antarctica is defined as all the land and ice shelves south of 60°S latitude. Since September 2004, the Antarctic Treaty Secretariat, which implements the treaty system, is headquartered in Buenos Aires, Argentina.^[3]

The main treaty was opened for signature on 1 December 1959, and officially entered into force on 23 June 1961.^[4] The original signatories were the 12 countries active in Antarctica during the International Geophysical Year (IGY) of 1957–58: Argentina, Australia, Belgium, Chile, France, Japan, New Zealand, Norway, South Africa, the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom, and the United States.^[1] These countries had established over 55 Antarctic research stations for the IGY, and the subsequent promulgation of the treaty was seen as a diplomatic expression of the operational and scientific cooperation that had been achieved. As of 2024^[update], the treaty has 57 parties.^[5]

1. ^ ^{a b} "Antarctic Treaty" in The New Encyclopædia Britannica. Chicago: Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 15th edn., 1992, Vol. 1, p. 439.
2. ^ ^{a b c} Cite error: The named reference depositary was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
3. ^ "ATS – Secretariat of the Antarctic Treaty". ats.aq. Archived from the original on 15 May 2019. Retrieved 10 February 2010.
4. ^ "Antarctic Treaty". United Nations Office for Disarmament Affairs. United Nations. Retrieved 28 March 2018.
5. ^ "Antarctic Treaty". United States Department of State. 22 April 2019. Retrieved 11 September 2022.

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24 June 1957 – In Roth v. United States, the U.S. Supreme Court rules that obscenity is not protected by the First Amendment.

Roth v. United States

1957 U.S. Supreme Court case

1957 United States Supreme Court case

Roth v. United States, 354 U.S. 476 (1957), along with its companion case Alberts v. California, was a landmark decision of the Supreme Court of the United States which redefined the constitutional test for determining what constitutes obscene material unprotected by the First Amendment.^[1] The Court, in an opinion by Justice William J. Brennan Jr. created a test to determine what constituted obscene material: Whether the average person, applying contemporary community standards would find that the material appeals to a prurient interest in sex, and whether the material was utterly without redeeming social value. Although the Court upheld Roth’s conviction and allowed some obscenity prosecutions, it drastically loosened obscenity laws.^[2] The decision dissatisfied both social conservatives who thought that it had gone too far in tolerating sexual imagery, and liberals who felt that it infringed on the rights of consenting adults.^[3]

The decision was superseded by Miller v. California which removed the "utterly without redeeming social value" test, and replaced it with without "serious literary, artistic, political, or scientific value". In that case, Justice Brennan dissented, repudiating his previous position in Roth, arguing that states could not ban the sale, advertisement, or distribution of obscene materials to consenting adults.^[4]

1. ^ Roth v. United States, 354 U.S. 476 (1957).
2. ^ Pacelle, Richard Jr. "Roth v. United States". First Amendment Encyclopedia. University of Minnesota. Retrieved August 11, 2022.
3. ^ Pacelle, Richard Jr. "Roth v. United States". First Amendment Encyclopedia. University of Minnesota. Retrieved August 11, 2022.
4. ^ "Miller v. California". Justia. Retrieved August 11, 2022.

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25 June 1910 – Igor Stravinsky's ballet The Firebird is premiered in Paris, bringing him to prominence as a composer.

The Firebird

1910 ballet by Igor Stravinsky

This article is about the ballet to Stravinsky's 1910 music. For other uses of the word, see Firebird.

The Firebird (French: L'Oiseau de feu; Russian: Жар-птица, romanized: Zhar-ptitsa) is a ballet and orchestral concert work by the Russian composer Igor Stravinsky. It was written for the 1910 Paris season of Sergei Diaghilev's Ballets Russes company; the original choreography was by Michel Fokine, who collaborated with Alexandre Benois and others on a scenario based on the Russian fairy tales of the Firebird and the blessing and curse it possesses for its owner. It was first performed at the Opéra de Paris on 25 June 1910 and was an immediate success, catapulting Stravinsky to international fame and leading to future Diaghilev–Stravinsky collaborations including Petrushka (1911) and The Rite of Spring (1913).

The Firebird's mortal and supernatural elements are distinguished with a system of leitmotifs placed in the harmony dubbed "leit-harmony". Stravinsky intentionally used many specialist techniques in the orchestra, including ponticello, col legno, flautando, glissando, and flutter-tonguing. Set in the evil immortal Koschei's castle, the ballet follows Prince Ivan, who battles Koschei with the help of the magical Firebird.

Stravinsky later created three concert suites based on the work: in 1911, ending with the "Infernal Dance"; in 1919, which remains the most popular today; and in 1945, featuring significant reorchestration and structural changes. Other choreographers have staged the work with Fokine's original choreography or created entirely new productions using the music, some with new settings or themes. Many recordings of the suites have been made; the first was released in 1928, using the 1911 suite. A film version of the popular Sadler's Wells Ballet production, which revived Fokine's original choreography, was produced in 1959.

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26 June 1906 – The first Grand Prix motor race is held at Le Mans.

1906 French Grand Prix

Motor race held at Le Mans

Motor car race

The 1906 Grand Prix de l'Automobile Club de France, commonly known as the 1906 French Grand Prix, was a motor race held on 26 and 27 June 1906, on closed public roads outside the city of Le Mans. The Grand Prix was organised by the Automobile Club de France (ACF) at the prompting of the French automobile industry as an alternative to the Gordon Bennett races, which limited each competing country's number of entries regardless of the size of its industry. France had the largest automobile industry in Europe at the time, and in an attempt to better reflect this the Grand Prix had no limit to the number of entries by any particular country. The ACF chose a 103.18-kilometre (64.11 mi) circuit, composed primarily of dust roads sealed with tar, which would be lapped six times on both days by each competitor, a combined race distance of 1,238.16 kilometres (769.36 mi). Lasting for more than 12 hours overall, the race was won by Ferenc Szisz driving for the Renault team. FIAT driver Felice Nazzaro finished second, and Albert Clément was third in a Clément-Bayard.

Paul Baras of Brasier set the fastest lap of the race on his first lap. He held on to the lead until the third lap, when Szisz took over first position, defending it to the finish. Hot conditions melted the road tar, which the cars kicked up into the faces of the drivers, blinding them and making the racing treacherous. Punctures were common; tyre manufacturer Michelin introduced a detachable rim with a tyre already affixed, which could be quickly swapped onto a car after a puncture, saving a significant amount of time over manually replacing the tyre. This helped Nazzaro pass Clément on the second day, as the FIAT—unlike the Clément-Bayard—made use of the rims.

Renault's victory contributed to an increase in sales for the French manufacturer in the years following the race. Despite being the second to carry the title, the race has become known as the first Grand Prix. The success of the 1906 French Grand Prix prompted the ACF to run the Grand Prix again the following year, and the German automobile industry to organise the Kaiserpreis, the forerunner to the German Grand Prix, in 1907.

1. ^ Hodges (1967), pp. 2–3.

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27 June 1556 – The thirteen Stratford Martyrs are burned at the stake near London for their Protestant beliefs.

Stratford Martyrs

Group of Protestants burned at the stake in 1556 in England

"John Routh" redirects here. Not to be confused with Jonathan Routh.

The Stratford Martyrs were eleven men and two women who were burned at the stake together for their Protestant beliefs, either at Stratford-le-Bow, Middlesex or Stratford, Essex, both near London, on 27 June 1556 during the Marian persecutions.

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28 June 1919 – The Treaty of Versailles is signed, ending the state of war between Germany and the Allies of World War I.

Treaty of Versailles

One of the treaties that ended World War I

See also: Rue Nitot, Paris Peace Conference (1919-1920), and Diplomatic history of World War I

This article is about the Treaty of Versailles of 28 June 1919, at the end of World War I. For other uses, see Treaty of Versailles (disambiguation).

The Treaty of Versailles^[ii] was a peace treaty signed on 28 June 1919. As the most important treaty of World War I, it ended the state of war between Germany and most of the Allied Powers. It was signed in the Palace of Versailles, exactly five years after the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand, which led to the war. The other Central Powers on the German side signed separate treaties.^[iii] Although the armistice of 11 November 1918 ended the actual fighting, and agreed certain principles and conditions including the payment of reparations, it took six months of Allied negotiations at the Paris Peace Conference to conclude the peace treaty. Germany was not allowed to participate in the negotiations before signing the treaty.

The treaty required Germany to disarm, make territorial concessions, extradite alleged war criminals, agree to Kaiser Wilhelm being put on trial, recognise the independence of states whose territory had previously been part of the German Empire, and pay reparations to the Entente powers. The most critical and controversial provision in the treaty was: "The Allied and Associated Governments affirm and Germany accepts the responsibility of Germany and her allies for causing all the loss and damage to which the Allied and Associated Governments and their nationals have been subjected as a consequence of the war imposed upon them by the aggression of Germany and her allies." The other members of the Central Powers signed treaties containing similar articles. This article, Article 231, became known as the "War Guilt" clause.

