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6 December 1907 – A coal mine explosion at Monongah, West Virginia, kills 362 workers.

Altamont Free Concert

1969 music festival in northern California

Altamont
Speedway

class=notpageimage|

Location in California

The Altamont Speedway Free Festival was a counterculture rock concert in the United States, held on Saturday, December 6, 1969, at the Altamont Speedway outside of Tracy, California.^[2][3][4][5] Approximately 300,000 attended the concert,^[2][4][5] with some anticipating that it would be a "Woodstock West".^[6] The Woodstock festival had taken place in Bethel, New York, in mid-August, almost four months earlier.

The event is remembered for its use of Hells Angels as security and its significant violence, including the stabbing death of Meredith Hunter and three accidental deaths: two from a hit-and-run car accident, and one from a drowning incident an irrigation canal.^[4][5] Scores were injured, numerous cars were stolen (and subsequently abandoned), and there was extensive property damage.^[7][8]

The concert featured performances (in order of appearance) by Santana, Jefferson Airplane, the Flying Burrito Brothers, and Crosby, Stills, Nash & Young (CSNY), with the Rolling Stones taking the stage as the final act.^[9] The Grateful Dead were also scheduled to perform after CSNY, but shortly before their scheduled appearance, they chose not to due to the increasing violence at the venue.^[10] "That's the way things went at Altamont—so badly that the Grateful Dead, the prime organizers and movers of the festival, didn't even get to play," wrote staff at Rolling Stone magazine in a detailed narrative on the event,^[11] terming it, in an additional follow-up piece, "rock and roll's all-time worst day, December 6th, a day when everything went perfectly wrong."^[12]

Filmmakers Albert and David Maysles shot footage of the event and incorporated it into the 1970 documentary film titled Gimme Shelter.^[13]

1. ^ Barbara Rowes. Grace Slick, a Biography. p. 155.
2. ^ ^{a b c} "300,000 jam musical bash". Chicago Tribune. December 7, 1969. p. 1, sec. 1.
3. ^ "Rockfest jams freeway traffic". Spokesman-Review. (Spokane, Washington). Associated Press. December 7, 1969. p. 2.
4. ^ ^{a b c} "Biggest rock concert ends". The Bulletin. (Bend, Oregon). UPI. December 8, 1969. p. 7.
5. ^ ^{a b c} Craig, Pat (December 8, 1969). "Out of sight, man! 300,000 at bash". Lodi News-Sentinel. (California). SJNS. p. 1.
6. ^ "Altamont Rock Festival: '60s Abruptly End" (PDF). Livermore Heritage Guild Journal. March–April 2010. Archived from the original (PDF) on December 26, 2011.
7. ^ Ortega, Tony (August 24, 2010). "Viewing the Remains of a Mean Saturday Village Voice December 18, 1969". Village Voice. Archived from the original on July 1, 2012. Retrieved October 25, 2010.
8. ^ "Altamont Rock Festival of 1969: The Aftermath" (PDF). Livermore Heritage Guild Journal. January–February 2011. Archived from the original (PDF) on December 26, 2011.
9. ^ Bangs, Lester; Brown, Reny; Burks, John; Egan, Sammy; Goodwin, Michael; Link, Geoffrey; Marcus, Greil; Morthland, John; Schoenfeld, Eugene; Thomas, Patrick; Winner, Langdon (January 21, 1970). "The Rolling Stones Disaster at Altamont: Let It Bleed". Rolling Stone. Archived from the original on June 15, 2018. Retrieved January 8, 2015.
10. ^ Lydon, Michael (September 1970). "An Evening with the Grateful Dead". Rolling Stone.
11. ^ "The Rolling Stones Disaster at Altamont: Let It Bleed". Rolling Stone. January 21, 1970. Retrieved May 4, 2019.
12. ^ Burks, John (February 7, 1970). "Rock & Roll's Worst Day". Rolling Stone. Archived from the original on March 14, 2008. Retrieved May 24, 2013.
13. ^ Colin Larkin, ed. (1997). The Virgin Encyclopedia of Popular Music (Concise ed.). Virgin Books. p. 35. ISBN 1-85227-745-9.

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7 December 1995 – The Galileo spacecraft arrives at Jupiter, a little more than six years after it was launched by Space Shuttle Atlantis during Mission STS-34.

Galileo (spacecraft)

NASA probe sent to Jupiter (1989–2003)

This article is about the Jupiter probe. For the navigation satellite system, see Galileo (satellite navigation). For the Star Trek shuttle, see Galileo (Star Trek).

Galileo was an American robotic space probe that studied the planet Jupiter and its moons, as well as the asteroids Gaspra and Ida. Named after the Italian astronomer Galileo Galilei, it consisted of an orbiter and an entry probe. It was delivered into Earth orbit on October 18, 1989, by Space Shuttle Atlantis, during STS-34. Galileo arrived at Jupiter on December 7, 1995, after gravitational assist flybys of Venus and Earth, and became the first spacecraft to orbit an outer planet.^[4]

The Jet Propulsion Laboratory built the Galileo spacecraft and managed the Galileo program for NASA. West Germany's Messerschmitt-Bölkow-Blohm supplied the propulsion module. NASA's Ames Research Center managed the atmospheric probe, which was built by Hughes Aircraft Company. At launch, the orbiter and probe together had a mass of 2,562 kg (5,648 lb) and stood 6.15 m (20.2 ft) tall.

Spacecraft are normally stabilized either by spinning around a fixed axis or by maintaining a fixed orientation with reference to the Sun and a star. Galileo did both. One section of the spacecraft rotated at 3 revolutions per minute, keeping Galileo stable and holding six instruments that gathered data from many different directions, including the fields and particles instruments.

Galileo was intentionally destroyed in Jupiter's atmosphere on September 21, 2003. The next orbiter to be sent to Jupiter was Juno, which arrived on July 5, 2016.

1. ^ "The Final Day on Galileo" (Press release). Jet Propulsion Laboratory. September 21, 2003. Archived from the original on September 30, 2023.
2. ^ ^{a b c d e f g h i j k l m} "Galileo Jupiter Arrival" (PDF) (Press Kit). NASA / Jet Propulsion Laboratory. December 1995.
3. ^ Taylor, Cheung & Seo 2002, p. 86.
4. ^ "Galileo – Overview". NASA Solar System Exploration. Retrieved December 7, 2021.

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8 December 2013 – Metallica performs a show in Antarctica, making them the first band to perform on all seven continents.

Metallica

American heavy metal band

This article is about the band. For its fifth album, see Metallica (album). For other uses, see Metallica (disambiguation).

Metallica is an American heavy metal band. The band was formed in 1981 in Los Angeles by vocalist and guitarist James Hetfield and drummer Lars Ulrich, and has been based in San Francisco for most of its career.^[1][2] The band's fast tempos, instrumentals and aggressive musicianship made them one of the founding "big four" bands of thrash metal, alongside Megadeth, Anthrax and Slayer. Metallica's current lineup comprises founding members and primary songwriters Hetfield and Ulrich, longtime lead guitarist Kirk Hammett and bassist Robert Trujillo. Guitarist Dave Mustaine, who formed Megadeth after being fired from Metallica, and bassists Ron McGovney, Cliff Burton and Jason Newsted are former members of the band.

Metallica first found commercial success with the release of its third album, Master of Puppets (1986), which is cited as one of the heaviest metal albums and the band's best work. The band's next album, ...And Justice for All (1988), gave Metallica its first Grammy Award nomination. Its fifth album, Metallica (1991), was a turning point for the band that saw them transition from their thrash roots; it appealed to a more mainstream audience, achieving substantial commercial success and selling more than 16 million copies in the United States to date, making it the best-selling album of the SoundScan era. After experimenting with different genres and directions in subsequent releases, Metallica returned to its thrash metal roots with its ninth album, Death Magnetic (2008), which drew similar praise to that of the band's earlier albums. The band's eleventh and most recent album, 72 Seasons, was released in 2023.

In 2000, Metallica led the case against the peer-to-peer file sharing service Napster, in which the band and several other artists filed lawsuits against the service for sharing their copyright-protected material without consent, eventually reaching a settlement. Metallica was the subject of the acclaimed 2004 documentary film Metallica: Some Kind of Monster, which documented the troubled production of the band's eighth album, St. Anger (2003), and the internal struggles within the band at the time. In 2009, Metallica was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame. The band co-wrote the screenplay for and starred alongside Dane DeHaan in the 2013 concert film Metallica: Through the Never, in which the band performed live against a fictional thriller storyline.

Metallica has released eleven studio albums, four live albums (including two performances with the San Francisco Symphony), twelve video albums, one cover album, two extended plays, 37 singles and 39 music videos. The band has won ten Grammy Awards from 26 nominations and had six consecutive studio albums – from Metallica through Hardwired... to Self-Destruct (2016) – debut at number one on the Billboard 200. Metallica ranks as one of the most commercially successful bands of all time, having sold more than 125 million albums worldwide as of 2018^[update].^[3] Metallica has been listed as one of the greatest artists of all time by magazines such as Rolling Stone, which ranked the band in 61st place on its list of 100 greatest artists of all time.^[4] As of 2017^[update], Metallica is the third-best-selling music artist since Nielsen SoundScan began tracking sales in 1991,^[5] selling 58 million albums in the United States.^[6]

1. ^ Pereira, Alyssa (August 12, 2016). "Metallica's Black Album turns 25: Here's how local record stores reacted to its sales in 1991". San Francisco Chronicle. Archived from the original on April 21, 2018. Retrieved April 20, 2018.
2. ^ "Band History". Metallica official website. Archived from the original on October 30, 2015. Retrieved April 20, 2018.
3. ^ Savage, Mark (February 14, 2018). "Metallica to get 'Nobel Prize of music'". BBC. Archived from the original on August 8, 2020. Retrieved March 23, 2018.
4. ^ "Metallica – 100 Greatest Artists". Rolling Stone. December 3, 2010. Archived from the original on April 23, 2015. Retrieved May 12, 2017.
5. ^ Trust, Gary; Caulfield, Keith (March 21, 2014). "Eminem Marks Sales, Hot 100 Milestones". Billboard. Archived from the original on April 10, 2019. Retrieved September 7, 2014.
6. ^ Caulfield, Keith (July 7, 2017). "Billboard 200 Chart Moves: Metallica's 'Hardwired' Hits 1 Million Sold in the U.S." Billboard. Archived from the original on July 9, 2017. Retrieved July 7, 2017.

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8 December 2013 – Metallica performs a show in Antarctica, making them the first band to perform on all seven continents.

Metallica

American heavy metal band

This article is about the band. For its fifth album, see Metallica (album). For other uses, see Metallica (disambiguation).

Metallica is an American heavy metal band. The band was formed in 1981 in Los Angeles by vocalist and guitarist James Hetfield and drummer Lars Ulrich, and has been based in San Francisco for most of its career.^[1][2] The band's fast tempos, instrumentals and aggressive musicianship made them one of the founding "big four" bands of thrash metal, alongside Megadeth, Anthrax and Slayer. Metallica's current lineup comprises founding members and primary songwriters Hetfield and Ulrich, longtime lead guitarist Kirk Hammett and bassist Robert Trujillo. Guitarist Dave Mustaine, who formed Megadeth after being fired from Metallica, and bassists Ron McGovney, Cliff Burton and Jason Newsted are former members of the band.

Metallica first found commercial success with the release of its third album, Master of Puppets (1986), which is cited as one of the heaviest metal albums and the band's best work. The band's next album, ...And Justice for All (1988), gave Metallica its first Grammy Award nomination. Its fifth album, Metallica (1991), was a turning point for the band that saw them transition from their thrash roots; it appealed to a more mainstream audience, achieving substantial commercial success and selling more than 16 million copies in the United States to date, making it the best-selling album of the SoundScan era. After experimenting with different genres and directions in subsequent releases, Metallica returned to its thrash metal roots with its ninth album, Death Magnetic (2008), which drew similar praise to that of the band's earlier albums. The band's eleventh and most recent album, 72 Seasons, was released in 2023.

In 2000, Metallica led the case against the peer-to-peer file sharing service Napster, in which the band and several other artists filed lawsuits against the service for sharing their copyright-protected material without consent, eventually reaching a settlement. Metallica was the subject of the acclaimed 2004 documentary film Metallica: Some Kind of Monster, which documented the troubled production of the band's eighth album, St. Anger (2003), and the internal struggles within the band at the time. In 2009, Metallica was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame. The band co-wrote the screenplay for and starred alongside Dane DeHaan in the 2013 concert film Metallica: Through the Never, in which the band performed live against a fictional thriller storyline.

