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11 January: 1922 - First use of insulin to treat diabetes in a human patient.

Insulin

Peptide hormone

This article is about the naturally occurring protein. For uses of insulin in treating diabetes, see Insulin (medication).

Not to be confused with Inulin.

Insulin (/ˈɪn.sjʊ.lɪn/,^[5][6] from Latin insula, 'island') is a peptide hormone produced by beta cells of the pancreatic islets encoded in humans by the insulin (INS) gene. It is considered to be the main anabolic hormone of the body.^[7] It regulates the metabolism of carbohydrates, fats and protein by promoting the absorption of glucose from the blood into liver, fat and skeletal muscle cells.^[8] In these tissues the absorbed glucose is converted into either glycogen via glycogenesis or fats (triglycerides) via lipogenesis, or, in the case of the liver, into both.^[8] Glucose production and secretion by the liver is strongly inhibited by high concentrations of insulin in the blood.^[9] Circulating insulin also affects the synthesis of proteins in a wide variety of tissues. It is therefore an anabolic hormone, promoting the conversion of small molecules in the blood into large molecules inside the cells. Low insulin levels in the blood have the opposite effect by promoting widespread catabolism, especially of reserve body fat.

Beta cells are sensitive to blood sugar levels so that they secrete insulin into the blood in response to high level of glucose, and inhibit secretion of insulin when glucose levels are low.^[10] Insulin production is also regulated by glucose: high glucose promotes insulin production while low glucose levels lead to lower production.^[11] Insulin enhances glucose uptake and metabolism in the cells, thereby reducing blood sugar level. Their neighboring alpha cells, by taking their cues from the beta cells,^[10] secrete glucagon into the blood in the opposite manner: increased secretion when blood glucose is low, and decreased secretion when glucose concentrations are high. Glucagon increases blood glucose level by stimulating glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis in the liver.^[8][10] The secretion of insulin and glucagon into the blood in response to the blood glucose concentration is the primary mechanism of glucose homeostasis.^[10]

Decreased or absent insulin activity results in diabetes, a condition of high blood sugar level (hyperglycaemia). There are two types of the disease. In type 1 diabetes, the beta cells are destroyed by an autoimmune reaction so that insulin can no longer be synthesized or be secreted into the blood.^[12] In type 2 diabetes, the destruction of beta cells is less pronounced than in type 1, and is not due to an autoimmune process. Instead, there is an accumulation of amyloid in the pancreatic islets, which likely disrupts their anatomy and physiology.^[10] The pathogenesis of type 2 diabetes is not well understood but reduced population of islet beta-cells, reduced secretory function of islet beta-cells that survive, and peripheral tissue insulin resistance are known to be involved.^[7] Type 2 diabetes is characterized by increased glucagon secretion which is unaffected by, and unresponsive to the concentration of blood glucose. But insulin is still secreted into the blood in response to the blood glucose.^[10] As a result, glucose accumulates in the blood.

The human insulin protein is composed of 51 amino acids, and has a molecular mass of 5808 Da. It is a heterodimer of an A-chain and a B-chain, which are linked together by disulfide bonds. Insulin's structure varies slightly between species of animals. Insulin from non-human animal sources differs somewhat in effectiveness (in carbohydrate metabolism effects) from human insulin because of these variations. Porcine insulin is especially close to the human version, and was widely used to treat type 1 diabetics before human insulin could be produced in large quantities by recombinant DNA technologies.^{[13][14][15][16]}

Insulin was the first peptide hormone discovered.^[17] Frederick Banting and Charles Best, working in the laboratory of John Macleod at the University of Toronto, were the first to isolate insulin from dog pancreas in 1921. Frederick Sanger sequenced the amino acid structure in 1951, which made insulin the first protein to be fully sequenced.^[18] The crystal structure of insulin in the solid state was determined by Dorothy Hodgkin in 1969. Insulin is also the first protein to be chemically synthesised and produced by DNA recombinant technology.^[19] It is on the WHO Model List of Essential Medicines, the most important medications needed in a basic health system.^[20]

1. ^ ^{a b c} GRCh38: Ensembl release 89: ENSG00000254647 – Ensembl, May 2017
2. ^ ^{a b c} GRCm38: Ensembl release 89: ENSMUSG00000000215 – Ensembl, May 2017
3. ^ "Human PubMed Reference:". National Center for Biotechnology Information, U.S. National Library of Medicine.
4. ^ "Mouse PubMed Reference:". National Center for Biotechnology Information, U.S. National Library of Medicine.
5. ^ "Insulin | Meaning of Insulin by Lexico". Lexico Dictionaries | English. Archived from the original on 1 August 2020.
6. ^ "insulin - WordReference.com Dictionary of English". www.wordreference.com.
7. ^ ^{a b} Voet D, Voet JG (2011). Biochemistry (4th ed.). New York: Wiley.
8. ^ ^{a b c} Stryer L (1995). Biochemistry (Fourth ed.). New York: W.H. Freeman and Company. pp. 773–74. ISBN 0-7167-2009-4.
9. ^ Sonksen P, Sonksen J (July 2000). "Insulin: understanding its action in health and disease". British Journal of Anaesthesia. 85 (1): 69–79. doi:10.1093/bja/85.1.69. PMID 10927996.
10. ^ ^{a b c d e f} Koeslag JH, Saunders PT, Terblanche E (June 2003). "A reappraisal of the blood glucose homeostat which comprehensively explains the type 2 diabetes mellitus-syndrome X complex". The Journal of Physiology. 549 (Pt 2) (published 2003): 333–46. doi:10.1113/jphysiol.2002.037895. PMC 2342944. PMID 12717005.
11. ^ Andrali SS, Sampley ML, Vanderford NL, Ozcan S (1 October 2008). "Glucose regulation of insulin gene expression in pancreatic beta-cells". The Biochemical Journal. 415 (1): 1–10. doi:10.1042/BJ20081029. ISSN 1470-8728. PMID 18778246.
12. ^ American Society of Health-System Pharmacists (1 February 2009). "Insulin Injection [". PubMed Health. National Center for Biotechnology Information, U.S. National Library of Medicine. Retrieved 12 October 2012.
13. ^ Drug Information Portal NLM – Insulin human USAN druginfo.nlm.nih.gov Archived 19 November 2022 at the Wayback Machine
14. ^ "First Successful Laboratory Production of Human Insulin Announced". News Release. Genentech. 6 September 1978. Archived from the original on 27 September 2016. Retrieved 26 September 2016.
15. ^ Tof I (1994). "Recombinant DNA technology in the synthesis of human insulin". Little Tree Publishing. Retrieved 3 November 2009.
16. ^ Aggarwal SR (December 2012). "What's fueling the biotech engine-2011 to 2012". Nature Biotechnology. 30 (12): 1191–7. doi:10.1038/nbt.2437. PMID 23222785. S2CID 8707897.
17. ^ Weiss M, Steiner DF, Philipson LH (2000). "Insulin Biosynthesis, Secretion, Structure, and Structure-Activity Relationships". In Feingold KR, Anawalt B, Boyce A, Chrousos G, Dungan K, Grossman A, et al. (eds.). Endotext. MDText.com, Inc. PMID 25905258. Retrieved 18 February 2020.
18. ^ Cite error: The named reference Stretton_2002 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
19. ^ "The discovery and development of insulin as a medical treatment can be traced back to the 19th century". Diabetes. 15 January 2019. Retrieved 17 February 2020.
20. ^ 19th WHO Model List of Essential Medicines (April 2015) (PDF). WHO. April 2015. p. 455. hdl:10665/189763. ISBN 978-92-4-120994-6. Retrieved 10 May 2015.

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12 January: 1967 - Dr. James Bedford becomes the first person to be cryonically preserved with intent of future resuscitation.

Cryonics

Freezing of a human corpse

For the study of the production of very low temperatures, see Cryogenics. For the low-temperature preservation of living tissue and organisms in general, see Cryopreservation. For the Hot Cross album, see Cryonics (album).

Cryonics (from Greek: κρύος kryos meaning 'cold') is the low-temperature freezing (usually at −196 °C or −320.8 °F or 77.1 K) and storage of human remains, with the speculative hope that resurrection may be possible in the future.^[1][2] Cryonics is regarded with skepticism within the mainstream scientific community. It is generally viewed as a pseudoscience,^[3] and its practice has been characterized as quackery.^[4][5]

Cryonics procedures can begin only after the "patients" are clinically and legally dead. Cryonics procedures may begin within minutes of death,^[6] and use cryoprotectants to try to prevent ice formation during cryopreservation.^{[7][better source needed]} It is, however, not possible for a corpse to be reanimated after undergoing vitrification, as this causes damage to the brain including its neural circuits.^[8][9] The first corpse to be frozen was that of James Bedford in 1967.^[10] As of 2014, about 250 bodies had been cryopreserved in the United States, and 1,500 people had made arrangements for cryopreservation of their remains.^[11]

Economic reality means it is highly improbable that any cryonics corporation could continue in business long enough to take advantage of the claimed long-term benefits offered.^[12] Early attempts at cryonic preservation were performed in the 1960s and early 1970s; these ended in failure, with all but one of the companies going out of business, and their stored corpses thawed and disposed of.^[13]

1. ^ McKie, Robin (13 July 2002). "Cold facts about cryonics". The Observer. Archived from the original on 8 July 2017. Retrieved 1 December 2013. Cryonics, which began in the Sixties, is the freezing – usually in liquid nitrogen – of human beings who have been legally declared dead. The aim of this process is to keep such individuals in a state of refrigerated limbo so that it may become possible in the future to resuscitate them, cure them of the condition that killed them, and then restore them to functioning life in an era when medical science has triumphed over the activities of the Grim Reaper.
2. ^ "Dying is the last thing anyone wants to do – so keep cool and carry on". The Guardian. 10 October 2015. Archived from the original on 3 July 2017. Retrieved 21 February 2016.
3. ^ Cite error: The named reference jk was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
4. ^ Cite error: The named reference butler was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
5. ^ Cite error: The named reference q was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
6. ^ Hendry, Robert; Crippen, David (2014). "Brain Failure and Brain Death". ACS Surgery: Principles and Practice critical care. Decker Intellectual Properties Inc. pp. 1–10. Archived from the original on 23 January 2021. Retrieved 3 March 2016. A physician will pronounce a patient using the usual cardiorespiratory criteria, whereupon the patient is legally dead. Following this pronouncement, the rules pertaining to procedures that can be performed change radically because the individual is no longer a living patient but a corpse. In the initial cryopreservation protocol, the subject is intubated and mechanically ventilated, and a highly efficient mechanical cardiopulmonary resuscitation device reestablishes circulation.
7. ^ Best BP (April 2008). "Scientific justification of cryonics practice" (PDF). Rejuvenation Research. 11 (2): 493–503. doi:10.1089/rej.2008.0661. PMC 4733321. PMID 18321197. Archived from the original (PDF) on 21 July 2018. Retrieved 26 December 2013.
8. ^ Cite error: The named reference popsicle was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
9. ^ Devlin, Hannah (18 November 2016). "The cryonics dilemma: will deep-frozen bodies be fit for new life?". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 24 January 2019. Retrieved 21 January 2019.
10. ^ "Death To Dust: What Happens To Dead Bodies? 2nd Edition, Chapter 7: Souls On Ice". Archived from the original on 27 March 2019. Retrieved 21 March 2016.
11. ^ Moen, OM (August 2015). "The case for cryonics". Journal of Medical Ethics. 41 (18): 493–503. doi:10.1136/medethics-2015-102715. PMID 25717141. S2CID 31744039.
12. ^ Cite error: The named reference decline was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
13. ^ Cite error: The named reference hta-law was invoked but never defined (see the help page).