Critics including John Maynard Keynes declared the treaty too harsh, styling it as a "Carthaginian peace", and saying the reparations were excessive and counterproductive. On the other hand, prominent Allied figures such as French Marshal Ferdinand Foch criticized the treaty for treating Germany too leniently. This is still the subject of ongoing debate by historians and economists.

The result of these competing and sometimes conflicting goals among the victors was a compromise that left no one satisfied. In particular, Germany was neither pacified nor conciliated, nor was it permanently weakened. The United States never ratified the Versailles treaty; instead it made a separate peace treaty with Germany, albeit based on the Versailles treaty. The problems that arose from the treaty would lead to the Locarno Treaties, which improved relations between Germany and the other European powers. The reparation system was reorganized and payments reduced in the Dawes Plan and the Young Plan. Bitter resentment of the treaty powered the rise of the Nazi Party, and eventually the outbreak of a second World War.

Although it is often referred to as the "Versailles Conference", only the actual signing of the treaty took place at the historic palace. Most of the negotiations were in Paris, with the "Big Four" meetings taking place generally at the French Ministry of Foreign Affairs on the Quai d'Orsay.

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1. ^ Slavicek 2010, p. 114.
2. ^ Slavicek 2010, p. 107.
3. ^ Boyer et al. 2009, p. 153.

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29 June 1916 – British diplomat turned Irish nationalist Roger Casement is sentenced to death for his part in the Easter Rising.

Easter Rising

1916 armed insurrection in Ireland

This article is about the armed insurrection in Ireland. For the musical, see Easter Rising (musical).

The Easter Rising (Irish: Éirí Amach na Cásca),^[2] also known as the Easter Rebellion, was an armed insurrection in Ireland during Easter Week in April 1916. The Rising was launched by Irish republicans against British rule in Ireland with the aim of establishing an independent Irish Republic while the United Kingdom was fighting the First World War. It was the most significant uprising in Ireland since the rebellion of 1798 and the first armed conflict of the Irish revolutionary period. Sixteen of the Rising's leaders were executed starting in May 1916. The nature of the executions, and subsequent political developments, ultimately contributed to an increase in popular support for Irish independence.

Organised by a seven-man Military Council of the Irish Republican Brotherhood, the Rising began on Easter Monday, 24 April 1916 and lasted for six days.^[3] Members of the Irish Volunteers, led by schoolmaster and Irish language activist Patrick Pearse, joined by the smaller Irish Citizen Army of James Connolly and 200 women of Cumann na mBan seized strategically important buildings in Dublin and proclaimed the Irish Republic. The British Army brought in thousands of reinforcements as well as artillery and a gunboat. There was street fighting on the routes into the city centre, where the rebels slowed the British advance and inflicted many casualties. Elsewhere in Dublin, the fighting mainly consisted of sniping and long-range gun battles. The main rebel positions were gradually surrounded and bombarded with artillery. There were isolated actions in other parts of Ireland; Volunteer leader Eoin MacNeill had issued a countermand in a bid to halt the Rising, which greatly reduced the extent of the rebel actions.

With much greater numbers and heavier weapons, the British Army suppressed the Rising. Pearse agreed to an unconditional surrender on Saturday 29 April, although sporadic fighting continued briefly. After the surrender, the country remained under martial law. About 3,500 people were taken prisoner by the British and 1,800 of them were sent to internment camps or prisons in Britain. Most of the leaders of the Rising were executed following courts martial. The Rising brought physical force republicanism back to the forefront of Irish politics, which for nearly fifty years had been dominated by constitutional nationalism. Opposition to the British reaction to the Rising contributed to changes in public opinion and the move toward independence, as shown in the December 1918 election in Ireland which was won by the Sinn Féin party, which convened the First Dáil and declared independence.

Of the 485 people killed,^[1] 260 were civilians, 143 were British military and police personnel, and 82 were Irish rebels, including 16 rebels executed for their roles in the Rising. More than 2,600 people were wounded. Many of the civilians were killed or wounded by British artillery fire or were mistaken for rebels. Others were caught in the crossfire during firefights between the British and the rebels. The shelling and resulting fires left parts of central Dublin in ruins.

1. ^ ^{a b} Cite error: The named reference necrology was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
2. ^ "Department of the Taoiseach – Easter Rising". Taoiseach. Archived from the original on 25 December 2018. Retrieved 13 November 2011.
3. ^ Martin, Francis X. (1967). Leaders and Men of the Easter Rising: Dublin 1916. Cornell University Press. p. 105. ISBN 9780801402906. Archived from the original on 21 December 2019 – via Google Books.

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30 June 296 – Pope Marcellinus begins his papacy.

Pope Marcellinus

Head of the Catholic Church from 296 to 304

Pope Marcellinus was the bishop of Rome from 30 June 296 to his death in 304. A historical accusation was levelled at him by some sources to the effect that he might have renounced Christianity during Emperor Diocletian's persecution of Christians before repenting afterwards, which would explain why he is omitted from lists of martyrs. The accusation is rejected, among others, by Augustine of Hippo. He is today venerated as a saint in the Catholic Church and in the Serbian Orthodox Church.

1. ^ Cite error: The named reference ce was invoked but never defined (see the help page).

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1 July 1863 – American Civil War: The Battle of Gettysburg begins.

Battle of Gettysburg

1863 battle of the American Civil War

For other uses, see Battle of Gettysburg (disambiguation).

The Battle of Gettysburg (locally /ˈɡɛtɪsbɜːrɡ/ ^ⓘ)^[14] was a three-day battle in the American Civil War fought between Union and Confederate forces between July 1 and July 3, 1863, in and around Gettysburg, Pennsylvania. The battle, which was won by the Union, is widely considered the Civil War's turning point, ending the Confederacy's aspirations to establish an independent nation. It was the Civil War's bloodiest battle, claiming over 50,000 combined casualties over three days.^[15]

In the Battle of Gettysburg, Union Major General George Meade's Army of the Potomac defeated attacks by Confederate General Robert E. Lee's Army of Northern Virginia, halting Lee's invasion of the North and forcing his retreat.^{[fn 1][16]}

After his success at Chancellorsville in Virginia in May 1863, Lee led his Confederate forces through Shenandoah Valley to begin the Gettysburg Campaign, his second attempted invasion of the North. With Lee's army in high spirits, he intended to shift the focus of the summer campaign from war-ravaged Northern Virginia in the hopes of penetrating as far as Harrisburg, Pennsylvania or Philadelphia, which he hoped would convince northern politicians to abandon their prosecution of the war. President Abraham Lincoln initially prodded Major General Joseph Hooker to move his Union forces in pursuit of Lee, but relieved Hooker of his command just three days before the battle, replacing him with Meade.

On July 1, 1863, as Lee's forces moved on Gettysburg in the hopes of destroying the Union Army, the two armies initially collided, and the battle commenced. Low ridges to the northwest of Gettysburg were initially defended by a Union cavalry division under Brigadier General John Buford, and soon reinforced with two corps of Union infantry. Two large Confederate corps assaulted them from the northwest and north, however, collapsing the hastily developed Union lines, leading them to retreat through the streets of Gettysburg to the hills just south of the city.^[17] On the second day of battle, on July 2, the Union line was laid out in a defensive formation resembling a fishhook. In the late afternoon, Lee launched a heavy assault on the Union's left flank, leading to fierce fighting at Little Round Top, the Wheatfield, Devil's Den, and the Peach Orchard. On the Union's right flank, Confederate demonstrations escalated into full-scale assaults on Culp's Hill and Cemetery Hill. Despite incurring significant losses, Union forces held their lines.

On the third day of battle, July 3, fighting resumed on Culp's Hill, and cavalry battles raged to the east and south of Gettysburg, but the main military engagement was a dramatic Confederate infantry assault of approximately 12,000 Confederates troops, who attacked the center of the Union line at Cemetery Ridge in what is known as Pickett's Charge. The Confederate charge was repelled by Union rifle and artillery fire, leading to great Confederate losses. The following day, on the Fourth of July, Lee led his Confederate troops on the torturous retreat from the North. Between 46,000 and 51,000 soldiers from both armies were casualties in the three-day battle, representing the most deadly battle in U.S. history.

