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23 October: 4004 BC - Creation of the world begins according to the calculations of Archbishop James Ussher

Ussher chronology

17th-century chronology of the history of the world

Annales Veteris Testamenti Vol I (Latin)

Annales Novi Testamenti Vol II (Latin)

Annals of the World title page (English)

Annals of the World page 1 (English)

The Ussher chronology is a 17th-century chronology of the history of the world formulated from a literal reading of the Old Testament by James Ussher, the Archbishop of Armagh and Primate of All Ireland. The chronology is sometimes associated with young Earth creationism, which holds that the universe was created only a few millennia ago by God as described in the first two chapters of the biblical book of Genesis. Ussher's work fell into disrepute in the 19th century.

Published in 1650, the full title of Ussher's work in Latin is Annales Veteris Testamenti, a prima mundi origine deducti, una cum rerum Asiaticarum et Aegyptiacarum chronico, a temporis historici principio usque ad Maccabaicorum initia producto ("Annals of the Old Testament, deduced from the first origins of the world, the chronicle of Asiatic and Egyptian matters together produced from the beginning of historical time up to the beginnings of Maccabees").

Ussher's work was his contribution to the long-running theological debate on the age of the Earth. This was a major concern of many Christian scholars over the centuries.

The chronology is sometimes called the Ussher–Lightfoot chronology because John Lightfoot published a similar chronology in 1642–1644. This, however, is a misnomer, as the chronology is based on Ussher's work alone and not that of Lightfoot. Ussher deduced that the first day of creation was October 22, 4004 BC on the proleptic Julian calendar, near the autumnal equinox. Lightfoot similarly deduced that Creation began at nightfall near the autumnal equinox, but in the year 3929 BC.

Ussher's proposed date of 4004 BC differed little from other biblically based estimates, such as those of Jose ben Halafta (3761 BC), Bede (3952 BC), Ussher's near-contemporary Scaliger (3949 BC), Johannes Kepler (3992 BC) or Sir Isaac Newton (c. 4000 BC).^{[1] [dubious – discuss]} Ussher was influenced by the same account as the apocryphal Book of Jasher,^{[dubious – discuss]} dating the worldwide flood to 2349 BC and the birth of Terah in 2127 BC. The date of 4000 BC as the creation of Adam was at least partially influenced by the widely held belief that the Earth was approximately 5600 years old (2000 from Adam to Abraham, 2000 from Abraham to the birth of Christ, and 1600 years from Christ to Ussher), corresponding to the six days of Creation, on the grounds that "one day is with the Lord as a thousand years, and a thousand years as one day" (2 Peter 3:8). This tradition was believed to indicate that Jesus would return in AD 2000,^[2][3] more than six thousand years after 4004 BC. Modern proponents of this interpretation hold that the creation date 4004 BC could be inaccurate.

1. ^ William W. Hay (2012). Experimenting on a Small Planet: A Scholarly Entertainment. Springer. p. 63. ISBN 9783642285608. Retrieved November 17, 2013.
2. ^ Kenneth G. C. Newport (28 August 2000). Apocalypse and Millennium: Studies in Biblical Eisegesis. Cambridge University Press. p. 104. ISBN 978-0-521-77334-8. Retrieved 23 March 2011.
3. ^ Christopher Rowland; John Barton (2002). Apocalyptic in history and tradition. Sheffield Academic Press. pp. 233–252. ISBN 978-0-8264-6208-4. Retrieved 23 March 2011.

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24 October: 1929 - "Black Thursday" stock market crash on the New York Stock Exchange.

Wall Street Crash 1929

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• Wall Street Crash of 1929

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25 October: 1747 - British fleet under Admiral Sir Edward Hawke defeats the French at the second battle of Cape Finisterre.

Second battle of Cape Finisterre (1747)

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• Second Battle of Cape Finisterre

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26 October: 1881 - The Gunfight at the O.K. Corral takes place at Tombstone, Arizona.

Gunfight at the O.K. Corral

1881 shootout in Tombstone, Arizona, United States

For the film, see Gunfight at the O.K. Corral (film).

"O.K. Corral" redirects here. For the location, see O.K. Corral (building).

"The OK Corral" redirects here. For the Doctor Who episode, see The Gunfighters.

The gunfight at the O.K. Corral was a gunfight that lasted less than a minute between lawmen led by Virgil Earp and members of a loosely organized group of outlaws called the Cowboys that occurred at about 3:00 p.m. on Wednesday, October 26, 1881, in Tombstone, Arizona Territory, United States. It is generally regarded ^{[by whom?]} as the most famous gunfight in the history of the American Old West.

The gunfight was the result of a long-simmering feud. Cowboys Billy Claiborne, brothers Ike and Billy Clanton, and brothers Tom and Frank McLaury were on one side. On the other side were Deputy U.S. Marshal and Town Marshal Virgil Earp, his two brothers Special Policemen Morgan and Wyatt Earp, and temporary policeman Doc Holliday. Billy Clanton and both McLaury brothers were killed. Ike Clanton and Billy Claiborne ran from the fight. Virgil, Morgan, and Holliday were wounded, but Wyatt was unharmed. Wyatt is often erroneously regarded as the central figure in the shootout, as his brother Virgil was Tombstone's Town Marshal and Deputy U.S. Marshal that day and had far more experience as a sheriff, constable, marshal, and soldier in combat. Virgil made the decision to enforce a city ordinance prohibiting carrying weapons in town and to disarm the Cowboys. Wyatt was only a temporary assistant marshal to his brother.^[1][2][3]

The shootout has come to represent a period of the Old West when the frontier was virtually an open range for outlaws, largely unopposed by lawmen who were spread thin over vast territories. It was not well known to the American public until 1931, when Stuart Lake published the initially well-received biography Wyatt Earp: Frontier Marshal two years after Earp's death.^[4] The book was the basis for the 1939 film Frontier Marshal, with Randolph Scott and Cesar Romero, the 1946 film My Darling Clementine, directed by John Ford,^[4] and the 1957 film Gunfight at the O.K. Corral, after which the shootout became known by that name. Since then, the conflict has been portrayed with varying degrees of accuracy in numerous Western films and books, and has become an archetype for much of the popular imagery associated with the Old West.

Despite its name, the gunfight did not take place within or next to the O.K. Corral, which fronted Allen Street and had a rear entrance lined with horse stalls on Fremont Street. The shootout actually took place in a narrow lot on the side of C. S. Fly's photography studio on Fremont Street, six doors west of the O.K. Corral's rear entrance. Some members of the two opposing parties were initially only about 6 feet (1.8 m) apart. About thirty shots were fired in thirty seconds.^[5] Ike Clanton subsequently filed murder charges against the Earps and Holliday. After a thirty-day preliminary hearing and a brief stint in jail, the defendants were shown to have acted lawfully.

The gunfight was not the end of the conflict. On December 28, 1881, Virgil was ambushed and maimed in a murder attempt by the Cowboys. On March 18, 1882, a Cowboy fired from a dark alley through the glass door of Campbell & Hatch's saloon and billiard parlor, killing Morgan. The suspects in both incidents furnished alibis supplied by other Cowboys and were not indicted. Wyatt, newly appointed as Deputy U.S. Marshal in Cochise County, then took matters into his own hands in a personal vendetta. He was pursued by county sheriff Johnny Behan, who had received a warrant from Tucson for Wyatt's killing of Frank Stilwell.

1. ^ Correa, Tom (November 27, 2012). "Gunfight at the OK Corral – The Aftermath – Part One". Archived from the original on May 18, 2015. Retrieved May 16, 2015.
2. ^ "Virgil Earp: In a Brother's Shadow". HistoryNet. March 23, 2018.
3. ^ "This Civil War vet was the real hero of the O.K. Corral shootout". May 18, 2020.
4. ^ ^{a b} Goodman, Michael (2005). Wyatt Earp. The Creative Company. p. 95. ISBN 1583413391. Archived from the original on May 18, 2016.
5. ^ "Shootout at the OK Corral". History Channel. Archived from the original on March 20, 2016. Retrieved April 5, 2016.

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27 October: 1275 - Traditional founding of the city of Amsterdam.

Amsterdam

Capital and most populous city of the Netherlands

For other uses, see Amsterdam (disambiguation).

Capital city and municipality in North Holland, Netherlands

Amsterdam (/ˈæmstərdæm/ AM-stər-dam, UK also /ˌæmstərˈdæm/ AM-stər-DAM,^[10][11] Dutch: [ˌɑmstərˈdɑm] ^ⓘ; literally, "The Dam on the River Amstel") is the capital^[a] and most populated city of the Netherlands. It has a population of 921,402^[12] within the city proper, 1,457,018 in the urban area^[7] and 2,480,394 in the metropolitan area.^[13] Located in the Dutch province of North Holland,^[14][15] Amsterdam is colloquially referred to as the "Venice of the North", for its large number of canals, now a UNESCO World Heritage Site.^[16]

Amsterdam was founded at the mouth of the Amstel River, which was dammed to control flooding.^[17] Originally a small fishing village in the 12th century, Amsterdam became a major world port during the Dutch Golden Age of the 17th century, when the Netherlands was an economic powerhouse. Amsterdam was the leading centre for finance and trade, as well as a hub of secular art production.^[18] In the 19th and 20th centuries, the city expanded and new neighborhoods and suburbs were built. The city has a long tradition of openness, liberalism, and tolerance.^[19] Cycling is key to the city's modern character, and there are numerous biking paths and lanes spread throughout.^[20][21]

Amsterdam's main attractions include its historic canals; the Rijksmuseum, the state museum with Dutch Golden Age art; the Van Gogh Museum; the Dam Square, where the Royal Palace of Amsterdam and former city hall are located; the Amsterdam Museum; Stedelijk Museum, with modern art; the Concertgebouw concert hall; the Anne Frank House; the Scheepvaartmuseum, the Natura Artis Magistra; Hortus Botanicus, NEMO, the red-light district and cannabis coffee shops. The city is known for its nightlife and festival activity, with several nightclubs among the world's most famous. Its artistic heritage, canals and narrow canal houses with gabled façades, well-preserved legacies of the city's 17th-century Golden Age, have attracted millions of visitors annually.

The Amsterdam Stock Exchange, founded in 1602, is considered the oldest "modern" securities market stock exchange in the world. As the commercial capital of the Netherlands and one of the top financial centres in Europe, Amsterdam is considered an alpha world city. The city is the cultural capital of the Netherlands.^[22] Many large Dutch institutions have their headquarters in the city.^[23] Many of the world's largest companies are based here or have established their European headquarters in the city, such as technology companies Uber, Netflix and Tesla.^[24] In 2022, Amsterdam was ranked the ninth-best city to live in by the Economist Intelligence Unit^[25] and 12th on quality of living for environment and infrastructure by Mercer.^[26] The city was ranked 4th place globally as top tech hub in 2019.^[27] The Port of Amsterdam is the fifth largest in Europe.^[28] The KLM hub and Amsterdam's main airport, Schiphol, is the busiest airport in the Netherlands, third in Europe, and 11th in the world.^[29] The Dutch capital is one of the most multicultural cities in the world, with about 180 nationalities represented.^[30] Immigration and ethnic segregation in Amsterdam is a current issue.^[31]

Amsterdam's notable residents throughout its history include painters Rembrandt and Vincent van Gogh, 17th-century philosophers Baruch Spinoza, John Locke, René Descartes, and the Holocaust victim and diarist Anne Frank.