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13 January: # 1939 - The Black Friday bush fires burn 20,000 square kilometres of land in Australia, claiming the lives of 71 people.

Black Friday (1939)

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14 January: 1950 - The first prototype of the MiG-17 makes its maiden flight.

MiG-17

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15 January 1889 - The Coca-Cola Company, then known as the Pemberton Medicine Company, is originally incorporated in Atlanta, Georgia.

Coca-Cola Company

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16 January 1909 - Ernest Shackleton's expedition finds the magnetic South Pole.

Ernest Shackleton

Anglo-Irish Antarctic explorer (1874–1922)

"Shackleton" redirects here. For other uses, see Shackleton (disambiguation).

Sir Ernest Henry Shackleton CVO OBE FRGS FRSGS (15 February 1874 – 5 January 1922) was an Anglo-Irish Antarctic explorer who led three British expeditions to the Antarctic. He was one of the principal figures of the period known as the Heroic Age of Antarctic Exploration.

Born in Kilkea, County Kildare, Ireland, Shackleton and his Anglo-Irish family^[1] moved to Sydenham in suburban south London when he was ten. Shackleton's first experience of the polar regions was as third officer on Captain Robert Falcon Scott's Discovery Expedition of 1901–1904, from which he was sent home early on health grounds, after he and his companions Scott and Edward Adrian Wilson set a new southern record by marching to latitude 82°S. During the Nimrod Expedition of 1907–1909, he and three companions established a new record Farthest South latitude of 88°23′ S, only 97 geographical miles (112 statute miles or 180 kilometres) from the South Pole, the largest advance to the pole in exploration history. Also, members of his team climbed Mount Erebus, the most active Antarctic volcano. On returning home, Shackleton was knighted for his achievements by King Edward VII.

After the race to the South Pole ended in December 1911, with Roald Amundsen's conquest, Shackleton turned his attention to the crossing of Antarctica from sea to sea, via the pole. To this end, he made preparations for what became the Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition of 1914–1917. The expedition was struck by disaster when its ship, Endurance, became trapped in pack ice and finally sank in the Weddell Sea off Antarctica on 21 November 1915. The crew escaped by camping on the sea ice until it disintegrated, then by launching the lifeboats to reach Elephant Island and ultimately the South Atlantic island of South Georgia, enduring a stormy ocean voyage of 720 nautical miles (1,330 km; 830 mi) in Shackleton's most famous exploit. He returned to the Antarctic with the Shackleton–Rowett Expedition in 1921, but died of a heart attack while his ship was moored in South Georgia. At his wife's request, he remained on the island and was buried in Grytviken cemetery. The wreck of Endurance was discovered just over a century after Shackleton's death.^[2][3]

Away from his expeditions, Shackleton's life was generally restless and unfulfilled. In his search for rapid pathways to wealth and security, he launched business ventures which failed to prosper, and he died heavily in debt. Upon his death, he was lauded in the press but was thereafter largely forgotten, while the heroic reputation of his rival Scott was sustained for many decades. Later in the 20th century, Shackleton was "rediscovered",^[4] and he became a role model for leadership in extreme circumstances.^[5] In his 1956 address to the British Science Association, one of Shackleton's contemporaries, Sir Raymond Priestley, said: "Scott for scientific method, Amundsen for speed and efficiency[,] but[,] when disaster strikes and all hope is gone, get down on your knees and pray for Shackleton", paraphrasing what Apsley Cherry-Garrard had written in a preface to his 1922 memoir The Worst Journey in the World. In 2002, Shackleton was voted eleventh in a BBC poll of the 100 Greatest Britons.

1. ^ "Historical figures: Ernest Shackleton (1874–1922)". BBC History. Archived from the original on 27 April 2020. Retrieved 28 November 2022.
2. ^ Amos, Jonathan (9 March 2022). "Endurance: Shackleton's lost ship is found in Antarctic". BBC News. Archived from the original on 31 March 2022. Retrieved 18 March 2022.
3. ^ Fountain, Henry (9 March 2022). "At the Bottom of an Icy Sea, One of History's Great Wrecks Is Found". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 11 March 2022. Retrieved 19 December 2022.
4. ^ Jones 2003, p. 289.
5. ^ Barczewski 2007, p. 295.

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17 January 1973 - Ferdinand Marcos becomes "President for Life" of the Philippines.

Ferdinand Marcos

President of the Philippines from 1965 to 1986

For his son, Ferdinand Marcos Jr., see Bongbong Marcos.

In this Philippine name, the middle name or maternal family name is Edralin and the surname or paternal family name is Marcos.

Ferdinand Emmanuel Edralin Marcos Sr.^[c] (September 11, 1917 – September 28, 1989) was a Filipino politician, lawyer, dictator,^[7][8][9] and kleptocrat^[10][11][12] who served as the tenth president of the Philippines from 1965 to 1986. He ruled under martial law from 1972 until 1981^[13] and kept most of his martial law powers until he was deposed in 1986, branding his rule as "constitutional authoritarianism"^{[14][15]: 414} under his Kilusang Bagong Lipunan (New Society Movement). One of the most controversial leaders of the 20th century, Marcos's rule was infamous for its corruption,^[16][17][18] extravagance,^[19][20][21] and brutality.^[22][23][24]

Marcos gained political success by claiming to have been the "most decorated war hero in the Philippines",^[25] but many of his claims have been found to be false,^[26][27][28] with United States Army documents describing his wartime claims as "fraudulent" and "absurd".^[29][30] After World War II, he became a lawyer then served in the Philippine House of Representatives from 1949 to 1959 and the Philippine Senate from 1959 to 1965. He was elected president of the Philippines in 1965 and presided over an economy that grew during the beginning of his 20-year rule^[31] but would end in the loss of livelihood, extreme poverty for almost half the Philippine population,^[32][33] and a crushing debt crisis.^[34][33] He pursued an aggressive program of infrastructure development funded by foreign debt,^[35][36] making him popular during his first term, although it triggered an inflationary crisis which led to social unrest in his second term.^[37][38] Marcos placed the Philippines under martial law on September 23, 1972,^[39][40] shortly before the end of his second term. Martial law was ratified in 1973 through a fraudulent referendum.^[41] The constitution was revised, media outlets were silenced,^[42] and violence and oppression were used^[24] against the political opposition,^[43][44] Muslims,^[45] suspected communists,^[46][47] and ordinary citizens.^[44]

After being elected for a third term in the 1981 presidential election and referendum, Marcos's popularity suffered greatly, due to the economic collapse that began in early 1983 and the public outrage over the assassination of opposition leader Senator Benigno "Ninoy" Aquino Jr. later that year. This discontent, the resulting resurgence of the opposition in the 1984 parliamentary election, and the discovery of documents exposing his financial accounts and false war records led Marcos to call the snap election of 1986. Allegations of mass cheating, political turmoil, and human rights abuses led to the People Power Revolution of February 1986, which removed him from power.^[48] To avoid what could have been a military confrontation in Manila between pro- and anti-Marcos troops, Marcos was advised by US president Ronald Reagan through Senator Paul Laxalt to "cut and cut cleanly".^[49] Marcos then fled with his family to Hawaii.^[50] He was succeeded as president by Aquino's widow, Corazon "Cory" Aquino.^[51][52][53]

According to source documents provided by the Presidential Commission on Good Government (PCGG),^[54] the Marcos family stole US$5 billion–$10 billion from the Central Bank of the Philippines.^[55][56] The PCGG also maintained that the Marcos family enjoyed a decadent lifestyle, taking away billions of dollars^[57] from the Philippines^[58][59] between 1965 and 1986. His wife, Imelda Marcos, made infamous in her own right by the excesses that characterized her and her husband's "conjugal dictatorship",^[60][61][62] is the source of the term Imeldific.^[63] Two of their children, Imee and Bongbong, are active in Philippine politics, with Bongbong having been elected president in the 2022 presidential election. Ferdinand and Imelda Marcos held the Guinness World Record for the largest-ever theft from a government for decades,^[64] although Guinness took the record down from their website while it underwent periodic review a few weeks before the 2022 election.^[65]

Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

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49. ^ Hoffman, David; Cannon, Lou; Coleman, Milton; Dewar, Helen; Goshko, John M.; Oberdorfer, Don; W, George C. (February 26, 1986). "In Crucial Call, Laxalt Told Marcos: 'Cut Cleanly'". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on August 22, 2016. Retrieved November 7, 2023.
50. ^ Reaves, Joseph A. (February 26, 1986). "Marcos Flees, Aquino Rules – Peaceful Revolt Ends In Triumph". Chicago Tribune. Archived from the original on March 6, 2014.
51. ^ Benigno Aquino Jr. (August 21, 1983). "The undelivered speech of Senator Benigno S. Aquino Jr. upon his return from the U.S., August 21, 1983". Official Gazette of the Republic of the Philippines. Archived from the original on October 7, 2023. Retrieved November 7, 2023.
52. ^ Laurie, Jim (August 21, 1983). "Last interview with and footage of Ninoy Aquino assassination". YouTube. Archived from the original on December 11, 2021. Retrieved June 30, 2010.
53. ^ Kashiwara, Ken (October 16, 1983). "Aquino's Final Journey". The New York Times Magazine. Archived from the original on November 11, 2017. Retrieved February 7, 2017.
54. ^ Pazzibugan, Dona Z. (February 13, 2014). "PCGG recovers $29M from Marcos loot". Philippine Daily Inquirer. Archived from the original on August 2, 2017. Retrieved February 28, 2016.
55. ^ "Hail to the thief". The Economist. November 12, 2016. Archived from the original on August 4, 2017. Retrieved July 9, 2017.
56. ^ "Chronology of the Marcos Plunder". Asian Journal. Archived from the original on October 23, 2015. Retrieved March 1, 2016.
57. ^ Mogato, Manuel (February 24, 2016). "Philippines still seeks $1 billion in Marcos wealth 30 years after his ouster". Reuters. Archived from the original on August 2, 2017. Retrieved July 26, 2017.
58. ^ Tantiangco, Aya; Bigtas, Jannielyn Ann (February 25, 2016). "What Marcoses brought to Hawaii after fleeing PHL in '86: $717-M in cash, $124-M in deposit slips". GMA News. Archived from the original on February 8, 2017. Retrieved March 1, 2016.
59. ^ Heilprin, John (April 13, 2015). "Political Will guides Marcos case in Philippines". Swiss Broadcasting Corporation. Archived from the original on July 11, 2015. Retrieved February 28, 2016.
60. ^ Mijares, Primitivo (1976). The Conjugal Dictatorship of Ferdinand and Imelda Marcos-1 (PDF). San Francisco: Union Square Publications. Archived (PDF) from the original on February 18, 2018. Retrieved November 27, 2016.
61. ^ Warde, Ibrahim (May 25, 2011). "From Marcos to Gaddafi: Kleptocrats, Old and New". The World Post. Archived from the original on October 10, 2017. Retrieved February 20, 2020.
62. ^ Doyo, Ma. Ceres P. (October 12, 2014). "'Imeldific' collection of artworks (partial list)". Philippine Daily Inquirer. Archived from the original on August 1, 2017. Retrieved March 6, 2016.
63. ^ Macapendeg, Mac (September 21, 2012). "Martial Law fashion: The Imeldific and the Third World look". GMA News. Archived from the original on July 1, 2015. Retrieved March 6, 2016.
64. ^ "Greatest robbery of a Government". Guinness World Records. Archived from the original on February 21, 2022. Retrieved January 7, 2021.
65. ^ Patag, Kristine Joy (March 18, 2022). "Fact check: Guinness not disputing historical fact on 'greatest robbery of a gov't'". Philstar.com. Archived from the original on April 15, 2022. Retrieved May 11, 2022.