Metallica has released eleven studio albums, four live albums (including two performances with the San Francisco Symphony), twelve video albums, one cover album, two extended plays, 37 singles and 39 music videos. The band has won ten Grammy Awards from 26 nominations and had six consecutive studio albums – from Metallica through Hardwired... to Self-Destruct (2016) – debut at number one on the Billboard 200. Metallica ranks as one of the most commercially successful bands of all time, having sold more than 125 million albums worldwide as of 2018^[update].^[3] Metallica has been listed as one of the greatest artists of all time by magazines such as Rolling Stone, which ranked the band in 61st place on its list of 100 greatest artists of all time.^[4] As of 2017^[update], Metallica is the third-best-selling music artist since Nielsen SoundScan began tracking sales in 1991,^[5] selling 58 million albums in the United States.^[6]

1. ^ Pereira, Alyssa (August 12, 2016). "Metallica's Black Album turns 25: Here's how local record stores reacted to its sales in 1991". San Francisco Chronicle. Archived from the original on April 21, 2018. Retrieved April 20, 2018.
2. ^ "Band History". Metallica official website. Archived from the original on October 30, 2015. Retrieved April 20, 2018.
3. ^ Savage, Mark (February 14, 2018). "Metallica to get 'Nobel Prize of music'". BBC. Archived from the original on August 8, 2020. Retrieved March 23, 2018.
4. ^ "Metallica – 100 Greatest Artists". Rolling Stone. December 3, 2010. Archived from the original on April 23, 2015. Retrieved May 12, 2017.
5. ^ Trust, Gary; Caulfield, Keith (March 21, 2014). "Eminem Marks Sales, Hot 100 Milestones". Billboard. Archived from the original on April 10, 2019. Retrieved September 7, 2014.
6. ^ Caulfield, Keith (July 7, 2017). "Billboard 200 Chart Moves: Metallica's 'Hardwired' Hits 1 Million Sold in the U.S." Billboard. Archived from the original on July 9, 2017. Retrieved July 7, 2017.

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9 December 2019 – A volcano on White Island, New Zealand, kills 22 people after it erupts.

_White_Island_eruption

 

10 December 1984 – United Nations General Assembly recognizes the Convention against Torture.

United Nations Convention against Torture

Redirect to:

• United Nations Convention Against Torture

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11 December 2005 – Cronulla riots: Thousands of White Australians demonstrate against ethnic violence resulting in a riot against anyone thought to be Lebanese in Cronulla, New South Wales; these are followed up by retaliatory ethnic attacks on Cronulla.

2005 Cronulla riots

Civil disturbance in New South Wales, Australia

The 2005 Cronulla riots were a race riot in Sydney, New South Wales, Australia. It began in the beachside suburb of Cronulla on 11 December, and spread over to additional suburbs the next few nights.

The riots were triggered by an event the previous Sunday, when an altercation turned physical between a group of youths of Middle Eastern appearance (referred to as "Lebanese" or "Lebs" by their opponents) and White Australian lifeguards on the beach. Following the reporting of this event by the tabloid media and "shock jocks" on local radio, a racially motivated gathering was organised via chain texting for the following weekend.

A crowd gathered at Cronulla on the morning of Sunday, 11 December, and, by midday, approximately 5,000 people had gathered near the beach. The police eventually intervened. Violence spread to other southern suburbs of Sydney, where assaults occurred, including two stabbings and attacks on ambulances and police officers. Travel warnings for Australia were issued by some countries but were later removed.

The riots were widely condemned by local, state, and federal members of parliament, police, local community leaders, and residents of Cronulla and adjacent areas. An abnormally large number of arrests were made over the subsequent months thanks to a giant police effort, from both the initial riot on 11 December and the retaliations over the subsequent nights. Some media were criticised and well-known radio personality Alan Jones was formally censured and fined for his inflammatory broadcasts during that week.

1. ^ "Mobs rampage in Cronulla". The Sydney Morning Herald. 11 December 2005. Archived from the original on 13 December 2005.
2. ^ Baden, Samantha (14 December 2005). "Police guard churches as tension rises". The Sydney Morning Herald. Australian Associated Press. Archived from the original on 8 November 2012.

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12 December 1939 – HMS Duchess sinks after a collision with HMS Barham off the coast of Scotland with the loss of 124 men

HMS Duchess (H64)

British D-class destroyer

For other ships with the same name, see HMS Duchess.

HMS Duchess was a D-class destroyer built for the Royal Navy in the early 1930s. The ship was initially assigned to the Mediterranean Fleet before she was transferred to the China Station in early 1935. She was temporarily deployed in the Red Sea during late 1935 during the Abyssinia Crisis, before returning to her duty station where she remained until mid-1939. Duchess was transferred back to the Mediterranean Fleet just before the Second World War began in September 1939. While escorting the battleship HMS Barham back to the British Isles, she was accidentally rammed by the battleship in thick fog and sank with heavy loss of life on 12 December 1939.

1. ^ ^{a b} The Times (London), Tuesday, 19 July 1932, p. 5

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13 December 1642 – Abel Tasman is the first recorded European to sight New Zealand.

Abel Tasman

Dutch seafarer, explorer and merchant (1603–1659)

For other uses, see Abel Tasman (disambiguation).

Abel Janszoon Tasman (Dutch: [ˈɑbəl ˈjɑnsoːn ˈtɑsmɑn]; 1603 – 10 October 1659) was a Dutch seafarer and explorer, best known for his voyages of 1642 and 1644 in the service of the Dutch East India Company (VOC).

Born in 1603 in Lutjegast, Netherlands, Tasman started his career as a merchant seaman and became a skilled navigator. In 1633, he joined the VOC and sailed to Batavia, now Jakarta, Indonesia. He participated in several voyages, including one to Japan. In 1642, Tasman was appointed by the VOC to lead an expedition to explore the uncharted regions of the Southern Pacific Ocean. His mission was to discover new trade routes and to establish trade relations with the native inhabitants. After leaving Batavia, Tasman sailed westward to Mauritius, then south to the Roaring Forties, then eastward, and reached the coast of Tasmania, which he named Van Diemen's Land after his patron. He then sailed north east, and discovered the west coast of New Zealand, which he named Staten Landt, but later renamed Nieuw Zeeland after the Dutch province of Zeeland.

Despite his achievements, Tasman's expedition was not entirely successful. The encounter with the Māori people on the South Island of New Zealand resulted in a violent confrontation, which left four of Tasman's men dead. He returned to Batavia without having made any significant contact with the native inhabitants or establishing any trade relations. Nonetheless, Tasman's expedition paved the way for further exploration and colonization of Australia and New Zealand by the British. Tasman continued to serve the Dutch East India Company until his death in 1659, leaving behind a legacy as one of the greatest explorers of his time.

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14 December 2012 – Sandy Hook Elementary School shooting: Twenty-eight people, including the gunman, are killed in Sandy Hook, Connecticut.

Sandy Hook Elementary School shooting

2012 mass shooting in Newtown, Connecticut, US

The Sandy Hook Elementary School shooting was a mass shooting that occurred on December 14, 2012, in Newtown, Connecticut, United States, when 20-year-old Adam Lanza shot and killed 26 people. Twenty of the victims were children between six and seven years old, and the other six were adult staff members. Earlier that day, before driving to the school, Lanza fatally shot his mother at their Newtown home. As first responders arrived at the school, Lanza killed himself, shooting himself in the head.

The incident is the deadliest mass shooting in Connecticut history and the deadliest at an elementary school in U.S. history. The shooting prompted renewed debate about gun control in the United States, including proposals to make the background-check system universal, and for new federal and state gun legislation banning the sale and manufacture of certain types of semi-automatic firearms and magazines which can hold more than ten rounds of ammunition.

A November 2013 report issued by the Connecticut State Attorney's office concluded that Lanza acted alone and planned his actions, but provided no indication why he did so, or why he targeted the school. A report issued by the Office of the Child Advocate in November 2014 said that Lanza had Asperger's syndrome and, as a teenager, depression, anxiety, and obsessive-compulsive disorder, but concluded that they had "neither caused nor led to his murderous acts". The report went on to say, "his severe and deteriorating internalized mental health problems [...] combined with an atypical preoccupation with violence [...] (and) access to deadly weapons [...] proved a recipe for mass murder."^[13]

1. ^ Scinto, Rich (December 15, 2012). "Sandy Hook Elementary: Newtown, Connecticut shooting timeline". The Oakland Press. Archived from the original on December 21, 2012. Retrieved December 17, 2012.
2. ^ Connor, Tracy (December 19, 2012). "'Call for everything': Police scanner recording reveals early moments of Newtown tragedy". NBC News. Archived from the original on December 19, 2012. Retrieved December 19, 2012.
3. ^ "Access to weapons made tragedy possible". Connecticut Post. March 28, 2013. Archived from the original on June 24, 2013. Retrieved April 3, 2013.
4. ^ "Conn. school shooter had 4 weapons". CBS News. Archived from the original on December 15, 2012. Retrieved December 15, 2012.
5. ^ Barron, James (December 15, 2012). "Children Were All Shot Multiple Times With a Semiautomatic, Officials Say". The New York Times. Archived from the original on December 16, 2012. Retrieved December 17, 2012.
6. ^ "20 children among dead at school shooting in Connecticut". CBC News. December 14, 2012. Archived from the original on December 14, 2012. Retrieved December 14, 2012.
7. ^ "Police: Second person injured in Connecticut school shooting survived". NBC News. Archived from the original on April 16, 2016. Retrieved December 17, 2012.
8. ^ Llanos, Miguel (December 14, 2012). "Authorities ID gunman who killed 27 in elementary school massacre". NBC News. Associated Press. Archived from the original on December 16, 2012. Retrieved December 14, 2012.
9. ^ Jennings, Natalie (December 14, 2012). "Mark Kelly: Action on guns 'can no longer wait'". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on December 15, 2012. Retrieved December 17, 2012.
10. ^ Winter, Tom; Riordan Seville, Lisa (November 25, 2013). "Newtown report: Shooter Adam Lanza had no clear motive, was obsessed with Columbine". NBC News. Archived from the original on October 24, 2020. Retrieved August 6, 2020.
11. ^ Richinick, Michele (November 25, 2013). "'No conclusive motive' in Newtown shootings, report says". MSNBC. Archived from the original on May 29, 2016. Retrieved August 6, 2020.
12. ^ Fernando, Christine (February 15, 2022). "Sandy Hook families agree to $73 million settlement with gunmaker Remington". USA Today. Retrieved February 15, 2022.
13. ^ Report of the Office of the Child Advocate, p.9, section 36

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14 December 2012 – Sandy Hook Elementary School shooting: Twenty-eight people, including the gunman, are killed in Sandy Hook, Connecticut.

Sandy Hook Elementary School shooting

2012 mass shooting in Newtown, Connecticut, US

The Sandy Hook Elementary School shooting was a mass shooting that occurred on December 14, 2012, in Newtown, Connecticut, United States, when 20-year-old Adam Lanza shot and killed 26 people. Twenty of the victims were children between six and seven years old, and the other six were adult staff members. Earlier that day, before driving to the school, Lanza fatally shot his mother at their Newtown home. As first responders arrived at the school, Lanza killed himself, shooting himself in the head.

The incident is the deadliest mass shooting in Connecticut history and the deadliest at an elementary school in U.S. history. The shooting prompted renewed debate about gun control in the United States, including proposals to make the background-check system universal, and for new federal and state gun legislation banning the sale and manufacture of certain types of semi-automatic firearms and magazines which can hold more than ten rounds of ammunition.

A November 2013 report issued by the Connecticut State Attorney's office concluded that Lanza acted alone and planned his actions, but provided no indication why he did so, or why he targeted the school. A report issued by the Office of the Child Advocate in November 2014 said that Lanza had Asperger's syndrome and, as a teenager, depression, anxiety, and obsessive-compulsive disorder, but concluded that they had "neither caused nor led to his murderous acts". The report went on to say, "his severe and deteriorating internalized mental health problems [...] combined with an atypical preoccupation with violence [...] (and) access to deadly weapons [...] proved a recipe for mass murder."^[13]

1. ^ Scinto, Rich (December 15, 2012). "Sandy Hook Elementary: Newtown, Connecticut shooting timeline". The Oakland Press. Archived from the original on December 21, 2012. Retrieved December 17, 2012.
2. ^ Connor, Tracy (December 19, 2012). "'Call for everything': Police scanner recording reveals early moments of Newtown tragedy". NBC News. Archived from the original on December 19, 2012. Retrieved December 19, 2012.
3. ^ "Access to weapons made tragedy possible". Connecticut Post. March 28, 2013. Archived from the original on June 24, 2013. Retrieved April 3, 2013.
4. ^ "Conn. school shooter had 4 weapons". CBS News. Archived from the original on December 15, 2012. Retrieved December 15, 2012.
5. ^ Barron, James (December 15, 2012). "Children Were All Shot Multiple Times With a Semiautomatic, Officials Say". The New York Times. Archived from the original on December 16, 2012. Retrieved December 17, 2012.
6. ^ "20 children among dead at school shooting in Connecticut". CBC News. December 14, 2012. Archived from the original on December 14, 2012. Retrieved December 14, 2012.
7. ^ "Police: Second person injured in Connecticut school shooting survived". NBC News. Archived from the original on April 16, 2016. Retrieved December 17, 2012.
8. ^ Llanos, Miguel (December 14, 2012). "Authorities ID gunman who killed 27 in elementary school massacre". NBC News. Associated Press. Archived from the original on December 16, 2012. Retrieved December 14, 2012.
9. ^ Jennings, Natalie (December 14, 2012). "Mark Kelly: Action on guns 'can no longer wait'". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on December 15, 2012. Retrieved December 17, 2012.
10. ^ Winter, Tom; Riordan Seville, Lisa (November 25, 2013). "Newtown report: Shooter Adam Lanza had no clear motive, was obsessed with Columbine". NBC News. Archived from the original on October 24, 2020. Retrieved August 6, 2020.
11. ^ Richinick, Michele (November 25, 2013). "'No conclusive motive' in Newtown shootings, report says". MSNBC. Archived from the original on May 29, 2016. Retrieved August 6, 2020.
12. ^ Fernando, Christine (February 15, 2022). "Sandy Hook families agree to $73 million settlement with gunmaker Remington". USA Today. Retrieved February 15, 2022.
13. ^ Report of the Office of the Child Advocate, p.9, section 36

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15 December 2001 – The Leaning Tower of Pisa reopens after 11 years and $27,000,000 spent to stabilize it, without fixing its famous lean.