1. ^ "Portfolios: Mayor & Alderpersons". Gemeente Amsterdam. Archived from the original on 28 February 2014. Retrieved 18 February 2014.
2. ^ "Kerncijfers wijken en buurten 2020" [Key figures for neighbourhoods 2020]. StatLine (in Dutch). CBS. 24 July 2020. Retrieved 19 September 2020.
3. ^ ^{a b} Anita Bouman–Eijs; Thijmen van Bree; Wouter Jonkhoff; Olaf Koops; Walter Manshanden; Elmer Rietveld (17 December 2012). De Top 20 van Europese grootstedelijke regio's 1995–2011; Randstad Holland in internationaal perspectief [Top 20 of European metropolitan regions 1995–2011; Randstad Holland compared internationally] (PDF) (Technical report) (in Dutch). Delft: TNO. Archived from the original (PDF) on 3 March 2014. Retrieved 25 July 2013.
4. ^ "Postcodetool for 1012JS (Dam Square)". Actueel Hoogtebestand Nederland (in Dutch). Het Waterschapshuis. Archived from the original on 21 September 2013. Retrieved 18 February 2014.
5. ^ "Kerncijfers wijken en buurten 2021". Central Bureau of Statistics. Retrieved 3 May 2022. filter region Regio's > Gemeenten per Provincie > Amsterdam
6. ^ "Gross domestic product (GDP) at current market prices by metropolitan regions". ec.europa.eu.
7. ^ ^{a b} "Bevolking op 1 januari en gemiddeld; geslacht, leeftijd en regio". CBS StatLine (in Dutch). Retrieved 1 November 2022.
8. ^ "Bevolkingsontwikkeling; regio per maand" [Population growth; regions per month]. CBS Statline (in Dutch). CBS. 1 January 2021. Retrieved 2 January 2022.
9. ^ "Bevolkingsontwikkeling; Regionale kerncijfers Nederland" [Regional core figures Netherlands]. CBS Statline (in Dutch). CBS. 1 January 2020. Retrieved 8 March 2021.
10. ^ Wells, John C. (2008), Longman Pronunciation Dictionary (3rd ed.), Longman, ISBN 9781405881180
11. ^ Roach, Peter (2011), Cambridge English Pronouncing Dictionary (18th ed.), Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, ISBN 9780521152532
12. ^ "CBS Statline". opendata.cbs.nl.
13. ^ "Economische Verkenningen Metropool Regio Amsterdam" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 9 October 2022.
14. ^ "Randstad2040; Facts & Figures (p.26)" (in Dutch). VROM. Archived from the original on 12 January 2013.
15. ^ "Ranstad Monitor 2017" (PDF). Ragio Ranstad. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022.
16. ^ Ahmed, Shamim (10 July 2015). "Amsterdam  • Venice of the North". theindependentbd.com. The Independent. Archived from the original on 15 June 2022. Retrieved 15 June 2022.
17. ^ "Amsterdam | History, Population, & Points of Interest". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 5 January 2021.
18. ^ Cambridge.org Archived 16 November 2017 at the Wayback Machine, Capitals of Capital -A History of International Financial Centres – 1780–2005, Youssef Cassis, ISBN 978-0-521-84535-9
19. ^ Shorto, Russell. Amsterdam: A History of the World's Most Liberal City. New York: Vintage Books 2014. ISBN 9780307743756
20. ^ Nello-Deakin, Samuel, and Anna Nikolaeva. "The human infrastructure of a cycling city: Amsterdam through the eyes of international newcomers." Urban Geography 42.3 (2021): 289-311.
21. ^ Feddes, Fred, Marjolein de Lange, and Marco te Brömmelstroet. "Hard work in paradise. The contested making of Amsterdam as a cycling city." The Politics of Cycling Infrastructure. Policy Press, 2020. 133-156.
22. ^ After Athens in 1888 and Florence in 1986, Amsterdam was in 1986 chosen as the European Capital of Culture, confirming its eminent position in Europe and the Netherlands. See EC.europa.eu for an overview of the European cities and capitals of culture over the years. Archived 14 December 2008 at the Wayback Machine
23. ^ Forbes.com Archived 20 May 2020 at the Wayback Machine, Forbes Global 2000 Largest Companies – Dutch rankings.
24. ^ "The Next Global Tech Hotspot? Amsterdam Stakes Its Claim". Bloomberg.com. 22 May 2016 – via Bloomberg.
25. ^ "Best cities ranking and report" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022.
26. ^ "Best cities in the world (Mercer)". City Mayors. 26 May 2010. Archived from the original on 1 November 2010. Retrieved 10 October 2010.
27. ^ "Tech Cities in Motion – 2019". Savills. 4 February 2019.
28. ^ "Port Statistics 2015" (PDF) (Press release). Rotterdam Port Authority. May 2016. p. 6. Archived from the original (PDF) on 9 February 2017. Retrieved 9 February 2017.
29. ^ "Air freight services and solutions".
30. ^ "Amsterdam world's most multicultural city". 26 February 2008.
31. ^ Musterd, Sako. "Immigration and ethnic segregation in the Netherlands with a special focus on Amsterdam." Ethnic Minorities and Inter-Ethnic Relations in Context. Routledge, 2017. 287–303.

Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

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28 October: 306 - Maxentius is proclaimed Roman Emperor.

Maxentius

Roman emperor from 306 to 312

For the saint of the same name, see Saint Maxentius.

Marcus Aurelius Valerius Maxentius (c. 283 – 28 October 312) was a Roman emperor from 306 until his death in 312. Despite ruling in Italy and North Africa, and having the recognition of the Senate in Rome, he was not recognized as a legitimate emperor by his fellow emperors.

He was the son of former Emperor Maximian and the son-in-law of Emperor Galerius. The latter part of his reign was preoccupied with civil war, allying with Maximinus against Licinius and Constantine. The latter defeated him at the Battle of the Milvian Bridge in 312, where Maxentius, with his army in flight, purportedly perished by drowning in the Tiber river.

Maxentius was the last emperor permanently to reside in Rome. He attempted to embellish, restore and improve the ancient capital, carrying out important building works, including the Temple of the Divine Romulus (dedicated to his deceased son), the Basilica of Maxentius, which was completed by Constantine, the villa and the circus of Maxentius.

1. ^ Barnes, New Empire, p. 34

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29 October: 1886 - The ticker-tape parade is invented in New York City when office workers spontaneously throw ticker tape into the streets as the Statue of Liberty is dedicated.

Ticker-tape parade

Urban celebration during which shredded paper is thrown over a parade

For the band, see Tickertape Parade.

A ticker-tape parade is a parade event held in an urban setting, characterized by large amounts of shredded paper thrown onto the parade route from the surrounding buildings, creating a celebratory flurry of paper. Originally, actual ticker tape was used, but now mostly confetti is substituted.

The concept originates in and is most usually associated with the United States, especially New York City. Outside the United States, ticker-tape parades are often associated with the 1978 FIFA World Cup held in Argentina.^[1][2][3]

1. ^ "My World Cup: Osvaldo Ardiles (Argentina, 1978, 1982)". Lancashire Telegraph. 8 June 2010.
2. ^ "World Cup history: Argentina 1978". TalkTalk. Archived from the original on 20 September 2015. Retrieved 1 June 2015.
3. ^ "The story of the 1978 World Cup". BBC. 18 May 2010.

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30 October: 1938 - Orson Welles broadcasts his radio play of H. G. Wells's The War of the Worlds, causing anxiety in some of the audience in the United States.

The War of the Worlds (radio)

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• The War of the Worlds (1938 radio drama)

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31 October: 1863 – The Maori Wars resumed as British forces in New Zealand led by General Duncan Cameron began their Invasion of the Waikato.

Maori Wars

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• New Zealand Wars

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1 November: 1512 - The ceiling of the Sistine Chapel, painted by Michelangelo, is exhibited to the public for the first time.

Sistine Chapel

Chapel in the Apostolic Palace, Vatican City

Rome

1km
0.6miles

Sistine Chapel

  

The Sistine Chapel (/ˌsɪsˈtiːn ˈtʃæpəl/; Latin: Sacellum Sixtinum; Italian: Cappella Sistina [kapˈpɛlla siˈstiːna]) is a chapel in the Apostolic Palace, the pope's official residence in Vatican City. Originally known as the Cappella Magna ('Great Chapel'), it takes its name from Pope Sixtus IV, who had it built between 1473 and 1481. Since that time, it has served as a place of both religious and functionary papal activity. Today, it is the site of the papal conclave, the process by which a new pope is selected. The chapel's fame lies mainly in the frescoes that decorate its interior, most particularly the Sistine Chapel ceiling and The Last Judgment, both by Michelangelo.

During the reign of Sixtus IV, a team of Renaissance painters including Sandro Botticelli, Pietro Perugino, Pinturicchio, Domenico Ghirlandaio and Cosimo Rosselli, created a series of frescos depicting the Life of Moses and the Life of Christ, offset by papal portraits above and trompe-l'œil drapery below. They were completed in 1482, and on 15 August 1483 Sixtus IV celebrated the first mass in the Sistine Chapel for the Feast of the Assumption, during which the chapel was consecrated and dedicated to the Virgin Mary.^[3][4]

Between 1508 and 1512, under the patronage of Pope Julius II, Michelangelo painted the chapel's ceiling, a project that changed the course of Western art and is regarded as one of the major artistic accomplishments of human civilization.^[5][6] In a different political climate, after the Sack of Rome, he returned and, between 1535 and 1541, painted The Last Judgment for Popes Clement VII and Paul III.^[7] The fame of Michelangelo's paintings has drawn multitudes of visitors to the chapel since they were revealed five centuries ago. According to recent studies, the Sistine Chapel is influenced by the writings of monk and philosopher Joachim of Fiore, who thus influenced the vision and the iconographic project for the representation of the Last Judgment. Michelangelo's frescoes with an eschatological theme are therefore an artistic development of Joachim's writings of the 12th century about the apocalypse and the last days.^[8]

1. ^ ^{a b c} Cite error: The named reference EHT2006_313 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
2. ^ Vatican City, Whc.unesco.org, archived from the original on 25 December 2017, retrieved 9 August 2011
3. ^ Pietrangeli 1986, p. 28
4. ^ Monfasani, John (1983), "A Description of the Sistine Chapel under Pope Sixtus IV", Artibus et Historiae, 4 (7), IRSA s.c.: 9–18, doi:10.2307/1483178, ISSN 0391-9064, JSTOR 1483178, archived from the original on 1 August 2015, retrieved 7 March 2009.
5. ^ Gardner, Helen (1970) Art through the Ages, p. 469, Harcourt, Brace and World. ISBN 978-0-15-508315-8
6. ^ Robert Coughlan, The World of Michelangelo, Time-Life International, (1966) p. 116
7. ^ Robert Coughlan, p. 127
8. ^ "Gioacchino da Fiore ispirò Michelangelo". November 2012. Archived from the original on 4 August 2023. Retrieved 4 August 2023.

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2 November: 1947 - In California, designer Howard Hughes performs the maiden (and only) flight of the Spruce Goose; the largest fixed-wing aircraft ever built.

Spruce Goose

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• Hughes H-4 Hercules

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3 November: 1957 - Sputnik program: The Soviet Union launches Sputnik 2. On board is the first animal to enter orbit: a dog named Laika.

Laika

Soviet dog, first animal to orbit Earth (1957)

This article is about the Soviet dog. For the Greek genre of music, see Laïko. For other uses, see Laika (disambiguation).

Laika (/ˈlaɪkə/ LY-kə; Russian: Лайка, IPA: [ˈlajkə]; c. 1954 – 3 November 1957) was a Soviet space dog who was one of the first animals in space and the first to orbit the Earth. A stray mongrel from the streets of Moscow, she flew aboard the Sputnik 2 spacecraft, launched into low orbit on 3 November 1957. As the technology to de-orbit had not yet been developed, Laika's survival was never expected. She died of overheating hours into the flight, on the craft's fourth orbit.

Little was known about the effects of spaceflight on living creatures at the time of Laika's mission, and animal flights were viewed by engineers as a necessary precursor to human missions.^[1] The experiment, which monitored Laika's vital signs, aimed to prove that a living organism could survive being launched into orbit and continue to function under conditions of weakened gravity and increased radiation, providing scientists with some of the first data on the biological effects of spaceflight.

Laika's death was possibly caused by a failure of the central R‑7 sustainer to separate from the payload. The true cause and time of her death were not made public until 2002; instead, it was widely reported that she died when her oxygen ran out on day six or, as the Soviet government initially claimed, she was euthanised prior to oxygen depletion. In 2008, a small monument to Laika depicting her standing atop a rocket was unveiled near the military research facility in Moscow that prepared her flight. She also appears on the Monument to the Conquerors of Space in Moscow.