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18 January 1788 - The first elements of the First Fleet carrying 736 convicts from England to Australia arrives at Botany Bay.

First Fleet

11 British ships establishing an Australian penal colony

This article is about the British colonial fleet. For the United States Navy unit known as the First Fleet, see United States First Fleet.

For other uses, see First fleet (disambiguation).

The First Fleet was a fleet of 11 British ships that took the first British colonists and convicts to Australia. It comprised two Royal Navy vessels, three store ships and six convict transports. On 13 May 1787 the fleet under the command of Captain Arthur Phillip, with over 1400 people (convicts, marines, sailors, civil officers and free settlers), left from Portsmouth, England and took a journey of over 24,000 kilometres (15,000 mi) and over 250 days to eventually arrive in Botany Bay, New South Wales, where a penal colony would become the first British settlement in Australia from 20 January 1788.

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19 January 1953 - 68% of all television sets in the United States are tuned in to I Love Lucy to watch Lucy give birth.

I Love Lucy

American television sitcom (1951–1957)

I Love Lucy is an American television sitcom that originally aired on CBS from October 15, 1951, to May 6, 1957, with a total of 180 half-hour episodes, spanning six seasons.^[2] The show starred Lucille Ball and her husband Desi Arnaz, along with Vivian Vance and William Frawley. The series follows the life of Lucy Ricardo (Ball), a young, middle-class housewife living in New York City, who often concocts plans with her best friends and landlords, Ethel and Fred Mertz (Vance and Frawley), to appear alongside her bandleader husband, Ricky Ricardo (Arnaz), in his nightclub. Lucy is depicted trying numerous schemes to mingle with and be a part of show business. After the series ended in 1957, a modified version of the show continued for three more seasons, with 13 one-hour specials, which ran from 1957 to 1960. It was first known as The Lucille Ball–Desi Arnaz Show, and later, in reruns, as The Lucy–Desi Comedy Hour.

I Love Lucy became the most-watched show in the United States in four of its six seasons and it was the first to end its run at the top of the Nielsen ratings.^[3] As of 2011, episodes of the show have been syndicated in dozens of languages across the world and remain popular with an American audience of 40 million each year.^[4][5][6] A colorized version of its Christmas episode attracted more than eight million viewers when CBS aired it in prime time in 2013, 62 years after the show premiered.^[7]

The show – which was the first scripted television program to be filmed on 35 mm film in front of a studio audience, by cinematographer Karl Freund – won five Emmy Awards and received many nominations and honors. It was the first show to feature an ensemble cast.^[8] As such, it is often regarded as both one of the greatest and most influential sitcoms in history. In 2012, it was voted the 'Best TV Show of All Time' in a survey conducted by ABC News and People magazine.^[9] In 2013, the Writers Guild of America ranked it #12 on their list of the 101 Best Written TV Series.^[10]

Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

1. ^ de Moraes, Lisa (April 16, 2015). "CBS Dusts Off And Colorizes 'I Love Lucy' Episodes For May Sweep Tryout". Deadline. Archived from the original on April 17, 2015. Retrieved October 1, 2022.
2. ^ "BBC - Comedy Guide - I Love Lucy". Archived from the original on December 5, 2004.
3. ^ DOSTIS, MELANIE (October 15, 2015). "Looking back at 'I Love Lucy' 64 years later". nydailynews.com. Archived from the original on May 22, 2020. Retrieved May 18, 2020.
4. ^ "I love Lucy – 100 Years and Going Strong". Videomaker. August 5, 2011. Archived from the original on July 26, 2018. Retrieved July 26, 2018.
5. ^ Elber, Lynn (August 5, 2011). "Legacy of 'I Love Lucy' a force in comedy". The Durango Herald. Archived from the original on July 26, 2018. Retrieved July 26, 2018.
6. ^ "I Love Lucy Goes Live! – Today's News: Our Take". TVGuide.com. September 14, 2011. Archived from the original on September 15, 2013. Retrieved November 22, 2012. [...]which owns the rights to the series still seen on TV by 40 million Americans each year.
7. ^ Kozinn, Allan (December 23, 2013). "Viewers Found Much to Love in 'Lucy' Christmas Show". The New York Times. Archived from the original on December 24, 2013. Retrieved December 23, 2013.
8. ^ "I Love Lucy". oldtimecooking.com. 2014. Archived from the original on April 5, 2016. Retrieved March 7, 2018.
9. ^ "I Love Lucy Voted the Best TV Show of All Time". ABC News. Disney-ABC Television Group. September 18, 2012. Archived from the original on November 18, 2018. Retrieved July 16, 2014.
10. ^ "101 Best Written TV Series". Writers Guild of America West. June 2, 2013.

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20 January 1981 - Iran releases 52 American hostages twenty minutes after Ronald Reagan is inaugurated as U.S. President.

Iran hostage crisis

1979–1981 diplomatic standoff between the United States and Iran

This article is about the siege of the American embassy in Tehran. For the siege of the Iranian embassy in London, see Iranian Embassy siege.

The Iran hostage crisis was a diplomatic standoff between Iran and the United States. Fifty-three American diplomats and citizens were held hostage after a group of militarized Iranian college students belonging to the Muslim Student Followers of the Imam's Line, who supported the Iranian Revolution, including Hossein Dehghan (future Iranian Minister of Defense), Mohammad Ali Jafari (future Revolutionary Guards Commander-In-Chief) and Mohammad Bagheri (future Chief of the General Staff of the Iranian Army),^[3][4] took over the U.S. Embassy in Tehran^[5][6] and took them as hostages. The hostages were held for 444 days, from November 4, 1979 to their release on January 20, 1981. The crisis is considered a pivotal episode in the history of Iran–United States relations.^[7]

Western media described the crisis as an "entanglement" of "vengeance and mutual incomprehension".^[8] U.S. President Jimmy Carter called the hostage-taking an act of "blackmail" and the hostages "victims of terrorism and anarchy".^[9] In Iran, it was widely seen as an act against the U.S. and its influence in Iran, including its perceived attempts to undermine the Iranian Revolution and its long-standing support of the Shah of Iran, Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, who was overthrown in 1979.^[10] After Shah Pahlavi was overthrown, he was granted asylum and admitted to the U.S. for cancer treatment. The new Iranian regime demanded his return in order to stand trial for the crimes he was accused of committing against Iranians during his rule through his secret police. These demands were rejected, which Iran saw as U.S. complicity in those abuses. The U.S. saw the hostage-taking as an egregious violation of the principles of international law, such as the Vienna Convention, which granted diplomats immunity from arrest and made diplomatic compounds inviolable.^{[11][12][13][14]} The Shah left the U.S. in December 1979 and was ultimately granted asylum in Egypt, where he died from complications of cancer at age 60 on July 27, 1980.

Six American diplomats who had evaded capture were rescued by a joint CIA–Canadian effort on January 27, 1980. The crisis reached a climax in early 1980 after diplomatic negotiations failed to win the release of the hostages. Carter ordered the U.S. military to attempt a rescue mission – Operation Eagle Claw – using warships that included USS Nimitz and USS Coral Sea, which were patrolling the waters near Iran. The failed attempt on April 24, 1980, resulted in the death of one Iranian civilian and the accidental deaths of eight American servicemen after one of the helicopters crashed into a transport aircraft. U.S. Secretary of State Cyrus Vance resigned his position following the failure. In September 1980, Iraq invaded Iran, beginning the Iran–Iraq War. These events led the Iranian government to enter negotiations with the U.S., with Algeria acting as a mediator.

Political analysts cited the standoff as a major factor in the continuing downfall of Carter's presidency and his landslide loss in the 1980 presidential election.^[15] The hostages were formally released into United States custody the day after the signing of the Algiers Accords, just minutes after American President Ronald Reagan was sworn into office. In Iran, the crisis strengthened the prestige of Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini and the political power of theocrats who opposed any normalization of relations with the West.^[16] The crisis also led to American economic sanctions against Iran, which further weakened ties between the two countries.^[17]

1. ^ Clark, Mark Edmond (2016). "An Analysis of the Role of the Iranian Diaspora in the Financial Support System of the Mujaheddin-e-Khalid". In David Gold (ed.). Microeconomics. Routledge. pp. 66–67. ISBN 978-1-317-04590-8. Following the seizure of the US embassy in Tehran, the MEK participated physically at the site by assisting in defending it from attack. The MEK also offered strong political support for the hostage-taking action.
2. ^ Buchan, James (2013). Days of God: The Revolution in Iran and Its Consequences. Simon and Schuster. p. 257. ISBN 978-1-4165-9777-3.
3. ^ "The Bagheri Brothers: One in Operations, One in Intelligence". Retrieved March 11, 2024.
4. ^ "What Became of Those Who Seized the US Embassy in Tehran". March 9, 2024.
5. ^ Penn, Nate (November 3, 2009). "444 Days in the Dark: An Oral History of the Iran Hostage Crisis". GQ. Archived from the original on May 5, 2021. Retrieved January 6, 2020.
6. ^ Sahimi, Muhammad (November 3, 2009). "The Hostage Crisis, 30 Years On". Frontline. PBS. Archived from the original on April 10, 2021. Retrieved January 6, 2020.
7. ^ Kinzer, Stephen (October 2008). "Inside Iran's Fury". Smithsonian Magazine. Archived from the original on April 19, 2013. Retrieved May 5, 2016.
8. ^ Skow, John (January 26, 1981). "The Long Ordeal of the Hostages". Time. Retrieved May 27, 2015.
9. ^ "Air Force Magazine" (PDF). Air Force Magazine. April 5, 2016. Archived from the original (PDF) on November 27, 2012. Retrieved May 5, 2016.
10. ^ Kinzer, Stephen. "Thirty-five years after Iranian hostage crisis, the aftershocks remain". The Boston Globe. Archived from the original on April 16, 2018. Retrieved April 15, 2018.
11. ^ "Doing Satan's Work in Iran" (PDF). The New York Times. November 6, 1979. Archived from the original on February 1, 2022. Retrieved January 4, 2016.
12. ^ Kinzer, Stephen (2003). All The Shah's Men: An American Coup and the Roots of Middle East Terror. Hoboken, New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons.
13. ^ Nalle, David (2003). "All the Shah's Men: An American Coup and the Roots of Middle East Terror". Middle East Policy. 10 (4): 148–155.
14. ^ Pryce-Jones, David (2003). "A Very Elegant Coup". National Review. 55 (17): 48–50.
15. ^ "Reagan's Lucky Day: Iranian Hostage Crisis Helped The Great Communicator To Victory". CBS News. January 21, 2001. Archived May 15, 2013, at the Wayback Machine.
16. ^ Mackey, Sandra (1996). The Iranians: Persia, Islam and the Soul of a Nation. New York: Dutton. p. 298. ISBN 9780525940050
17. ^ "A Review Of US Unilateral Sanctions Against Iran". Mafhoum. August 26, 2002. Archived from the original on October 10, 2017. Retrieved May 5, 2016.

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21 January 1864 - The Tauranga Campaign starts during the Maori Wars.