On November 19, President Lincoln traveled to Gettysburg, where he spoke at a ceremony dedicating Gettysburg National Cemetery that honored the fallen Union soldiers and redefined the purpose of the Civil War in his famed Gettysburg Address, a 271-word address considered one of the famous speeches in American history.^[18][19]

1. ^ Coddington, p. 573. See the discussion regarding historians' judgment on whether Gettysburg should be considered a decisive victory.
2. ^ Official Records, Series I, Volume XXVII, Part 1, pages 155–168 Archived July 24, 2017, at the Wayback Machine
3. ^ Official Records, Series I, Volume XXVII, Part 2, pages 283–291 Archived July 24, 2017, at the Wayback Machine
4. ^ Official Records, Series I, Volume XXVII, Part 1, page 151 Archived July 24, 2017, at the Wayback Machine
5. ^ Coddington, p. 673, references the official number of the Union Army forces but says the number could have been in the "neighborhood" of 115,000. Busey and Martin, p. 125: "Engaged strength" at the battle was 93,921. Eicher, p. 503, gives a similar number of 93,500. Sears, p. 539 quotes the official number of just over 104,000 but with reinforcements of another 8,000 men about to arrive.
6. ^ "Gettysburg Staff Ride" (PDF). army.mil. Retrieved 28 March 2024.
7. ^ Busey and Martin, p. 260, state that Confederate "engaged strength" at the battle was 71,699; McPherson, p. 648, lists the Confederate strength at the start of the campaign as 75,000, while Eicher, p. 503 gives a lower number of 70,200. Noting that Confederate returns often did not include officers, Coddington, p. 676 states that estimated Confederate strength of 75,000 is "a conservative one". Confederate Captain John Esten Cooke in A Life of Gen. Robert E. Lee, New York: D. Appleton, 1871, p. 328, gives the number of the entire Confederate force "at about eighty thousand". Sears, p. 149 states that eyewitnesses observed the Confederate force to be about 100,000 but, although Meade used this in making his battle plans, it was an overcount of about 20 percent.
8. ^ Official Records, Series I, Volume XXVII, Part 1, page 187 Archived July 24, 2017, at the Wayback Machine
9. ^ Busey and Martin, p. 125.
10. ^ Busey and Martin, p. 260, cite 23,231 total (4,708 killed;12,693 wounded;5,830 captured/missing).
    See the section on casualties for a discussion of alternative Confederate casualty estimates, which have been cited as high as 28,000.
11. ^ Official Records, Series I, Volume XXVII, Part 2, pages 338–346 Archived July 24, 2017, at the Wayback Machine
12. ^ Wynstra, p. 81
13. ^ Symonds, pp. 53, 57
14. ^ Robert D. Quigley, Civil War Spoken Here: A Dictionary of Mispronounced People, Places and Things of the 1860s (Collingswood, NJ: C. W. Historicals, 1993), p. 68. ISBN 0-9637745-0-6.
15. ^ "Gettysburg" at Battlefields
16. ^ Rawley, p. 147; Sauers, p. 827; Gallagher, Lee and His Army, p. 83; McPherson, p. 665; Eicher, p. 550. Gallagher and McPherson cite the combination of Gettysburg and Vicksburg as the turning point. Eicher uses the arguably related expression, "High-water mark of the Confederacy".
17. ^ Eicher, David J. (2001), The Longest Night: A Military History of the Civil War, New York: Simon & Schuster, pp. 515–517, ISBN 978-0-684-84944-7
18. ^ Conant, Sean (2015). The Gettysburg Address: Perspectives on Lincoln's Greatest Speech. New York: Oxford University Press. p. ix. ISBN 978-0-19-022745-6.
19. ^ Holsinger, M. Paul (1999). War and American Popular Culture: A Historical Encyclopedia. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. p. 102. ISBN 978-0-313-29908-7.

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2 June 1919 – Anarchists simultaneously set off bombs in eight separate U.S. cities.

1919 United States anarchist bombings

Series of bombings in the US in 1919

A series of bombings were carried out or attempted by Galleanist anarchists from April through June 1919. The targets included anti-immigration politicians, anti-anarchist officials, and prominent businessmen, as well as a journalist and a church. Almost all of the bombs were sent by mail. The bombings were one of the major factors contributing to the First Red Scare. Two people were killed, including one of the bombers, and two injured.

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3 July 1973 – David Bowie retires his stage persona Ziggy Stardust with the surprise announcement that it is "the last show that we'll ever do" on the last day of the Ziggy Stardust Tour.

Ziggy Stardust (character)

Character created by David Bowie in 1971

Fictional character

Ziggy Stardust is a fictional character created by English musician David Bowie, and was Bowie's stage persona during 1972 and 1973. The eponymous character of the song "Ziggy Stardust" and its parent album The Rise and Fall of Ziggy Stardust and the Spiders from Mars (1972), Ziggy Stardust was retained for Bowie's subsequent concert tour through the United Kingdom, Japan and North America, during which Bowie performed as the character backed by his band The Spiders from Mars. Bowie continued the character in his next album Aladdin Sane (1973), which he described as "Ziggy goes to America". Bowie retired the character in October 1973 after one final show at The Marquee in London.^[1]

As conveyed in the title song and album, Ziggy Stardust is an androgynous, alien rock star who came to Earth before an impending apocalyptic disaster to deliver a message of hope. After accumulating a large following of fans and being worshipped as a messiah, Ziggy eventually dies as a victim of his own fame and excess. The character was meant to symbolise an over-the-top, sexually liberated rock star and serve as a commentary on a society in which celebrities are worshipped. Influences for the character included English singer Vince Taylor, Texan musician the Legendary Stardust Cowboy, and Japanese kabuki theatre.

Ziggy Stardust's exuberant fashion made the character and Bowie himself staples in the glam rock repertoire well into the 1970s, defining what the genre would become. The success of the character and its iconic look flung Bowie into international superstardom. Rolling Stone wrote that Bowie's Ziggy Stardust was "the alter ego that changed music forever and sent his career into orbit".^[2]

Ziggy Stardust's look and message of youth liberation are now representative of one of Bowie's most memorable eras. The Rise and Fall of Ziggy Stardust and the Spiders from Mars became Bowie's second most popular album in terms of record sales.^[3]

1. ^ ^{a b} Taylor, Trey (2017-11-20). "See Terry O'Neill's rare images of David Bowie's last show as Ziggy Stardust". Interview Magazine. Retrieved 2024-02-20.
2. ^ Cite error: The named reference Light was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
3. ^ Dee, Johnny (7 January 2012). "David Bowie: Infomania". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 8 January 2014. Retrieved 3 February 2020.

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4 July 1892 – Western Samoa changes the International Date Line, causing Monday (July 4) to occur twice, resulting in a leap year with 367 days.

International Date Line

Imaginary line that demarcates the change of one calendar day to the next

"Date line" redirects here. For other uses, see Dateline (disambiguation).

The International Date Line (IDL) is the line extending between the South and North Poles that is the boundary between one calendar day and the next. It passes through the Pacific Ocean, roughly following the 180.0° line of longitude and deviating to pass around some territories and island groups. Crossing the date line eastbound decreases the date by one day, while crossing the date line westbound increases the date.

The line is a cartographic convention, and is not defined by international law. This has made it difficult for cartographers to agree on its precise course, and has allowed countries through whose waters it passes to move it at times for their convenience.^[1]

1. ^ Ives, Mike (24 April 2024). "The International Date Line Is 'Pretty Arbitrary.' Here's Why". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 25 April 2024.

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5 July 1807 – In Buenos Aires the local militias repel the British soldiers within the Second English Invasion.

British invasions of the River Plate

Battles during the Anglo-Spanish War of 1796–1808

Not to be confused with Anglo-French blockade of the Río de la Plata or Battle of the River Plate.

The British invasions of the River Plate were two unsuccessful British attempts to seize control of the Spanish colony of the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata, located around the Río de la Plata in South America – in present-day Argentina and Uruguay. The invasions took place between 1806 and 1807, as part of the Napoleonic Wars, War of the Third Coalition at a time when Spain was an ally of Napoleonic France. In Argentine historiography, the two successive defeats of the British expeditionary forces are known collectively as the "Reconquista" and the "Defensa", respectively.

1. ^ ^{a b c d} Marley, David (2005). Historic cities of the Americas: an illustrated encyclopedia, Volume 1. ABC-CLIO. p. 658. ISBN 978-1576070277. Retrieved 22 October 2014.
2. ^ Invasiones Inglesas Archived 11 June 2010 at the Wayback Machine (in Spanish)
3. ^ "'With the Gurkhas in the Falklands' – A War Journal's Postscript By Mike Seer July 2003". Archived from the original on 11 September 2012. Retrieved 22 October 2014.
4. ^ The growth and culture of Latin America, Donald Emmet Worcester, Wendell G. Schaeffer, p. 404, Oxford University Press, 1971 ^{[ISBN missing]}
5. ^ Britain and the Americas: Culture, Politics, and History, Will Kaufman; Heidi Slettedahl Macpherson, p. 833, ABC-CLIO, 2005
6. ^ Marley, David (2005). Historic cities of the Americas: an illustrated encyclopedia, Volume 1. ABC-CLIO. p. 658. ISBN 978-1576070277. Retrieved 22 October 2014.
7. ^ ^{a b} Britain's 'forgotten' invasion of Argentina
8. ^ Marley, David (2005). Historic cities of the Americas: an illustrated encyclopedia, Volume 1. ABC-CLIO. p. 658. ISBN 978-1576070277. Retrieved 22 October 2014.

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6 July 1484 – Portuguese sea captain Diogo Cão finds the mouth of the Congo River.