1. ^ Cite error: The named reference RussiaOpensMonument was invoked but never defined (see the help page).

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4 November: 1922 - In Egypt, British archaeologist Howard Carter and his men find the entrance to King Tutankhamun's tomb in the Valley of the Kings.

Tutankhamun

Pharaoh of ancient Egypt (18th Dynasty)

"King Tut" redirects here. For other uses, see King Tut (disambiguation).

Tutankhamun^[a] or Tutankhamen^[b] (c. 1341 BC – c. 1323 BC), was an ancient Egyptian pharaoh who ruled c. 1332 – 1323 BC during the late Eighteenth Dynasty of ancient Egypt. Born Tutankhaten, he was likely a son of Akhenaten, thought to be the KV55 mummy. His mother was identified through DNA testing as The Younger Lady buried in KV35; she was a full sister of her husband.

Tutankhamun acceded to the throne around the age of nine following the short reigns of his predecessors Smenkhkare and Neferneferuaten. He married his half-sister Ankhesenpaaten, who was probably the mother of his two infant daughters. During his reign he restored the traditional polytheistic form of ancient Egyptian religion, undoing the religious shift known as Atenism. His endowments and restorations of cults were recorded on the Restoration Stela. The cult of the god Amun at Thebes was restored to prominence and the royal couple changed their names to "Tutankhamun" and "Ankhesenamun", removing the -aten suffix. Additionally, he moved the royal court away from Akhenaten's capital, Amarna, and back to Memphis. He reestablished diplomatic relations with the Mitanni and carried out military campaigns in Nubia and the Near East. Tutankhamun was one of few kings worshipped as a deity during his lifetime. The young king likely began construction of a royal tomb in the Valley of the Kings and an accompanying mortuary temple but both were unfinished at the time of his death.

Tutankhamun died unexpectedly aged about 18; his health and the cause of his death have been the subject of much debate. In 2012 it was suggested he died from a combination of malaria and a leg fracture. With his royal tomb incomplete, he was instead buried in a small non-royal tomb adapted for his use. He was succeeded by his vizier Ay. Likely an old man when he became king, Ay's reign was short, being succeeded by Horemheb, Tutankhamun's commander-in-chief. Under Horemheb, the restoration of the traditional ancient Egyptian religion was completed; Ay and Tutankhamun's constructions were usurped and earlier Amarna Period rulers were erased.

In modern times, Tutankhamun is known for the 1922 discovery of his tomb by a team led by British Egyptologist Howard Carter sponsored by British aristocrat George Herbert. Although robbed anciently, it retained much of its original contents, including the king's undisturbed mummy. The discovery received worldwide press coverage; with over 5,000 artifacts, it gave rise to renewed public interest in ancient Egypt, for which Tutankhamun's mask, now preserved at the Egyptian Museum, remains a popular symbol. Some of his treasure has traveled worldwide with unprecedented response; the Egyptian government allowed tours beginning in 1961. The deaths of some individuals who were involved in the excavation have been popularly attributed to the "curse of the pharaohs" due to the similarity of their circumstances. Since the discovery of his tomb, he has been referred to colloquially as "King Tut".^[8]

1. ^ Clayton 2006, p. 128.
2. ^ ^{a b c d e} Osing & Dreyer 1987, pp. 110–123.
3. ^ ^{a b c d} "Digital Egypt for Universities: Tutankhamun". University College London. 22 June 2003. Retrieved 5 August 2006.
4. ^ Leprohon 2013, p. 227.
5. ^ ^{a b c d e} Leprohon 2013, p. 206.
6. ^ Hawass et al. 2010, pp. 640–641.
7. ^ ^{a b} "Tutankhamun or Tutankhamen". Collins English Dictionary. n.d. Retrieved 24 September 2014.
8. ^ Schwarzer, Marjorie; Museums, American Association of (2006). Riches, Rivals & Radicals: 100 Years of Museums in America. American Association of Museums. p. 152. ISBN 978-1-933253-05-3. Retrieved 17 July 2022.

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5 November: 1605 - Gunpowder Plot: A plot led by Robert Catesby to blow up the English Houses of Parliament is thwarted when Sir Thomas Knyvet, a justice of the peace, finds Guy Fawkes in a cellar below the Parliament building

Gunpowder Plot

1605 failed attempt to assassinate King James I

For other uses, see Gunpowder Plot (disambiguation).

The Gunpowder Plot of 1605, in earlier centuries often called the Gunpowder Treason Plot or the Jesuit Treason, was an unsuccessful attempted regicide against King James I by a group of English Catholics led by Robert Catesby who considered their actions attempted tyrannicide and who sought regime change in England after decades of religious persecution.

The plan was to blow up the House of Lords during the State Opening of Parliament on 5 November 1605,^[a] as the prelude to a popular revolt in the Midlands during which King James's nine-year-old daughter, Princess Elizabeth, was to be installed as the new head of state. Catesby is suspected by historians to have embarked on the scheme after hopes of greater religious tolerance under King James I had faded, leaving many English Catholics disappointed. His fellow conspirators were John and Christopher Wright, Robert and Thomas Wintour, Thomas Percy, Guy Fawkes, Robert Keyes, Thomas Bates, John Grant, Ambrose Rookwood, Sir Everard Digby and Francis Tresham. Fawkes, who had 10 years of military experience fighting in the Spanish Netherlands in the failed suppression of the Dutch Revolt, was given charge of the explosives.

Owing to concerns about collateral damage, an anonymous letter of warning was sent to William Parker, 4th Baron Monteagle, on 26 October 1605, who immediately showed it to the authorities. During a search of the House of Lords in the evening on 4 November 1605, Fawkes was discovered guarding 36 barrels of gunpowder—enough to reduce the House of Lords to rubble—and arrested. Most of the conspirators fled from London as they learned that the plot had been discovered, trying to enlist support along the way. Several made a last stand against the pursuing Sheriff of Worcester and a posse of his men at Holbeche House; in the ensuing gunfight Catesby was one of those shot and killed. At their trial on 27 January 1606, eight of the surviving conspirators, including Fawkes, were convicted and sentenced to be hanged, drawn and quartered.

Some details of the assassination attempt were allegedly known by the principal Jesuit of England, Father Henry Garnet SJ. Although Fr. Garnet was convicted of high treason and put to death, doubt has been cast on how much he really knew. As the Plot's existence was revealed to him through confession, Garnet was prevented from informing the authorities by the absolute confidentiality of the confessional. Although anti-Catholic legislation was introduced soon after the discovery of the plot, many important and loyal Catholics remained in high office during the rest of King James I's reign. The thwarting of the Gunpowder Plot was commemorated for many years afterwards by special sermons and other public events such as the ringing of church bells, which evolved into the British variant of Bonfire Night of today.
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6 November: 1985 - "Irangate" scandal: The American press reveals that US President Ronald Reagan had authorized the shipment of arms to Iran

Iran-Contra Affair

Redirect to:

• Iran–Contra affair

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  • If this redirect is an incorrect capitalisation, then {{R from miscapitalisation}} should be used instead, and pages that use this link should be updated to link directly to the target. Miscapitalisations can be tagged in any namespace.
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7 November: 1940 - In Tacoma, Washington, the original Tacoma Narrows Bridge ("Galloping Gertie") collapses in a windstorm, a mere four months after the bridge's completion.

Galloping Gertie

For the bridge known as Galloping Gertie, see Tacoma Narrows Bridge (1940).

Song

"Galloping Gertie" is a 1975 saloon piano song by Sam Fonteyn. The song was featured in "Blackened Sponge" (season five, episode fourteen) of SpongeBob SquarePants.^[1]

It was used as the "Play me off, Johnny" music by the Vaudeville characters Vern and Johnny on Family Guy and appears in the episodes "Blind Ambition", "Perfect Castaway", "The Father, the Son and the Holy Fonz", "Deep Throats", "Saving Private Brian"^[2] and "Back to the Woods".^[3]

1. ^ "SpongeBob SquarePants Production Music - Galloping Gertie - Video YouTube". YouTube (on the New Musical Express website).
2. ^ Sam Fonteyn at IMDb
3. ^ "Family Guy, Season 6, Episode 9: Back to the Woods". The TV Critic.org.

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8 November: 1895 - While experimenting with electricity, Wilhelm Röntgen discovers the X-ray

Wilhelm_R%C3%B6ntgen

 

9 November: 1872 - The Great Boston Fire of 1872.

Great Boston Fire of 1872

The largest fire in Boston

The Great Boston Fire of 1872 was Boston's largest fire, and still ranks as one of the most costly fire-related property losses in American history. The conflagration began at 7:20 p.m. on Saturday, November 9, 1872, in the basement of a commercial warehouse at 83–87 Summer Street.^[1] The fire was finally contained 12 hours later, after it had consumed about 65 acres (26 ha) of Boston's downtown, 776 buildings and much of the financial district, and caused $73.5 million in damage (equivalent to $1.667 billion in 2023).^[2][3] The destruction to the buildings was valued at $13.5 million and the personal property loss was valued at $60 million.^[1] In the end, at least 30 people died, including 12 firefighters.^[4]

1. ^ ^{a b} "Great Boston Fire of 1872 – Boston Fire Historical Society". Boston Fire Historical Society. Retrieved November 3, 2018.
2. ^ "Great Fire Devastates Boston". www.massmoments.org. November 9, 2005. Retrieved November 3, 2018.
3. ^ Johnston, Louis; Williamson, Samuel H. (2023). "What Was the U.S. GDP Then?". MeasuringWorth. Retrieved November 30, 2023. United States Gross Domestic Product deflator figures follow the MeasuringWorth series.
4. ^ Cite error: The named reference NE Historical Society was invoked but never defined (see the help page).

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10 November: 1775 - The United States Marine Corps was founded.

United States Marine Corps

Maritime land force service branch of the U.S. military

"USMC" redirects here. For other uses, see USMC (disambiguation).

Military unit

The United States Marine Corps (USMC), also referred to as the United States Marines, is the maritime land force service branch of the United States Armed Forces responsible for conducting expeditionary and amphibious operations^[11] through combined arms, implementing its own infantry, artillery, aerial, and special operations forces. The U.S. Marine Corps is one of the eight uniformed services of the United States.

The Marine Corps has been part of the U.S. Department of the Navy since 30 June 1834 with its sister service, the United States Navy.^[12] The USMC operates installations on land and aboard sea-going amphibious warfare ships around the world. Additionally, several of the Marines' tactical aviation squadrons, primarily Marine Fighter Attack squadrons, are also embedded in Navy carrier air wings and operate from the aircraft carriers.^[13]

The history of the Marine Corps began when two battalions of Continental Marines were formed on 10 November 1775 in Philadelphia as a service branch of infantry troops capable of fighting both at sea and on shore.^[14] In the Pacific theater of World War II, the Corps took the lead in a massive campaign of amphibious warfare, advancing from island to island.^[15][16][17] As of 2022, the USMC has around 177,200 active duty members and some 32,400 personnel in reserve.^[3]