Tauranga Campaign

Redirect to:

• Tauranga campaign

• From a page move: This is a redirect from a page that has been moved (renamed). This page was kept as a redirect to avoid breaking links, both internal and external, that may have been made to the old page name.

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22 January 1973 - The Supreme Court of the United States delivers its decision in Roe v. Wade, allowing abortion

Roe v. Wade

1973 US Supreme Court decision on abortion

For other uses, see Roe v. Wade (disambiguation).

1973 United States Supreme Court case

Roe v. Wade, 410 U.S. 113 (1973),^[1] was a landmark decision of the U.S. Supreme Court in which the Court ruled that the Constitution of the United States generally protected a right to have an abortion. The decision struck down many abortion laws, and caused an ongoing abortion debate in the United States about whether, or to what extent, abortion should be legal, who should decide the legality of abortion, and what the role of moral and religious views in the political sphere should be.^[2][3] The decision also shaped debate concerning which methods the Supreme Court should use in constitutional adjudication.

The case was brought by Norma McCorvey—under the legal pseudonym "Jane Roe"—who, in 1969, became pregnant with her third child. McCorvey wanted an abortion but lived in Texas, where abortion was illegal except when necessary to save the mother's life. Her lawyers, Sarah Weddington and Linda Coffee, filed a lawsuit on her behalf in U.S. federal court against her local district attorney, Henry Wade, alleging that Texas's abortion laws were unconstitutional. A special three-judge court of the U.S. District Court for the Northern District of Texas heard the case and ruled in her favor.^[4] The parties appealed this ruling to the Supreme Court. In January 1973, the Supreme Court issued a 7–2 decision in McCorvey's favor holding that the Due Process Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution provides a fundamental "right to privacy", which protects a pregnant woman's right to an abortion. It also held that the right to abortion is not absolute and must be balanced against the government's interests in protecting women's health and prenatal life.^[5][6] It resolved these competing interests by announcing a pregnancy trimester timetable to govern all abortion regulations in the United States. The Court also classified the right to abortion as "fundamental", which required courts to evaluate challenged abortion laws under the "strict scrutiny" standard, the most stringent level of judicial review in the United States.^[7]

The Supreme Court's decision in Roe was among the most controversial in U.S. history.^[8][9] In addition to the dissent, Roe was criticized by some in the legal community,^[9][10][11] including some who thought that Roe reached the correct result but went about it the wrong way,^[12][13][14] and some called the decision a form of judicial activism.^[15] Others argued that Roe did not go far enough, as it was placed within the framework of civil rights rather than the broader human rights.^[16] The decision also radically reconfigured the voting coalitions of the Republican and Democratic parties in the following decades. Anti-abortion politicians and activists sought for decades to restrict abortion or overrule the decision;^[17] polls into the 21st century showed that a plurality and a majority, especially into the late 2010s to early 2020s, opposed overruling Roe.^[18] Despite criticism of the decision, the Supreme Court reaffirmed Roe's central holding in its 1992 decision, Planned Parenthood v. Casey.^[19] Casey overruled Roe's trimester framework and abandoned its "strict scrutiny" standard in favor of an "undue burden" test.^[5][20]

In June 2022, the Supreme Court overruled Roe and Casey in Dobbs v. Jackson Women's Health Organization on the grounds that the substantive right to abortion was not "deeply rooted in this Nation's history or tradition", nor considered a right when the Due Process Clause was ratified in 1868, and was unknown in U.S. law until Roe.

1. ^ Roe v. Wade, 410 U.S. 113 (1973).
2. ^ Mears, William; Franken, Bob (January 22, 2003). "30 years after ruling, ambiguity, anxiety surround abortion debate". CNN. In all, the Roe and Doe rulings impacted laws in 46 states.
3. ^ Greenhouse (2005), p. 72.
4. ^ "Roe v. Wade, 314 F. Supp. 1217 (N.D. Tex. 1970)". Casetext. June 17, 1970. Retrieved June 15, 2022.
5. ^ ^{a b} Nowak & Rotunda (2012), § 18.29(a)(i).
6. ^ Chemerinsky (2019), § 10.3.3.1, p. 887.
7. ^ Nowak & Rotunda (2012), § 18.29(b)(i).
8. ^ Chemerinsky (2019), § 10.3.3.1, p. 886: "Few decisions in Supreme Court history have provoked the intense controversy that has surrounded the abortion rulings."
9. ^ ^{a b} Dworkin, Roger (1996). Limits: The Role of the Law in Bioethical Decision Making. Indiana University Press. pp. 28–36. ISBN 978-0-253-33075-8.
10. ^ Epstein, Richard (January 1, 1973). "Substantive Due Process by Any Other Name: The Abortion Cases". University of Chicago Law Review. 1973: 159.
11. ^ Ely (1973).
12. ^ Cite error: The named reference Balkin 2001 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
13. ^ Cite error: The named reference Roosevelt 2003 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
14. ^ Cite error: The named reference Cohen 2005 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
15. ^ Greenhouse (2005), pp. 135–136.
16. ^ Cite error: The named reference Ross & Solinger 2017 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
17. ^ Thomson-DeVeaux, Amelia (June 24, 2022). "Roe v. Wade Defined An Era. The Supreme Court Just Started A New One". FiveThirtyEight. Archived from the original on June 24, 2022. Retrieved June 26, 2022.
18. ^ Cite error: The named reference Thomson-DeVeaux & Yi 2022 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
19. ^ Chemerinsky (2019), § 10.3.3.1, pp. 892–895.
20. ^ Chemerinsky (2019), § 10.3.3.1, pp. 892–893.

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23 January 1986 - The Rock and Roll Hall of Fame inducts its first members: Chuck Berry, James Brown, Ray Charles, Fats Domino, the Everly Brothers, Buddy Holly, Jerry Lee Lewis and Elvis Presley.

Rock and Roll Hall of Fame

Music museum in Cleveland, Ohio, U.S.

The Rock and Roll Hall of Fame (RRHOF), also simply referred to as the Rock Hall, is a museum and hall of fame located in downtown Cleveland, Ohio, United States, on the shore of Lake Erie. The museum documents the history of rock music and the artists, producers, engineers, and other notable figures and personnel who have influenced its development.

The Rock and Roll Hall of Fame Foundation was established on April 20, 1983, by Ahmet Ertegun, founder and chairman of Atlantic Records. After a long search for the right city, Cleveland was chosen in 1986 as the Hall of Fame's permanent home. Architect I. M. Pei designed the new museum, and it was dedicated on September 1, 1995.

1. ^ "2015–16 Annual Report". Rock & Roll Hall of Fame and Museum. 2016. p. 14. Archived from the original (PDF) on February 27, 2019. Retrieved February 27, 2019.

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27 January 1967 - Apollo program: Apollo 1 - Astronauts Gus Grissom, Edward White and Roger Chaffee are killed in a fire during a test of the spacecraft at the Kennedy Space Center.

Apollo 1

Planned United States spaceflight destroyed by accidental fire (1967)

Apollo 1, initially designated AS-204, was planned to be the first crewed mission of the Apollo program,^[1] the American undertaking to land the first man on the Moon. It was planned to launch on February 21, 1967, as the first low Earth orbital test of the Apollo command and service module. The mission never flew; a cabin fire during a launch rehearsal test at Cape Kennedy Air Force Station Launch Complex 34 on January 27 killed all three crew members—Command Pilot Gus Grissom, Senior Pilot Ed White, and Pilot Roger B. Chaffee—and destroyed the command module (CM). The name Apollo 1, chosen by the crew, was made official by NASA in their honor after the fire.

Immediately after the fire, NASA convened an Accident Review Board to determine the cause of the fire, and both chambers of the United States Congress conducted their own committee inquiries to oversee NASA's investigation. The ignition source of the fire was determined to be electrical, and the fire spread rapidly due to combustible nylon material and the high-pressure pure oxygen cabin atmosphere. Rescue was prevented by the plug door hatch, which could not be opened against the internal pressure of the cabin. Because the rocket was unfueled, the test had not been considered hazardous, and emergency preparedness for it was poor.

During the Congressional investigation, Senator Walter Mondale publicly revealed a NASA internal document citing problems with prime Apollo contractor North American Aviation, which became known as the Phillips Report. This disclosure embarrassed NASA Administrator James E. Webb, who was unaware of the document's existence, and attracted controversy to the Apollo program. Despite congressional displeasure at NASA's lack of openness, both congressional committees ruled that the issues raised in the report had no bearing on the accident.

Crewed Apollo flights were suspended for twenty months while the command module's hazards were addressed. However, the development and uncrewed testing of the lunar module (LM) and Saturn V rocket continued. The Saturn IB launch vehicle for Apollo 1, AS-204, was used for the first LM test flight, Apollo 5. The first successful crewed Apollo mission was flown by Apollo 1's backup crew on Apollo 7 in October 1968.

1. ^ Cite error: The named reference MarAprChron was invoked but never defined (see the help page).

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28 January 1958 - The Lego company patented their design of Lego bricks, still compatible with bricks produced today.

Lego

Plastic construction toy

This article is about the construction toy. For the company, see The Lego Group. For the Italian newspaper, see Leggo. For other uses, see Lego (disambiguation).

Lego (/ˈlɛɡoʊ/ ^ⓘ LEG-oh, Danish: [ˈle̝ːko];^[1] stylized as LEGO) is a line of plastic construction toys manufactured by the Lego Group, a privately held company based in Billund, Denmark. Lego consists of variously coloured interlocking plastic bricks made of acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) that accompany an array of gears, figurines called minifigures, and various other parts. Its pieces can be assembled and connected in many ways to construct objects, including vehicles, buildings, and working robots. Assembled Lego models can be taken apart, and their pieces can be reused to create new constructions.^[2][3]

The Lego Group began manufacturing the interlocking toy bricks in 1949. Moulding is done in Denmark, Hungary, Mexico, and China. Brick decorations and packaging are done at plants in the former three countries and in the Czech Republic. Annual production of the bricks averages approximately 36 billion, or about 1140 elements per second. One of Europe's biggest companies, Lego is the largest toy manufacturer in the world by sales.^[4][5] As of July 2015^[update], 600 billion Lego parts had been produced.^[6] Films, games competitions, and eight Legoland amusement parks have been developed under the brand.

1. ^ Brink, Lars; Lund, Jørn; Heger, Steffen; Jørgensen, J. Normann (1991). Den Store Danske Udtaleordbog. Copenhagen: Munksgaard. p. 845. ISBN 87-16-06649-9.
2. ^ "Lego History-About Us". Lego. Archived from the original on 5 September 2015. Retrieved 6 September 2015.
3. ^ "How a Lego Works". How Stuff Works. 28 June 2006. Archived from the original on 10 January 2021. Retrieved 6 September 2015.
4. ^ "Lego Builds on Its Position as World's No. 1 Toy Maker". The Wall Street Journal. 28 September 2021. Retrieved 16 October 2023.
5. ^ "Lego: the brick behemoth that wants to be as big as Disney". Financial Times. Retrieved 16 October 2023. Such innovations have propelled the family-owned toymaker to become one of Europe's biggest corporate success stories.. Lego, with essentially just one product in endless iterations, has become by far the biggest toymaker in the world by sales, and on a different level altogether in terms of profits.
6. ^ "The message is the medium". Intellectual Property Office blog. Gov.uk. Archived from the original on 20 August 2022. Retrieved 20 August 2022.

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29 January 2002 - In his State of the Union Address, United States President George W. Bush describes "regimes that sponsor terror" as an Axis of Evil, in which he includes Iraq, Iran and North Korea.