Leaning Tower of Pisa

Bell tower in Pisa, Italy

Not to be confused with Leaning Tower of Pizza.

The Leaning Tower of Pisa (Italian: torre pendente di Pisa [ˈtorre penˈdɛnte di ˈpiːza, - ˈpiːsa]^[1]), or simply the Tower of Pisa (torre di Pisa), is the campanile, or freestanding bell tower, of Pisa Cathedral. It is known for its nearly four-degree lean, the result of an unstable foundation. The tower is one of three structures in the Pisa's Cathedral Square (Piazza del Duomo), which includes the cathedral and Pisa Baptistry.

The height of the tower is 55.86 metres (183 feet 3 inches) from the ground on the low side and 56.67 m (185 ft 11 in) on the high side. The width of the walls at the base is 2.44 m (8 ft 0 in). Its weight is estimated at 14,500 tonnes (16,000 short tons).^[2] The tower has 296 or 294 steps; the seventh floor has two fewer steps on the north-facing staircase.

The tower began to lean during construction in the 12th century, due to soft ground which could not properly support the structure's weight. It worsened through the completion of construction in the 14th century. By 1990, the tilt had reached 5.5 degrees.^[3][4][5] The structure was stabilized by remedial work between 1993 and 2001, which reduced the tilt to 3.97 degrees.^[6]

1. ^ "DiPI Online". Dizionario di Pronuncia Italiana (in Italian). Archived from the original on 30 October 2020. Retrieved 26 December 2020.
2. ^ "Leaning Tower of Pisa Facts". Leaning Tower of Pisa. Archived from the original on 11 September 2013. Retrieved 5 October 2013.
3. ^ "Europe | Saving the Leaning Tower". BBC News. 15 December 2001. Archived from the original on 21 September 2013. Retrieved 9 May 2009.
4. ^ "Tower of Pisa". Archidose.org. 17 June 2001. Archived from the original on 26 June 2009. Retrieved 9 May 2009.
5. ^ "Leaning Tower of Pisa (tower, Pisa, Italy)". Britannica Online Encyclopedia. Archived from the original on 8 March 2013. Retrieved 9 May 2009.
6. ^ "Leaning tower of Pisa loses crooked crown". Irish News. Archived from the original on 28 November 2020. Retrieved 10 June 2020.

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16 December 1905 – In Rugby Union, The "Match of the Century" is played between Wales and New Zealand at Cardiff Arms Park.

Match of the Century (rugby union)

Football match

The Match of the Century (Welsh: Gêm y Ganrif) is the unofficial name of a rugby union Test match played between Wales and New Zealand at Cardiff Arms Park on 16th December 1905 in front of a crowd of 47,000. The game was billed as the "Match of the Century" or "The World Championship" as it was a first meeting of the top two international teams.

The match was part of New Zealand's "Originals" tour and was their only loss in 35 matches. The result provoked much debate, with later writers noting its impact on the sporting culture of both countries. The Welsh crowd's singing of Hen Wlad Fy Nhadau as a response to the All Blacks' Haka is often cited as the first national anthem to be sung before an international sports event.^[1]

1. ^ "The anthem in more recent years". BBC Cymru Wales. 1 December 2008. Retrieved 3 December 2010.

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17 December 1935 – First flight of the Douglas DC-3.

Douglas DC-3

"DC-3" redirects here. For other uses, see DC-3 (disambiguation).

Airliner and military transport aircraft family

The Douglas DC-3 is a propeller-driven airliner manufactured by Douglas Aircraft Company, which had a lasting effect on the airline industry in the 1930s to 1940s and World War II. It was developed as a larger, improved 14-bed sleeper version of the Douglas DC-2. It is a low-wing metal monoplane with conventional landing gear, powered by two radial piston engines of 1,000–1,200 hp (750–890 kW). Although the DC-3s originally built for civil service had the Wright R-1820 Cyclone, later civilian DC-3s used the Pratt & Whitney R-1830 Twin Wasp engine.^[2] The DC-3 has a cruising speed of 207 mph (333 km/h), a capacity of 21 to 32 passengers or 6,000 lbs (2,700 kg) of cargo, and a range of 1,500 mi (2,400 km), and can operate from short runways.

The DC-3 had many exceptional qualities compared to previous aircraft. It was fast, had a good range, was more reliable, and carried passengers in greater comfort. Before the war, it pioneered many air travel routes. It was able to cross the continental United States from New York to Los Angeles in 18 hours, with only three stops. It is one of the first airliners that could profitably carry only passengers without relying on mail subsidies.^[3][4] In 1939, at the peak of its dominance in the airliner market, only around one in every ten airline flights on the planet were in any plane that was not a DC-3 or some variant.^[5]

Following the war, the airliner market was flooded with surplus transport aircraft, and the DC-3 was no longer competitive because it was smaller and slower than aircraft built during the war. It was made obsolete on main routes by more advanced types such as the Douglas DC-4 and Convair 240, but the design proved adaptable and was still useful on less commercially demanding routes.

Civilian DC-3 production ended in 1943 at 607 aircraft. Military versions, including the C-47 Skytrain (the Dakota in British RAF service), and Soviet- and Japanese-built versions, brought total production to over 16,000. Many continued to be used in a variety of niche roles; 2,000 DC-3s and military derivatives were estimated to be still flying in 2013;^[6] by 2017 more than 300 were still flying.^[7] As of 2023 it is estimated about 150 are still flying.^[8]

1. ^ Francillon 1979, pp. 217–251.
2. ^ "Douglas DC-3 and C-47 Engines". The Dakota Association of South Africa. Retrieved April 10, 2023.
3. ^ Kathleen Burke (April 2013). "How the DC-3 Revolutionized Air Travel". Smithsonian.
4. ^ "Boeing: Historical Snapshot: DC-3 Commercial Transport". www.boeing.com. Retrieved December 10, 2020.
5. ^ "Douglas DC-3 | National Air and Space Museum". airandspace.si.edu. Retrieved April 21, 2024.
6. ^ Jonathan Glancey (October 9, 2013). "The Douglas DC-3: Still revolutionary in its 70s". BBC.
7. ^ "Why the DC-3 is such a Badass Plane". Eric Tegler, Popular Mechanics, August 8, 2017. Retrieved August 22, 2020.
8. ^ "The plane that won't quit: celebrating the Douglas DC-3". The Garden of Memory. December 18, 2023. Retrieved December 24, 2023.

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18 December 2005 – The Chadian Civil War begins when rebel groups, allegedly backed by neighbouring Sudan, launch an attack in Adré.

Chadian Civil War (2005–2010)

Ethno-religious conflict

The Chadian Civil War of 2005–2010^[31] began on December 18, 2005. Since its independence from France in 1960, Chad has been swamped by civil wars between the Arab-Muslims of the north and the Sub-Saharan-Christians of the south.^[32] As a result, leadership and presidency in Chad drifted back and forth between the Christian southerners and Muslim northerners. When one side was in power, the other side usually started a revolutionary war to counter it.

France, the former colonial power, and Chad's northern neighbour Libya both became involved at various times throughout the civil war. By the mid-1990s the civil war had somewhat stabilised, and in 1996 Idriss Déby, a northerner, was confirmed president in Chad's first democratic election.^[32] In 1998 an armed rebellion began in the north, led by President Déby's former defence chief, Youssouf Togoimi. A Libyan peace deal in 2002 failed to put an end to the fighting. In 2003, conflict in the neighbouring Darfur region in Sudan leaked across the border into Chad.^[32] Refugees from Sudan were joined by Chadian civilians who were trying to escape rebel violence and eventually filled the camps. It was clear that Chad's rebels received weapons and assistance from the government of Sudan. At the same time, Sudanese rebels got help from the Chadian government. In February 2008, three rebel groups joined forces and launched an attack on Chad's capital, N'Djamena.^[32] After launching an assault that failed to seize the presidential palace, the attack was decisively repulsed. France sent in troops to shore up the government. Many of the rebels were former allies of President Idriss Déby. They accused him of corruption towards members of his own tribe.

1. ^ Francés Front uni pour le changement
2. ^ Francés Union des forces pour la démocratie et le développement
3. ^ Francés Rassemblement des forces pour le changement
4. ^ Francés Concorde Nationale Tchadienne
5. ^ Francés Conseil démocratique révolutionnaire
6. ^ Francés Union des Forces Démocratiques pour le Progrès
7. ^ Francés Rassemblement pour la démocratie et la liberté
8. ^ Francés Union des Forces pour la démocratie et le développement-Fondamentale
9. ^ Francés Socle pour le changement, l'unité et la démocratie
10. ^ Francés Conseil National du Redressement
11. ^ Francés Union des forces de la résistance
12. ^ Francés Union des forces pour le changement et la démocratie
13. ^ Francés Front pour le salut de la République
14. ^ Francés Union des Forces de Résistance
15. ^ Alianza formada en 2008 por el UFDD, el UFDD-F y el RFC.
16. ^ Francés Front populaire pour la renaissance nationale
17. ^ Francés Union démocratique pour le changement
18. ^ Francés Mouvement Populaire pour la Renaissance et le Developpement
19. ^ "Chad profile". BBC News. 15 January 2014. Retrieved 27 May 2014.
20. ^ Inglés National Movement for Reform and Development
21. ^ Inglés Justice and Equality Movement
22. ^ "В Европе разобрались куда Украина поставляет оружие". KP.UA (in Russian). 1 October 2008. Retrieved 23 February 2023.
23. ^ Pileggi, Tamar. "Chad said to condition resumed ties with Israel on 'extensive' weapons sales". Times of Israel.
24. ^ ^{a b c d e f g h} Gérard Prunier. "Armed Movements in Sudan, Chad, CAR, Somalia, Eritrea and Ethiopia" Archived 4 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine. ZIF Analysis. Addis Ababa, febrero de 2008, pp. 7–9.
25. ^ ^{a b c d e f g} "Chadian rebel groups and coalitions". Sudan Issue Brief. Ginebra: Small Arms Survey. No. 9, 8 de febrero de 2008.
26. ^ ^{a b c} Vicenç Fisas. Anuario 2008 de procesos de paz Archived 1 February 2012 at the Wayback Machine. Barcelona: Icaria Editorial, pp. 58–62. ISBN 978-8474269796.
27. ^ ^{a b c} "Armed groups of Darfur and Chad". Sudan Human Security Baseline Assessment. Ginebra: Small Arms Survey. Marzo de 2011.
28. ^ International Institute for Strategic Studies (2010). The Military Balance 2010, pp. 300–301. Londres: Routledge. Edición de James Hackett. ISBN 978-1857435573.
29. ^ Prunier, Gérard (March 2008). "Chad: caught in the Darfur crossfire". Le Monde diplomatique. Retrieved 23 February 2023.
30. ^ Vicenç Fisas. Anuario 2009 de procesos de paz Archived 3 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine. Barcelona: Icaria Editorial, p. 75. ISBN 978-8498880762.
31. ^ Schofield, Hugh (4 February 2008). "France faces tough choices over Chad". BBC News. Retrieved 30 April 2010.
32. ^ ^{a b c d} "Chad". Canada & the World Backgrounder. 11892102. 76 (1): 102–103. September 2010.^{[dead link]}

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19 December 1946 – Start of the First Indochina War.

[URL='https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1946']1946[/URL] – Start of the [URL='https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_Indochina_War']First Indochina War[/URL].

 

20 December 1192 – Richard I of England is captured and imprisoned by Leopold V of Austria on his way home to England after the Third Crusade.

Richard I of England

King of England from 1189 to 1199

For other uses, see Richard I (disambiguation), Richard the Lionheart (disambiguation), and Richard Coeur de Lion (disambiguation).

Richard I (8 September 1157 – 6 April 1199), known as Richard Cœur de Lion (Norman French: Quor de Lion)^[1][2] or Richard the Lionheart because of his reputation as a great military leader and warrior,^[3][4][5] was King of England from 1189 until his death in 1199. He also ruled as Duke of Normandy, Aquitaine, and Gascony; Lord of Cyprus; Count of Poitiers, Anjou, Maine, and Nantes; and was overlord of Brittany at various times during the same period. He was the third of five sons of Henry II of England and Eleanor of Aquitaine and was therefore not expected to become king, but his two elder brothers predeceased their father.