1. ^ "Marine Corps Decade Timeline | Marine Corps history". Marines.com. Archived from the original on 6 July 2014. Retrieved 15 July 2014.
2. ^ "ARMED FORCES STRENGTH FIGURES FOR SEPTEMBER 30, 2020". Archived from the original on 9 November 2020. Retrieved 9 November 2020.
3. ^ ^{a b} "Defense Budget Overview Book" (PDF). Office of the Under Secretary of Denfense (Comptroller)/Chief Financial Officer. 15 April 2022. Retrieved 3 August 2022.
4. ^ "World Air Forces 2018". Flightglobal: 17. Archived from the original on 14 June 2018. Retrieved 13 June 2018.
5. ^ Macias, Amanda (10 April 2013). "Marine One upgrade: The next presidential helicopter fleet is getting closer to its debut". CNBC. Archived from the original on 14 June 2018. Retrieved 13 June 2018.
6. ^ Lejeune, Erich E. (18 April 1925). "Marine Corps Order No. 4 (Series 1925)". Commandant of the Marine Corps. United States Marine Corps History Division. Archived from the original on 5 October 2010. Retrieved 2 February 2010.
7. ^ "Color Palette" (PDF). United States Marine Corps Brand Guide. 16 July 2009. Archived (PDF) from the original on 1 February 2017. Retrieved 7 August 2017.
8. ^ Loredo-Agostini, Heidi E. (30 July 2009). "Ready for the Corps: Marines recruit latest mascot from South Texas". Recruiting Station San Antonio. Castroville, Texas: United States Marine Corps. Archived from the original on 20 March 2011. Retrieved 22 December 2010.
9. ^ Dobbs, Chris (25 July 2008). "Marine Barracks' mascot, Chesty the XII, retires after more than 40 'dog years' of faithful service". Marine Barracks, Washington, D.C.: United States Marine Corps. Archived from the original on 16 May 2011. Retrieved 22 December 2010.
10. ^ "Marine Corps Order P1020.34G W/CH 1–5: Marine Corps Uniform Regulations, Chapter 4: Insignia and Regulations For Wear, Paragraph 4001. Branch of Service Insignia, Pages 4–7" (PDF). marines.mil. 31 March 2003. Archived (PDF) from the original on 15 December 2017. Retrieved 15 January 2018.
11. ^ Charles C. Krulak (1996). Operational Maneuver from the Sea (PDF) (Report). Headquarters Marine Corps. Archived from the original (PDF) on 11 August 2006. Retrieved 28 July 2006.
12. ^ Hoffman, Colonel Jon T., USMC: A Complete History, Marine Corps Association, Quantico, VA, (2002), p. 57.
13. ^ "Air Wings Built for Two". Air & Space Forces Magazine. Retrieved 16 December 2023.
14. ^ "U.S. Marine Corps Decade Timeline". Archived from the original on 1 October 2013. Retrieved 1 October 2013.
15. ^ Hough, Frank O.; Ludwig, Verle E.; Shaw, Henry I. Jr. "Part I, Chapter 2: Evolution of Modern Amphibious Warfare, 1920–1941". Pearl Harbor to Guadalcanal. History of U.S. Marine Corps Operations in World War II, Volume I. Historical Branch, HQMC, United States Marine Corps. Archived from the original on 30 May 2007. Retrieved 2 June 2007.
16. ^ Garand, George W. & Truman R. Strobridge (1971). "Part II, Chapter 1: The Development of FMFPac". Western Pacific Operations. History of U.S. Marine Corps Operation in World War II, Volume IV. Historical Branch, HQMC, United States Marine Corps. Archived from the original on 25 July 2008. Retrieved 3 August 2008.
17. ^ Frank, Benis M & Henry I. Saw, Jr. (1968). "Part VI, Chapter 1: Amphibious Doctrine in World War II". Victory and Occupation. History of U.S. Marine Corps Operations in World War II, Volume V. Historical Branch, HQMC, United States Marine Corps. Archived from the original on 11 October 2008. Retrieved 3 August 2008.

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11 November: 1926 - U.S. Route 66 is established.

U.S. Route 66

Former US Highway between Chicago and Santa Monica

"Route 66" redirects here. For other uses, see Route 66 (disambiguation).

"Main Street of America" redirects here. For other uses, see Main Street, America.

"The Mother Road" redirects here. For the route in China, see China National Highway 312.

"Mother Road" redirects here. For the Grace Potter album, see Mother Road (album).

U.S. Route 66 or U.S. Highway 66 (US 66 or Route 66) was one of the original highways in the United States Numbered Highway System. It was established on November 11, 1926, with road signs erected the following year.^[3] The highway, which became one of the most famous roads in the United States, ran from Chicago, Illinois, through Missouri, Kansas, Oklahoma, Texas, New Mexico, and Arizona before terminating in Santa Monica in Los Angeles County, California, covering a total of 2,448 miles (3,940 km).^[4]

It was recognized in popular culture by both the 1946 hit song "(Get Your Kicks on) Route 66" and the Route 66 television series, which aired on CBS from 1960 to 1964. It was also featured in the Disney/Pixar animated feature film franchise Cars, beginning in 2006. In John Steinbeck's novel The Grapes of Wrath (1939), the highway symbolizes escape, loss, and the hope of a new beginning; Steinbeck dubbed it the Mother Road. Other designations and nicknames include the Will Rogers Highway and the Main Street of America, the latter nickname shared with U.S. Route 40.

US 66 was a primary route for those who migrated west, especially during the Dust Bowl of the 1930s, and it supported the economies of the communities through which it passed. People doing business along the route became prosperous, and they later fought to keep it alive in the face of the growing threat of being bypassed by the more advanced controlled-access highways of the Interstate Highway System in the 1960s and 70s.

US 66 underwent many improvements and realignments over its lifetime, but it was officially removed from the United States Highway System in 1985^[2] after it was entirely replaced by segments of the Interstate Highway System. Portions of the road that passed through Illinois, Missouri, Oklahoma, New Mexico, and Arizona have been communally designated a National Scenic Byway by the name "Historic Route 66", returning the name to some maps.^[5][6] Several states have adopted significant bypassed sections of the former US 66 into their state road networks as State Route 66 and much of the former route within the San Bernardino County, California, is designated as County Route 66. The corridor is also being redeveloped into U.S. Bicycle Route 66, a part of the United States Bicycle Route System that was developed in the 2010s.

1. ^ Bureau of Public Roads & American Association of State Highway Officials (November 11, 1926). United States System of Highways Adopted for Uniform Marking by the American Association of State Highway Officials (Map). 1:7,000,000. Washington, DC: United States Geological Survey. OCLC 32889555. Archived from the original on April 13, 2017. Retrieved November 7, 2013 – via Wikimedia Commons.
2. ^ ^{a b} Special Committee on U.S. Route Numbering (June 26, 1985). "Route Numbering Committee Agenda" (Report). Washington, DC: American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials. Retrieved April 16, 2014 – via Wikisource.
3. ^ "Route 66 Timeline". Legends of America. Archived from the original on December 25, 2018. Retrieved April 15, 2012.
4. ^ "A Table of Mileposts for the Original US 66 Alignment of 1926". Route 66 Web & Atlas. Archived from the original on December 25, 2018. Retrieved April 15, 2012.
5. ^ Illinois Department of Transportation (2007). Illinois Highway Map (Map) (2007–2008 ed.). [1:762,500]. Springfield: Illinois Department of Transportation. OCLC 244286974. Retrieved May 26, 2012 – via Illinois Digital Archives.
6. ^ Google (May 26, 2012). "Bloomington, IL" (Map). Google Maps. Google. Retrieved May 26, 2012.

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12 November: 1979 - Iran hostage crisis: In response to the hostage situation in Tehran, US President Jimmy Carter orders a halt to all petroleum imports into the United States from Iran.

Iran hostage crisis

1979–1981 diplomatic standoff between the United States and Iran

This article is about the siege of the American embassy in Tehran. For the siege of the Iranian embassy in London, see Iranian Embassy siege.

The Iran hostage crisis was a diplomatic standoff between Iran and the United States. Fifty-three American diplomats and citizens were held hostage after a group of militarized Iranian college students belonging to the Muslim Student Followers of the Imam's Line, who supported the Iranian Revolution, including Hossein Dehghan (future Iranian Minister of Defense), Mohammad Ali Jafari (future Revolutionary Guards Commander-In-Chief) and Mohammad Bagheri (future Chief of the General Staff of the Iranian Army),^[3][4] took over the U.S. Embassy in Tehran^[5][6] and took them as hostages. The hostages were held for 444 days, from November 4, 1979 to their release on January 20, 1981. The crisis is considered a pivotal episode in the history of Iran–United States relations.^[7]

Western media described the crisis as an "entanglement" of "vengeance and mutual incomprehension".^[8] U.S. President Jimmy Carter called the hostage-taking an act of "blackmail" and the hostages "victims of terrorism and anarchy".^[9] In Iran, it was widely seen as an act against the U.S. and its influence in Iran, including its perceived attempts to undermine the Iranian Revolution and its long-standing support of the Shah of Iran, Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, who was overthrown in 1979.^[10] After Shah Pahlavi was overthrown, he was granted asylum and admitted to the U.S. for cancer treatment. The new Iranian regime demanded his return in order to stand trial for the crimes he was accused of committing against Iranians during his rule through his secret police. These demands were rejected, which Iran saw as U.S. complicity in those abuses. The U.S. saw the hostage-taking as an egregious violation of the principles of international law, such as the Vienna Convention, which granted diplomats immunity from arrest and made diplomatic compounds inviolable.^{[11][12][13][14]} The Shah left the U.S. in December 1979 and was ultimately granted asylum in Egypt, where he died from complications of cancer at age 60 on July 27, 1980.

Six American diplomats who had evaded capture were rescued by a joint CIA–Canadian effort on January 27, 1980. The crisis reached a climax in early 1980 after diplomatic negotiations failed to win the release of the hostages. Carter ordered the U.S. military to attempt a rescue mission – Operation Eagle Claw – using warships that included USS Nimitz and USS Coral Sea, which were patrolling the waters near Iran. The failed attempt on April 24, 1980, resulted in the death of one Iranian civilian and the accidental deaths of eight American servicemen after one of the helicopters crashed into a transport aircraft. U.S. Secretary of State Cyrus Vance resigned his position following the failure. In September 1980, Iraq invaded Iran, beginning the Iran–Iraq War. These events led the Iranian government to enter negotiations with the U.S., with Algeria acting as a mediator.

Political analysts cited the standoff as a major factor in the continuing downfall of Carter's presidency and his landslide loss in the 1980 presidential election.^[15] The hostages were formally released into United States custody the day after the signing of the Algiers Accords, just minutes after American President Ronald Reagan was sworn into office. In Iran, the crisis strengthened the prestige of Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini and the political power of theocrats who opposed any normalization of relations with the West.^[16] The crisis also led to American economic sanctions against Iran, which further weakened ties between the two countries.^[17]

1. ^ Clark, Mark Edmond (2016). "An Analysis of the Role of the Iranian Diaspora in the Financial Support System of the Mujaheddin-e-Khalid". In David Gold (ed.). Microeconomics. Routledge. pp. 66–67. ISBN 978-1-317-04590-8. Following the seizure of the US embassy in Tehran, the MEK participated physically at the site by assisting in defending it from attack. The MEK also offered strong political support for the hostage-taking action.
2. ^ Buchan, James (2013). Days of God: The Revolution in Iran and Its Consequences. Simon and Schuster. p. 257. ISBN 978-1-4165-9777-3.
3. ^ "The Bagheri Brothers: One in Operations, One in Intelligence". Retrieved March 11, 2024.
4. ^ "What Became of Those Who Seized the US Embassy in Tehran". March 9, 2024.
5. ^ Penn, Nate (November 3, 2009). "444 Days in the Dark: An Oral History of the Iran Hostage Crisis". GQ. Archived from the original on May 5, 2021. Retrieved January 6, 2020.
6. ^ Sahimi, Muhammad (November 3, 2009). "The Hostage Crisis, 30 Years On". Frontline. PBS. Archived from the original on April 10, 2021. Retrieved January 6, 2020.
7. ^ Kinzer, Stephen (October 2008). "Inside Iran's Fury". Smithsonian Magazine. Archived from the original on April 19, 2013. Retrieved May 5, 2016.
8. ^ Skow, John (January 26, 1981). "The Long Ordeal of the Hostages". Time. Retrieved May 27, 2015.
9. ^ "Air Force Magazine" (PDF). Air Force Magazine. April 5, 2016. Archived from the original (PDF) on November 27, 2012. Retrieved May 5, 2016.
10. ^ Kinzer, Stephen. "Thirty-five years after Iranian hostage crisis, the aftershocks remain". The Boston Globe. Archived from the original on April 16, 2018. Retrieved April 15, 2018.
11. ^ "Doing Satan's Work in Iran" (PDF). The New York Times. November 6, 1979. Archived from the original on February 1, 2022. Retrieved January 4, 2016.
12. ^ Kinzer, Stephen (2003). All The Shah's Men: An American Coup and the Roots of Middle East Terror. Hoboken, New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons.
13. ^ Nalle, David (2003). "All the Shah's Men: An American Coup and the Roots of Middle East Terror". Middle East Policy. 10 (4): 148–155.
14. ^ Pryce-Jones, David (2003). "A Very Elegant Coup". National Review. 55 (17): 48–50.
15. ^ "Reagan's Lucky Day: Iranian Hostage Crisis Helped The Great Communicator To Victory". CBS News. January 21, 2001. Archived May 15, 2013, at the Wayback Machine.
16. ^ Mackey, Sandra (1996). The Iranians: Persia, Islam and the Soul of a Nation. New York: Dutton. p. 298. ISBN 9780525940050
17. ^ "A Review Of US Unilateral Sanctions Against Iran". Mafhoum. August 26, 2002. Archived from the original on October 10, 2017. Retrieved May 5, 2016.