Axis of evil

American term for "sponsors of terrorism"

This article is about the term that refers to states referred to as "sponsors of terrorism" by the U.S.,. For the multi-nation alliance during World War II, see Axis powers. For other uses, see Axis of evil (disambiguation).

The phrase "axis of evil" was first used by U.S. President George W. Bush and originally referred to Iran, Iraq, and North Korea. It was used in Bush's State of the Union address on January 29, 2002, less than five months after the September 11 attacks and almost a year before the 2003 invasion of Iraq, and often repeated throughout his presidency. He used it to describe foreign governments that, during his administration, allegedly sponsored terrorism and sought weapons of mass destruction.

The notion of such an axis was used to pinpoint these common enemies of the United States and to rally the American population in support of the War on Terror. The countries originally covered by the term were Iran, Ba'athist Iraq, and North Korea. In response, Iran formed a political alliance that it called the "Axis of Resistance" comprising Iran, Syria and Hezbollah.

Other countries were later added to the "axis of evil" by US politicians and commentators. The term "axis of evil" is itself a portmanteau of the Axis powers of WWII (Nazi Germany, Fascist Italy, and Imperial Japan).

In 2020s United States politicians have also referred to Big 4 cyber adversaries North Korea, China, Russia, and Iran as the axis.^[1][not mentioned on the source]

1. ^ Macias, Amanda (December 6, 2020). "Former cybersecurity chief says Russia, China, Iran and North Korea are trying to steal coronavirus vaccine IP". CNBC. Retrieved April 12, 2024.

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30 January 1969 - The Beatles' last public performance, on the roof of Apple Records in London. The impromptu concert is broken up by the police

The Beatles

English rock band (1960–1970)

This article is about the band. For their eponymous album, see The Beatles (album). For other uses, see Beatles (disambiguation).

"Beatle" and "Fab Four" redirect here. For the insect, see Beetle. For other uses, see Fab Four (disambiguation).

The Beatles were an English rock band formed in Liverpool in 1960, comprising John Lennon, Paul McCartney, George Harrison and Ringo Starr. They are regarded as the most influential band of all time^[1] and were integral to the development of 1960s counterculture and the recognition of popular music as an art form.^[2] Rooted in skiffle, beat and 1950s rock 'n' roll, their sound incorporated elements of classical music and traditional pop in innovative ways. The band also explored music styles ranging from folk and Indian music to psychedelia and hard rock. As pioneers in recording, songwriting and artistic presentation, the Beatles revolutionized many aspects of the music industry and were often publicized as leaders of the era's youth and sociocultural movements.^[3]

Led by primary songwriters Lennon and McCartney, the Beatles evolved from Lennon's previous group, the Quarrymen, and built their reputation by playing clubs in Liverpool and Hamburg over three years from 1960, initially with Stuart Sutcliffe playing bass. The core trio of Lennon, McCartney and Harrison, together since 1958, went through a succession of drummers, including Pete Best, before inviting Starr to join them in 1962. Manager Brian Epstein moulded them into a professional act, and producer George Martin guided and developed their recordings, greatly expanding their domestic success after they signed with EMI Records and achieved their first hit, "Love Me Do", in late 1962. As their popularity grew into the intense fan frenzy dubbed "Beatlemania", the band acquired the nickname "the Fab Four". Epstein, Martin or another member of the band's entourage was sometimes informally referred to as a "fifth Beatle".

By early 1964, the Beatles were international stars and had achieved unprecedented levels of critical and commercial success. They became a leading force in Britain's cultural resurgence, ushering in the British Invasion of the United States pop market. They soon made their film debut with A Hard Day's Night (1964). A growing desire to refine their studio efforts, coupled with the challenging nature of their concert tours, led to the band's retirement from live performances in 1966. During this time, they produced albums of greater sophistication, including Rubber Soul (1965), Revolver (1966) and Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band (1967). They enjoyed further commercial success with The Beatles (also known as "the White Album", 1968) and Abbey Road (1969). The success of these records heralded the album era, as albums became the dominant form of record use over singles. These records also increased public interest in psychedelic drugs and Eastern spirituality and furthered advancements in electronic music, album art and music videos. In 1968, they founded Apple Corps, a multi-armed multimedia corporation that continues to oversee projects related to the band's legacy. After the group's break-up in 1970, all principal former members enjoyed success as solo artists, and some partial reunions have occurred. Lennon was murdered in 1980, and Harrison died of lung cancer in 2001. McCartney and Starr remain musically active.

The Beatles are the best-selling music act of all time, with estimated sales of 600 million units worldwide.^[4][5] They are the most successful act in the history of the US Billboard charts,^[6] holding the record for most number-one albums on the UK Albums Chart (15), most number-one hits on the US Billboard Hot 100 chart (20), and most singles sold in the UK (21.9 million). The band received many accolades, including seven Grammy Awards, four Brit Awards, an Academy Award (for Best Original Song Score for the 1970 documentary film Let It Be) and fifteen Ivor Novello Awards. They were inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in their first year of eligibility, 1988, and each principal member was individually inducted between 1994 and 2015. In 2004 and 2011, the group topped Rolling Stone's lists of the greatest artists in history. Time magazine named them among the 20th century's 100 most important people.

1. ^ Hasted 2017, p. 425.
2. ^ Frontani 2007, p. 125.
3. ^ Frontani 2007, p. 157.
4. ^ Siggins, Gerard (7 February 2016). "Yeah, Yeah, Yeah! Rare footage of the Beatles's Dublin performance". Irish Independent. Archived from the original on 9 November 2019. Retrieved 1 December 2017.
5. ^ Hotten, Russell (4 October 2012). "The Beatles at 50: From Fab Four to fabulously wealthy". BBC News. Archived from the original on 12 March 2013. Retrieved 28 January 2013.
6. ^ "Greatest of All Time Artists". Billboard. Archived from the original on 14 November 2019. Retrieved 21 March 2023.

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31 January 1930 - 3M begins marketing Scotch Tape.

Scotch Tape

American brand of pressure sensitive tapes

For other uses, see Adhesive tape.

Scotch Tape is a brand name used for pressure-sensitive tapes developed by 3M. It was first introduced by Richard Drew, who created the initial masking tape under the Scotch brand. The invention of Scotch-brand cellulose tape expanded its applications, making it suitable for sealing packages and conducting item repairs. Over time, Scotch Tape has been utilized in various industries and households for its diverse adhesive solutions.^[1]

1. ^ "Scotch Tape | MNopedia". www.mnopedia.org. Retrieved 18 May 2023.

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1 February 2003 - Space Shuttle Columbia disintegrates during reentry into the Earth's atmosphere, killing all seven astronauts aboard.

Space Shuttle Columbia disaster

2003 American spaceflight accident

Not to be confused with Space Shuttle Challenger disaster.

On Saturday, February 1, 2003, Space Shuttle Columbia disintegrated as it reentered the atmosphere over Texas and Louisiana, killing all seven astronauts on board. It was the second Space Shuttle mission to end in disaster, after the loss of Challenger and crew in 1986.

The mission, designated STS-107, was the twenty-eighth flight for the orbiter, the 113th flight of the Space Shuttle fleet and the 88th after the Challenger disaster. It was dedicated to research in various fields, mainly on board the SpaceHab module inside the shuttle's payload bay. During launch, a piece of the insulating foam broke off from the Space Shuttle external tank and struck the thermal protection system tiles on the orbiter's left wing. Similar foam shedding had occurred during previous Space Shuttle launches, causing damage that ranged from minor to near-catastrophic, but some engineers suspected that the damage to Columbia was more serious. Before reentry, NASA managers had limited the investigation, reasoning that the crew could not have fixed the problem if it had been confirmed. When Columbia reentered the atmosphere of Earth, the damage allowed hot atmospheric gases to penetrate the heat shield and destroy the internal wing structure, which caused the orbiter to become unstable and break apart.

After the disaster, Space Shuttle flight operations were suspended for more than two years, as they had been after the Challenger disaster. Construction of the International Space Station (ISS) was paused until flights resumed in July 2005 with STS-114. NASA made several technical and organizational changes to subsequent missions, including adding an on-orbit inspection to determine how well the orbiter's thermal protection system (TPS) had endured the ascent, and keeping designated rescue missions ready in case irreparable damage was found. Except for one mission to repair the Hubble Space Telescope, subsequent Space Shuttle missions were flown only to the ISS to allow the crew to use it as a haven if damage to the orbiter prevented safe reentry; the remaining orbiters were retired after the ISS was finished.

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2 February 1971 - Idi Amin replaces President Milton Obote as leader of Uganda.

Idi Amin

President of Uganda from 1971 to 1979

Idi Amin Dada Oumee (/ˈiːdi ɑːˈmiːn, ˈɪdi -/ ^ⓘ, UK also /- æˈmiːn/; 30 August 1928 – 16 August 2003) was a Ugandan military officer and politician who served as the third president of Uganda from 1971 to 1979. He ruled as a military dictator and is considered one of the most brutal despots in modern world history.^[2]

Amin was born to a Kakwa father and Lugbara mother. In 1946, he joined the King's African Rifles (KAR) of the British Colonial Army as a cook. He rose to the rank of lieutenant, taking part in British actions against Somali rebels and then the Mau Mau Uprising in Kenya. Uganda gained independence from the United Kingdom in 1962, and Amin remained in the army, rising to the position of major and being appointed commander of the Uganda Army in 1965. He became aware that Ugandan President Milton Obote was planning to arrest him for misappropriating army funds, so he launched the 1971 Ugandan coup d'état and declared himself president.

During his years in power, Amin shifted from being a pro-Western ruler enjoying considerable support from Israel to being backed by Libya's Muammar Gaddafi, Zaire's Mobutu Sese Seko, the Soviet Union, and East Germany.^[3][4][5] In 1972, Amin expelled Asians, a majority of whom were Indian-Ugandans, leading India to sever diplomatic relations with his regime.^[6] In 1975, Amin became the chairman of the Organisation of African Unity (OAU), a Pan-Africanist group designed to promote solidarity among African states.^[7] Uganda was a member of the United Nations Commission on Human Rights from 1977 to 1979.^[8] The United Kingdom broke diplomatic relations with Uganda in 1977, and Amin declared that he had defeated the British and added "CBE" to his title for "Conqueror of the British Empire".^[9]

As Amin's rule progressed into the late 1970s, there was increased unrest against his persecution of certain ethnic groups and political dissidents, along with Uganda's very poor international standing due to Amin's support for PFLP-EO and RZ hijackers in 1976, leading to Israel's Operation Entebbe. He then attempted to annex Tanzania's Kagera Region in 1978. The Tanzanian president Julius Nyerere ordered his troops to invade Uganda in response. Tanzanian Army and rebel forces successfully captured Kampala in 1979 and ousted Amin from power. Amin went into exile, first in Libya, then Iraq, and finally in Saudi Arabia, where he lived until his death in 2003.^[10]

Amin's rule was characterised by rampant human rights abuses, including political repression, ethnic persecution, extrajudicial killings, as well as nepotism, corruption, and gross economic mismanagement. International observers and human rights groups estimate that between 100,000^[11] and 500,000 people were killed under his regime.^[9]

1. ^ Nakajubi, Gloria (15 July 2015). "Ugandan dictator Idi Amin's widow Sarah Kyolaba dies in the UK aged 59". The Independent. Archived from the original on 25 September 2015. Retrieved 21 September 2015.
2. ^ Boddy-Evans, Alistair. "Biography of Idi Amin, Brutal Dictator of Uganda". ThoughtCo. Archived from the original on 16 July 2019. Retrieved 16 July 2019.
3. ^ Roland Anthony Oliver, Anthony Atmore (1967). "Africa Since 1800". The Geographical Journal. 133 (2): 272. Bibcode:1967GeogJ.133Q.230M. doi:10.2307/1793302. JSTOR 1793302.
4. ^ Dale C. Tatum. Who influenced whom?. p. 177.
5. ^ Gareth M. Winrow. The Foreign Policy of the GDR in Africa, p. 141.
6. ^ Subramanian, Archana (6 August 2015). "Asian expulsion". The Hindu.
7. ^ "Idi Amin: A Byword for Brutality". News24. 21 July 2003. Archived from the original on 5 June 2008. Retrieved 13 February 2012.
8. ^ Gershowitz, Suzanne (20 March 2007). "The Last King of Scotland, Idi Amin, and the United Nations". Archived from the original on 6 June 2009. Retrieved 8 August 2009.
9. ^ ^{a b} Keatley, Patrick (18 August 2003). "Idi Amin". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 27 July 2013. Retrieved 16 March 2020.
10. ^ "Dictator Idi Amin dies". 16 August 2003. Archived from the original on 9 March 2021. Retrieved 10 May 2020 – via news.bbc.co.uk.
11. ^ Ullman, Richard H. (April 1978). "Human Rights and Economic Power: The United States Versus Idi Amin". Foreign Affairs. 56 (3): 529–543. doi:10.2307/20039917. JSTOR 20039917. Archived from the original on 18 April 2015. Retrieved 24 October 2018. The most conservative estimates by informed observers hold that President Idi Amin Dada and the terror squads operating under his loose direction have killed 100,000 Ugandans in the seven years he has held power.