By the age of 16, Richard had taken command of his own army, putting down rebellions in Poitou against his father.^[3] Richard was an important Christian commander during the Third Crusade, leading the campaign after the departure of Philip II of France and achieving several victories against his Muslim counterpart, Saladin, although he finalised a peace treaty and ended the campaign without retaking Jerusalem.^[6]

Richard probably spoke both French and Occitan.^[7] He was born in England, where he spent his childhood; before becoming king, however, he lived most of his adult life in the Duchy of Aquitaine, in the southwest of France. Following his accession, he spent very little time, perhaps as little as six months, in England. Most of his reign was spent on Crusade, in captivity, or actively defending his lands in France. Rather than regarding his kingdom as a responsibility requiring his presence as ruler, he has been perceived as preferring to use it merely as a source of revenue to support his armies.^[8] Nevertheless, he was seen as a pious hero by his subjects.^[9] He remains one of the few kings of England remembered more commonly by his epithet than his regnal number, and is an enduring iconic figure both in England and in France.^[10]

Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

1. ^ Saunders, Connie J. (22 April 2004). Writing War: Medieval Literary Responses to Warfare. D.S. Brewer. p. 38. ISBN 978-0-8599-1843-5.
2. ^ Trudgill, Peter (2021) European Language Matters: English in Its European Context, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 9781108832960 p. 61
3. ^ ^{a b} Turner & Heiser 2000, p. 71.
4. ^ The troubadour Bertran de Born also called him Richard Oc-e-Non (Occitan for Yes and No), possibly from a reputation for terseness.
5. ^ Gillingham, John (1978). Richard the Lionheart. Weidenfeld and Nicolson. p. 243. ISBN 978-0-8129-0802-2.
6. ^ Addison 1842, pp. 141–149.
7. ^ Flori 1999f, p. 20.
8. ^ Harvey 1948, pp. 62–64.
9. ^ Turner & Heiser 2000^{[page needed]}
10. ^ Harvey 1948, p. 58.

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20 December 1192 – Richard I of England is captured and imprisoned by Leopold V of Austria on his way home to England after the Third Crusade.

Richard I of England

King of England from 1189 to 1199

For other uses, see Richard I (disambiguation), Richard the Lionheart (disambiguation), and Richard Coeur de Lion (disambiguation).

Richard I (8 September 1157 – 6 April 1199), known as Richard Cœur de Lion (Norman French: Quor de Lion)^[1][2] or Richard the Lionheart because of his reputation as a great military leader and warrior,^[3][4][5] was King of England from 1189 until his death in 1199. He also ruled as Duke of Normandy, Aquitaine, and Gascony; Lord of Cyprus; Count of Poitiers, Anjou, Maine, and Nantes; and was overlord of Brittany at various times during the same period. He was the third of five sons of Henry II of England and Eleanor of Aquitaine and was therefore not expected to become king, but his two elder brothers predeceased their father.

By the age of 16, Richard had taken command of his own army, putting down rebellions in Poitou against his father.^[3] Richard was an important Christian commander during the Third Crusade, leading the campaign after the departure of Philip II of France and achieving several victories against his Muslim counterpart, Saladin, although he finalised a peace treaty and ended the campaign without retaking Jerusalem.^[6]

Richard probably spoke both French and Occitan.^[7] He was born in England, where he spent his childhood; before becoming king, however, he lived most of his adult life in the Duchy of Aquitaine, in the southwest of France. Following his accession, he spent very little time, perhaps as little as six months, in England. Most of his reign was spent on Crusade, in captivity, or actively defending his lands in France. Rather than regarding his kingdom as a responsibility requiring his presence as ruler, he has been perceived as preferring to use it merely as a source of revenue to support his armies.^[8] Nevertheless, he was seen as a pious hero by his subjects.^[9] He remains one of the few kings of England remembered more commonly by his epithet than his regnal number, and is an enduring iconic figure both in England and in France.^[10]

Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

1. ^ Saunders, Connie J. (22 April 2004). Writing War: Medieval Literary Responses to Warfare. D.S. Brewer. p. 38. ISBN 978-0-8599-1843-5.
2. ^ Trudgill, Peter (2021) European Language Matters: English in Its European Context, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 9781108832960 p. 61
3. ^ ^{a b} Turner & Heiser 2000, p. 71.
4. ^ The troubadour Bertran de Born also called him Richard Oc-e-Non (Occitan for Yes and No), possibly from a reputation for terseness.
5. ^ Gillingham, John (1978). Richard the Lionheart. Weidenfeld and Nicolson. p. 243. ISBN 978-0-8129-0802-2.
6. ^ Addison 1842, pp. 141–149.
7. ^ Flori 1999f, p. 20.
8. ^ Harvey 1948, pp. 62–64.
9. ^ Turner & Heiser 2000^{[page needed]}
10. ^ Harvey 1948, p. 58.

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21 December 1995 – The city of Bethlehem passes from Israeli to Palestinian control.

Bethlehem

City in the West Bank, Palestine

This article is about the city in the West Bank. For other uses, see Bethlehem (disambiguation).

Municipality type A in Palestine

Bethlehem (/ˈbɛθlɪhɛm/; Arabic: بيت لحم, Bayt Laḥm, pronunciation^ⓘ; Hebrew: בֵּית לֶחֶם Bēṯ Leḥem) is a city in the Israeli-occupied West Bank of the State of Palestine, located about ten kilometres (six miles) south of Jerusalem. It is the capital of the Bethlehem Governorate, and has a population of approximately 25,000 people.^[3][4] The city's economy is largely tourist-driven; international tourism peaks around and during Christmas, when Christians embark on a pilgrimage to the Church of the Nativity, revered as the location of the Nativity of Jesus.^[5][6]

The earliest-known mention of Bethlehem is in the Amarna correspondence of ancient Egypt, dated to 1350–1330 BCE, when the town was inhabited by the Canaanites. In the Hebrew Bible, the period of the Israelites is described; it identifies Bethlehem as the birthplace of David.^[7] In the New Testament, the city is identified as the birthplace of Jesus of Nazareth. Under the Roman Empire, the city of Bethlehem was destroyed by Hadrian, but later rebuilt by Helena, and her son, Constantine the Great, who commissioned the Church of the Nativity in 327 CE. In 529, the Church of the Nativity was heavily damaged by Samaritans involved in the Samaritan revolts; following the victory of the Byzantine Empire, it was rebuilt by Justinian I.

Amidst the Muslim conquest of the Levant, Bethlehem became part of Jund Filastin in 637. Muslims continued to rule the city until 1099, when it was conquered by the Crusaders, who replaced the local Christian Greek Orthodox clergy with Catholic ones. In the mid-13th century, Bethlehem's walls were demolished by the Mamluk Sultanate. However, they were rebuilt by the Ottoman Empire in the 16th century, following the Ottoman–Mamluk War.^[8] After the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire at the end of World War I, it became part of Mandatory Palestine until 1948, when it was annexed by Jordan during the 1948 Arab–Israeli War. During the 1967 Six Day War, Bethlehem was occupied by Israel along with the rest of the West Bank. Since the Oslo Accords between Israel and the Palestinian National Authority, Bethlehem has been designated as part of Area A of the West Bank, nominally rendering it as being under Palestinian control.^[8] Movement around the city is limited due to the Israeli West Bank barrier.

While it was historically a city of Arab Christians, Bethlehem now has a majority of Arab Muslims; it is still home to a significant community of Palestinian Christians, however it has dwindled significantly, mostly due to difficulties resulting from living under the Israeli occupation.^[9] Presently, Bethlehem has become encircled by dozens of Israeli settlements, which significantly hinder the ability of Palestinians in the city to openly access their land and livelihoods, which has contributed to the exodus of Palestinians.^[10]

1. ^ "Members of the Municipal Council". Bethlehem municipality. Archived from the original on October 20, 2018. Retrieved August 2, 2018.
2. ^ Preliminary Results of the Population, Housing and Establishments Census, 2017 (PDF). Palestinian Central Bureau of Statistics (PCBS) (Report). State of Palestine. February 2018. pp. 64–82. Retrieved October 24, 2023.
3. ^ Amara, 1999, p. 18 Archived May 29, 2021, at the Wayback Machine.
4. ^ Brynen, 2000, p. 202 Archived May 29, 2021, at the Wayback Machine.
5. ^ Kaufman, David; Katz, Marisa S. (April 16, 2006). "In the West Bank, Politics and Tourism Remain Bound Together Inextricably – New York Times". The New York Times. Archived from the original on June 15, 2013. Retrieved January 22, 2008.
6. ^ "Places to Visit In & Around Bethlehem". Bethlehem Hotel. Archived from the original on December 3, 2013. Retrieved November 29, 2013.
7. ^ 2 Chronicles 11:5–6 (Note: Though v. 6 is frequently translated to say simply that Rehoboam built the city, the Hebrew phrase in v. 5, just prior, וַיִּ֧בֶן עָרִ֛ים לְמָצ֖וֹר wayyiḇen ‘ārîm l^emāṣôr means "(and) he built cities into fortresses". Verse 5 is cited by at least one prominent Hebrew lexicon in illustration of this fact. See Koehler, L., Baumgartner, W., Richardson, M. E. J., & Stamm, J. J., The Hebrew and Aramaic Lexicon of the Old Testament (electronic edition; Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1994–2000), entry for the pertinent root בנה bnh, p. 139. Def. 3 reads as follows: "—3. with לְ to develop buildings: עָרִים לְמָצוֹר cities into fortresses 2C[hronicles] 11:5".)
8. ^ ^{a b} "History and Mithology of Bethlehem". Bethlehem Municipality. Archived from the original on January 13, 2008. Retrieved January 22, 2008.
9. ^ Cite error: The named reference AJ1 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
10. ^ Cite error: The named reference :0 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).

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22 December 1851 – The Library of Congress in Washington, D.C., burns

Library of Congress

US Congress research library

This article is about the United States Library of Congress. For other uses, see Library of Congress (disambiguation).

The Library of Congress (LOC) is a research library in Washington, D.C., that serves as the library and research service of the U.S. Congress and the de facto national library of the United States.^[3] Founded in 1800, the library is the United States's oldest federal cultural institution.^[4] The library is housed in three elaborate buildings on Capitol Hill. It also maintains a conservation center in Culpeper, Virginia.^[5] The library's functions are overseen by the Librarian of Congress, and its buildings are maintained by the Architect of the Capitol. The Library of Congress is one of the largest libraries in the world.^[3][6] Its collections contain approximately 173 million items, and it has more than 3,000 employees. Its collections are "universal, not limited by subject, format, or national boundary, and include research materials from all parts of the world and in more than 470 languages".^[4]

Congress moved to Washington, D.C., in 1800 after holding sessions for eleven years in the temporary national capitals in New York City and Philadelphia. In both cities, members of the U.S. Congress had access to the sizable collections of the New York Society Library and the Library Company of Philadelphia.^[7] In Washington, the library was housed in the United States Capitol for almost all of the 19th century. Much of the library's original collection was burnt by British forces during the War of 1812. Congress then purchased Thomas Jefferson's entire personal collection of 6,487 books to restore its own collection. Over the next few years, its collection slowly grew; in 1851, another fire broke out in the Capitol chambers. This destroyed a large amount of the collection, including many of Jefferson's books.

After the American Civil War, the importance of the Library of Congress for legislative research increased and there was a campaign to purchase replacement copies for volumes for its lost books. The library received the right of transference of all copyrighted works, and deposit of two copies of books, maps, illustrations, and diagrams printed in the United States. The Library also built its collections through acquisitions and donations. Between 1888 and 1894, Congress constructed and moved the collection to a large adjacent library building, now known as the Thomas Jefferson Building, across the street from the Capitol. Two more adjacent library buildings, the John Adams Building, built in the 1930s, and the James Madison Memorial Building, built in the 1970s, hold expanded parts of the collection and provide space for additional library services.

The library's primary mission is to research inquiries made by members of Congress, which is carried out through the Congressional Research Service. It also houses and oversees the United States Copyright Office. The library is open to the public for research, although only high-ranking government officials and library employees may borrow (i.e., temporarily take custody of) books and materials.^[8]

1. ^ "Year 2020 at a Glance". Library of Congress. 2020. Archived from the original on February 23, 2021. Retrieved November 5, 2021.
2. ^ ^{a b} "2021 Annual Report of the Librarian of Congress" (PDF). Library of Congress. Archived (PDF) from the original on February 3, 2023. Retrieved December 2, 2022.
3. ^ ^{a b} "Library of Congress". Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived from the original on April 5, 2020. Retrieved September 3, 2017.
4. ^ ^{a b} "Fascinating Facts". Library of Congress. Archived from the original on April 5, 2020. Retrieved April 25, 2018.
5. ^ "General Information". Library of Congress. Archived from the original on February 23, 2021. Retrieved January 28, 2023.
6. ^ "Fascinating Facts – Statistics". Library of Congress. Archived from the original on April 5, 2020. Retrieved February 16, 2017.
7. ^ "History of the Library of Congress". Library of Congress. Archived from the original on October 6, 2020. Retrieved October 20, 2020.
8. ^ "FY 2019–2023 Strategic Plan of the Library of Congress". Library of Congress. Retrieved October 20, 2020.

Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

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22 December 1851 – The Library of Congress in Washington, D.C., burns

Library of Congress

US Congress research library

This article is about the United States Library of Congress. For other uses, see Library of Congress (disambiguation).

The Library of Congress (LOC) is a research library in Washington, D.C., that serves as the library and research service of the U.S. Congress and the de facto national library of the United States.^[3] Founded in 1800, the library is the United States's oldest federal cultural institution.^[4] The library is housed in three elaborate buildings on Capitol Hill. It also maintains a conservation center in Culpeper, Virginia.^[5] The library's functions are overseen by the Librarian of Congress, and its buildings are maintained by the Architect of the Capitol. The Library of Congress is one of the largest libraries in the world.^[3][6] Its collections contain approximately 173 million items, and it has more than 3,000 employees. Its collections are "universal, not limited by subject, format, or national boundary, and include research materials from all parts of the world and in more than 470 languages".^[4]

Congress moved to Washington, D.C., in 1800 after holding sessions for eleven years in the temporary national capitals in New York City and Philadelphia. In both cities, members of the U.S. Congress had access to the sizable collections of the New York Society Library and the Library Company of Philadelphia.^[7] In Washington, the library was housed in the United States Capitol for almost all of the 19th century. Much of the library's original collection was burnt by British forces during the War of 1812. Congress then purchased Thomas Jefferson's entire personal collection of 6,487 books to restore its own collection. Over the next few years, its collection slowly grew; in 1851, another fire broke out in the Capitol chambers. This destroyed a large amount of the collection, including many of Jefferson's books.