Congo River

River in central Africa

For other uses, see Congo River (disambiguation).

The Congo River,^[a] formerly also known as the Zaire River, is the second-longest river in Africa, shorter only than the Nile, as well as the third-largest river in the world by discharge volume, following the Amazon and Ganges rivers. It is the world's deepest recorded river, with measured depths of around 220 m (720 ft).^[10] The Congo–Lualaba–Luvua–Luapula–Chambeshi River system has an overall length of 4,700 km (2,900 mi), which makes it the world's ninth-longest river. The Chambeshi is a tributary of the Lualaba River, and Lualaba is the name of the Congo River upstream of Boyoma Falls, extending for 1,800 km (1,100 mi).

Measured along with the Lualaba, the main tributary, the Congo River has a total length of 4,370 km (2,720 mi). It is the only major river to cross the Equator twice.^[11] The Congo Basin has a total area of about 4,000,000 km² (1,500,000 sq mi), or 13% of the entire African landmass.

1. ^ Ian James, Harrison; Randall E., Brummett; Melanie L. J., Stiassny (2016). "Congo River Basin". The Wetland Book. p. 1-18. doi:10.1007/978-94-007-6173-5_92-2. ISBN 978-94-007-6173-5.
2. ^ ^{a b c d} Cite error: The named reference bossche was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
3. ^ ^{a b c} Cite error: The named reference Discharge and Other Hydraulic Measurements for Characterizing the Hydraulics of Lower Congo River was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
4. ^ ^{a b c} Cite error: The named reference Velocity Mapping in the Lower Congo River: A First Look at the Unique Bathymetry and Hydrodynamics of Bulu Reach, West Central Africa was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
5. ^ ^{a b c} Cite error: The named reference Multi-threaded Congo River channel hydraulics: Field-based characterisation and representation in hydrodynamic models was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
6. ^ Aiguo, Dai; Kevin, E. Trenberth (2002). "Estimates of Freshwater Discharge from Continents: Latitudinal and Seasonal Variations". Journal of Hydrometeorology. 3 (6): 660–687. Bibcode:2002JHyMe...3..660D. doi:10.1175/1525-7541(2002)003<0660:EOFDFC>2.0.CO;2.
7. ^ ^{a b c d} Cite error: The named reference A New Look at Hydrology in the Congo Basin, Based on the Study of Multi-Decadal Time series was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
8. ^ ^{a b} Cite error: The named reference Recent Budget of Hydroclimatology and Hydrosedimentology of the Congo River in Central Africa was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
9. ^ ^{a b c d e f g h} Cite error: The named reference The Congo River, Central Africa was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
10. ^ Oberg, Kevin (July 2008). "Discharge and Other Hydraulic Measurements for Characterizing the Hydraulics of Lower Congo River, July 2008" (PDF). U.S. Geological Survey. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2011-10-15. Retrieved 2012-03-14.
11. ^ Forbath 1979, p. 6. "Not until it crosses the Equator will it at last turn away from this misleading course and, describing a remarkable counter-clockwise arc first to the west and then to the southwest, flow back across the Equator and on down to the Atlantic.
    
    In this the Congo is exceptional. No other major river in the world crosses the Equator even once, let alone twice."

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7 July 1834 – In New York City, four nights of rioting against abolitionists began.

Abolitionism in the United States

Not to be confused with Prohibition in the United States.

In the United States, abolitionism, the movement that sought to end slavery in the country, was active from the colonial era until the American Civil War, the end of which brought about the abolition of American slavery, except as punishment for a crime, through the Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution (ratified 1865).

The anti-slavery movement originated during the Age of Enlightenment, focused on ending the transatlantic slave trade. In Colonial America, a few German Quakers issued the 1688 Germantown Quaker Petition Against Slavery, which marked the beginning of the American abolitionist movement. Before the Revolutionary War, evangelical colonists were the primary advocates for the opposition to slavery and the slave trade, doing so on the basis of humanitarian ethics. Still, others such as James Oglethorpe, the founder of the colony of Georgia, also retained political motivations for the removal of slavery. Prohibiting slavery through the 1735 Georgia Experiment in part to prevent Spanish partnership with Georgia's runaway slaves, Oglethorpe eventually revoked the act in 1750 after the Spanish's defeat in the Battle of Bloody Marsh eight years prior.^[2]

During the Revolutionary era, all states abolished the international slave trade, but South Carolina reversed its decision. Between the Revolutionary War and 1804, laws, constitutions, or court decisions in each of the Northern states provided for the gradual or immediate abolition of slavery.^[a] No Southern state adopted similar policies. In 1807, Congress made the importation of slaves a crime, effective January 1, 1808, which was as soon as Article I, section 9 of the Constitution allowed. A small but dedicated group, under leaders such as William Lloyd Garrison and Frederick Douglass, agitated for abolition in the mid-19th century. John Brown became an advocate and militia leader in attempting to end slavery by force of arms. In the Civil War, immediate emancipation became a war goal for the Union in 1861 and was fully achieved in 1865.

1. ^ Rinck, Jonathan (2009). "Abolition's Indelible Image". Michigan History Magazine. 93 (6): 8–11.
2. ^ Jackson, Harvey H.; Spalding, Phinizy (2008). "James Edward Oglethorpe, Race, and Slavery: A Reassessment". Oglethorpe in Perspective: Georgia's Founder after Two Hundred Years. The University of Alabama Press. pp. 66–79. ISBN 978-0-8173-8230-8. Project MUSE chapter 18188.
3. ^ ^{a b c d e} "Vermont Abolishes Slavery". www.historycentral.com. Retrieved 12 May 2022.
4. ^ Owens, Cassie (27 February 2019). "Pennsylvania officially abolished slavery in 1780. But many black Pennsylvanians were in bondage long after that". Inquirer.com.
5. ^ Ahearn, Matthew (21 January 2022). "Jennison v. Caldwell – Abolition and the Role of Courts in Eighteenth Century Massachusetts". MassHist.org.
6. ^ Stannard, Ed (19 June 2020). "Slavery in Connecticut, ended only in 1848, had a long history". The Middletown Press.
7. ^ Terry, Shelley (14 December 2019). "Slavery in Ohio". StarBeacon.com.
8. ^ "Northwest Ordinance". George Washington's Mount Vernon. Retrieved 13 May 2022.
9. ^ Middleton, Stephen. "Freedom's Early Ring: Ending Slavery in the Illinois Country, 1787–1818". Lib.NIU.edu. Retrieved 13 May 2022.

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8 July 1716 – The Battle of Dynekilen forces Sweden to abandon its invasion of Norway.

Battle of Dynekilen

1716 naval battle of the Great Northern War

The naval Battle of Dynekilen (Danish: Slaget ved Dynekilen) took place on 8 July 1716 during the Great Northern War between a Dano-Norwegian fleet under Peter Tordenskjold and a Swedish fleet under Olof Strömstierna. The battle resulted in a Dano-Norwegian victory.

1. ^ Dan H. Andersen. Mandsmod og kongegunst: en biografi om Peter Wessel Tordenskiold. Aschehoug, 2004. p. 207
2. ^ ^{a b c d e} Nils Modig. Strömstad: Gränsstad i ofred och krig. Warne förlag, 2013. pp. 74–86
3. ^ ^{a b} Olav Bergersen. Tordenskiolds brev. Facsimile, 1963. pp. 229–230
4. ^ Knut Lundblad. Georg Friedrich Jenssen-Tusch: Geschichte Karl des Zwölften, Königs von Schweden, Band 2. Hamburg (1835). p. 491
5. ^ William Coucheron–Aamot. Det norske folk paa land og sjø. Det norske aktieforlag, 1901. p. 233
6. ^ ^{a b} Lars Ericson Wolke. Sjöslag och rysshärjningar : kampen om Östersjön under stora nordiska kriget 1700–1721. Norstedts, 2012. pp. 229–234
7. ^ Cite error: The named reference Feldborg was invoked but never defined (see the help page).

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9 July 1763 – The Mozart family grand tour of Europe began, lifting the profile of son Wolfgang Amadeus.

Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart

European composer (1756–1791)

"Mozart" redirects here. For other uses, see Mozart (disambiguation).

Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart^[a][b] (27 January 1756 – 5 December 1791) was a prolific and influential composer of the Classical period. Despite his short life, his rapid pace of composition resulted in more than 800 works representing virtually every Western classical genre of his time. Many of these compositions are acknowledged as pinnacles of the symphonic, concertante, chamber, operatic, and choral repertoire. Mozart is widely regarded as one of the greatest composers in the history of Western music,^[1] with his music admired for its "melodic beauty, its formal elegance and its richness of harmony and texture".^[2]

Born in Salzburg, Mozart showed prodigious ability from his earliest childhood. At age five, he was already competent on keyboard and violin, had begun to compose, and performed before European royalty. His father took him on a grand tour of Europe and then three trips to Italy. At 17, he was a musician at the Salzburg court but grew restless and travelled in search of a better position. Mozart's search for employment led to positions in Paris, Mannheim, Munich, and again in Salzburg, during which he wrote his five violin concertos, Sinfonia Concertante, and Concerto for Flute and Harp, as well as sacred pieces and masses, the motet Exsultate Jubilate, and the opera Idomeneo, among other works.