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3 February 2007 - A Baghdad market bombing kills at least 135 people and injures a further 339.

3 February 2007 Baghdad market bombing

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4 February # 1789 - George Washington is unanimously elected to be the first President of the United States by the U.S. Electoral College.
4 February # 1792 - George Washington is unanimously elected to a second term as President of the United States by the U.S. Electoral College.

George Washington

Founding Father, 1st president of the United States

"General Washington" redirects here. For other uses, see General Washington (disambiguation) and George Washington (disambiguation).

George Washington (February 22, 1732 – December 14, 1799) was an American Founding Father, military officer, and politician who served as the first president of the United States from 1789 to 1797. Appointed by the Second Continental Congress as commander of the Continental Army in 1775, Washington led Patriot forces to victory in the American Revolutionary War and then served as president of the Constitutional Convention in 1787, which drafted and ratified the Constitution of the United States and established the U.S. federal government. Washington has thus become commonly known as the "Father of his Country".

Washington's first public office, from 1749 to 1750, was as surveyor of Culpeper County in the Colony of Virginia. He subsequently received military training and was assigned command of the Virginia Regiment during the French and Indian War. He was later elected to the Virginia House of Burgesses and was named a delegate to the Continental Congress in Philadelphia, which appointed him commander-in-chief of the Continental Army. Washington led American forces to a decisive victory over the British in the Revolutionary War, leading the British to sign the Treaty of Paris, which acknowledged the sovereignty and independence of the United States. He resigned his commission in 1783 after the conclusion of the Revolutionary War.

Washington played an indispensable role in adopting and ratifying the Constitution, which replaced the Articles of Confederation in 1789. He was then twice elected president by the Electoral College unanimously. As the first U.S. president, Washington implemented a strong, well-financed national government while remaining impartial in a fierce rivalry that emerged between cabinet members Thomas Jefferson and Alexander Hamilton. During the French Revolution, he proclaimed a policy of neutrality while additionally sanctioning the Jay Treaty. He set enduring precedents for the office of president, including republicanism, a peaceful transfer of power, the use of the title "Mr. President", and the two-term tradition. His 1796 farewell address became a preeminent statement on republicanism in which he wrote about the importance of national unity and the dangers that regionalism, partisanship, and foreign influence pose to it.

Washington's image is an icon of American culture. He has been memorialized by monuments, a federal holiday, various media depictions, geographical locations including the national capital, the State of Washington, stamps, and currency. In 1976, Washington was posthumously promoted to the rank of general of the Armies, the highest rank in the U.S. Army. Washington consistently ranks in both popular and scholarly polls as one of the greatest presidents in American history.

1. ^ Randall 1997, p. 303.

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5 February 1994 - During the war in Bosnia and Herzegovina more than 60 people are killed and some 200 wounded as a mortar shell slams into a downtown marketplace in Sarajevo.

War in Bosnia and Herzegovina

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6 February 1840 - Signing of the Treaty of Waitangi, establishing New Zealand as a British colony.

Treaty of Waitangi

1840 treaty between British Crown and people of New Zealand

Not to be confused with Treaty of Waitangi Tribunal.

The Treaty of Waitangi (Māori: Te Tiriti o Waitangi), sometimes referred to as Te Tiriti, is a document of central importance to the history of New Zealand, its constitution, and its national mythos. It has played a major role in the treatment of the Māori people in New Zealand by successive governments and the wider population, something that has been especially prominent from the late 20th century. The treaty document is an agreement, not a treaty as recognised in international law,^[1] and has no independent legal status, being legally effective only to the extent it is recognised in various statutes.^[2] It was first signed on 6 February 1840 by Captain William Hobson as consul for the British Crown and by Māori chiefs (rangatira) from the North Island of New Zealand.

The treaty was written at a time when the New Zealand Company, acting on behalf of large numbers of settlers and would-be settlers, were establishing a colony in New Zealand, and when some Māori leaders had petitioned the British for protection against French ambitions. It was drafted with the intention of establishing a British Governor of New Zealand, recognising Māori ownership of their lands, forests and other possessions, and giving Māori the rights of British subjects. It was intended by the British Crown to ensure that when Lieutenant Governor Hobson subsequently made the declaration of British sovereignty over New Zealand in May 1840, the Māori people would not feel that their rights had been ignored.^[3] Once it had been written and translated, it was first signed by Northern Māori leaders at Waitangi. Copies were subsequently taken around New Zealand and over the following months many other chiefs signed.^[4] Around 530 to 540 Māori, at least 13 of them women, signed the Māori language version of the Treaty of Waitangi, despite some Māori leaders cautioning against it.^[5][6] Only 39 signed the English version.^[7] An immediate result of the treaty was that Queen Victoria's government gained the sole right to purchase land.^[8] In total there are nine signed copies of the Treaty of Waitangi, including the sheet signed on 6 February 1840 at Waitangi.^[9]

The text of the treaty includes a preamble and three articles. It is bilingual, with the Māori text translated in the context of the time from the English.

• Article one of the Māori text grants governance rights to the Crown while the English text cedes "all rights and powers of sovereignty" to the Crown.
• Article two of the Māori text establishes that Māori will retain full chieftainship over their lands, villages and all their treasures while the English text establishes the continued ownership of the Māori over their lands and establishes the exclusive right of pre-emption of the Crown.
• Article three gives Māori people full rights and protections as British subjects.

As some words in the English treaty did not translate directly into the written Māori language of the time, the Māori text is not an exact translation of the English text, particularly in relation to the meaning of having and ceding sovereignty.^[10][11] These differences created disagreements in the decades following the signing, eventually contributing to the New Zealand Wars of 1845 to 1872 and continuing through to the Treaty of Waitangi settlements starting in the early 1990s.

During the second half of the 19th century Māori generally lost control of much of the land they had owned, sometimes through legitimate sale, but often by way of unfair deals, settlers occupying land that had not been sold, or through outright confiscations in the aftermath of the New Zealand Wars. In the period following the New Zealand Wars, the New Zealand government mostly ignored the treaty, and a court judgement in 1877 declared it to be "a simple nullity". Beginning in the 1950s, Māori increasingly sought to use the treaty as a platform for claiming additional rights to sovereignty and to reclaim lost land, and governments in the 1960s and 1970s responded to these arguments, giving the treaty an increasingly central role in the interpretation of land rights and relations between Māori people and the state.

In 1975 the New Zealand Parliament passed the Treaty of Waitangi Act, establishing the Waitangi Tribunal as a permanent commission of inquiry tasked with interpreting the treaty, investigating breaches of the Principles of the Treaty of Waitangi by the Crown or its agents, and suggesting means of redress.^[10] In most cases, recommendations of the tribunal are not binding on the Crown, but settlements with a total value of roughly $1 billion have been awarded to various Māori groups.^[10][12] Various legislation passed in the latter part of the 20th century has made reference to the treaty, which has led to ad hoc incorporation of the treaty into law.^[13] Increasingly, the treaty is recognised as a founding document in New Zealand's developing unwritten constitution.^[14][15][16] The New Zealand Day Act 1973 established Waitangi Day as a national holiday to commemorate the signing of the treaty.

1. ^ Cox, Noel (2002). "The Treaty of Waitangi and the Relationship Between the Crown and Maori in New Zealand". Brooklyn Journal of International Law. 28 (1): 132. Archived from the original on 4 October 2022. Retrieved 4 October 2022.
2. ^ "The Status of the Treaty as a Legal Document". Treaty Resource Centre – He Puna Mātauranga o Te Tiriti. Archived from the original on 7 October 2022. Retrieved 4 October 2022.
3. ^ "Additional Instructions from Lord Normanby to Captain Hobson 1839 – New Zealand Constitutional Law Resources". New Zealand Legal Information Institute. 15 August 1839. Archived from the original on 4 December 2019. Retrieved 5 October 2019.
4. ^ "Treaty of Waitangi signings in the South Island". Christchurch City Libraries. Archived from the original on 18 February 2015.
5. ^ "Treaty of Waitangi". Waitangi Tribunal. Archived from the original on 6 July 2016. Retrieved 28 May 2015.
6. ^ Orange 1987, p. 260.
7. ^ Newman, Keith (2010) [2010]. Bible & Treaty, Missionaries among the Māori – a new perspective. Penguin. ISBN 978-0143204084. pp 159
8. ^ Burns, Patricia (1989). Fatal Success: A History of the New Zealand Company. Heinemann Reed. ISBN 0-7900-0011-3.
9. ^ "Treaty of Waitangi – Te Tiriti o Waitangi". Archives New Zealand. Archived from the original on 11 August 2011. Retrieved 10 August 2011.
10. ^ ^{a b c} "Meaning of the Treaty". Waitangi Tribunal. 2011. Archived from the original on 8 July 2016. Retrieved 12 July 2011.
11. ^ Newman, Keith (2010) [2010]. Bible & Treaty, Missionaries among the Māori – a new perspective. Penguin. ISBN 978-0143204084. pp 20-116
12. ^ Cite error: The named reference Settlements was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
13. ^ Palmer 2008, p. 292.
14. ^ "New Zealand's Constitution". Government House. Archived from the original on 10 December 2017. Retrieved 17 August 2017.
15. ^ "New Zealand's constitution – past, present and future" (PDF). Cabinet Office. Archived from the original (PDF) on 24 April 2017. Retrieved 17 August 2017.
16. ^ Palmer 2008, p. 25.

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7 February 1992 - The Maastricht Treaty is signed, leading to the creation of the European Union.

Maastricht Treaty

1992 founding treaty of the European Union

"Treaty of Maastricht" redirects here. For the 1843 treaty between Belgium and the Netherlands, see Treaty of Maastricht (1843).