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13 November: 1990 - The World Wide Web first began.

World Wide Web

Linked hypertext system on the Internet

This article is about the global system of pages accessed via HTTP. For the worldwide computer network, see Internet. For the web browser, see WorldWideWeb.

"WWW" and "The Web" redirect here. For other uses, see WWW (disambiguation) and The Web (disambiguation).

The World Wide Web (WWW or simply the Web) is an information system that enables content sharing over the Internet through user-friendly ways meant to appeal to users beyond IT specialists and hobbyists.^[1] It allows documents and other web resources to be accessed over the Internet according to specific rules of the Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP).^[2]

The Web was invented by English computer scientist Tim Berners-Lee while at CERN in 1989 and opened to the public in 1991. It was conceived as a "universal linked information system".^[3][4] Documents and other media content are made available to the network through web servers and can be accessed by programs such as web browsers. Servers and resources on the World Wide Web are identified and located through character strings called uniform resource locators (URLs).

The original and still very common document type is a web page formatted in Hypertext Markup Language (HTML). This markup language supports plain text, images, embedded video and audio contents, and scripts (short programs) that implement complex user interaction. The HTML language also supports hyperlinks (embedded URLs) which provide immediate access to other web resources. Web navigation, or web surfing, is the common practice of following such hyperlinks across multiple websites. Web applications are web pages that function as application software. The information in the Web is transferred across the Internet using HTTP. Multiple web resources with a common theme and usually a common domain name make up a website. A single web server may provide multiple websites, while some websites, especially the most popular ones, may be provided by multiple servers. Website content is provided by a myriad of companies, organizations, government agencies, and individual users; and comprises an enormous amount of educational, entertainment, commercial, and government information.

The Web has become the world's dominant information systems platform.^[5][6][7][8] It is the primary tool that billions of people worldwide use to interact with the Internet.^[2]

1. ^ Wright, Edmund, ed. (2006). The Desk Encyclopedia of World History. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 312. ISBN 978-0-7394-7809-7.
2. ^ ^{a b} "What is the difference between the Web and the Internet?". W3C Help and FAQ. W3C. 2009. Archived from the original on 9 July 2015. Retrieved 16 July 2015.
3. ^ Berners-Lee, Tim. "Information Management: A Proposal". w3.org. The World Wide Web Consortium. Archived from the original on 1 April 2010. Retrieved 12 February 2022.
4. ^ "The World's First Web Site". HISTORY. 30 August 2018. Archived from the original on 19 August 2023. Retrieved 19 August 2023.
5. ^ Bleigh, Michael (16 May 2014). "The Once And Future Web Platform". TechCrunch. Archived from the original on 5 December 2021. Retrieved 9 March 2022.
6. ^ "World Wide Web Timeline". Pews Research Center. 11 March 2014. Archived from the original on 29 July 2015. Retrieved 1 August 2015.
7. ^ Dewey, Caitlin (12 March 2014). "36 Ways The Web Has Changed Us". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on 9 September 2015. Retrieved 1 August 2015.
8. ^ Cite error: The named reference internetlivestats was invoked but never defined (see the help page).

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14 November: 1941 - Holocaust: SS chief Heinrich Himmler orders the arrest and deportation to concentration camps of all homosexuals in Germany, with the exception of certain top Nazi officials.

Internment

Imprisonment or confinement of groups of people without trial

"Concentration camp" redirects here. For the TV episode, see Internment (The Walking Dead). Not to be confused with interment (burial) or extermination camp.

Internment is the imprisonment of people, commonly in large groups, without charges^[1] or intent to file charges.^[2] The term is especially used for the confinement "of enemy citizens in wartime or of terrorism suspects".^[3] Thus, while it can simply mean imprisonment, it tends to refer to preventive confinement rather than confinement after having been convicted of some crime. Use of these terms is subject to debate and political sensitivities.^[4] The word internment is also occasionally used to describe a neutral country's practice of detaining belligerent armed forces and equipment on its territory during times of war, under the Hague Convention of 1907.^[5]

Interned persons may be held in prisons or in facilities known as internment camps (also known as concentration camps). The term concentration camp originates from the Spanish–Cuban Ten Years' War when Spanish forces detained Cuban civilians in camps in order to more easily combat guerrilla forces. Over the following decades the British during the Second Boer War and the Americans during the Philippine–American War also used concentration camps.

The term "concentration camp" and "internment camp" are used to refer to a variety of systems that greatly differ in their severity, mortality rate, and architecture; their defining characteristic is that inmates are held outside the rule of law.^[6] Extermination camps or death camps, whose primary purpose is killing, are also imprecisely referred to as "concentration camps".^[7]

The Universal Declaration of Human Rights restricts the use of internment, with Article 9 stating, "No one shall be subjected to arbitrary arrest, detention or exile."^[8]

1. ^ Lowry, David (1976). "Human Rights Vol. 5, No. 3 "INTERNMENT: DENTENTION WITHOUT TRIAL IN NORTHERN IRELAND"". Human Rights. 5 (3). American Bar Association: ABA Publishing: 261–331. JSTOR 27879033. The essence of internment lies in incarceration without charge or trial.
2. ^ Kenney, Padraic (2017). Dance in Chains: Political Imprisonment in the Modern World. Oxford University Press. p. 47. ISBN 978-0-19-937574-5. A formal arrest usually comes with a charge, but many regimes employed internment (that is, detention without intent to file charges
3. ^ "the definition of internment". www.dictionary.com.
4. ^ Schumacher-Matos, Edward; Grisham, Lori (10 February 2012). "Euphemisms, Concentration Camps And The Japanese Internment". npr.org.
5. ^ "The Second Hague Convention, 1907". Yale.edu. Archived from the original on 19 October 2012. Retrieved 1 February 2013.
6. ^ Stone, Dan (2015). Concentration Camps: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford University Press. pp. 122–123. ISBN 978-0-19-879070-9. Concentration camps throughout the twentieth and twenty-first centuries are by no means all the same, with respect either to the degree of violence that characterizes them or the extent to which their inmates are abandoned by the authorities... The crucial characteristic of a concentration camp is not whether it has barbed wire, fences, or watchtowers; it is, rather, the gathering of civilians, defined by a regime as de facto 'enemies', in order to hold them against their will without charge in a place where the rule of law has been suspended.
7. ^ "Nazi Camps". United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. Retrieved 3 October 2020.
8. ^ Universal Declaration of Human Rights, Article 9, United Nations

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15 November: 2007 - A devastating Cyclone named Sidr hit Bangladesh, killing an estimated 5000 people and destroyed the world's largest mangrove forest, Sundarbans.

Sidr

Sidr or SIDR may refer to:

• Cyclone Sidr, a very severe cyclonic storm in the Bay of Bengal in 2007
• As Sidr, Saudi Arabia
• Sidra, Libya
• Sidrat al-Muntaha, a tree mentioned in the Quran
• Sidre, a self-help group for Bedouin in Israel
• Ziziphus lotus, a bush
• Ziziphus zizyphus (Jujube), a tree
• "Secure Inter-Domain Routing" (in computer networking)

Topics referred to by the same term

This disambiguation page lists articles associated with the title Sidr.
If an internal link led you here, you may wish to change the link to point directly to the intended article.

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16 November: 1945 - Cold War: Operation Paperclip: The United States Army secretly admits 88 German scientists and engineers to help in the development of rocket technology.

Operation Paperclip

Secret post-WWII United States program

"Project Paperclip" redirects here. For the Holocaust project, see Paper Clips Project. For other uses, see Paper clip (disambiguation).

Not to be confused with Operation Paper, a 1951–52 CIA operation.

Operation Paperclip was a secret United States intelligence program in which more than 1,600 German scientists, engineers, and technicians were taken from the former Nazi Germany to the U.S. for government employment after the end of World War II in Europe, between 1945–59. Some were former members and leaders of the Nazi Party.^[1][2]

The effort began in earnest in 1945, as the Allies advanced into Germany and discovered a wealth of scientific talent and advanced research that had contributed to Germany's wartime technological advancements. The U.S. Joint Chiefs of Staff officially established Operation Overcast on July 20, 1945, with the dual aim of leveraging German expertise to assist in the ongoing war effort against Japan, and to bolster U.S. postwar military research. The Operation was conducted by the Joint Intelligence Objectives Agency (JIOA), it was largely carried out by special agents of the U.S. Army's Counterintelligence Corps (CIC). Scientists taken were often involved in the Nazi rocket program, aviation, and chemical and biological warfare.

The operation was characterized by the recruitment of German specialists, along with their families, bringing the total to more than 6,000 relocated to the US for their expertise, valued at US$10 billion in patents and industrial processes. These recruits included notable figures such as Wernher von Braun, a leading scientist in rocket technology, and were instrumental in the development of the U.S. space program and military technology during the Cold War. Despite its contributions to American scientific advances, Operation Paperclip has been controversial due to the Nazi affiliations of many recruits, and the ethical implications of assimilating individuals associated with war crimes into American society.

The operation was not solely focused on rocketry; efforts were directed toward synthetic fuels, medicine, and other fields of research. Notable achievements, under Paperclip, include advancements in aeronautics, leading to significant progress in rocket and space-flight technologies that were pivotal in the Space Race. The operation played a crucial role in the establishment of NASA and success of the Apollo missions to the Moon.

Operation Paperclip was part of a broader strategy by the US to harness German scientific talent in the face of emerging Cold War tensions, ensuring this expertise did not fall into the hands of the Soviet Union or other nations. The operation's legacy is a blend of scientific achievement and ethical controversy, reflecting the challenges of reconciling the pursuit of knowledge, with the imperative to uphold justice and human rights.

1. ^ Jacobsen 2014, p. Prologue, ix.
2. ^ "Joint Intelligence Objectives Agency". U.S. National Archives and Records Administration. Retrieved October 9, 2008.

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17 November: 1558 - Elizabethan era begins: Queen Mary I of England dies and is succeeded by her half-sister Elizabeth I of England.

Elizabethan era

Epoch in English history (1558–1603)

Not to be confused with Elizabethan Russia, the Russian period during the reign of Elizabeth of Russia.

This article is about the reign of Elizabeth I. For the reign of Elizabeth II, see Elizabeth II § Reign.

The Elizabethan era is the epoch in the Tudor period of the history of England during the reign of Queen Elizabeth I (1558–1603). Historians often depict it as the golden age in English history. The symbol of Britannia (a female personification of Great Britain) was first used in 1572, and often thereafter, to mark the Elizabethan age as a renaissance that inspired national pride through classical ideals, international expansion, and naval triumph over Spain.

This "golden age"^[1] represented the apogee of the English Renaissance and saw the flowering of poetry, music and literature. The era is most famous for its theatre, as William Shakespeare and many others composed plays that broke free of England's past style of theatre. It was an age of exploration and expansion abroad, while back at home, the Protestant Reformation became more acceptable to the people, most certainly after the Spanish Armada was repelled. It was also the end of the period when England was a separate realm before its royal union with Scotland.