While visiting Vienna in 1781, Mozart was dismissed from his Salzburg position. He stayed in Vienna, where he achieved fame but little financial security. During Mozart’s early years in Vienna, he produced several notable works, such as the opera Die Entführung aus dem Serail, the Great Mass in C Minor, the "Haydn" Quartets and a number of symphonies. Throughout his Vienna years, Mozart composed over a dozen piano concertos, many considered some of his greatest achievements. In the final years of his life, Mozart wrote many of his best-known works, including his last three symphonies, culminating in the Jupiter Symphony, the serenade Eine kleine Nachtmusik, his Clarinet Concerto, the four operas Le nozze di Figaro, Don Giovanni, Così fan tutte and Die Zauberflöte and his Requiem. The Requiem was largely unfinished at the time of his death at age 35, the circumstances of which are uncertain and much mythologised.

Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

1. ^ Buch 2017, "Introduction".
2. ^ Eisen & Sadie 2001.

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10 July 1553 – Lady Jane Grey takes the throne of England.

Lady Jane Grey

Claimant to the English throne in 1553

"Jane Grey" redirects here. For other uses, see Jane Grey (disambiguation).

Lady Jane Grey (1536/7 – 12 February 1554), also known as Lady Jane Dudley after her marriage^[3] and as the "Nine Days' Queen",^[6] was an English noblewoman who claimed the throne of England and Ireland from 10 to 19 July 1553.

Jane was the great-granddaughter of Henry VII, through his youngest daughter Mary, and a grand-niece of Henry VIII, and cousin to Edward VI, Mary I and Elizabeth I. Under the will of Henry VIII, Jane was in line to the throne after her cousins. She had a humanist education and a reputation as one of the most learned young women of her day.^[7] In May 1553, she was married to Lord Guildford Dudley, a younger son of Edward VI's chief minister John Dudley, Duke of Northumberland. In June 1553, the dying Edward VI wrote his will, nominating Jane and her male heirs as successors to the Crown, in part because his half-sister Mary was Catholic, while Jane was a committed Protestant and would support the reformed Church of England, whose foundation Edward laid. The will removed his half-sisters, Mary and Elizabeth, from the line of succession on account of their illegitimacy, subverting their lawful claims under the Third Succession Act. Through Northumberland, Edward's letters patent in favour of Jane were signed by the entire privy council, bishops, and other notables.

After Edward's death, Jane was proclaimed queen on 10 July 1553, and awaited coronation in the Tower of London. Support for Mary grew rapidly and most of Jane's supporters abandoned her. The Privy Council of England suddenly changed sides, and proclaimed Mary as queen on 19 July 1553, deposing Jane. Her primary supporter, her father-in-law, the Duke of Northumberland, was accused of treason, and executed less than a month later. Jane was held prisoner in the Tower, and in November 1553 was also convicted of treason, which carried a sentence of death.

Mary initially spared her life, but Jane soon became viewed as a threat to the Crown when her father, Henry Grey, 1st Duke of Suffolk, became involved with Wyatt's rebellion against Queen Mary's intention to marry Philip of Spain. Jane and her husband were executed on 12 February 1554. At the time of her execution, Jane was either 16 or 17 years old.

1. ^ Williamson, David (2010). Kings & Queens. National Portrait Gallery Publications. p. 95. ISBN 978-1-85514-432-3
2. ^ Ives 2009, p. 36; Florio 1607, p. 68
3. ^ ^{a b} Cite error: The named reference ODNB was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
4. ^ "Lady Jane Grey | Biography, Facts, & Execution". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 10 July 2021.
5. ^ Cite error: The named reference potter was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
6. ^ Ives 2009, p. 2
7. ^ Ascham 1863, p. 213

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11 July 1922 – The Hollywood Bowl opens

Hollywood Bowl

Amphitheater in Los Angeles, California

For the bowling operator, see Hollywood Bowl Group. For the college football bowl game, see LA Bowl.

The Hollywood Bowl is an amphitheatre and public park in the Hollywood Hills of Los Angeles, California, United States.^[1] It was named one of the 10 best live music venues in the United States by Rolling Stone magazine in 2018.^[2] It was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 2023.^[3]

The Hollywood Bowl is known for its distinctive bandshell, originally a set of concentric arches that graced the site from 1929 through 2003, before being replaced with a larger one to begin the 2004 season. The shell is set against the backdrop of the Hollywood Hills and the Hollywood Sign to the northeast.

The "bowl" refers to the shape of the concave meadow or dell, originally called Daisy Dell, into which the amphitheatre is carved. The Bowl is owned by the County of Los Angeles and is the home of the Hollywood Bowl Orchestra, the summer home of the Los Angeles Philharmonic, and the host venue for hundreds of musical events each year.^{[4][citation needed]}

Located on North Highland Avenue, it is north of Hollywood Boulevard and approximately 1 mile (1.6 km) from the Hollywood/Highland Metro Rail station. It is adjacent to U.S. Route 101.

1. ^ "Hollywood Bowl". Los Angeles County - Parks & Recreation. August 16, 2023. Retrieved September 19, 2024.
2. ^ Staff (December 13, 2018). "10 Best Live Music Venues in America. From big rooms to intimate spaces, here's a selection of some of the country's best live music spots". Rolling Stone. Retrieved December 23, 2018.
3. ^ "WEEKLY LIST OF ACTIONS TAKEN ON PROPERTIES: 12/21/2023 THROUGH 12/29/2023". National Park Service. Retrieved January 12, 2024.
4. ^ "Hollywood Bowl History". Hollywood Bowl. Retrieved March 6, 2019.

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12 July 1862 – The Medal of Honor is authorized by the United States Congress.

Medal of Honor

Highest award in the United States Armed Forces

This article is about the U.S. military award. For other uses, see Medal of Honor (disambiguation).

Award

The Medal of Honor (MOH) is the United States Armed Forces' highest military decoration and is awarded to recognize American soldiers, sailors, marines, airmen, guardians, and coast guardsmen who have distinguished themselves by acts of valor.^[1][12] The medal is normally awarded by the president of the United States (the commander in chief of the armed forces) and is presented "in the name of the United States Congress." It is often colloquially (but technically incorrectly) referred to as the Congressional Medal of Honor.^[13][14]

There are three distinct variants of the medal: one for the Department of the Army, awarded to soldiers; one for branches of the Department of the Navy, awarded to sailors, marines, and coast guardsmen; and one for military branches of the Department of the Air Force, awarded to airmen and guardians.^[1][15] The Medal of Honor was introduced for the Naval Service in 1861,^[16] soon followed by the Army's version in 1862.^[17] The Air Force used the Army's version until they received their own distinctive version in 1965.^[18] The Medal of Honor is the oldest continuously issued combat decoration of the United States Armed Forces.^[19] The president typically presents the Medal of Honor at a formal ceremony intended to represent the gratitude of the American people, with posthumous presentations made to the primary next of kin.^[20][21][22]

As of September 2023, there have been 3,536 Medals of Honor awarded, with over 40% awarded for actions during the American Civil War.^[11] A total of 911 Army medals were revoked after Congress authorized a review in 1917, and a number of Navy medals were also revoked before the turn of the century—none of these are included in this total except for those that were subsequently restored.^[23] In 1990, Congress designated March 25 as Medal of Honor Day.^[24]

1. ^ ^{a b c} "Description of Awards – U.S. Military Awards for Valor". U.S. Department of Defense. Archived from the original on 2021-06-18. Retrieved 2020-12-25.
2. ^ Department of the Army (July 1, 2002). "Section 578.4 Medal of Honor". Code of Federal Regulations Title 32, Volume 2. United States Government Publishing Office. Archived from the original on June 15, 2013. Retrieved March 14, 2012.
3. ^ "DoD Manual 1348.33, Vol 1, October 19, 2020. p. 4, 1.2.b./p. 8, 3.1.a." (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on November 29, 2020. Retrieved December 26, 2020.
4. ^ Act of December 21, 1861, 12 Stat. 330
5. ^ Act of July 12, 1862, 12 Stat. 623–624
6. ^ An Act to Revise, Codify, and Enact into Law, Title 10 of the United States Code, Entitled “Armed Forces,” and Title 32 of the United States Code, Entitled “National Guard,” Pub. L. 84-1028 (1956), 70A Stat. 540.
7. ^ Pub. L. 88–77 (1963), 77 Stat. 95.
8. ^ National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2021, Pub L. 116–283 (2021), 134 Stat. 3811.
9. ^ "Remarks by President Biden at Presentation of the Medal of Honor to Army Private Philip G. Shadrach and Private George D. Wilson". The White House. July 4, 2024.
10. ^ "Statistics of the Medal of Honor for the United States Army". U.S. Army. Archived from the original on 2021-03-25. Retrieved 2020-12-19.
11. ^ ^{a b} "Medal of Honor". Mohhsus.com. Medal of Honor Historical Society of the United States. Archived from the original on June 29, 2016. Retrieved December 28, 2021. as of July 5, 2022, there have been 3,534 Medals of Honor awarded including 19 second awards.
12. ^ "Department of Defense Manual 1348.33, Volume 1" (PDF). Defense Technical Information Center. p. 4. Archived from the original (PDF) on February 9, 2017. Retrieved February 25, 2017.
13. ^ "The Medal of Honor". Library of Congress. December 14, 2020. Archived from the original on October 28, 2020. Retrieved December 14, 2020.
14. ^ DoD Award Manual, November 23, 2010, 1348. 33, P. 31, 8. c. (1) (a)
    Tucker, Spencer C.; Arnold, James; Wiener, Roberta (2011). The Encyclopedia of North American Indian Wars, 1607–1890: A Political, Social, and Military History. ABC-CLIO. p. 879. ISBN 978-1-85109-697-8. Archived from the original on January 15, 2023. Retrieved March 14, 2012.
    