The Treaty on European Union, commonly known as the Maastricht Treaty, is the foundation treaty of the European Union (EU). Concluded in 1992 between the then-twelve member states of the European Communities, it announced "a new stage in the process of European integration"^[2] chiefly in provisions for a shared European citizenship, for the eventual introduction of a single currency, and (with less precision) for common foreign and security policies, and a number of changes to the European institutions and their decision taking procedures, not least a strengthening of the powers of the European Parliament and more majority voting on the Council of Ministers. Although these were seen by many to presage a "federal Europe", key areas remained inter-governmental with national governments collectively taking key decisions. This constitutional debate continued through the negotiation of subsequent treaties (see below), culminating in the 2007 Treaty of Lisbon.

In the wake of the Eurozone debt crisis unfolding from 2009, the most enduring reference to the Maastricht Treaty has been to the rules of compliance – the "Maastricht criteria" – for the currency union.

Against the background of the end of the Cold War and the re-unification of Germany, and in anticipation of accelerated globalisation, the treaty negotiated tensions between member states seeking deeper integration and those wishing to retain greater national control. The resulting compromise faced what was to be the first in a series of EU treaty ratification crises.

1. ^ "Founding agreements". European Union. Retrieved 5 February 2022.
2. ^ Council of European Communities, Commission of the European Communities (1992). Treaty on European Union. Luxembourg: Office for Official Publications of the European Communities. p. 2. ISBN 92-824-0959-7.

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8 February 1855 - The Devil's Footprints mysteriously appear in southern Devon.

The Devil's Footprints

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9 February 1950 - Second Red Scare: Senator Joseph McCarthy accuses the United States State Department of being filled with Communists.

Second Red Scare

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10 February 1763 - French and Indian War: The 1763 Treaty of Paris ends the war and France cedes Quebec to Great Britain.

1763 Treaty of Paris

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11 February 1990 - Nelson Mandela, a political prisoner for 27 years, is freed from Victor Verster Prison outside Cape Town, South Africa.

Nelson Mandela

President of South Africa from 1994 to 1999

"Mandela" redirects here. Not to be confused with Mandala. For other uses, see Mandela (disambiguation) and Nelson Mandela (disambiguation).

Nelson Rolihlahla Mandela (/mænˈdɛlə/ man-DEH-lə;^[1] Xhosa: [xolíɬaɬa mandɛ̂ːla]; born Rolihlahla Mandela; 18 July 1918 – 5 December 2013) was a South African anti-apartheid activist, politician, and statesman who served as the first president of South Africa from 1994 to 1999. He was the country's first black head of state and the first elected in a fully representative democratic election. His government focused on dismantling the legacy of apartheid by fostering racial reconciliation. Ideologically an African nationalist and socialist, he served as the president of the African National Congress (ANC) party from 1991 to 1997.

A Xhosa, Mandela was born into the Thembu royal family in Mvezo, South Africa. He studied law at the University of Fort Hare and the University of Witwatersrand before working as a lawyer in Johannesburg. There he became involved in anti-colonial and African nationalist politics, joining the ANC in 1943 and co-founding its Youth League in 1944. After the National Party's white-only government established apartheid, a system of racial segregation that privileged whites, Mandela and the ANC committed themselves to its overthrow. He was appointed president of the ANC's Transvaal branch, rising to prominence for his involvement in the 1952 Defiance Campaign and the 1955 Congress of the People. He was repeatedly arrested for seditious activities and was unsuccessfully prosecuted in the 1956 Treason Trial. Influenced by Marxism, he secretly joined the banned South African Communist Party (SACP). Although initially committed to non-violent protest, in association with the SACP he co-founded the militant uMkhonto we Sizwe in 1961 and led a sabotage campaign against the government. He was arrested and imprisoned in 1962, and, following the Rivonia Trial, was sentenced to life imprisonment for conspiring to overthrow the state.

Mandela served 27 years in prison, split between Robben Island, Pollsmoor Prison and Victor Verster Prison. Amid growing domestic and international pressure and fears of racial civil war, President F. W. de Klerk released him in 1990. Mandela and de Klerk led efforts to negotiate an end to apartheid, which resulted in the 1994 multiracial general election in which Mandela led the ANC to victory and became president. Leading a broad coalition government which promulgated a new constitution, Mandela emphasised reconciliation between the country's racial groups and created the Truth and Reconciliation Commission to investigate past human rights abuses. Economically, his administration retained its predecessor's liberal framework despite his own socialist beliefs, also introducing measures to encourage land reform, combat poverty and expand healthcare services. Internationally, Mandela acted as mediator in the Pan Am Flight 103 bombing trial and served as secretary-general of the Non-Aligned Movement from 1998 to 1999. He declined a second presidential term and was succeeded by his deputy, Thabo Mbeki. Mandela became an elder statesman and focused on combating poverty and HIV/AIDS through the charitable Nelson Mandela Foundation.

Mandela was a controversial figure for much of his life. Although critics on the right denounced him as a communist terrorist and those on the far left deemed him too eager to negotiate and reconcile with apartheid's supporters, he gained international acclaim for his activism. Globally regarded as an icon of democracy and social justice, he received more than 250 honours, including the Nobel Peace Prize. He is held in deep respect within South Africa, where he is often referred to by his Thembu clan name, Madiba, and described as the "Father of the Nation".

1. ^ "Mandela". Collins English Dictionary. Archived from the original on 5 April 2016. Retrieved 17 December 2013.

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12 February 1554 - A year after claiming the throne of England for nine days, Lady Jane Grey is beheaded for treason.

Jane of England

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13 February 2000 - The last original "Peanuts" comic strip appears in newspapers one day after Charles M. Schulz dies.

Peanuts

Comic strip by Charles M. Schulz

This article is about the comic strip. For the edible legume, see Peanut. For other uses, see Peanut (disambiguation).

Peanuts is a syndicated daily and Sunday American comic strip written and illustrated by Charles M. Schulz. The strip's original run extended from 1950 to 2000, continuing in reruns afterward. Peanuts is among the most popular and influential in the history of comic strips, with 17,897 strips published in all,^[1] making it "arguably the longest story ever told by one human being";^[2] it is considered to be the grandfather of slice of life cartoons.^{[not verified in body]} At the time of Schulz's death in 2000, Peanuts ran in over 2,600 newspapers, with a readership of roughly 355 million across 75 countries, and had been translated into 21 languages.^[3] It helped to cement the four-panel gag strip as the standard in the United States,^[4] and together with its merchandise earned Schulz more than $1 billion.^[1]

Peanuts focuses on a social circle of young children, where adults exist but are rarely seen or heard. The main character, Charlie Brown, is meek, nervous, and lacks self-confidence. He is unable to fly a kite, win a baseball game, or kick a football held by his irascible friend Lucy, who always pulls it away at the last instant.^[5] Peanuts is a literate strip with philosophical, psychological, and sociological overtones, which was innovative in the 1950s.^[6] Its humor is psychologically complex and driven by the characters' interactions and relationships. The comic strip has been adapted in animation and theater.

Schulz drew the strip for nearly 50 years, with no assistants, even in the lettering and coloring process.^[7]

1. ^ ^{a b} Bethune 2007.
2. ^ Boxer 2000.
3. ^ Podger 2000.
4. ^ Walker 2002, p. ^{[page needed]}.
5. ^ The World Encyclopedia of Comics, edited by Maurice Horn, published in 1977 by Avon Books
6. ^ "comic strip :: The first half of the 20th century: the evolution of the form". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved December 10, 2015.
7. ^ Yoe, Craig, Clean Cartoonists' Dirty Drawings. San Francisco, Calif.: Last Gasp, 2007, p. 36; Michaelis, David, Schulz and Peanuts: A Biography. New York: HarperPerennial, 2008, p. ix.

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14 February 1989 - Iranian leader Ruhollah Khomeini issues a fatwa encouraging Muslims to kill the author of The Satanic Verses, Salman Rushdie.

The Satanic Verses controversy

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15 February 1942 - World War II: The Fall of Singapore. Following an assault by Japanese forces, the British General Arthur Percival surrenders. About 80,000 Indian, United Kingdom and Australian soldiers become prisoners of war, the largest surrender of British-led military personnel in history. The Sook Ching massacre begins.

Fall of Singapore

1942 World War II battle; Japanese victory

The fall of Singapore, also known as the Battle of Singapore,^[c] took place in the South–East Asian theatre of the Pacific War. The Japanese Empire captured the British stronghold of Singapore, with fighting lasting from 8 to 15 February 1942. Singapore was the foremost British military base and economic port in South–East Asia and had been of great importance to British interwar defence strategy. The capture of Singapore resulted in the largest British surrender in its history.

Before the battle, Japanese General Tomoyuki Yamashita had advanced with approximately 30,000 men down the Malayan Peninsula in the Malayan campaign. The British erroneously considered the jungle terrain impassable, leading to a swift Japanese advance as Allied defences were quickly outflanked. The British Lieutenant-General, Arthur Percival, commanded 85,000 Allied troops at Singapore, although many units were under-strength and most units lacked experience. The British outnumbered the Japanese but much of the water for the island was drawn from reservoirs on the mainland. The British destroyed the causeway, forcing the Japanese into an improvised crossing of the Johore Strait. Singapore was considered so important that Prime Minister Winston Churchill ordered Percival to fight to the last man.

The Japanese attacked the weakest part of the island defences and established a beachhead on 8 February. Percival had expected a crossing in the north and failed to reinforce the defenders in time. Communication and leadership failures beset the Allies and there were few defensive positions or reserves near the beachhead. The Japanese advance continued and the Allies began to run out of supplies. By 15 February, about a million civilians in the city were crammed into the remaining area held by Allied forces, 1 percent of the island. Japanese aircraft continuously bombed the civilian water supply which was expected to fail within days. The Japanese were also almost at the end of their supplies and Yamashita wanted to avoid costly house-to-house fighting.

For the second time since the battle began, Yamashita demanded unconditional surrender and on the afternoon of 15 February, Percival capitulated. About 80,000 British, Indian, Australian and local troops became prisoners of war, joining the 50,000 taken in Malaya; many died of neglect, abuse or forced labour. Three days after the British surrender, the Japanese began the Sook Ching purge, killing thousands of civilians. The Japanese held Singapore until the end of the war. About 40,000, mostly conscripted, Indian soldiers joined the Indian National Army and fought with the Japanese in the Burma campaign. Churchill called it the worst disaster in British military history. The fall of Singapore, the sinking of Prince of Wales and Repulse, and other defeats in 1942 all severely undermined British prestige, which contributed to the end of British colonial rule in the region after the war.

1. ^ Allen 2013, pp. 300–301.
2. ^ Blackburn & Hack 2004, p. 74.
3. ^ Blackburn & Hack 2004, p. 193.
4. ^ Allen 2013, p. 169.
5. ^ Toland 2003, p. 272.

Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

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16 February 1959 - Fidel Castro becomes Premier of Cuba after dictator Fulgencio Batista was overthrown on January 1.

Fidel Castro

Leader of Cuba from 1959 to 2008

"El Comandante" redirects here. For the TV series, see El Comandante (TV series). For other uses, see Fidel Castro (disambiguation).

In this Spanish name, the first or paternal surname is Castro and the second or maternal family name is Ruz.

Fidel Alejandro Castro Ruz (/ˈkæstroʊ/ KASS-troh,^[1] Latin American Spanish: [fiˈðel aleˈxandɾo ˈkastɾo ˈrus]; 13 August 1926 – 25 November 2016) was a Cuban revolutionary and politician who was the leader of Cuba from 1959 to 2008, serving as the prime minister of Cuba from 1959 to 1976 and president from 1976 to 2008. Ideologically a Marxist–Leninist and Cuban nationalist, he also served as the first secretary of the Communist Party of Cuba from 1965 until 2011. Under his administration, Cuba became a one-party communist state; industry and business were nationalized, and socialist reforms were implemented throughout society.