After the American Civil War, the importance of the Library of Congress for legislative research increased and there was a campaign to purchase replacement copies for volumes for its lost books. The library received the right of transference of all copyrighted works, and deposit of two copies of books, maps, illustrations, and diagrams printed in the United States. The Library also built its collections through acquisitions and donations. Between 1888 and 1894, Congress constructed and moved the collection to a large adjacent library building, now known as the Thomas Jefferson Building, across the street from the Capitol. Two more adjacent library buildings, the John Adams Building, built in the 1930s, and the James Madison Memorial Building, built in the 1970s, hold expanded parts of the collection and provide space for additional library services.

The library's primary mission is to research inquiries made by members of Congress, which is carried out through the Congressional Research Service. It also houses and oversees the United States Copyright Office. The library is open to the public for research, although only high-ranking government officials and library employees may borrow (i.e., temporarily take custody of) books and materials.^[8]

1. ^ "Year 2020 at a Glance". Library of Congress. 2020. Archived from the original on February 23, 2021. Retrieved November 5, 2021.
2. ^ ^{a b} "2021 Annual Report of the Librarian of Congress" (PDF). Library of Congress. Archived (PDF) from the original on February 3, 2023. Retrieved December 2, 2022.
3. ^ ^{a b} "Library of Congress". Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived from the original on April 5, 2020. Retrieved September 3, 2017.
4. ^ ^{a b} "Fascinating Facts". Library of Congress. Archived from the original on April 5, 2020. Retrieved April 25, 2018.
5. ^ "General Information". Library of Congress. Archived from the original on February 23, 2021. Retrieved January 28, 2023.
6. ^ "Fascinating Facts – Statistics". Library of Congress. Archived from the original on April 5, 2020. Retrieved February 16, 2017.
7. ^ "History of the Library of Congress". Library of Congress. Archived from the original on October 6, 2020. Retrieved October 20, 2020.
8. ^ "FY 2019–2023 Strategic Plan of the Library of Congress". Library of Congress. Retrieved October 20, 2020.

Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

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23 December 1972 – The 16 survivors of the Andes flight disaster are rescued after 73 days, surviving by cannibalism.

Uruguayan Air Force Flight 571

1972 aviation accident in the Andes mountains of Chile

Crash site

Santiago

Montevideo

Mendoza

class=notpageimage|

Location of the crash site in west central Argentina

Uruguayan Air Force Flight 571 was the chartered flight of a Fairchild FH-227D from Montevideo, Uruguay, to Santiago, Chile, that crashed in the Andes mountains on 13 October 1972. The accident and subsequent survival became known as the Andes flight disaster (Tragedia de los Andes, literally Tragedy of the Andes) and the Miracle of the Andes (Milagro de los Andes).

The inexperienced co-pilot, Lieutenant-Colonel Dante Héctor Lagurara, was piloting the aircraft at the time of the accident. He mistakenly believed the aircraft had overflown Curicó, the turning point to fly north, and began descending towards what he thought was Pudahuel Airport in Santiago de Chile. He failed to notice that instrument readings indicated he was still 60–69 km (37–43 mi) east of Curicó. Lagurara, upon regaining visual flight conditions, saw the mountain and unsuccessfully tried to gain altitude. The aircraft struck a mountain ridge, shearing off both wings and the tail cone. The remaining portion of the fuselage slid down a glacier at an estimated 350 km/h (220 mph), descending 725 metres (2,379 ft) before ramming into an ice and snow mound.

The flight was carrying 45 passengers and crew, including 19 members of the Old Christians Club rugby union team, along with their families, supporters and friends. Three crew members and nine passengers died immediately and several more died soon after due to the frigid temperatures and the severity of their injuries. The crash site is located at an elevation of 3,570 metres (11,710 ft) in the remote Andes mountains of western Argentina, just east of the border with Chile. Search and rescue aircraft overflew the crash site several times during the following days, but failed to see the white fuselage against the snow. Search efforts were called off after eight days of searching.^[1]

During the 72 days following the crash, the survivors suffered from extreme hardships, including sub-zero temperatures, exposure, starvation, and an avalanche, which led to the deaths of 13 more passengers. The remaining passengers resorted to cannibalism to survive. Convinced they would die if they did not seek help, two survivors, Nando Parrado and Roberto Canessa, set out across the mountains on December 12. Using only materials found in the aircraft wreck, they climbed 839 metres (2,753 ft) from the crash site up 30-to-60 degree slopes to a 4,503-metre (14,774 ft) ridge to the west of the summit of Mount Seler. From there they trekked 53.9 kilometres (33.5 mi) for 10 days into Chile before finding help. On 22 and 23 December 1972, two and a half months after the crash, the 14 remaining survivors were rescued. The news of their survival made worldwide news.

1. ^ Tikkanen, Amy. "Uruguayan Air Force Flight 571". Archived from the original on 14 June 2018. Retrieved 12 March 2020.

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24 December 1971 – LANSA Flight 508 is struck by lighting and crashes in the Puerto Inca District in the Department of Huánuco in Peru, killing 91

LANSA Flight 508

1971 aviation accident in Peru

LANSA Flight 508 was a Lockheed L-188A Electra turboprop operated as a scheduled domestic passenger flight by Lineas Aéreas Nacionales Sociedad Anonima (LANSA, a Peruvian airline company) which crashed in a thunderstorm en route from Lima to Pucallpa in Peru on 24 December 1971, killing 91 people — all six of its crew and 85 of its 86 passengers.^[1] It is the deadliest lightning strike disaster in aviation history.^{[clarification needed][2]}

1. ^ Accident description at the Aviation Safety Network
2. ^ "Worst lightning strike disaster – death toll". Guinness World Records.

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25 December 336 – First documentary sign of Christmas celebration in Rome.

Christmas

Holiday originating in Christianity, usually December 25

For other uses, see Christmas (disambiguation).

"Christmas Day" redirects here. For other uses, see Christmas Day (disambiguation).

Christmas is an annual festival commemorating the birth of Jesus Christ, observed primarily on December 25^[a] as a religious and cultural celebration among billions of people around the world.^[2][3][4] A feast central to the liturgical year in Christianity, it follows the season of Advent (which begins four Sundays before) or the Nativity Fast, and initiates the season of Christmastide, which historically in the West lasts twelve days and culminates on Twelfth Night.^[5] Christmas Day is a public holiday in many countries,^[6][7][8] is celebrated religiously by a majority of Christians,^[9] as well as culturally by many non-Christians,^[1][10] and forms an integral part of the holiday season surrounding it.

The traditional Christmas narrative recounted in the New Testament, known as the Nativity of Jesus, says that Jesus was born in Bethlehem, in accordance with messianic prophecies.^[11] When Joseph and Mary arrived in the city, the inn had no room, and so they were offered a stable where the Christ Child was soon born, with angels proclaiming this news to shepherds, who then spread the word.^[12]

There are different hypotheses regarding the date of Jesus's birth, and in the early fourth century, the church fixed the date as December 25.^{[b][13][14][15]} This corresponds to the traditional date of the winter solstice on the Roman calendar.^[16] It is exactly nine months after Annunciation on March 25, also the date of the spring equinox.^[17] Most Christians celebrate on December 25 in the Gregorian calendar, which has been adopted almost universally in the civil calendars used in countries throughout the world. However, part of the Eastern Christian Churches celebrate Christmas on December 25 of the older Julian calendar, which currently corresponds to January 7 in the Gregorian calendar. For Christians, believing that God came into the world in the form of man to atone for the sins of humanity rather than knowing Jesus's exact birth date is considered to be the primary purpose of celebrating Christmas.^[18][19][20]

The customs associated with Christmas in various countries have a mix of pre-Christian, Christian, and secular themes and origins.^[21][22] Popular holiday traditions include gift giving; completing an Advent calendar or Advent wreath; Christmas music and caroling; watching Christmas movies; viewing a Nativity play; an exchange of Christmas cards; attending church services; a special meal; and displaying various Christmas decorations, including Christmas trees, Christmas lights, nativity scenes, garlands, wreaths, mistletoe, and holly. Additionally, several related and often interchangeable figures, known as Santa Claus, Father Christmas, Saint Nicholas, and Christkind, are associated with bringing gifts to children during the Christmas season and have their own body of traditions and lore.^[23] Because gift-giving and many other aspects of the Christmas festival involve heightened economic activity, the holiday has become a significant event and a key sales period for retailers and businesses. Over the past few centuries, Christmas has had a steadily growing economic effect in many regions of the world.

1. ^ ^{a b} "Christmas as a Multi-Faith Festival" (PDF). BBC Learning English. December 29, 2005. Archived (PDF) from the original on October 1, 2008. Retrieved September 30, 2008.
2. ^ ^{a b} "In the U.S., Christmas Not Just for Christians". Gallup, Inc. December 24, 2008. Archived from the original on November 16, 2012. Retrieved December 16, 2012.
3. ^ "The Global Religious Landscape | Christians". Pew Research Center. December 18, 2012. Archived from the original on March 10, 2015. Retrieved May 23, 2014.
4. ^ "Christmas Strongly Religious For Half in U.S. Who Celebrate It". Gallup, Inc. December 24, 2010. Archived from the original on December 7, 2012. Retrieved December 16, 2012.
5. ^ Forbes, Bruce David (October 1, 2008). Christmas: A Candid History. University of California Press. p. 27. ISBN 978-0-520-25802-0. In 567 the Council of Tours proclaimed that the entire period between Christmas and Epiphany should be considered part of the celebration, creating what became known as the twelve days of Christmas, or what the English called Christmastide.
   
   On the last of the twelve days, called Twelfth Night, various cultures developed a wide range of additional special festivities. The variation extends even to the issue of how to count the days. If Christmas Day is the first of the twelve days, then Twelfth Night would be on January 5, the eve of Epiphany. If December 26, the day after Christmas, is the first day, then Twelfth Night falls on January 6, the evening of Epiphany itself.
   