The Elizabethan age contrasts sharply with the previous and following reigns. It was a brief period of internal peace between the Wars of the Roses in the previous century, the English Reformation, and the religious battles between Protestants and Catholics prior to Elizabeth's reign, and then the later conflict of the English Civil War and the ongoing political battles between parliament and the monarchy that engulfed the remainder of the seventeenth century. The Protestant/Catholic divide was settled, for a time, by the Elizabethan Religious Settlement, and parliament was not yet strong enough to challenge royal absolutism.

England was also well-off compared to the other nations of Europe. The Italian Renaissance had come to an end following the end of the Italian Wars, which left the Italian Peninsula impoverished. The Kingdom of France was embroiled in the French Wars of Religion (1562–1598). They were (temporarily) settled in 1598 by a policy of tolerating Protestantism with the Edict of Nantes. In part because of this, but also because the English had been expelled from their last outposts on the continent by Spain's tercios, the centuries-long Anglo-French Wars were largely suspended for most of Elizabeth's reign.

The one great rival was Habsburg Spain, with whom England clashed both in Europe and the Americas in skirmishes that exploded into the Anglo-Spanish War of 1585–1604. An attempt by Philip II of Spain to invade England with the Spanish Armada in 1588 was famously defeated. In turn England launched an equally unsuccessful expedition to Spain with the Drake–Norris Expedition of 1589. Three further Spanish Armadas also failed in 1596, 1597 and 1602. The war ended with the Treaty of London the year following Elizabeth's death.

England during this period had a centralised, well-organised, and effective government, largely a result of the reforms of Henry VII and Henry VIII, as well as Elizabeth's harsh punishments for any dissenters. Economically, the country began to benefit greatly from the new era of trans-Atlantic trade and persistent theft of Spanish and Portuguese treasures, most notably as a result of Francis Drake's circumnavigation.

The term Elizabethan era was already well-established in English and British historical consciousness, long before the accession of Queen Elizabeth II, and generally refers solely to the time of the earlier Queen of this name.

1. ^ From the 1944 Clark lectures by C. S. Lewis; Lewis, English Literature in the Sixteenth Century (Oxford, 1954) p. 1, OCLC 256072

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18 November: 1947 - Ballantyne's Department Store fire, Christchurch, New Zealand, kills 41 (New Zealand's worst ever fire)

Ballantyne%27s_store_disaster

 

19 November: 1969 - Football player Pelé scores his 1,000th goal.

Pel%C3%A9

 

20 November: 1820 - An 80-ton sperm whale attacks the Essex (a whaling ship from Nantucket, Massachusetts) 2,000 miles from the western coast of South America (Herman Melville's 1851 novel Moby-Dick was in part inspired by this story).

Moby-Dick

1851 novel by Herman Melville

"Moby Dick" redirects here. For other uses, see Moby Dick (disambiguation).

Moby-Dick; or, The Whale is an 1851 novel by American writer Herman Melville. The book is the sailor Ishmael's narrative of the maniacal quest of Ahab, captain of the whaling ship Pequod, for vengeance against Moby Dick, the giant white sperm whale that bit off his leg on the ship's previous voyage. A contribution to the literature of the American Renaissance, Moby-Dick was published to mixed reviews, was a commercial failure, and was out of print at the time of the author's death in 1891. Its reputation as a Great American Novel was established only in the 20th century, after the 1919 centennial of its author's birth. William Faulkner said he wished he had written the book himself,^[1] and D. H. Lawrence called it "one of the strangest and most wonderful books in the world" and "the greatest book of the sea ever written".^[2] Its opening sentence, "Call me Ishmael", is among world literature's most famous.^[3]

Melville began writing Moby-Dick in February 1850 and finished 18 months later, a year after he had anticipated. Melville drew on his experience as a common sailor from 1841 to 1844, including on whalers, and on wide reading in whaling literature. The white whale is modeled on a notoriously hard-to-catch albino whale Mocha Dick, and the book's ending is based on the sinking of the whaleship Essex in 1820. The detailed and realistic descriptions of whale hunting and of extracting whale oil, as well as life aboard ship among a culturally diverse crew, are mixed with exploration of class and social status, good and evil, and the existence of God. The book's literary influences include Shakespeare, Carlyle and the Bible. In addition to narrative prose, Melville uses styles and literary devices ranging from songs, poetry, and catalogs to Shakespearean stage directions, soliloquies, and asides. In August 1850, with the manuscript perhaps half finished, he met Nathaniel Hawthorne and was deeply impressed by his Mosses from an Old Manse, which he compared to Shakespeare in its cosmic ambitions. This encounter may have inspired him to revise and deepen Moby-Dick, which is dedicated to Hawthorne, "in token of my admiration for his genius".

The book was first published (in three volumes) as The Whale in London in October 1851, and under its definitive title, Moby-Dick; or, The Whale, in a single-volume edition in New York in November. The London publisher, Richard Bentley, censored or changed sensitive passages; Melville made revisions as well, including a last-minute change of the title for the New York edition. The whale, however, appears in the text of both editions as "Moby Dick", without the hyphen.^[4] Reviewers in Britain were largely favorable,^[5] though some objected that the tale seemed to be told by a narrator who perished with the ship, as the British edition lacked the epilogue recounting Ishmael's survival. American reviewers were more hostile.^[6]

1. ^ Faulkner (1927)
2. ^ Lawrence (1923), 168
3. ^ Buell (2014), 362 note.
4. ^ Tanselle (1988) "Editorial Appendix", 810–12
5. ^ Cite error: The named reference Parker 1988, 702 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
6. ^ Parker (1988), 721–722

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21 November: 1905 - Albert Einstein's paper, "Does the Inertia of a Body Depend Upon Its Energy Content?", is published in the journal "Annalen der Physik". This paper reveals the relationship between energy and mass. This leads to the mass–energy equivalence formula E = mc².

Albert Einstein

German-born physicist (1879–1955)

"Einstein" redirects here. For other uses, see Einstein (disambiguation) and Albert Einstein (disambiguation).

Albert Einstein (/ˈaɪnstaɪn/ EYEN-styne;^[4] German: [ˈalbɛɐt ˈʔaɪnʃtaɪn] ^ⓘ; 14 March 1879 – 18 April 1955) was a German-born theoretical physicist who is widely held to be one of the greatest and most influential scientists of all time. Best known for developing the theory of relativity, Einstein also made important contributions to quantum mechanics, and was thus a central figure in the revolutionary reshaping of the scientific understanding of nature that modern physics accomplished in the first decades of the twentieth century.^[1][5] His mass–energy equivalence formula E = mc², which arises from relativity theory, has been called "the world's most famous equation".^[6] He received the 1921 Nobel Prize in Physics "for his services to theoretical physics, and especially for his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect",^[7] a pivotal step in the development of quantum theory. His work is also known for its influence on the philosophy of science.^[8][9] In a 1999 poll of 130 leading physicists worldwide by the British journal Physics World, Einstein was ranked the greatest physicist of all time.^[10] His intellectual achievements and originality have made the word Einstein broadly synonymous with genius.^[11]

Born in the German Empire, Einstein moved to Switzerland in 1895, forsaking his German citizenship (as a subject of the Kingdom of Württemberg)^{[note 1]} the following year. In 1897, at the age of seventeen, he enrolled in the mathematics and physics teaching diploma program at the Swiss federal polytechnic school in Zürich, graduating in 1900. In 1901, he acquired Swiss citizenship, which he kept for the rest of his life. In 1903, he secured a permanent position at the Swiss Patent Office in Bern. In 1905, he submitted a successful PhD dissertation to the University of Zurich. In 1914, he moved to Berlin in order to join the Prussian Academy of Sciences and the Humboldt University of Berlin. In 1917, he became director of the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Physics; he also became a German citizen again, this time as a subject of the Kingdom of Prussia.^{[note 1]}

In 1933, while he was visiting the United States, Adolf Hitler came to power in Germany. Horrified by the Nazi "war of extermination" against his fellow Jews,^[12] Einstein decided to remain in the US, and was granted American citizenship in 1940.^[13] On the eve of World War II, he endorsed a letter to President Franklin D. Roosevelt alerting him to the potential German nuclear weapons program and recommending that the US begin similar research. Einstein supported the Allies but generally viewed the idea of nuclear weapons with great dismay.^[14]

In 1905, sometimes described as his annus mirabilis (miracle year), Einstein published four groundbreaking papers.^[15] These outlined a theory of the photoelectric effect, explained Brownian motion, introduced his special theory of relativity—a theory which addressed the inability of classical mechanics to account satisfactorily for the behavior of the electromagnetic field—and demonstrated that if the special theory is correct, mass and energy are equivalent to each other. In 1915, he proposed a general theory of relativity that extended his system of mechanics to incorporate gravitation. A cosmological paper that he published the following year laid out the implications of general relativity for the modeling of the structure and evolution of the universe as a whole.^[16][17] The middle part of his career also saw him making important contributions to statistical mechanics and quantum theory. Especially notable was his work on the quantum physics of radiation, in which light consists of particles, subsequently called photons. For much of the last phase of his academic life, Einstein worked on two endeavors that proved ultimately unsuccessful. Firstly, he advocated against quantum theory's introduction of fundamental randomness into science's picture of the world, objecting that "God does not play dice".^[18] Secondly, he attempted to devise a unified field theory by generalizing his geometric theory of gravitation to include electromagnetism too. As a result, he became increasingly isolated from the mainstream of modern physics.

1. ^ ^{a b c} Cite error: The named reference frs was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
2. ^ "The Gold Medal" (PDF). Royal Astronomical Society. Archived (PDF) from the original on 20 December 2021. Retrieved 20 December 2021.
3. ^ "Membership directory". National Academy of Sciences. Archived from the original on 20 December 2021. Retrieved 20 December 2021.
4. ^ Cite error: The named reference NDxay was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
5. ^ Cite error: The named reference YangHamilton2010 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
6. ^ Cite error: The named reference LnLVo was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
7. ^ Cite error: The named reference Nobel Prize was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
8. ^ Cite error: The named reference xZQWt was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
9. ^ Cite error: The named reference 3UiiT was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
10. ^ "Physics: past, present, future". Physics World. 6 December 1999. Retrieved 1 August 2023.
11. ^ Cite error: The named reference wordnetweb.princeton.edu was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
12. ^ Cite error: The named reference zE9Bz was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
13. ^ Cite error: The named reference BoyerDubofsky2001 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
14. ^ "Albert Einstein on nuclear weapons | Wise International". wiseinternational.org. Retrieved 23 October 2022.
15. ^ Galison (2000), p. 377.
16. ^ Cite error: The named reference Nobel was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
17. ^ Cite error: The named reference NYT-20151124 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
18. ^ Robinson, Andrew (30 April 2018). "Did Einstein really say that?". Nature. 557 (30): 30. Bibcode:2018Natur.557...30R. doi:10.1038/d41586-018-05004-4. S2CID 14013938. Archived from the original on 9 November 2020. Retrieved 21 February 2021.

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22 November: 1963 - In Dallas, Texas, US President John F. Kennedy is killed and Texas Governor John B. Connally is seriously wounded by an assassin, identified as Lee Harvey Oswald, who was later captured and charged with the murder of police officer J. D. Tippit. That same day, US Vice-President Lyndon B. Johnson is sworn in as the 36th President of the United States.

John F. Kennedy

President of the United States from 1961 to 1963

Several terms redirect here. For the current Republican senator, see John Kennedy (Louisiana politician). For other uses, see John Kennedy (disambiguation), Jack Kennedy (disambiguation), JFK (disambiguation), and John F. Kennedy (disambiguation).

John Fitzgerald Kennedy (May 29, 1917 – November 22, 1963), often referred to as JFK, was an American politician who served as the 35th president of the United States from 1961 until his assassination in 1963. He was the youngest person elected president.^[2] Kennedy served at the height of the Cold War, and the majority of his foreign policy concerned relations with the Soviet Union and Cuba. A Democrat, Kennedy represented Massachusetts in both houses of the United States Congress prior to his presidency.