Born in Birán, the son of a wealthy Spanish farmer, Castro adopted leftist and anti-imperialist ideas while studying law at the University of Havana. After participating in rebellions against right-wing governments in the Dominican Republic and Colombia, he planned the overthrow of Cuban president Fulgencio Batista, launching a failed attack on the Moncada Barracks in 1953. After a year's imprisonment, Castro travelled to Mexico where he formed a revolutionary group, the 26th of July Movement, with his brother Raúl Castro and Ernesto "Che" Guevara. Returning to Cuba, Castro took a key role in the Cuban Revolution by leading the Movement in a guerrilla war against Batista's forces from the Sierra Maestra. After Batista's overthrow in 1959, Castro assumed military and political power as Cuba's prime minister. The United States came to oppose Castro's government and unsuccessfully attempted to remove him by assassination, economic embargo, and counter-revolution, including the Bay of Pigs Invasion of 1961. Countering these threats, Castro aligned with the Soviet Union and allowed the Soviets to place nuclear weapons in Cuba, resulting in the Cuban Missile Crisis—a defining incident of the Cold War—in 1962.

Adopting a Marxist–Leninist model of development, Castro converted Cuba into a one-party, socialist state under Communist Party rule, the first in the Western Hemisphere. Policies introducing central economic planning and expanding healthcare and education were accompanied by state control of the press and the suppression of internal dissent. Abroad, Castro supported anti-imperialist revolutionary groups, backing the establishment of Marxist governments in Chile, Nicaragua, and Grenada, as well as sending troops to aid allies in the Yom Kippur, Ogaden, and Angolan Civil War. These actions, coupled with Castro's leadership of the Non-Aligned Movement from 1979 to 1983 and Cuban medical internationalism, increased Cuba's profile on the world stage. Following the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991, Castro led Cuba through the economic downturn of the "Special Period", embracing environmentalist and anti-globalization ideas. In the 2000s, Castro forged alliances in the Latin American "pink tide"—namely with Hugo Chávez's Venezuela—and formed the Bolivarian Alliance for the Americas. In 2006, Castro transferred his responsibilities to Vice President Raúl Castro, who was elected to the presidency by the National Assembly in 2008.

The longest-serving non-royal head of state in the 20th and 21st centuries, Castro polarized world opinion. His supporters view him as a champion of socialism and anti-imperialism whose revolutionary government advanced economic and social justice while securing Cuba's independence from American hegemony. His critics view him as a dictator whose administration oversaw human rights abuses, the exodus of many Cubans, and the impoverishment of the country's economy.

1. ^ "Castro" Archived 5 August 2020 at the Wayback Machine. Random House Webster's Unabridged Dictionary.

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17 February 1933 - The Blaine Act ends Prohibition in the United States

Prohibition

Outlawing of alcohol

This article is about prohibition of alcohol. For prohibition of other drugs, see Drug prohibition. For the general concept of legal prohibition, see Prohibitionism. For other uses, see Prohibition (disambiguation).

Prohibition is the act or practice of forbidding something by law; more particularly the term refers to the banning of the manufacture, storage (whether in barrels or in bottles), transportation, sale, possession, and consumption of alcoholic beverages. The word is also used to refer to a period of time during which such bans are enforced.

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18 February 1929 - The first Academy Awards are announced.

Academy Awards

Annual awards for cinematic achievements

"Oscars" and "The Oscar" redirect here. For other uses, see Oscar (disambiguation).

The Academy Awards of Merit,^[1] commonly known as the Oscars or Academy Awards, are awards for artistic and technical merit for the film industry. They are presented annually by the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences (AMPAS) in the United States, in recognition of excellence in cinematic achievements as assessed by the Academy's voting membership.^[2] The Oscars are widely considered to be the most prestigious awards in the film industry.^[3]

The major award categories are presented during a live-televised Hollywood ceremony, that is typically held in February or March. It is the oldest worldwide entertainment awards ceremony.^[4] The 1st Academy Awards were held in 1929.^[5] The second ceremony, in 1930, was the first one broadcast by radio. The 1953 ceremony was the first one televised.^[4] It is the oldest of the four major annual American entertainment awards. Its equivalents – the Emmy Awards for television, the Tony Awards for theater, and the Grammy Awards for music – are modeled after the Academy Awards.^[6] The Oscar statuette depicts a knight, rendered in the Art Deco style.^[7]

1. ^ "96th Academy Awards® of Merit" (PDF). Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences. Archived (PDF) from the original on May 2, 2023. Retrieved April 4, 2024.
2. ^ Feinberg, Scott (January 20, 2020). "Oscars: What the '1917' PGA Win and 'Parasite' SAG Win Mean for Best Picture". The Hollywood Reporter. Archived from the original on January 11, 2023. Retrieved February 5, 2023.
3. ^ Attributed to multiple references:
   • Mifflin, Lawrie (May 22, 1995). "More Awards Programs, More Winners, More Money". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on May 31, 2013. Retrieved March 14, 2024. People love the Academy Awards — the celebrities, the music, the jokes and the suspense of the most prestigious awards program in show business.
   • "What are the Oscars and BAFTAs and what's the difference?". BBC News. February 26, 2017. Archived from the original on January 20, 2014. Retrieved April 5, 2022. The Oscars are thought to be the most prestigious film awards in the world.
   • Whipp, Glenn (January 9, 2023). "Awards show power rankings, from worst to first". Los Angeles Times. ISSN 0458-3035. Archived from the original on January 9, 2023. Retrieved March 14, 2024. 1. The Oscars
   • Vega, Nicolas (March 26, 2022). "The Oscar statuette is the most prestigious prize in Hollywood—here's why it's only worth $1". CNBC. Archived from the original on March 26, 2022. Retrieved April 5, 2022. Winning an Academy Award is often considered the most prestigious honor you can receive in Hollywood.
   • Rao, Sonia (April 16, 2021). "Why do the Oscars matter?". The Washington Post. ISSN 0190-8286. Archived from the original on April 16, 2021. Retrieved May 12, 2021. They are, after all, the most extravagant of award shows, considered important enough for an adjacent industry of publicists and marketing experts to devote months to campaigning, and entertaining enough for a broadcast television network to allocate hours of Sunday night airtime to the ceremony.
   • Torres, Libby (January 21, 2020). "The 18 best Oscar hosts of all time, ranked". Business Insider. Archived from the original on February 1, 2018. Retrieved March 14, 2024. The Academy Awards are Hollywood's biggest night, and celebrate achievements in cinema by A-list stars and directors.
   • Wilkinson, Alissa (March 2, 2022). "The Oscars can't quite decide if they're about America or the whole world". Vox. Archived from the original on March 2, 2022. Retrieved March 14, 2024. And are the Oscars, given out by Hollywood's most prestigious professional association, the biggest prize in the world — or just in America?
   • Kenyon, Sandy (February 6, 2020). "Oscars campaigning: How do studios lobby for Academy Awards?". ABC 7. Archived from the original on April 7, 2020. Retrieved March 14, 2024. The Oscar has always been the most prestigious award in all of show business, but now it's also the most valuable.
   • Davies, Hannah J. (March 28, 2022). "Stage frights: five of the most shocking moments in Oscars history". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Archived from the original on March 28, 2022. Retrieved March 14, 2024. Will Smith isn't the only actor to cause consternation at the world's most coveted film awards.
   • Starkey, Adam (January 23, 2023). "Who has won the most Oscars?". NME. Archived from the original on January 24, 2023. Retrieved March 14, 2024. The Academy Awards, better known as the Oscars, is seen as the most prestigious award show in the film industry.
   • Shrader, Natalie (March 14, 2023). "14 UNCSA connections to 2023 Oscar-winning films". University of North Carolina School of the Arts. Archived from the original on March 14, 2023. Retrieved March 14, 2024. The Academy Awards, better known as the Oscars, are regarded as the most prestigious and significant awards in the entertainment industry.
4. ^ ^{a b} Cite error: The named reference history was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
5. ^ Essex, Andrew (May 14, 1999). "The Birth of Oscar". Entertainment Weekly. Archived from the original on November 11, 2013. Retrieved March 2, 2011.
6. ^ Monush, Barry (February 9, 2012). "The Lure of Oscar: A Look at the Mightiest of All Award Shows, the Academy Awards". Paley Center for Media. Archived from the original on November 16, 2020. Retrieved October 29, 2019.
7. ^ Nichols, Chris (February 25, 2016). "Meet George Stanley, Sculptor of the Academy Award". Los Angeles Magazine. Archived from the original on November 7, 2017. Retrieved November 6, 2017.

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19 February 2004 - Nazi-hunter Simon Wiesenthal is awarded an honorary knighthood in recognition of a "lifetime of service to humanity.

Simon Wiesenthal

Jewish Austrian Nazi hunter (1908–2005)

Simon Wiesenthal (31 December 1908 – 20 September 2005) was a Jewish Austrian Holocaust survivor, Nazi hunter, and writer. He studied architecture and was living in Lwów at the outbreak of World War II. He survived the Janowska concentration camp (late 1941 to September 1944), the Kraków-Płaszów concentration camp (September to October 1944), the Gross-Rosen concentration camp, a death march to Chemnitz, Buchenwald, and the Mauthausen concentration camp (February to May 1945).

After the war, Wiesenthal dedicated his life to tracking down and gathering information on fugitive Nazi war criminals so that they could be brought to trial. In 1947, he co-founded the Jewish Historical Documentation Centre in Linz, Austria, where he and others gathered information for future war crime trials and aided refugees in their search for lost relatives. He opened the Documentation Centre of the Association of Jewish Victims of the Nazi Regime in Vienna in 1961 and continued to try to locate missing Nazi war criminals. He played a small role in locating Adolf Eichmann, who was captured by Mossad in Buenos Aires in 1960, and worked closely with the Austrian justice ministry to prepare a dossier on Franz Stangl, who was sentenced to life imprisonment in 1971.

In the 1970s and 1980s, Wiesenthal was involved in two high-profile events involving Austrian politicians. Shortly after Bruno Kreisky, a Jew himself, was inaugurated as Austrian chancellor in April 1970, Wiesenthal pointed out to the press that four of his new cabinet appointees had been members of the Nazi Party. Kreisky, angry, called Wiesenthal a "Jewish fascist", likened his organisation to the Mafia, and accused him of collaborating with the Nazis. Wiesenthal successfully sued for libel, the suit ending in 1989. In 1986, Wiesenthal was involved in the case of Kurt Waldheim, whose service in the Wehrmacht and probable knowledge of the Holocaust were revealed in the lead-up to the 1986 Austrian presidential elections. Wiesenthal, embarrassed that he had previously cleared Waldheim of any wrongdoing, suffered negative publicity as a result of this event.

With a reputation as a storyteller, Wiesenthal was the author of several memoirs containing tales that are only loosely based on actual events.^[1][2] In particular, he exaggerated his role in the capture of Eichmann in 1960.^[3][4] Wiesenthal died in his sleep at age 96 in Vienna in 2005 and was buried in the city of Herzliya in Israel. The Simon Wiesenthal Center, headquartered in Los Angeles, is named in his honour.

1. ^ Segev 2010, p. 27.
2. ^ Walters 2009, pp. 77–78.
3. ^ Segev 2010, p. 278.
4. ^ Levy 2006, pp. 158–160.

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