15. ^ "Congressional Medal of Honor Society". Archived from the original on August 10, 2011. Retrieved October 8, 2013.
16. ^ Act of December 21, 1861, 12 Stat. 330.
17. ^ Act of July 12, 1862, 12 Stat. 623–624.
18. ^ US Air Force, The Medal of Honor, https://www.af.mil/Medal-of-Honor/The-Medal/
19. ^ "Medal of Honor". American Battlefield Trust. March 23, 2018. Archived from the original on March 31, 2019. Retrieved July 11, 2019.
20. ^ "Department of Defense Manual 1348.33, Volume 1" (PDF). Defense Technical Information Center. p. 19. Archived from the original (PDF) on February 9, 2017. Retrieved February 25, 2017.
21. ^ Pullen, John J. (1997). A Shower of Stars: The Medal of Honor and the 27th Maine. Mechanicsburg, PA: Stackpole Books. pp. preface p2. ISBN 978-0811700757. Archived from the original on January 15, 2023. Retrieved April 15, 2010.
22. ^ SECNAVINST 1650.1H, P. 2–20, 224.2. August 22, 2006
23. ^ Dwight Mears, “Medals ‘Ridiculously Given’?: The Authority to Award, Revoke, and Reinstate Military Decorations in Three Case Studies Involving Executive Clemency,” Military Law Review 229 (2021): 398, 419.
24. ^ Public Law 101-564, November 15, 1990

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13 July 1913 – The 1913 Romanian Army cholera outbreak during the Second Balkan War starts

1913 Romanian Army cholera outbreak

Cholera outbreak during the Second Balkan War

The 1913 Romanian Army cholera outbreak was a cholera outbreak the Romanian Army suffered during the Second Balkan War of 1913 against the Kingdom of Bulgaria. This conflict was part of the Balkan Wars of 1912 and 1913. As Bulgaria was then fighting with Greece and Serbia, the invasion by Romania, which had a geographic and strategic advantage, was met with minimal Bulgarian resistance.^[1][2]

1. ^ Giurcă, Ion (2013). "Epidemia de holeră din Bulgaria din anul 1913 – consecințe asupra armatei române" (PDF). Revista de Istorie Militară (in Romanian): 75–84. Archived from the original (PDF) on 12 July 2020.
2. ^ Leașu, Florin; Nemeț, Codruța; Borzan, Cristina; Rogozea, Liliana (2015). "A novel method to combat the cholera epidemic among the Romanian Army during the Balkan War – 1913". Acta medico-historica Adriatica. 13 (1): 159–170. PMID 26203545.

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14 July 1933 – Nazi eugenics programme begins with the proclamation of the Law for the Prevention of Hereditarily Diseased Offspring requiring the compulsory sterilization of any citizen who suffers from alleged genetic disorders

Law for the Prevention of Hereditarily Diseased Offspring

1933 compulsory sterilisation law in Nazi Germany

Law for the Prevention of Genetically Diseased Offspring (German: Gesetz zur Verhütung erbkranken Nachwuchses) or "Sterilisation Law" was a statute in Nazi Germany enacted on July 14, 1933, (and made active in January 1934)^[1] which allowed the compulsory sterilisation of any citizen who in the opinion of a "Genetic Health Court" (Erbgesundheitsgericht) suffered from a list of alleged genetic disorders – many of which were not, in fact, genetic. The elaborate interpretive commentary on the law was written by three dominant figures in the racial hygiene movement: Ernst Rüdin, Arthur Gütt [de] and the lawyer Falk Ruttke [de].

While it has close resemblances with the American Model Eugenical Sterilization Law developed by Harry H. Laughlin, the law itself was initially drafted in 1932, at the end of the Weimar Republic period, by a committee led by the Prussian health board.

1. ^ ... made active: IBM and the Holocaust, Edwin Black, 2001 Crown / Random House, p 93

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15 July 1823 – A fire destroys the ancient Basilica of Saint Paul Outside the Walls in Rome, Italy.

Basilica of Saint Paul Outside the Walls

Catholic basilica and landmark in Rome

Church in Rome, Italy

The Papal Basilica of Saint Paul Outside the Walls (Italian: Basilica Papale di San Paolo fuori le Mura) is one of Rome's four major papal basilicas, along with the basilicas of Saint John in the Lateran, Saint Peter's, and Saint Mary Major, as well as one of the city’s Seven Pilgrim Churches. The basilica is the conventual church of the adjacent Benedictine abbey. It lies within Italian territory, but the Holy See owns the basilica and it is part of the Vatican's extraterritoriality.

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16 July 1965 – The Mont Blanc Tunnel linking France and Italy opens.

Mont Blanc Tunnel

Highway tunnel underneath the Alps connecting France and Italy

The Mont Blanc Tunnel (French: Tunnel du Mont-Blanc, Italian: Traforo del Monte Bianco) is a highway tunnel between France and Italy, under Mont Blanc in the Alps. It links Chamonix, Haute-Savoie, France with Courmayeur, Aosta Valley, Italy, via the French Route Nationale 205 and the Italian Traforo T1 (forming the European route E25), in particular the motorways serving Geneva (A40 of France) and Turin (A5 of Italy). The passageway is one of the major trans-Alpine transport routes, particularly for Italy, which relies on this tunnel for transporting as much as one-third of its freight to northern Europe. It reduces the route from France to Turin by 50 kilometres (30 miles) and to Milan by 100 km (60 mi). Northeast of Mont Blanc's summit, the tunnel is about 15 km (10 mi) southwest of the tripoint with Switzerland, near Mont Dolent.

The agreement between France and Italy on building a tunnel was signed in 1949. Two operating companies were founded, each responsible for one half of the tunnel: the French Autoroutes et tunnel du Mont-Blanc (ATMB), founded on 30 April 1958, and the Italian Società italiana per azioni per il Traforo del Monte Bianco (SITMB), founded on 1 September 1957.^[1] Drilling began in 1959 and was completed in 1962; the tunnel was opened to traffic on 19 July 1965.

The tunnel is 11.611 km (7.215 mi) in length, 8.6 m (28 ft) in width, and 4.35 m (14.3 ft) in height. The passageway is not horizontal, but in a slightly inverted "V", which assists ventilation. The tunnel consists of a single gallery with a two-lane dual direction road. At the time of its construction, it was twice as long as any existing highway tunnel.^[2]

The tunnel passes almost exactly under the summit of the Aiguille du Midi. At this spot, it lies 2,480 metres (8,140 ft) beneath the surface, making it the world's second deepest operational tunnel^[3] after the Gotthard Base Tunnel.

The Mont Blanc Tunnel was originally managed by the two building companies. Following a fire in 1999 in which 39 people died, which showed how lack of coordination could hamper the safety of the tunnel, all the operations are managed by a single entity: MBT-EEIG, controlled by both ATMB and SITMB together, through a 50–50 shares distribution.^[4]

An alternative route for road traffic between France to Italy is the Fréjus Road Tunnel. Road traffic grew steadily until 1994, even with the opening of the Fréjus tunnel. Since then, the combined traffic volume of the former has remained roughly constant.

1. ^ Barry, Keith (15 July 2010). "July 16, 1965: Mont Blanc Tunnel Opens". Wired. Retrieved 16 July 2010.
2. ^ Soule, Gardner (December 1959). "World's longest auto tunnel to pierce the Alps". Popular Science. pp. 121–123/236–238.
3. ^ "Today in Science History". Retrieved 22 November 2014.
4. ^ "A French-Italian Operator - Autoroutes et Tunnel du Mont Blanc". Archived from the original on 29 July 2012. Retrieved 27 September 2011.