Born into the prominent Kennedy family in Brookline, Massachusetts, Kennedy graduated from Harvard University in 1940, joining the U.S. Naval Reserve the following year. During World War II, he commanded PT boats in the Pacific theater. Kennedy's survival following the sinking of PT-109 and his rescue of his fellow sailors made him a war hero and earned the Navy and Marine Corps Medal, but left him with serious injuries. After a brief stint in journalism, Kennedy represented a working-class Boston district in the U.S. House of Representatives from 1947 to 1953. He was subsequently elected to the U.S. Senate, serving as the junior senator for Massachusetts from 1953 to 1960. While in the Senate, Kennedy published his book, Profiles in Courage, which won a Pulitzer Prize. Kennedy ran in the 1960 presidential election. His campaign gained momentum after the first televised presidential debates in American history, and he was elected president, narrowly defeating Republican opponent Richard Nixon, the incumbent vice president.

Kennedy's presidency saw high tensions with communist states in the Cold War. He increased the number of American military advisers in South Vietnam, and the Strategic Hamlet Program began during his presidency. In 1961, he authorized attempts to overthrow the Cuban government of Fidel Castro in the failed Bay of Pigs Invasion and Operation Mongoose. In October 1962, U.S. spy planes discovered Soviet missile bases had been deployed in Cuba. The resulting period of tensions, termed the Cuban Missile Crisis, nearly resulted in nuclear war. In August 1961, after East German troops erected the Berlin Wall, Kennedy sent an army convoy to reassure West Berliners of U.S. support, and delivered one of his most famous speeches in West Berlin in June 1963. In 1963, Kennedy signed the first nuclear weapons treaty. He presided over the establishment of the Peace Corps, Alliance for Progress with Latin America, and the continuation of the Apollo program with the goal of landing a man on the Moon before 1970. He supported the civil rights movement but was only somewhat successful in passing his New Frontier domestic policies.

On November 22, 1963, Kennedy was assassinated in Dallas. His vice president, Lyndon B. Johnson, assumed the presidency. Lee Harvey Oswald was arrested for the assassination, but he was shot and killed by Jack Ruby two days later. The FBI and the Warren Commission both concluded Oswald had acted alone, but conspiracy theories about the assassination persist. After Kennedy's death, Congress enacted many of his proposals, including the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Revenue Act of 1964. Kennedy ranks highly in polls of U.S. presidents with historians and the general public. His personal life has been the focus of considerable sustained interest following public revelations in the 1970s of his chronic health ailments and extramarital affairs. Kennedy is the most recent U.S. president to have died in office.

1. ^ "John F. Kennedy Miscellaneous Information". John F. Kennedy Presidential Library & Museum. Archived from the original on August 31, 2009. Retrieved February 22, 2012.
2. ^ "John F. Kennedy". whitehousehistory.org. Washington, D.C.: White House Historical Association. Archived from the original on October 8, 2020. Retrieved May 1, 2022.

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23 November: 1867 - The Manchester Martyrs were hanged in Manchester, England for rescuing two Irish men from jail.

Manchester Martyrs

Three Irish nationalists hanged in 1867

The Manchester Martyrs (Irish: Mairtirígh Mhanchain)^[1][2] were three Irish nationalists – William Philip Allen, Michael Larkin, and Michael O'Brien – who were hanged in 1867 following their conviction of murder after an attack on a police van in Manchester, England, in which a police officer was accidentally shot dead,^[3] an incident that was known at the time as the Manchester Outrages. The three men were members of the Irish Republican Brotherhood, also known as the Fenians, an organisation dedicated to ending British rule in Ireland, and were among a group of 30 to 40 Fenians who attacked a horse-drawn police van transporting two arrested leaders of the Brotherhood, Thomas J. Kelly and Timothy Deasy, to Belle Vue Gaol. Police Sergeant Charles Brett, travelling inside with the keys, was shot and killed while looking through the keyhole of the van as the attackers attempted to force the door open by shooting the lock.

Kelly and Deasy were released after another prisoner in the van took the keys from Brett's body and passed them to the group outside through a ventilation grill; the pair were never recaptured, despite an extensive search. Although Allen and Larkin admitted taking part in the attack, none of the defendants was accused of firing the fatal shot, but they were convicted on the basis of "joint enterprise" for taking part in a criminal enterprise that ended in the killing. The trial has nonetheless been described by an eminent Irish historian as "unsatisfactory", and the evidence as "dubious".^[3]

Two others were also charged and found guilty of Brett's murder, Thomas Maguire and Edward O'Meagher Condon, but their death sentences were overturned—O'Meagher Condon's through the intercession of the United States government (he was an American citizen), and Maguire's because the evidence given against him was considered unsatisfactory by the court. Allen, Larkin and O'Brien were publicly hanged on a temporary structure built on the wall of Salford Gaol, on 23 November 1867, in front of a crowd of 8,000–10,000.

Ireland reacted with revulsion and anger to the executions,^[4] and Allen, Larkin and O'Brien were hailed as political martyrs. Annual commemorations were held throughout Ireland, and monuments were built in many Irish towns.^[5] Brett, the first Manchester City Police officer to be killed on duty, is memorialised in a monument in St Ann's Church.

1. ^ https://www.corkcoco.ie/sites/default/files/2017-07/CreativeCounty_CorkCounty_Final_Screen.pdf ^{[bare URL PDF]}
2. ^ "Comhdháil Mháirtirígh Mhanchain".
3. ^ ^{a b} Lyons, F. S. L. (1985). Ireland since the Famine. London: Fontana Press. p. 137. ISBN 0-00-686005-2. Retrieved 15 July 2021.
4. ^ Cite error: The named reference Busteed was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
5. ^ Mark-Fitzgerald, Emily (2013). Commemorating the Irish Famine: Memory and the Monument. Liverpool University Press. p. 143. ISBN 978-1-84631-898-6. Retrieved 15 July 2021.

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24 November: 1859 - Charles Darwin publishes On the Origin of Species

On the Origin of Species

1859 book on evolution by Charles Darwin

"Origin of Species" and "Origin of the species" redirect here. For other uses, see Origin of Species (disambiguation).

On the Origin of Species (or, more completely, On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, or the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life)^[3] is a work of scientific literature by Charles Darwin that is considered to be the foundation of evolutionary biology; it was published on 24 November 1859.^[4] Darwin's book introduced the scientific theory that populations evolve over the course of generations through a process of natural selection although Lamarckism was also included as a mechanism of lesser importance. The book presented a body of evidence that the diversity of life arose by common descent through a branching pattern of evolution. Darwin included evidence that he had collected on the Beagle expedition in the 1830s and his subsequent findings from research, correspondence, and experimentation.^[5] The opening sentences demonstrate that Darwin did not see the role of natural selection in species conformity or what is now called stabilizing selection. This was not corrected in editions subsequent to Darwin reading the correct explanation In Patrick Matthew's book in 1860 which had been published in 1831.

Various evolutionary ideas had already been proposed to explain new findings in biology. There was growing support for such ideas among dissident anatomists and the general public, but during the first half of the 19th century the English scientific establishment was closely tied to the Church of England, while science was part of natural theology. Ideas about the transmutation of species were controversial as they conflicted with the beliefs that species were unchanging parts of a designed hierarchy and that humans were unique, unrelated to other animals. The political and theological implications were intensely debated, but transmutation was not accepted by the scientific mainstream.

The book was written for non-specialist readers and attracted widespread interest upon its publication. Darwin was already highly regarded as a scientist, so his findings were taken seriously and the evidence he presented generated scientific, philosophical, and religious discussion. The debate over the book contributed to the campaign by T. H. Huxley and his fellow members of the X Club to secularise science by promoting scientific naturalism. Within two decades, there was widespread scientific agreement that evolution, with a branching pattern of common descent, had occurred, but scientists were slow to give natural selection the significance that Darwin thought appropriate. During "the eclipse of Darwinism" from the 1880s to the 1930s, various other mechanisms of evolution were given more credit. With the development of the modern evolutionary synthesis in the 1930s and 1940s, Darwin's concept of evolutionary adaptation through natural selection became central to modern evolutionary theory, and it has now become the unifying concept of the life sciences.

1. ^ Darwin 1859, p. iii
2. ^ Cite error: The named reference Freeman 1977 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
3. ^ The book's full original title was On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, or the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life. In the 1872 sixth edition, "On" was omitted, so the full title is The origin of species by means of natural selection, or the preservation of favoured races in the struggle for life. This edition is usually known as The Origin of Species. The 6th is Darwin's final edition; there were minor modifications in the text of certain subsequent issues. See Freeman, R. B. "The works of Charles Darwin: an annotated bibliographical handlist." In Van Wyhe, John, ed. Darwin Online: On the Origin of Species, 2002.
4. ^ Desmond & Moore 1991, p. 477.
5. ^ "Darwin Manuscripts (Digitised notes on Origin)". Cambridge Digital Library. Retrieved 24 November 2014.

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25 November: 1984 - 36 top musicians gather in a Notting Hill studio and record Band Aid's Do They Know It's Christmas in order to raise money for famine relief in Ethiopia.

Do_They_Know_It%27s_Christmas

 

26 November: 43 BC - The Second Triumvirate alliance of Gaius Julius Caesar Octavianus ("Octavian", later "Caesar Augustus"), Marcus Aemilius Lepidus, and Mark Antony is formed.

Second Triumvirate

Roman political organisation (43–32 BC)

This article is about the magistracy in the Roman Republic. For the second of the 19th century AD Argentinian alliances, see Second Triumvirate (Argentina).

Coins of the triumvirs (Antony, Octavian, and Lepidus), bearing the inscription III vir R P C (triumvir rei publicae constituendae).

The Second Triumvirate was an extraordinary commission and magistracy created for Mark Antony, Lepidus, and Octavian to give them practically absolute power. It was formally constituted by law on^[1] 27 November 43 BC with a term of five years; it was renewed in 37 BC for another five years before expiring in 32 BC. Constituted by the lex Titia, the triumvirs were given broad powers to make or repeal legislation, issue judicial punishments without due process or right of appeal, and appoint all other magistrates. The triumvirs also split the Roman world into three sets of provinces.

The triumvirate, formed in the aftermath of a conflict between Antony and the senate, emerged as a force to reassert Caesarian control over the western provinces and wage war on the liberatores led by the men who assassinated Julius Caesar. After proscriptions, purging the senatorial and equestrian orders, and a brutal civil war, the liberatores were defeated at the Battle of Philippi.^[2] After Philippi, Antony and Octavian took the east and west, respectively, with Lepidus confined to Africa.

Octavian and Antony were pushed to cooperation, in part by their soldiers, and the triumvirs had their legal arrangement renewed for another five years in 37 BC. Eventually, after Antony's defeat in Parthia and Octavian's victory over remnant Pompeians in Sicily, Octavian forced Lepidus from the triumvirate in 36 BC. Relations between the two remaining triumvirs broke down in the late 30s BC before they fought a final war, from which Octavian emerged the victor.

1. ^ Cadoux & Lintott 2012.
2. ^ Goldsworthy 2006, p. 511.

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27 November: 1924 - In New York City, the first Macy's Thanksgiving Day Parade is held.

Macy%27s_Thanksgiving_Day_Parade

 

28 November: 1979 - The Mount Erebus disaster: An Air New Zealand DC-10 crashes into Mount Erebus on a sightseeing trip, killing all 257 people on board.

Mount Erebus disaster

November 1979 aviation accident in Antarctica

The Mount Erebus disaster occurred on 28 November 1979 when Air New Zealand Flight 901 (TE901)^{[nb 1]} flew into Mount Erebus on Ross Island, Antarctica, killing all 237 passengers and 20 crew on board.^[1][2] Air New Zealand had been operating scheduled Antarctic sightseeing flights since 1977. This flight was supposed to leave Auckland Airport in the morning and spend a few hours flying over the Antarctic continent, before returning to Auckland in the evening via Christchurch.