   After Christmas and Epiphany were in place, on December 25 and January 6, with the twelve days of Christmas in between, Christians slowly adopted a period called Advent, as a time of spiritual preparation leading up to Christmas.
6. ^ Canadian Heritage – Public holidaysArchived November 24, 2009, at the Wayback Machine – Government of Canada. Retrieved November 27, 2009.
7. ^ 2009 Federal Holidays Archived January 16, 2013, at the Wayback Machine – U.S. Office of Personnel Management. Retrieved November 27, 2009.
8. ^ Bank holidays and British Summer time Archived May 15, 2011, at the Wayback Machine – HM Government. Retrieved November 27, 2009.
9. ^ Ehorn, Lee Ellen; Hewlett, Shirely J.; Hewlett, Dale M. (September 1, 1995). December Holiday Customs. Lorenz Educational Press. p. 1. ISBN 978-1-4291-0896-6.
10. ^ Nick Hytrek, "Non-Christians focus on secular side of Christmas" Archived November 14, 2009, at the Wayback Machine, Sioux City Journal, November 10, 2009. Retrieved November 18, 2009.
11. ^ Crump, William D. (September 15, 2001). The Christmas Encyclopedia (3 ed.). McFarland. p. 39. ISBN 978-0-7864-6827-0. Christians believe that a number of passages in the Bible are prophecies about future events in the life of the promised Messiah or Jesus Christ. Most, but not all, of those prophecies are found in the Old Testament [...] Born in Bethlehem (Micah 5:2): "But thou, Bethlehem Ephratah, though thou be little among the thousands of Juda, yet out of thee shall he come forth unto me that is to be ruler in Israel; whose goings forth have been from of old, from everlasting."
12. ^ Tucker, Ruth A. (2011). Parade of Faith: A Biographical History of the Christian Church. Zondervan. p. 23. ISBN 978-0-310-20638-5. According to gospel accounts, Jesus was born during the reign of Herod the Great, thus sometime before 4 BCE. The birth narrative in Luke's gospel is one of the most familiar passages in the Bible. Leaving their hometown of Nazareth, Mary and Joseph travel to Bethlehem to pay taxes. Arriving late, they find no vacancy at the inn. They are, however, offered a stable, most likely a second room attached to a family dwelling where animals were sheltered—a room that would offer some privacy from the main family room for cooking, eating, and sleeping. This "city of David" is the little town of Bethlehem of Christmas-carol fame, a starlit silhouette indelibly etched on Christmas cards. No sooner was the baby born than angels announced the news to shepherds who spread the word.
13. ^ Corinna Laughlin, Michael R. Prendergast, Robert C. Rabe, Corinna Laughlin, Jill Maria Murdy, Therese Brown, Mary Patricia Storms, Ann E. Degenhard, Jill Maria Murdy, Ann E. Degenhard, Therese Brown, Robert C. Rabe, Mary Patricia Storms, Michael R. Prendergast, Sourcebook for Sundays, Seasons, and Weekdays 2011: The Almanac for Pastoral Liturgy Archived April 7, 2015, at the Wayback Machine, LiturgyTrainingPublications, 2010, p. 29.
14. ^ "The Chronography of 354 AD. Part 12: Commemorations of the Martyrs" Archived November 22, 2011, at the Wayback Machine, The Tertullian Project. 2006. Retrieved November 24, 2011.
15. ^ Roll, Susan K. (1995). Toward the Origins of Christmas. Peeters Publishers. p. 133. ISBN 978-90-390-0531-6.
16. ^ Hale Bradt (2004). Astronomy Methods (PDF). p. 69. Archived from the original (PDF) on September 20, 2018..
17. ^ Cite error: The named reference Melton2011 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
18. ^ The Liturgical Year. Thomas Nelson. November 3, 2009. ISBN 978-1-4185-8073-5. Retrieved April 2, 2009. Christmas is not really about the celebration of a birth date at all. It is about the celebration of a birth. The fact of the date and the fact of the birth are two different things. The calendrical verification of the feast itself is not really that important [...] What is important to the understanding of a life-changing moment is that it happened, not necessarily where or when it happened. The message is clear: Christmas is not about marking the actual birth date of Jesus. It is about the Incarnation of the One who became like us in all things but sin (Hebrews 4:15) and who humbled Himself "to the point of death-even death on a cross" (Philippians 2:8). Christmas is a pinnacle feast, yes, but it is not the beginning of the liturgical year. It is a memorial, a remembrance, of the birth of Jesus, not really a celebration of the day itself. We remember that because the Jesus of history was born, the Resurrection of the Christ of faith could happen.
19. ^ "The Christmas Season". CRI / Voice, Institute. Archived from the original on April 7, 2009. Retrieved April 2, 2009. The origins of the celebrations of Christmas and Epiphany, as well as the dates on which they are observed, are rooted deeply in the history of the early church. There has been much scholarly debate concerning the exact time of the year when Jesus was born, and even in what year he was born. Actually, we do not know either. The best estimate is that Jesus was probably born in the springtime, somewhere between the years of 6 and 4 BC, as December is in the middle of the cold rainy season in Bethlehem, when the sheep are kept inside and not on pasture as told in the Bible. The lack of a consistent system of timekeeping in the first century, mistakes in later calendars and calculations, and lack of historical details to cross-reference events have led to this imprecision in fixing Jesus' birth. This suggests that the Christmas celebration is not an observance of a historical date, but a commemoration of the event in terms of worship.
20. ^ The School Journal, Volume 49. Harvard University. 1894. Retrieved April 2, 2009. Throughout the Christian world the 25th of December is celebrated as the birthday of Jesus Christ. There was a time when the churches were not united regarding the date of the joyous event. Many Christians kept their Christmas in April, others in May, and still others at the close of September, till finally December 25 was agreed upon as the most appropriate date. The choice of that day was, of course, wholly arbitrary, for neither the exact date not the period of the year at which the birth of Christ occurred is known. For purposes of commemoration, however, it is unimportant whether the celebration shall fall or not at the precise anniversary of the joyous event.
21. ^ West's Federal Supplement. West Publishing Company. 1990. While the Washington and King birthdays are exclusively secular holidays, Christmas has both secular and religious aspects.
22. ^ Cite error: The named reference Huckabee2021 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
23. ^ "Poll: In a changing nation, Santa endures". Associated Press. December 22, 2006. Archived from the original on December 26, 2018. Retrieved December 24, 2018.

Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

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25 December 336 – First documentary sign of Christmas celebration in Rome.

Christmas

Holiday originating in Christianity, usually December 25

For other uses, see Christmas (disambiguation).

"Christmas Day" redirects here. For other uses, see Christmas Day (disambiguation).

Christmas is an annual festival commemorating the birth of Jesus Christ, observed primarily on December 25^[a] as a religious and cultural celebration among billions of people around the world.^[2][3][4] A feast central to the liturgical year in Christianity, it follows the season of Advent (which begins four Sundays before) or the Nativity Fast, and initiates the season of Christmastide, which historically in the West lasts twelve days and culminates on Twelfth Night.^[5] Christmas Day is a public holiday in many countries,^[6][7][8] is celebrated religiously by a majority of Christians,^[9] as well as culturally by many non-Christians,^[1][10] and forms an integral part of the holiday season surrounding it.

The traditional Christmas narrative recounted in the New Testament, known as the Nativity of Jesus, says that Jesus was born in Bethlehem, in accordance with messianic prophecies.^[11] When Joseph and Mary arrived in the city, the inn had no room, and so they were offered a stable where the Christ Child was soon born, with angels proclaiming this news to shepherds, who then spread the word.^[12]

There are different hypotheses regarding the date of Jesus's birth, and in the early fourth century, the church fixed the date as December 25.^{[b][13][14][15]} This corresponds to the traditional date of the winter solstice on the Roman calendar.^[16] It is exactly nine months after Annunciation on March 25, also the date of the spring equinox.^[17] Most Christians celebrate on December 25 in the Gregorian calendar, which has been adopted almost universally in the civil calendars used in countries throughout the world. However, part of the Eastern Christian Churches celebrate Christmas on December 25 of the older Julian calendar, which currently corresponds to January 7 in the Gregorian calendar. For Christians, believing that God came into the world in the form of man to atone for the sins of humanity rather than knowing Jesus's exact birth date is considered to be the primary purpose of celebrating Christmas.^[18][19][20]

The customs associated with Christmas in various countries have a mix of pre-Christian, Christian, and secular themes and origins.^[21][22] Popular holiday traditions include gift giving; completing an Advent calendar or Advent wreath; Christmas music and caroling; watching Christmas movies; viewing a Nativity play; an exchange of Christmas cards; attending church services; a special meal; and displaying various Christmas decorations, including Christmas trees, Christmas lights, nativity scenes, garlands, wreaths, mistletoe, and holly. Additionally, several related and often interchangeable figures, known as Santa Claus, Father Christmas, Saint Nicholas, and Christkind, are associated with bringing gifts to children during the Christmas season and have their own body of traditions and lore.^[23] Because gift-giving and many other aspects of the Christmas festival involve heightened economic activity, the holiday has become a significant event and a key sales period for retailers and businesses. Over the past few centuries, Christmas has had a steadily growing economic effect in many regions of the world.

1. ^ ^{a b} "Christmas as a Multi-Faith Festival" (PDF). BBC Learning English. December 29, 2005. Archived (PDF) from the original on October 1, 2008. Retrieved September 30, 2008.
2. ^ ^{a b} "In the U.S., Christmas Not Just for Christians". Gallup, Inc. December 24, 2008. Archived from the original on November 16, 2012. Retrieved December 16, 2012.
3. ^ "The Global Religious Landscape | Christians". Pew Research Center. December 18, 2012. Archived from the original on March 10, 2015. Retrieved May 23, 2014.
4. ^ "Christmas Strongly Religious For Half in U.S. Who Celebrate It". Gallup, Inc. December 24, 2010. Archived from the original on December 7, 2012. Retrieved December 16, 2012.
5. ^ Forbes, Bruce David (October 1, 2008). Christmas: A Candid History. University of California Press. p. 27. ISBN 978-0-520-25802-0. In 567 the Council of Tours proclaimed that the entire period between Christmas and Epiphany should be considered part of the celebration, creating what became known as the twelve days of Christmas, or what the English called Christmastide.
   
   On the last of the twelve days, called Twelfth Night, various cultures developed a wide range of additional special festivities. The variation extends even to the issue of how to count the days. If Christmas Day is the first of the twelve days, then Twelfth Night would be on January 5, the eve of Epiphany. If December 26, the day after Christmas, is the first day, then Twelfth Night falls on January 6, the evening of Epiphany itself.
   
   After Christmas and Epiphany were in place, on December 25 and January 6, with the twelve days of Christmas in between, Christians slowly adopted a period called Advent, as a time of spiritual preparation leading up to Christmas.
6. ^ Canadian Heritage – Public holidaysArchived November 24, 2009, at the Wayback Machine – Government of Canada. Retrieved November 27, 2009.
7. ^ 2009 Federal Holidays Archived January 16, 2013, at the Wayback Machine – U.S. Office of Personnel Management. Retrieved November 27, 2009.
8. ^ Bank holidays and British Summer time Archived May 15, 2011, at the Wayback Machine – HM Government. Retrieved November 27, 2009.
9. ^ Ehorn, Lee Ellen; Hewlett, Shirely J.; Hewlett, Dale M. (September 1, 1995). December Holiday Customs. Lorenz Educational Press. p. 1. ISBN 978-1-4291-0896-6.
10. ^ Nick Hytrek, "Non-Christians focus on secular side of Christmas" Archived November 14, 2009, at the Wayback Machine, Sioux City Journal, November 10, 2009. Retrieved November 18, 2009.
11. ^ Crump, William D. (September 15, 2001). The Christmas Encyclopedia (3 ed.). McFarland. p. 39. ISBN 978-0-7864-6827-0. Christians believe that a number of passages in the Bible are prophecies about future events in the life of the promised Messiah or Jesus Christ. Most, but not all, of those prophecies are found in the Old Testament [...] Born in Bethlehem (Micah 5:2): "But thou, Bethlehem Ephratah, though thou be little among the thousands of Juda, yet out of thee shall he come forth unto me that is to be ruler in Israel; whose goings forth have been from of old, from everlasting."
12. ^ Tucker, Ruth A. (2011). Parade of Faith: A Biographical History of the Christian Church. Zondervan. p. 23. ISBN 978-0-310-20638-5. According to gospel accounts, Jesus was born during the reign of Herod the Great, thus sometime before 4 BCE. The birth narrative in Luke's gospel is one of the most familiar passages in the Bible. Leaving their hometown of Nazareth, Mary and Joseph travel to Bethlehem to pay taxes. Arriving late, they find no vacancy at the inn. They are, however, offered a stable, most likely a second room attached to a family dwelling where animals were sheltered—a room that would offer some privacy from the main family room for cooking, eating, and sleeping. This "city of David" is the little town of Bethlehem of Christmas-carol fame, a starlit silhouette indelibly etched on Christmas cards. No sooner was the baby born than angels announced the news to shepherds who spread the word.
13. ^ Corinna Laughlin, Michael R. Prendergast, Robert C. Rabe, Corinna Laughlin, Jill Maria Murdy, Therese Brown, Mary Patricia Storms, Ann E. Degenhard, Jill Maria Murdy, Ann E. Degenhard, Therese Brown, Robert C. Rabe, Mary Patricia Storms, Michael R. Prendergast, Sourcebook for Sundays, Seasons, and Weekdays 2011: The Almanac for Pastoral Liturgy Archived April 7, 2015, at the Wayback Machine, LiturgyTrainingPublications, 2010, p. 29.
14. ^ "The Chronography of 354 AD. Part 12: Commemorations of the Martyrs" Archived November 22, 2011, at the Wayback Machine, The Tertullian Project. 2006. Retrieved November 24, 2011.
15. ^ Roll, Susan K. (1995). Toward the Origins of Christmas. Peeters Publishers. p. 133. ISBN 978-90-390-0531-6.
16. ^ Hale Bradt (2004). Astronomy Methods (PDF). p. 69. Archived from the original (PDF) on September 20, 2018..
17. ^ Cite error: The named reference Melton2011 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
18. ^ The Liturgical Year. Thomas Nelson. November 3, 2009. ISBN 978-1-4185-8073-5. Retrieved April 2, 2009. Christmas is not really about the celebration of a birth date at all. It is about the celebration of a birth. The fact of the date and the fact of the birth are two different things. The calendrical verification of the feast itself is not really that important [...] What is important to the understanding of a life-changing moment is that it happened, not necessarily where or when it happened. The message is clear: Christmas is not about marking the actual birth date of Jesus. It is about the Incarnation of the One who became like us in all things but sin (Hebrews 4:15) and who humbled Himself "to the point of death-even death on a cross" (Philippians 2:8). Christmas is a pinnacle feast, yes, but it is not the beginning of the liturgical year. It is a memorial, a remembrance, of the birth of Jesus, not really a celebration of the day itself. We remember that because the Jesus of history was born, the Resurrection of the Christ of faith could happen.
19. ^ "The Christmas Season". CRI / Voice, Institute. Archived from the original on April 7, 2009. Retrieved April 2, 2009. The origins of the celebrations of Christmas and Epiphany, as well as the dates on which they are observed, are rooted deeply in the history of the early church. There has been much scholarly debate concerning the exact time of the year when Jesus was born, and even in what year he was born. Actually, we do not know either. The best estimate is that Jesus was probably born in the springtime, somewhere between the years of 6 and 4 BC, as December is in the middle of the cold rainy season in Bethlehem, when the sheep are kept inside and not on pasture as told in the Bible. The lack of a consistent system of timekeeping in the first century, mistakes in later calendars and calculations, and lack of historical details to cross-reference events have led to this imprecision in fixing Jesus' birth. This suggests that the Christmas celebration is not an observance of a historical date, but a commemoration of the event in terms of worship.
20. ^ The School Journal, Volume 49. Harvard University. 1894. Retrieved April 2, 2009. Throughout the Christian world the 25th of December is celebrated as the birthday of Jesus Christ. There was a time when the churches were not united regarding the date of the joyous event. Many Christians kept their Christmas in April, others in May, and still others at the close of September, till finally December 25 was agreed upon as the most appropriate date. The choice of that day was, of course, wholly arbitrary, for neither the exact date not the period of the year at which the birth of Christ occurred is known. For purposes of commemoration, however, it is unimportant whether the celebration shall fall or not at the precise anniversary of the joyous event.
21. ^ West's Federal Supplement. West Publishing Company. 1990. While the Washington and King birthdays are exclusively secular holidays, Christmas has both secular and religious aspects.
22. ^ Cite error: The named reference Huckabee2021 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
23. ^ "Poll: In a changing nation, Santa endures". Associated Press. December 22, 2006. Archived from the original on December 26, 2018. Retrieved December 24, 2018.

Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

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26 December 1793 – Second Battle of Wissembourg: France defeats Austria.

Second Battle of Wissembourg (1793)

Redirect to:

• Second Battle of Wissembourg

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27 December 1932 – Radio City Music Hall, "Showplace of the Nation", opens in New York City.

Radio City Music Hall

Entertainment venue in New York City

Radio City Music Hall is an entertainment venue and theater at 1260 Avenue of the Americas, within Rockefeller Center, in the Midtown Manhattan neighborhood of New York City. Nicknamed "The Showplace of the Nation", it is the headquarters for the Rockettes. Radio City Music Hall was designed by Edward Durell Stone and Donald Deskey in the Art Deco style.

Radio City Music Hall was built on a plot of land that was originally intended for a Metropolitan Opera House, although plans for the opera house were canceled in 1929. It opened on December 27, 1932, as part of the construction of Rockefeller Center. The 5,960-seat Music Hall was the larger of two venues built for Rockefeller Center's "Radio City" section, the other being Center Theatre; the "Radio City" name came to apply only to the Music Hall. It was largely successful until the 1970s, when declining patronage nearly drove the theater to bankruptcy. Radio City was designated a New York City Landmark in May 1978, and it was restored and allowed to remain open. The theater was extensively renovated in 1999.

Radio City's four-tiered auditorium was the world's largest when it opened. The theater also contains a variety of art. Although Radio City was initially intended to host stage shows, within a year of its opening it was converted into a movie palace, hosting performances in a film-and-stage-spectacle format through the 1970s, and was the site of several movie premieres. By the late 20th and early 21st centuries, it primarily hosted concerts, including by leading pop and rock musicians, and live stage shows such as the Radio City Christmas Spectacular. The Music Hall has also hosted televised events including the Grammy Awards, the Tony Awards, the Daytime Emmy Awards, the MTV Video Music Awards, and the NFL Draft, as well as university graduation ceremonies.

1. ^ "Rockefeller Center". Tishman Speyer Properties. Archived from the original on November 16, 2010. Retrieved November 21, 2009.
2. ^ "National Register Information System – (#78001880)". National Register of Historic Places. National Park Service. July 9, 2010.
3. ^ Landmarks Preservation Commission 1978.

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28 December 1879 – Tay Bridge disaster: The central part of the Tay Rail Bridge in Dundee, Scotland, United Kingdom collapses as a train passes over it, killing 75.

Tay Bridge disaster

Bridge collapse and train wreck

For William McGonagall's poem on this subject, see The Tay Bridge Disaster.

The Tay Bridge disaster occurred during a violent storm on Sunday 28 December 1879, when the first Tay Rail Bridge collapsed as a North British Railway (NBR) passenger train on the Edinburgh to Aberdeen Line from Burntisland bound for its final destination of Dundee passed over it, killing everybody on board. The bridge—designed by Sir Thomas Bouch—used lattice girders supported by iron piers, with cast iron columns and wrought iron cross-bracing. The piers were narrower and their cross-bracing was less extensive and robust than on previous similar designs by Bouch.

Bouch had sought expert advice on wind loading when designing a proposed rail bridge over the Firth of Forth; as a result of that advice he had made no explicit allowance for wind loading in the design of the Tay Bridge. There were other flaws in detailed design, in maintenance, and in quality control of castings, all of which were, at least in part, Bouch's responsibility.

Bouch died less than a year after the disaster, his reputation ruined. Future British bridge designs had to allow for wind loadings of up to 56 pounds per square foot (2.7 kilopascals). Bouch's design for the Forth Bridge was not used.

As of 2024, it remains the fifth-deadliest railway accident in the history of the United Kingdom, as well as the second deadliest rail accident in Scottish history, being surpassed by the UK's deadliest: the Quintinshill rail disaster.

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29 December 2013 – Seven-time Formula One champion Michael Schumacher suffers a massive head injury while skiing in the French Alps

Michael Schumacher

German racing driver (born 1969)

This article is about the retired German racing driver. For his son who is also a racing driver, see Mick Schumacher. For the Luxembourgian athlete, see Mike Schumacher.

Michael Schumacher (German: [ˈmɪçaːʔeːl ˈʃuːmaxɐ] ^ⓘ; born 3 January 1969) is a German former racing driver who competed in Formula One for Jordan, Benetton, Ferrari, and Mercedes. Schumacher has a joint-record seven World Drivers' Championship titles (tied with Lewis Hamilton); at the time of his retirement from the sport in 2012, he also held the records for the most wins (91), pole positions (68), and podium finishes (155)—which have since been broken by Hamilton—while he maintains the record for consecutive Drivers' Championships and number of total fastest laps (77), among others.

Born to working-class parents, Schumacher started his racing career in karting. He won his first karting championship aged six in a kart built from discarded parts. After having enjoyed success in karting—such as winning the 1987 European karting championship—and in several single-seater series, Schumacher made a one-off Formula One appearance with Jordan at the Belgian Grand Prix. He was signed by Benetton for the rest of the 1991 season, winning his first and second drivers' titles consecutively in 1994 and 1995 with the team. Schumacher moved to the struggling Ferrari team in 1996. During his first few years with the team, Schumacher lost out on the title in the final race of the season in 1997 and 1998, and suffered a broken leg from a brake failure in 1999. He and Ferrari won five consecutive titles from 2000 to 2004, including unprecedented sixth and seventh titles, while breaking several records. After finishing third in 2005 and second in 2006, Schumacher retired from the sport, although he later made a brief return with Mercedes from 2010 to 2012.

Schumacher was noted for pushing his car to the very limit for sustained periods during races, a pioneering fitness regimen, and ability to galvanise teams around him. He and his younger brother Ralf are the only siblings to win races in Formula One and the first siblings to finish first and second in the same race, a feat they repeated in four subsequent races. Schumacher was twice involved in collisions in the final race of a season that decided the title: first with Damon Hill at the 1994 Australian Grand Prix, and later with Jacques Villeneuve at the 1997 European Grand Prix.

Appointed UNESCO Champion for Sport in 2002, Schumacher has been involved in humanitarian projects and has donated tens of millions of dollars to charity.

In December 2013, Schumacher suffered a severe brain injury in a skiing accident. He was placed in a medically induced coma until June 2014. He left the hospital in Grenoble for further rehabilitation at the Lausanne University Hospital, before being relocated to his home to receive medical treatment and rehabilitation privately in September 2014.

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29 December 2013 – Seven-time Formula One champion Michael Schumacher suffers a massive head injury while skiing in the French Alps

Michael Schumacher

German racing driver (born 1969)

This article is about the retired German racing driver. For his son who is also a racing driver, see Mick Schumacher. For the Luxembourgian athlete, see Mike Schumacher.

Michael Schumacher (German: [ˈmɪçaːʔeːl ˈʃuːmaxɐ] ^ⓘ; born 3 January 1969) is a German former racing driver who competed in Formula One for Jordan, Benetton, Ferrari, and Mercedes. Schumacher has a joint-record seven World Drivers' Championship titles (tied with Lewis Hamilton); at the time of his retirement from the sport in 2012, he also held the records for the most wins (91), pole positions (68), and podium finishes (155)—which have since been broken by Hamilton—while he maintains the record for consecutive Drivers' Championships and number of total fastest laps (77), among others.

Born to working-class parents, Schumacher started his racing career in karting. He won his first karting championship aged six in a kart built from discarded parts. After having enjoyed success in karting—such as winning the 1987 European karting championship—and in several single-seater series, Schumacher made a one-off Formula One appearance with Jordan at the Belgian Grand Prix. He was signed by Benetton for the rest of the 1991 season, winning his first and second drivers' titles consecutively in 1994 and 1995 with the team. Schumacher moved to the struggling Ferrari team in 1996. During his first few years with the team, Schumacher lost out on the title in the final race of the season in 1997 and 1998, and suffered a broken leg from a brake failure in 1999. He and Ferrari won five consecutive titles from 2000 to 2004, including unprecedented sixth and seventh titles, while breaking several records. After finishing third in 2005 and second in 2006, Schumacher retired from the sport, although he later made a brief return with Mercedes from 2010 to 2012.

Schumacher was noted for pushing his car to the very limit for sustained periods during races, a pioneering fitness regimen, and ability to galvanise teams around him. He and his younger brother Ralf are the only siblings to win races in Formula One and the first siblings to finish first and second in the same race, a feat they repeated in four subsequent races. Schumacher was twice involved in collisions in the final race of a season that decided the title: first with Damon Hill at the 1994 Australian Grand Prix, and later with Jacques Villeneuve at the 1997 European Grand Prix.

Appointed UNESCO Champion for Sport in 2002, Schumacher has been involved in humanitarian projects and has donated tens of millions of dollars to charity.

In December 2013, Schumacher suffered a severe brain injury in a skiing accident. He was placed in a medically induced coma until June 2014. He left the hospital in Grenoble for further rehabilitation at the Lausanne University Hospital, before being relocated to his home to receive medical treatment and rehabilitation privately in September 2014.

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30 December 2004 – A fire in the República Cromagnon nightclub in Buenos Aires, Argentina, kills 194.

República Cromañón nightclub fire

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31 December 1994 – The First Chechen War: The Russian Ground Forces begin a New Year's storming of Grozny.

Battle of Grozny (1994–1995)

1994–95 invasion of the Chechen capital by Russia during the First Chechen War

The First Battle of Grozny was the Russian Army's invasion and subsequent conquest of the Chechen capital, Grozny, during the early months of the First Chechen War. The attack would last from December 1994 to March 1995, which resulted in the military occupation of the city by the Russian Army and rallied most of the Chechen nation around the government of Dzhokhar Dudayev.

The initial assault resulted in considerable Russian casualties and demoralization in the Russian forces. It took another two months of heavy fighting, and a change in tactics, before the Russian Army was able to capture Grozny. The battle caused enormous destruction and casualties amongst the civilian population and saw the heaviest bombing campaign in Europe since the end of World War II.^[9]

1. ^ "Radical Ukrainian Nationalism and the War in Chechnya". Jamestown.
2. ^ Haslett, Malcom (11 December 1997). "Despatches - Chechen situation remains unresolved". BBC News. Retrieved 10 April 2023.
3. ^ ^{a b} "Russian Urban Tactics: Lessons from the Battle for Grozny". Archived from the original on 16 January 2010. Retrieved 23 July 2023.
4. ^ "David Versus Goliath" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 11 April 2016. Retrieved 23 July 2023.
5. ^ Cite error: The named reference chechen was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
6. ^ "Killing Chechnya". PBS.
7. ^ N. N. Novichkov, V. Ya. Snegovskiy, A. G. Sokolov and V. Yu. Shvarev, Rossiyskie vooruzhennye sily v chechenskom konflikte: Analiz, Itogi, Vyvody (Russian armed force in the chechen conflict: Analysis, outcomes and conclusions)
8. ^ "The Battle(s) of Grozny". Archived from the original on 20 July 2011. Retrieved 20 July 2011.
9. ^ Williams, Bryan Glyn (2001). The Russo-Chechen War: A Threat to Stability in the Middle East and Eurasia?. Middle East Policy 8.1.

Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

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1 January 1948 – The British railway network is nationalized to form British Railways

Rail transport in the United Kingdom

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• Transport in the United Kingdom#Rail

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2 January 1963 – Vietnam War: The Viet Cong wins its first major victory, at the Battle of Ap Bac.

Battle of Ap Bac

1963 battle of the Vietnam War

The Battle of Ấp Bắc was a major battle fought on 2 January 1963 during the Vietnam War, in Định Tường Province (now part of Tiền Giang Province), South Vietnam. On 28 December 1962, US intelligence detected the presence of a radio transmitter along with a sizable force of Viet Cong (VC) soldiers, reported to number around 120, in the hamlet of Ap Tan Thoi in Dinh Tuong Province, home of the Army of the Republic of South Vietnam (ARVN) 7th Infantry Division. The South Vietnamese and their US advisers planned to attack Ap Tan Thoi from three directions to destroy the VC force by using two provincial Civil Guard battalions and elements of the 11th Infantry Regiment, ARVN 7th Infantry Division. The infantry units would be supported by artillery, M113 armored personnel carriers (APCs), and helicopters. However Viet Cong forces anticipated a major attack from the South Vietnamese government from a variety of sources, including movement of supplies, an undercover VC agent and decoded radio communications from the ARVN. Accordingly the VC prepared for an attack by US and South Vietnamese forces.

On the morning of 2 January 1963 the South Vietnamese Civil Guards spearheaded the attack by marching toward Ap Tan Thoi from the south. However, when they reached the hamlet of Ap Bac, southeast of Ap Tan Thoi, they were immediately pinned down by elements of the VC 261st Battalion. Shortly afterward, three companies of the 11th Infantry Regiment were committed into battle in northern Ap Tan Thoi. However, they too could not overcome the VC soldiers who had entrenched themselves in the area. Just before midday, further reinforcements were flown in from Tan Hiep. The 15 US helicopters ferrying the troops were riddled by VC gunfire, and five helicopters were lost as a result.