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17 July 2014 – Malaysia Airlines Flight 17, a Boeing 777, crashes near the border of Ukraine and Russia after being shot down. All 298 people on board are killed

Malaysia Airlines Flight 17

Aircraft shot down by Russian-controlled forces in 2014

Malaysia Airlines Flight 17 (MH17/MAS17)^[b] was a scheduled passenger flight from Amsterdam to Kuala Lumpur that was shot down by Russian-backed forces^[4][5][6][7] with a Buk 9M38 surface-to-air missile on 17 July 2014, while flying over eastern Ukraine. All 283 passengers and 15 crew were killed.^[8] Contact with the aircraft, a Boeing 777-200ER, was lost when it was about 50 kilometres (31 mi; 27 nmi) from the Ukraine–Russia border, and wreckage from the aircraft landed near Hrabove in Donetsk Oblast, Ukraine, 40 km (25 mi; 22 nmi) from the border.^[9] The shoot-down occurred during the war in Donbas over territory controlled by Russian separatist forces.^[10]

The responsibility for investigation was delegated to the Dutch Safety Board (DSB) and the Dutch-led joint investigation team (JIT), which in 2016 reported that the aircraft had been downed by a Buk surface-to-air missile launched from pro-Russian separatist-controlled territory in Ukraine.^[3][11] The JIT found that the Buk originated from the 53rd Anti-Aircraft Missile Brigade of the Russian Federation^[12][13] and had been transported from Russia on the day of the crash, fired from a field in a rebel-controlled area, and that the launch system returned to Russia afterwards.^[1][2][12]

The findings by the DSB and JIT were consistent with earlier claims by American and German intelligence sources^[14][15] and claims by the Ukrainian government.^[16] On the basis of the JIT's conclusions, the governments of the Netherlands and Australia held Russia responsible for the deployment of the Buk installation and began pursuing legal remedies in May 2018.^[17][18] The Russian government denied involvement in the shooting down of the aircraft,^[13][19][20] and its account of how the aircraft was shot down has varied over time.^[21] Coverage in Russian media has also differed from that in other countries,^[22][23] which initially characterised it as separatist forces shooting down a "Ukrainian Air Force An-26 transport plane" before switching to blaming Ukrainian forces for shooting down MH17.

On 17 November 2022, following a trial in absentia in the Netherlands, two Russians and a Ukrainian separatist were found guilty of murdering all 298 people on board flight MH17. The Dutch court also ruled that Russia was in control of the separatist forces fighting in eastern Ukraine at the time.^[4]

MH17 was Malaysia Airlines' second aircraft loss during 2014, after the disappearance of Flight 370 four months prior on 8 March.^[24] It is also the deadliest aircraft shoot-down incident to date.^[25]

1. ^ ^{a b} Cite error: The named reference SMH JIT was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
2. ^ ^{a b} Cite error: The named reference BBC News 28 September 2016 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
3. ^ ^{a b} Cite error: The named reference DSB_Final_Report was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
4. ^ ^{a b} Rankin, Jennifer (17 November 2022). "Three men found guilty of murdering 298 people in shooting down of MH17". The Guardian. Retrieved 17 November 2022.
5. ^ "MH17 – Russian SAM battery named as guilty". Royal Aeronautical Society. Retrieved 16 April 2023.
6. ^ Tanno, Sophie (17 November 2022). "Dutch court finds two Russians, one Ukrainian separatist guilty over downing of flight MH17". CNN. Archived from the original on 22 November 2022. Retrieved 18 November 2022.
7. ^ Romein, Daniel (23 February 2016). "MH17 - Potential Suspects and Witnesses from the 53rd Anti-Aircraft Missile Brigade". bellingcat. Retrieved 5 May 2023.
8. ^ Cite error: The named reference dsb1 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
9. ^ Alexander, Harriet (17 July 2014). "Malaysia Airlines plane crashes on Ukraine-Russia border – live". The Daily Telegraph. Archived from the original on 18 July 2014. Retrieved 17 July 2014.
10. ^ Higgins, Andrew; Clark, Nicola (9 September 2014). "Malaysian Jet Over Ukraine Was Downed by 'High-Energy Objects,' Dutch Investigators Say". The New York Times.
11. ^ Weaver, Matthew (13 October 2015). "MH17 crash report: Dutch investigators confirm Buk missile hit plane – live updates". The Guardian. Retrieved 13 October 2015.
12. ^ ^{a b} "MH17 missile owned by Russian brigade, investigators say". BBC News. 24 May 2018.
13. ^ ^{a b} Smith-Spark, Laura; Masters, James (24 May 2018). "Missile that downed MH17 'owned by Russian brigade'". CNN.
14. ^ Bennett, Brian (22 July 2014). "U.S. officials believe attack against Malaysian plane was mistake". Los Angeles Times.
15. ^ Tharoor, Ishaan (20 July 2014). "The evidence that may prove pro-Russian separatists shot down MH17". The Washington Post. Retrieved 8 September 2014.
16. ^ "Yatsenyuk: 'We need to survive first'". Kyiv Post. 22 August 2014.
17. ^ "MH17: The Netherlands and Australia hold Russia responsible". Government of the Netherlands. 25 May 2018. Retrieved 25 May 2018.
18. ^ Magnay, Jacquelin; Riordan, Primrose (25 May 2018). "MH17 evidence points to 'rogue state' Russia, Tony Abbott says". The Australian. Bunnik. Archived from the original on 6 December 2020.
19. ^ "Ukraine crisis: Poroshenko offers rebels more autonomy". BBC News. 10 September 2014. Retrieved 19 September 2014.
20. ^ Sipalan, Joseph (21 June 2019). "Russians made a 'scapegoat' after MH17 report released, says Malaysia PM". The Sydney Morning Herald. Retrieved 23 June 2019.
21. ^ Cite error: The named reference Belling1518 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
22. ^ Cite error: The named reference UPI22714 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
23. ^ Cite error: The named reference NR20714 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
24. ^ "Media Statement 7: MH17 Incident". Malaysia Airlines. 19 July 2014. Archived from the original on 20 July 2014. Retrieved 19 July 2014.
25. ^ Cite error: The named reference reuters was invoked but never defined (see the help page).

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17 July 2014 – Malaysia Airlines Flight 17, a Boeing 777, crashes near the border of Ukraine and Russia after being shot down. All 298 people on board are killed

Malaysia Airlines Flight 17

Aircraft shot down by Russian-controlled forces in 2014

Malaysia Airlines Flight 17 (MH17/MAS17)^[b] was a scheduled passenger flight from Amsterdam to Kuala Lumpur that was shot down by Russian-backed forces^[4][5][6][7] with a Buk 9M38 surface-to-air missile on 17 July 2014, while flying over eastern Ukraine. All 283 passengers and 15 crew were killed.^[8] Contact with the aircraft, a Boeing 777-200ER, was lost when it was about 50 kilometres (31 mi; 27 nmi) from the Ukraine–Russia border, and wreckage from the aircraft landed near Hrabove in Donetsk Oblast, Ukraine, 40 km (25 mi; 22 nmi) from the border.^[9] The shoot-down occurred during the war in Donbas over territory controlled by Russian separatist forces.^[10]

The responsibility for investigation was delegated to the Dutch Safety Board (DSB) and the Dutch-led joint investigation team (JIT), which in 2016 reported that the aircraft had been downed by a Buk surface-to-air missile launched from pro-Russian separatist-controlled territory in Ukraine.^[3][11] The JIT found that the Buk originated from the 53rd Anti-Aircraft Missile Brigade of the Russian Federation^[12][13] and had been transported from Russia on the day of the crash, fired from a field in a rebel-controlled area, and that the launch system returned to Russia afterwards.^[1][2][12]

The findings by the DSB and JIT were consistent with earlier claims by American and German intelligence sources^[14][15] and claims by the Ukrainian government.^[16] On the basis of the JIT's conclusions, the governments of the Netherlands and Australia held Russia responsible for the deployment of the Buk installation and began pursuing legal remedies in May 2018.^[17][18] The Russian government denied involvement in the shooting down of the aircraft,^[13][19][20] and its account of how the aircraft was shot down has varied over time.^[21] Coverage in Russian media has also differed from that in other countries,^[22][23] which initially characterised it as separatist forces shooting down a "Ukrainian Air Force An-26 transport plane" before switching to blaming Ukrainian forces for shooting down MH17.