The initial investigation concluded the accident was caused primarily by pilot error, but public outcry led to the establishment of a Royal Commission of Inquiry into the crash. The commission, presided over by Justice Peter Mahon QC, concluded that the accident was primarily caused by a correction made to the coordinates of the flight path the night before the disaster, coupled with a failure to inform the flight crew of the change, with the result that the aircraft, instead of being directed by computer down McMurdo Sound (as the crew had been led to believe), was instead rerouted to a path toward Mount Erebus. Justice Mahon's report accused Air New Zealand of presenting "an orchestrated litany of lies", and this led to changes in senior management at the airline. The Privy Council later ruled that the finding of a conspiracy was a breach of natural justice and not supported by the evidence.^{[citation needed]}

The accident is the deadliest accident in the history of Air New Zealand, the deadliest aviation accident in Antarctica and one of New Zealand's deadliest peacetime disasters.

Cite error: There are <ref group=nb> tags on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=nb}} template (see the help page).

1. ^ Accident description for ZK-NZP at the Aviation Safety Network. Retrieved on 24 August 2011.
2. ^ "DC-10 playbacks awaited". Flight International: 1987. 15 December 1979. Archived from the original on 5 November 2012. At press time no information had been released concerning the flightdata and cockpit-voice recorder of Air New Zealand McDonnell Douglas DC-10 ZK-NZP which crashed on Mount Erebus on 28 November.

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29 November: 1882 - The date attributed to the death of English Cricket and the origin of the legend of The Ashes. This is the date according to the mock obituary in The Sporting Times.

The Ashes

International cricket series

This article is about the Ashes in men's cricket. For the women's equivalent, see The Women's Ashes. For other uses, see The Ashes (disambiguation).

The Ashes is a men's Test cricket series played biennially between England and Australia. The term originated in a satirical obituary published in a British newspaper, The Sporting Times, immediately after Australia's 1882 victory at The Oval, its first Test win on English soil. The obituary stated that English cricket had died, and that "the body will be cremated and the ashes taken to Australia".^[1] The mythical ashes immediately became associated with the 1882–83 series played in Australia, before which the English captain Ivo Bligh had vowed to "regain those ashes". The English media therefore dubbed the tour the quest to regain the Ashes.

After England won two of the three Tests on the tour, a small urn was presented to Bligh in Melbourne.^[2] The contents of the urn are reputed to be the ashes of a wooden bail, and were humorously described as "the ashes of Australian cricket".^[3] It is not clear whether that "tiny silver urn" is the same as the small terracotta urn given to Marylebone Cricket Club (MCC) by Bligh's widow after his death in 1927.

The Ashes urn has never been the official trophy of the series, having been a personal gift to Bligh,^[4] but replicas of the urn have often been held aloft by the winning team as a symbol of their victory. Since the 1998–99 Ashes series, the Ashes Trophy, a Waterford Crystal trophy modelled on the Ashes urn, has been presented to the winners of the series. Irrespective of which side holds the trophy, the original urn remains in the MCC Museum at Lord's. It has been taken to Australia twice to be put on touring display, as part of the Australian Bicentenary celebrations in 1988 and to accompany the Ashes series in 2006–07.

Ashes series have usually consisted of five Tests, hosted in turn by England and Australia approximately every two years. The Ashes are regarded as being held by the team that most recently won the series. If the series is drawn, the team that currently holds the Ashes "retains" the trophy.

There have been 73 Ashes series. Australia have won 34 and retained six times from draws (40); England have won 32 and retained once (33).

1. ^ Wendy Lewis; Simon Balderstone & John Bowan (2006). Events That Shaped Australia. New Holland. p. 75. ISBN 978-1-74110-492-9.
2. ^ "Summary of Events". The Illustrated Australian News. Melbourne. 20 February 1884. p. 18.
3. ^ "Cricket". The Mercury. Hobart. 4 June 1908. p. 8.
4. ^ "The Ashes History". Lords. Archived from the original on 9 October 2018. Retrieved 21 December 2018.

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30 November: 1974 - Lucy (Australopithecus) is discovered by Donald Johanson, Maurice Taieb, Yves Coppens and Tim White in the Middle Awash of Ethiopia's Afar Depression.

Lucy (Australopithecus)

3.2-million-year-old fossilized hominid

"Dinkinesh" redirects here. For the asteroid, see 152830 Dinkinesh.

AL 288-1, commonly known as Lucy or Dinkʼinesh (Amharic: ድንቅ ነሽ, lit. 'you are marvellous'), is a collection of several hundred pieces of fossilized bone comprising 40 percent of the skeleton of a female of the hominin species Australopithecus afarensis. It was discovered in 1974 in Ethiopia, at Hadar, a site in the Awash Valley of the Afar Triangle, by Donald Johanson, a paleoanthropologist of the Cleveland Museum of Natural History.^[1][2][3]

Lucy is an early australopithecine and is dated to about 3.2 million years ago. The skeleton presents a small skull akin to that of non-hominin apes, plus evidence of a walking-gait that was bipedal and upright, akin to that of humans (and other hominins); this combination supports the view of human evolution that bipedalism preceded increase in brain size.^[4][5] A 2016 study proposes that Australopithecus afarensis was also, to a large extent, tree-dwelling, though the extent of this is debated.^[6][7]

Lucy was named by Pamela Alderman after the 1967 song "Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds" by the Beatles, which was played loudly and repeatedly in the expedition camp all evening after the excavation team's first day of work on the recovery site.^[8] After public announcement of the discovery, Lucy captured much international interest, becoming a household name at the time.

Lucy became famous worldwide, and the story of her discovery and reconstruction was published in a book by Johanson and Edey. Beginning in 2007, the fossil assembly and associated artefacts were exhibited publicly in an extended six-year tour of the United States; the exhibition was called Lucy's Legacy: The Hidden Treasures of Ethiopia. There was discussion of the risks of damage to the unique fossils, and other museums preferred to display casts of the fossil assembly.^[9] The original fossils were returned to Ethiopia in 2013, and subsequent exhibitions have used casts.

1. ^ Johanson & Wong 2009, p. 8.
2. ^ Johanson & Wong 2009, p. 9.
3. ^ Cite error: The named reference iho1 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
4. ^ Hadar entry in Encyclopædia (2008).
5. ^ Tomkins, Stephen (1998). The Origins of Humankind. Cambridge University Press. p. 136. ISBN 978-0-521-46676-9.
6. ^ Klein, Joanna (November 30, 2016). "Study Suggests 3.2 Million-Year-Old Lucy Spent a Lot of Time in Trees". New York Times. Retrieved November 30, 2016.
7. ^ Ruff, Christopher B.; Burgess, M. Loring; Ketcham, Richard A.; Kappelman, John (2016). "Limb Bone Structural Proportions and Locomotor Behavior in A.L. 288-1". PLOS ONE. 11 (11): e0166095. Bibcode:2016PLoSO..1166095R. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0166095. PMC 5130205. PMID 27902687.
8. ^ Johanson & Wong 2009, pp. 7–8.
9. ^ Cite error: The named reference bloom was invoked but never defined (see the help page).

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1 December: 1990 - Channel Tunnel sections started from the United Kingdom and France meet 40 meters beneath the seabed.

Channel Tunnel

Undersea rail tunnel linking France and England

The Channel Tunnel (French: Tunnel sous la Manche), sometimes referred to informally as the Chunnel,^[3][4] is a 50.46-kilometre (31.35 mi) undersea railway tunnel, opened in 1994, that connects Folkestone (Kent, England) with Coquelles (Pas-de-Calais, France) beneath the English Channel at the Strait of Dover. It is the only fixed link between the island of Great Britain and the European mainland. At its lowest point, it is 75 metres (246 ft) below the sea bed and 115 metres (377 ft) below sea level.^[5][6][7] At 37.9 kilometres (23.5 mi), it has the longest underwater section of any tunnel in the world and is the third-longest railway tunnel in the world. The speed limit for trains through the tunnel is 160 kilometres per hour (99 mph).^[8] The tunnel is owned and operated by Getlink, formerly Groupe Eurotunnel.

The tunnel carries high-speed Eurostar passenger trains, LeShuttle services for road vehicles^[9] and freight trains.^[10] It connects end-to-end with high-speed railway lines: the LGV Nord in France and High Speed 1 in England. In 2017, rail services carried 10.3 million passengers and 1.22 million tonnes of freight, and the Shuttle carried 10.4 million passengers, 2.6 million cars, 51,000 coaches, and 1.6 million lorries (equivalent to 21.3 million tonnes of freight),^[11] compared with 11.7 million passengers, 2.6 million lorries and 2.2 million cars by sea through the Port of Dover.^[12]

Plans to build a cross-Channel tunnel were proposed as early as 1802,^[13][14] but British political and media criticism motivated by fears of compromising national security had disrupted attempts to build one.^[15] An early unsuccessful attempt was made in the late 19th century, on the English side, "in the hope of forcing the hand of the English Government".^[16] The eventual successful project, organised by Eurotunnel, began construction in 1988 and opened in 1994. Estimated to cost £5.5 billion in 1985,^[17] it was at the time the most expensive construction project ever proposed. The cost finally amounted to £9 billion (equivalent to £19 billion in 2021).^[18][19]

Since its opening, the tunnel has experienced occasional mechanical problems. Both fires and cold weather have temporarily disrupted its operation.^[20][21] Since at least 1997, aggregations of migrants around Calais seeking entry to the United Kingdom, such as through the tunnel, have prompted deterrence and countermeasures.^[22][23][24]

1. ^ Institution of Civil Engineers (Great Britain) (1995). The Channel Tunnel: Transport systems, Volume 4. Vol. 108. Thomas Telford. p. 22. ISBN 9780727720245.
2. ^ The Channel Tunnel: Terminals. Thomas Telford. 1993. ISBN 978-0-7277-1939-3.
3. ^ Cite error: The named reference BBC openingceremony was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
4. ^ Baraniuk, Chris (23 August 2017). "The Channel Tunnel that was never built". BBC. Retrieved 21 July 2022.
5. ^ "Folkestone Eurotunnel Trains". Transworld Leisure Limited. Retrieved 11 February 2017.
6. ^ Cite error: The named reference ICE p. 95 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
7. ^ Wise, Jeff (1 October 2009). "Turkey Building the World's Deepest Immersed Tube Tunnel". Popular Mechanics. Archived from the original on 17 May 2014.
8. ^ Dumitrache, Alina (24 March 2010). "The Channel Tunnel – Traveling Under the Sea". AutoEvolution. Retrieved 2 August 2014.
9. ^ Cite error: The named reference Anderson Story p xvi-xvii was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
10. ^ Cite error: The named reference Chisholm was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
11. ^ "Traffic figures". GetLink Group. Retrieved 11 July 2018.
12. ^ "About/Performance". Port of Dover. Retrieved 11 July 2018.
13. ^ Cite error: The named reference Whiteside p17 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
14. ^ "The Channel Tunnel". library.thinkquest.org. Archived from the original on 12 December 2007. Retrieved 19 July 2009.
15. ^ Cite error: The named reference Wilson pp. 14–21 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
16. ^ Paddy at Home ("Chez Paddy") (2nd ed.). Chapman & Hall Covent Garden, London. 1887.
17. ^ Veditz, Leslie Allen. "The Channel Tunnel – A Case Study" (PDF). Fort McNair, Washington, D.C., U.S.: The Industrial College of the Armed Forces, National Defense University. p. 8. Archived (PDF) from the original on 21 December 2016. Retrieved 9 December 2016.
18. ^ "How the Channel Tunnel was Built". Folkestone, England / Coquelles Cedex France: Eurotunnel Group. Retrieved 9 December 2016. It was at the time the most expensive construction project ever proposed and the final cost was £9 billion.
19. ^ Cite error: The named reference Flyvbjerg p. 12 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
20. ^ "Channel tunnel fire worst in service's history". The Guardian. 12 September 2008. Retrieved 21 February 2014.
21. ^ "Thousands freed from Channel Tunnel after trains fail". BBC News. 19 December 2009. Retrieved 21 February 2014.
22. ^ "Four men caught in Channel Tunnel". BBC News. 4 January 2008. Retrieved 19 July 2009.
23. ^ "Sangatte refugee camp". The Guardian. UK. 23 May 2002. Retrieved 19 July 2009.
24. ^ "French Channel Tunnel train drivers 'haunted' by migrant deaths". The Daily Telegraph. 1 October 2015. Archived from the original on 11 January 2022. Retrieved 18 January 2017.

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