The ARVN 4th Mechanized Rifle Squadron was then deployed to rescue the South Vietnamese soldiers and US aircrews trapped at the southwest end of Ap Bac. However, its commander was highly reluctant to move heavy M113 APCs across the local terrain. Ultimately, their presence made little difference as the VC stood its ground and killed more than a dozen South Vietnamese M113 crew members in the process. The ARVN 8th Airborne Battalion was dropped late in the afternoon onto the battlefield. In a scene that characterized much of the day's fighting, they were pinned down and could not break the VC's line of defense. Under cover of darkness, the VC withdrew from the battlefield, winning their first major victory.

1. ^ ^{a b c d} Cite error: The named reference Truong, p. 419 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
2. ^ Sheehan, p. 205
3. ^ Sheehan, p. 211
4. ^ Toczeck, p. 82
5. ^ Sheehan, p. 204

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3 January 1999 – The Mars Polar Lander is launched by NASA

Mars Polar Lander

Failed 1999 robotic Mars lander

The Mars Polar Lander, also known as the Mars Surveyor '98 Lander, was a 290-kilogram robotic spacecraft lander launched by NASA on January 3, 1999, to study the soil and climate of Planum Australe, a region near the south pole on Mars. It formed part of the Mars Surveyor '98 mission. On December 3, 1999, however, after the descent phase was expected to be complete, the lander failed to reestablish communication with Earth. A post-mortem analysis determined the most likely cause of the mishap was premature termination of the engine firing prior to the lander touching the surface, causing it to strike the planet at a high velocity.^[2]

The total cost of the Mars Polar Lander was US$165 million. Spacecraft development cost US$110 million, launch was estimated at US$45 million, and mission operations at US$10 million.^[3]

1. ^ "Mars Polar Lander". NASA Space Science Data Coordinated Archive. Retrieved 2022-12-01.
2. ^ "Report on the Loss of the Mars Polar Lander and Deep Space 2 Missions" (PDF). Jet Propulsion Laboratory. March 22, 2000. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-03-16.
3. ^ "Mars Polar Lander Mission Costs". The Associated Press. December 8, 1999. Retrieved 2020-09-30.

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4 January 1912 – The Scout Association is incorporated throughout the British Empire by royal charter.

The Scout Association

Scouting organisation in the United Kingdom

This article is about the scouting organisation in the United Kingdom calling itself The Scout Association. For other Scouting organisations in the United Kingdom, see Scouting in the United Kingdom. For other Scouting organisations with 'The Scout Association' as part of the name, see The Scout Association (disambiguation).

The Scout Association, which also uses the name Scouts UK, is the largest Scout organisation in the United Kingdom. It's the World Organization of the Scout Movement's recognised member for the United Kingdom. Following the origins of the Scout movement in 1907, The Scout Association was formed in 1910 and incorporated in 1912 by a royal charter under its previous name of The Boy Scouts Association.^[1]

The organisation is the largest national Scout organisation in Europe, representing 35% of the membership of the European Scout Region.^[5] As of 2021^[update], the organisation claimed to provide activities to 362,752 young people (aged 4–25) in the UK with over 141,659 adults leaders, which is more than one adult for each 2.5 children.^[6] This represents a significant 22% decline from 464,700 young adults in 2018,^[7] despite commencing a programme for even younger children.

Its programmes now include Squirrels (aged 4–6), Beavers (aged 6–8), Cubs (aged 8–10+1⁄2), Scouts (aged 10+1⁄2–14), Explorer Scouts (aged 14–18) and adult Network members (aged 18–25).

The organisation's current aim is to provide "fun, adventure and skills for life and give young people the opportunity to enjoy new adventures, experience outdoors and take part in a range of creative, community and international activities, interact with others, make new friends, gain confidence and have the opportunity to reach their full potential".^[8] The organisation and its activities are regulated through its "Policy, Organisation and Rules" (POR).^[9]

The organisation is led by its Chief Scout, currently the television presenter, adventurer and author Bear Grylls, alongside a UK chief commissioner, Carl Hankinson, and chief executive, Matt Hyde. The association's joint presidents are the Duke of Kent and the Princess of Wales, and its patron was the late Queen Elizabeth II.^{[10][11][12][13][14]}

1. ^ ^{a b} "Royal Charter of The Boy Scouts Association". Scoutdocs. Retrieved 15 August 2007.
2. ^ "Scouts - Our members: 2022-2023 Annual Report". www.scouts.org.uk. Retrieved 22 February 2024.
3. ^ ^{a b} UK Chief Commissioner Handover Ceremony 2021 (video). The Scout Association – via facebook.
4. ^ ^{a b} "Scouts - Welcome to our new UK Chief Commissioner and our new Chair of the Board of Trustees".
5. ^ Atanackovic, Mihajlo (12 August 2013). "Membership Report 2013 (p. 13)" (PDF). Retrieved 23 October 2013.
6. ^ Cite error: The named reference Scouts - Our members - 2021 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
7. ^ "The Scout Association's Annual Report and Accounts 2016–2017" (PDF). The Scout Association. Retrieved 3 January 2018. (pp. 58)
8. ^ "What we do". The Scout Association. Retrieved 11 September 2016.
9. ^ The Scout Association, Policy, Organisation and Rules, updated September 2021, accessed 8 January 2022
10. ^ "Chapter 6 – The Structure of the Headquarters of The Scout Association" (PDF). Policy, Organisation and Rules. The Scout Association. Retrieved 10 January 2012.
11. ^ "New UK Chief Commissioner Tim Kidd takes up role". Scout Association. 4 September 2016. Archived from the original on 4 September 2016. Retrieved 4 September 2016.
12. ^ "Search Charities and Patronages". royal.gov.uk – The Official website of the British Monarchy. Archived from the original on 25 September 2011. Retrieved 8 October 2011.
13. ^ "HM Queen unveils centenary bronze". The Scout Association. 6 May 2008. Retrieved 8 October 2011. Contains reference in text to the fact of the Queens patronage.
14. ^ "Duchess Kate toasts new scout appointment with marshmallows". Reuters. 29 September 2020. Retrieved 29 September 2020.

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5 January 1993 – The oil tanker MV Braer runs aground on the coast of the Shetland Islands, spilling 84,700 tons of crude oil.

MV Braer

Oil tanker which ran aground during a storm off Shetland, Scotland in 1993

The MV Braer was an oil tanker which ran aground during a storm off Shetland, Scotland, in January 1993, and nearly a week later broke up during the most intense extratropical cyclone on record for the northern Atlantic Ocean, the Braer Storm of January 1993.

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6 January 1994 – American figure skater Nancy Kerrigan is attacked and injured by an assailant hired by her rival Tonya Harding's ex-husband during the U.S. Figure Skating Championships.

Assault of Nancy Kerrigan

American competitive figure skating scandal

On January 6, 1994, Nancy Kerrigan, an American figure skater, was struck on the lower right thigh with a telescopic baton by assailant Shane Stant as she walked down a corridor in Cobo Arena in Detroit, Michigan. Kerrigan had been practicing skating on an ice rink in the arena shortly beforehand.

The attack was planned by Jeff Gillooly, then-husband of fellow American figure skater Tonya Harding, and his co-conspirator Shawn Eckardt.^[1][2][3] They hired Stant, and his uncle Derrick Smith, to carry out the attack. Gillooly and Eckardt both claimed that Harding was involved in the attack and had knowledge of it beforehand. Harding initially denied all knowledge of the attack,^[4][5] but soon accepted a plea agreement admitting to helping cover up the attack after the fact.^[6][7] Later, both a grand jury^[8] and a disciplinary panel from the United States Figure Skating Association (USFSA)^[9] found further evidence of Harding's involvement during the planning and execution phases.

The attack was intended to prevent Kerrigan from taking part in the ongoing 1994 United States Figure Skating Championships and the forthcoming Winter Olympics, thus increasing the prospects of Harding in both figure skating events. Kerrigan could not compete in the US Championship but recovered in time to compete in the Winter Olympics. Both women competed in the 1994 Olympics, and Harding was later banned for life from USFSA figure skating events.^[10]

1. ^ Cite error: The named reference swift was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
2. ^ "Flashback: Kerrigan & Harding". ESPN. November 19, 2003. Archived from the original on May 30, 2011. Retrieved January 10, 2011.
3. ^ Longman, Jere (February 6, 1994). "Sports: Whole World is Watching". New York Times. Archived from the original on June 26, 2017. Retrieved February 17, 2017.
4. ^ Hamilton, William (January 15, 1994). "Three Held in Assault on Kerrigan". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on March 16, 2018. Retrieved August 13, 2018.
5. ^ Janofsky, Michael (January 15, 1994). "Third Suspect Arrested by F.B.I. In the Attack on Olympic Skater". The New York Times. Archived from the original on March 2, 2019. Retrieved March 1, 2019.
6. ^ Cite error: The named reference :0 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
7. ^ Cite error: The named reference articles.orlandosentinel.com was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
8. ^ Cite error: The named reference articles.latimes.com was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
9. ^ Cite error: The named reference USFSA decision was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
10. ^ Brennan, Christine (July 1, 1994). "Harding Stripped of Title; Banned for Life". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on July 15, 2018. Retrieved June 24, 2018.

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7 January 2012 – A hot air balloon crashes near Carterton, New Zealand, killing all 11 people on board

Hot air balloon

Lighter-than-air aircraft

This article is about hot air balloons themselves. For the activity, see hot air ballooning. For other meanings, see hot air balloon (disambiguation) and air balloon (disambiguation).

"Balloon Ride" redirects here. For the song, see My First Album (Peppa Pig album).

A hot air balloon is a lighter-than-air aircraft consisting of a bag, called an envelope, which contains heated air. Suspended beneath is a gondola or wicker basket (in some long-distance or high-altitude balloons, a capsule), which carries passengers and a source of heat, in most cases an open flame caused by burning liquid propane. The heated air inside the envelope makes it buoyant, since it has a lower density than the colder air outside the envelope. As with all aircraft, hot air balloons cannot fly beyond the atmosphere. The envelope does not have to be sealed at the bottom, since the air inside the envelope is at about the same pressure as the surrounding air. In modern sport balloons the envelope is generally made from nylon fabric, and the inlet of the balloon (closest to the burner flame) is made from a fire-resistant material such as Nomex. Modern balloons have been made in many shapes, such as rocket ships and the shapes of various commercial products, though the traditional shape is used for most non-commercial and many commercial applications.

The hot air balloon is the first successful human-carrying flight technology. The first untethered manned hot air balloon flight in the world was performed in Paris, France, by Jean-François Pilâtre de Rozier and François Laurent d'Arlandes on November 21, 1783,^[1] in a balloon created by the Montgolfier brothers.^[2] The first hot air balloon flown in the Americas was launched from the Walnut Street Jail in Philadelphia on January 9, 1793, by the French aeronaut Jean Pierre Blanchard.^[3] Hot air balloons that can be propelled through the air rather than simply drifting with the wind are known as thermal airships.

1. ^ Tom D. Crouch (2008). Lighter Than Air. Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 978-0-8018-9127-4.
2. ^ "U.S. Centennial of Flight Commission: Early Balloon Flight in Europe". Archived from the original on 2008-06-02. Retrieved 2008-06-04.
3. ^ Beischer, D. E.; Fregly, A. R (January 1962). Animals and man in space. A chronology and annotated bibliography through the year 1960 (Report). US Naval School of Aviation Medicine. ONR TR ACR-64. Retrieved 2023-12-08.

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8 January 1973 – Soviet space mission Luna 21 is launched.

Gabby Giffords

American politician and gun control activist (born 1970)

For the U.S. Navy vessel, see USS Gabrielle Giffords.

Gabrielle Dee Giffords (born June 8, 1970) is an American retired politician and gun control activist. She served as a member of the United States House of Representatives representing Arizona's 8th congressional district from January 2007 until January 2012, when she resigned because of a severe brain injury suffered during an assassination attempt. A member of the Democratic Party, she was the third woman in Arizona's history to be elected to the U.S. Congress.

Born and raised in Tucson, Arizona, Giffords graduated from Scripps College and Cornell University. After initially moving to New York City, where she worked in regional economic development for Price Waterhouse, she returned to Arizona to work as the CEO of El Campo Tire Warehouses, a family business started by her grandfather. She served in the Arizona House of Representatives from 2001 until 2003 and the Arizona Senate from 2003 until 2005 when she was elected to the U.S. House.

She had just begun her third term in January 2011 when she was shot in the head in an assassination attempt and mass shooting just outside of Tucson during an event with constituents. Giffords has since recovered much of her ability to walk, speak, read, and write. She was greeted by a standing ovation upon her return to the House floor in August 2011. She attended President Obama's State of the Union address on January 24, 2012, and appeared on the floor of the House the following day, at which time she formally submitted her resignation, receiving a standing ovation and accolades from her colleagues and the leadership of the House.

Though a moderate on the issue during her time in Congress, Giffords has since become an ardent advocate for gun control. In January 2013, she and her husband launched Americans for Responsible Solutions, a non-profit organization and Super-PAC which later joined with the Law Center to Prevent Gun Violence to become Giffords. She is married to former Space Shuttle Commander Mark Kelly, a United States senator from Arizona.

1. ^ Cite error: The named reference Former Republican was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
2. ^ ^{a b c} Cite error: The named reference Paltrow was invoked but never defined (see the help page).

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