On 17 November 2022, following a trial in absentia in the Netherlands, two Russians and a Ukrainian separatist were found guilty of murdering all 298 people on board flight MH17. The Dutch court also ruled that Russia was in control of the separatist forces fighting in eastern Ukraine at the time.^[4]

MH17 was Malaysia Airlines' second aircraft loss during 2014, after the disappearance of Flight 370 four months prior on 8 March.^[24] It is also the deadliest aircraft shoot-down incident to date.^[25]

1. ^ ^{a b} Cite error: The named reference SMH JIT was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
2. ^ ^{a b} Cite error: The named reference BBC News 28 September 2016 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
3. ^ ^{a b} Cite error: The named reference DSB_Final_Report was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
4. ^ ^{a b} Rankin, Jennifer (17 November 2022). "Three men found guilty of murdering 298 people in shooting down of MH17". The Guardian. Retrieved 17 November 2022.
5. ^ "MH17 – Russian SAM battery named as guilty". Royal Aeronautical Society. Retrieved 16 April 2023.
6. ^ Tanno, Sophie (17 November 2022). "Dutch court finds two Russians, one Ukrainian separatist guilty over downing of flight MH17". CNN. Archived from the original on 22 November 2022. Retrieved 18 November 2022.
7. ^ Romein, Daniel (23 February 2016). "MH17 - Potential Suspects and Witnesses from the 53rd Anti-Aircraft Missile Brigade". bellingcat. Retrieved 5 May 2023.
8. ^ Cite error: The named reference dsb1 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
9. ^ Alexander, Harriet (17 July 2014). "Malaysia Airlines plane crashes on Ukraine-Russia border – live". The Daily Telegraph. Archived from the original on 18 July 2014. Retrieved 17 July 2014.
10. ^ Higgins, Andrew; Clark, Nicola (9 September 2014). "Malaysian Jet Over Ukraine Was Downed by 'High-Energy Objects,' Dutch Investigators Say". The New York Times.
11. ^ Weaver, Matthew (13 October 2015). "MH17 crash report: Dutch investigators confirm Buk missile hit plane – live updates". The Guardian. Retrieved 13 October 2015.
12. ^ ^{a b} "MH17 missile owned by Russian brigade, investigators say". BBC News. 24 May 2018.
13. ^ ^{a b} Smith-Spark, Laura; Masters, James (24 May 2018). "Missile that downed MH17 'owned by Russian brigade'". CNN.
14. ^ Bennett, Brian (22 July 2014). "U.S. officials believe attack against Malaysian plane was mistake". Los Angeles Times.
15. ^ Tharoor, Ishaan (20 July 2014). "The evidence that may prove pro-Russian separatists shot down MH17". The Washington Post. Retrieved 8 September 2014.
16. ^ "Yatsenyuk: 'We need to survive first'". Kyiv Post. 22 August 2014.
17. ^ "MH17: The Netherlands and Australia hold Russia responsible". Government of the Netherlands. 25 May 2018. Retrieved 25 May 2018.
18. ^ Magnay, Jacquelin; Riordan, Primrose (25 May 2018). "MH17 evidence points to 'rogue state' Russia, Tony Abbott says". The Australian. Bunnik. Archived from the original on 6 December 2020.
19. ^ "Ukraine crisis: Poroshenko offers rebels more autonomy". BBC News. 10 September 2014. Retrieved 19 September 2014.
20. ^ Sipalan, Joseph (21 June 2019). "Russians made a 'scapegoat' after MH17 report released, says Malaysia PM". The Sydney Morning Herald. Retrieved 23 June 2019.
21. ^ Cite error: The named reference Belling1518 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
22. ^ Cite error: The named reference UPI22714 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
23. ^ Cite error: The named reference NR20714 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
24. ^ "Media Statement 7: MH17 Incident". Malaysia Airlines. 19 July 2014. Archived from the original on 20 July 2014. Retrieved 19 July 2014.
25. ^ Cite error: The named reference reuters was invoked but never defined (see the help page).

Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

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18 July 1925 – Adolf Hitler publishes Mein Kampf.

Mein Kampf

1925 autobiographical manifesto by Adolf Hitler

"My Struggle" redirects here. For other uses, see My Struggle (disambiguation).

Mein Kampf (German: [maɪn ˈkampf]; lit. 'My Struggle') is a 1925 autobiographical manifesto by Nazi Party leader Adolf Hitler. The book outlines many of Hitler's political beliefs, his political ideology and future plans for Germany and the world. Volume 1 of Mein Kampf was published in 1925 and Volume 2 in 1926.^[1] The book was edited first by Emil Maurice, then by Hitler's deputy Rudolf Hess.^[2][3]

Hitler began Mein Kampf while imprisoned following his failed coup in Munich in November 1923 and a trial in February 1924 for high treason, in which he received a sentence of five years. Although he received many visitors initially, he soon devoted himself entirely to the book. As he continued, he realized that it would have to be a two-volume work, with the first volume scheduled for release in early 1925. The governor of Landsberg noted at the time that "he [Hitler] hopes the book will run into many editions, thus enabling him to fulfill his financial obligations and to defray the expenses incurred at the time of his trial."^[4][5] After slow initial sales, the book became a bestseller in Germany following Hitler's rise to power in 1933.^[6]

After Hitler's death, copyright of Mein Kampf passed to the state government of Bavaria, which refused to allow any copying or printing of the book in Germany. In 2016, following the expiry of the copyright held by the Bavarian state government, Mein Kampf was republished in Germany for the first time since 1945, which prompted public debate and divided reactions from Jewish groups. A team of scholars from the Institute of Contemporary History in Munich published a German language two-volume almost 2,000-page edition annotated with about 3,500 notes. This was followed in 2021 by a 1,000-page French edition based on the German annotated version, with about twice as much commentary as text.^[7]

1. ^ Mein Kampf ("My Struggle"), Adolf Hitler (originally 1925–1926), Reissue edition (15 September 1998), Publisher: Mariner Books, Language: English, paperback, 720 pages, ISBN 978-1495333347
2. ^ Shirer 1960, p. 85.
3. ^ Robert G.L. Waite, The Psychopathic God: Adolf Hitler, Basic Books, 1977, pp. 237–243
4. ^ Heinz, Heinz (1934). Germany's Hitler. Hurst & Blackett. p. 191.
5. ^ Payne, Robert (1973). The Life and Death of Adolf Hitler. Popular Library. p. 203.
6. ^ Shirer 1960, pp. 80–81.
7. ^ Cite error: The named reference historicizing was invoked but never defined (see the help page).

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19 July 1903 – Maurice Garin wins the first Tour de France.

Maurice Garin

French cyclist (1871–1957)

Maurice-François Garin^[2] (pronounced [mɔʁis fʁɑ̃swa ɡaʁɛ̃, moʁ-]; 3 March 1871^{[citation needed]} – 19 February 1957)^[3] was an Italian-French road bicycle racer best known for winning the inaugural Tour de France in 1903, and for being stripped of his title in the second Tour in 1904 along with eight others, for cheating.^[4][5][6] He was of Italian origin but adopted French nationality on 21 December 1901.

1. ^ Cite error: The named reference Ethno62 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
2. ^ "Wikipedia".^{[permanent dead link‍]}
3. ^ "memoire-du-cyclisme.net". Archived from the original on 1 December 2008.
4. ^ Cite error: The named reference Unknown TdF was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
5. ^ Cite error: The named reference Chany p54 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
6. ^ Cite error: The named reference Chany p60 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).

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20 July 1976 – The American Viking 1 lander successfully lands on Mars.

Viking 1

Robotic spacecraft sent to Mars

This article is about the mission to Mars. For other uses, see Viking One.

Viking 1 was the first of two spacecraft, along with Viking 2, each consisting of an orbiter and a lander, sent to Mars as part of NASA's Viking program.^[2] The lander touched down on Mars on July 20, 1976, the first successful Mars lander in history. Viking 1 operated on Mars for 2,307 days (over 61⁄4 years) or 2245 Martian solar days, the longest extraterrestrial surface mission until the record was broken by the Opportunity rover on May 19, 2010.^[6]

1. ^ "Viking 1 Lander". National Space Science Data Center.
2. ^ ^{a b c d e} Williams, David R. Dr. (December 18, 2006). "Viking Mission to Mars". NASA. Retrieved February 2, 2014.
3. ^ "Viking 1". NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL). NASA. October 19, 2016. Retrieved November 27, 2018.
4. ^ Shea, Garrett (September 20, 2018). "Beyond Earth: A Chronicle of Deep Space Exploration". NASA.
5. ^ Nelson, Jon. "Viking 1". NASA. Retrieved February 2, 2014.
6. ^ Thompson, Andrea (April 30, 2010). "Record for Longest Mars Mission Ever May be Broken". Space.com. Retrieved June 14, 2024.

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21 July 1944 – World War II: Claus von Stauffenberg and four fellow conspirators are executed for the July 20 plot to assassinate Adolf Hitler.

Claus von Stauffenberg

German army officer (1907–1944)

Count Claus von Stauffenberg (German: [ˈklaʊs fɔn ˈʃtaʊfn̩bɛʁk] ^ⓘ; 15 November 1907 – 21 July 1944) was a German army officer who is best known for his failed attempt on 20 July 1944 to assassinate Adolf Hitler at the Wolf's Lair.

Alongside Major Generals Henning von Tresckow and Hans Oster, Stauffenberg was a central figure in the conspiracy against Hitler within the Wehrmacht. Shortly following the failed Operation Valkyrie plot, he was executed by firing squad.

As a military officer from a noble background, Stauffenberg took part in the Invasion of Poland, the 1941–42 invasion of the Soviet Union in Operation Barbarossa and the Tunisian campaign during the Second World War.
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