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20 December 1989 – The United States invasion of Panama deposes Manuel Noriega.

United States invasion of Panama

1989 United States military invasion of Panama

The United States invaded Panama in mid-December 1989 during the presidency of George H. W. Bush. The primary purpose of the invasion was to depose the de facto ruler of Panama, General Manuel Noriega, who was wanted by U.S. authorities for racketeering and drug trafficking. The operation, codenamed Operation Just Cause, concluded in late January 1990 with the surrender of Noriega.^[9] The Panama Defense Forces (PDF) were dissolved, and President-elect Guillermo Endara was sworn into office.

Noriega, who had longstanding ties to United States intelligence agencies, consolidated power to become Panama's de facto dictator in the early 1980s. In the mid-1980s, relations between Noriega and the U.S. began to deteriorate due to fallout of the murder of Hugo Spadafora and the removal of Nicolas Ardito Barletta. His criminal activities and association with other spy agencies came to light, and in 1988 he was indicted by federal grand juries on several drug-related charges. Negotiations seeking his resignation, which began under the presidency of Ronald Reagan, were ultimately unsuccessful. In 1989, Noriega annulled the results of the Panamanian general elections, which appeared to have been won by opposition candidate Guillermo Endara; President Bush responded by reinforcing the U.S. garrison in the Canal Zone. After a U.S. Marine officer was shot dead at a PDF roadblock, Bush authorized the execution of the Panama invasion plan.

On December 20, the U.S. invasion of Panama began. Panamanian forces were rapidly overwhelmed, although operations continued for several weeks. Endara was sworn in as president shortly after the start of the invasion. Noriega eluded capture for several days before seeking refuge in the Holy See diplomatic mission in Panama City. He surrendered on January 3, 1990, and was then flown to the U.S., where he was tried, convicted and sentenced to 40 years in prison.

The Pentagon estimated that 516 Panamanians were killed during the invasion, including 314 soldiers and 202 civilians. A total of 23 U.S. soldiers and 3 U.S. civilians were killed. The United Nations General Assembly and the Organization of American States both condemned the invasion as a violation of international law.

The United States invasion of Panama can be seen as a rare example of democratization by foreign-imposed regime change, which was effective long-term.^[10]

1. ^ "Veterans Preference and "Wartime" Service". archives.gov. August 15, 2016.
2. ^ "Operation Just Cause: The Invasion of Panama, December 1989". United States Army.
3. ^ ^{a b} Rohter, Larry (April 1, 1990). "Panama and U.S. Strive To Settle on Death Toll". The New York Times. Retrieved December 24, 2017.
4. ^ Archibold, Randal C. (May 30, 2017). "Manuel Noriega, Dictator Ousted by U.S. in Panama, Dies at 83". The New York Times. Retrieved January 22, 2018.
5. ^ Chomsky, Noam (1991). Deterring Democracy. Boston, MA: South End Press. p. 164. ISBN 9781466801530.
6. ^ Archived at Ghostarchive and the Wayback Machine: Trent, Barbara (1992). The Panama Deception.
7. ^ Riding, Alan (June 24, 1990). "U.S. Sued in Death of a Journalist in Panama". The New York Times.
8. ^ "'It's Been Worth It': Bush—U.S. Troops Take Control of Panama". Los Angeles Times. December 21, 1989.
9. ^ Donnelly, Thomas; Roth, Margaret; Baker, Caleb (1991). Operation Just Cause: The Storming of Panama. Lexington Books. ISBN 0-669-24975-0.
10. ^ Loxton, James (2022). "The Puzzle of Panamanian Exceptionalism". Journal of Democracy. 33 (1): 85–99. doi:10.1353/jod.2022.0006.

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21 December 1913 – Arthur Wynne's "word-cross", the first crossword puzzle, is published in the New York World.

Crossword

Grid-based word puzzle

For other uses, see Crossword (disambiguation).

A crossword (or crossword puzzle) is a word game consisting of a grid of black and white squares, into which solvers enter words or phrases ("entries") crossing each other horizontally ("across") and vertically ("down") according to a set of clues. Each white square is typically filled with one letter, while the black squares are used to separate entries. The first white square in each entry is typically numbered to correspond to its clue.

Crosswords commonly appear in newspapers and magazines. The earliest crosswords that resemble their modern form were popularized by the New York World in the 1910s. Many variants of crosswords are popular around the world, including cryptic crosswords and many language-specific variants.

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22 December 1975 – U.S. President Gerald Ford creates the Strategic Petroleum Reserve in response to the 1970s energy crisis.

1970s energy crisis

Subclass of energy crisis

The 1970s energy crisis occurred when the Western world, particularly the United States, Canada, Western Europe, Australia, and New Zealand, faced substantial petroleum shortages as well as elevated prices. The two worst crises of this period were the 1973 oil crisis and the 1979 energy crisis, when, respectively, the Yom Kippur War and the Iranian Revolution triggered interruptions in Middle Eastern oil exports.^[2]

The crisis began to unfold as petroleum production in the United States and some other parts of the world peaked in the late 1960s and early 1970s.^[3] World oil production per capita began a long-term decline after 1979.^[4] The oil crises prompted the first shift towards energy-saving (in particular, fossil fuel-saving) technologies.^[5]

The major industrial centers of the world were forced to contend with escalating issues related to petroleum supply. Western countries relied on the resources of countries in the Middle East and other parts of the world. The crisis led to stagnant economic growth in many countries as oil prices surged.^[6] Although there were genuine concerns with supply, part of the run-up in prices resulted from the perception of a crisis. The combination of stagnant growth and price inflation during this era led to the coinage of the term stagflation.^[7] By the 1980s, both the recessions of the 1970s and adjustments in local economies to become more efficient in petroleum usage, controlled demand sufficiently for petroleum prices worldwide to return to more sustainable levels.

The period was not uniformly negative for all economies. Petroleum-rich countries in the Middle East benefited from increased prices and the slowing production in other areas of the world. Some other countries, such as Norway, Mexico, and Venezuela, benefited as well. In the United States, Texas and Alaska, as well as some other oil-producing areas, experienced major economic booms due to soaring oil prices even as most of the rest of the nation struggled with the stagnant economy. Many of these economic gains, however, came to a halt as prices stabilized and dropped in the 1980s.

1. ^ "Annual Energy Review 2006, Figure 5.21" (PDF). U.S. Energy Information Administration, Department of Energy. June 2007. Retrieved 30 May 2016.
2. ^ "Oil Squeeze". Time. 1979-02-05. Archived from the original on 7 March 2008. Retrieved 7 September 2013.
3. ^ Hubbert, Marion King (June 1956). Nuclear Energy and the Fossil Fuels 'Drilling and Production Practice' (PDF). Spring Meeting of the Southern District. Division of Production. American Petroleum Institute. San Antonio, Texas: Shell Development Company. pp. 22–27. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2008-05-27. Retrieved 2008-04-18.
4. ^ Duncan, Richard C (November 2001). "The Peak of World Oil Production and the Road to the Olduvai Gorge". Population and Environment. 22 (5): 503–22. doi:10.1023/A:1010793021451. ISSN 1573-7810. S2CID 150522386. Archived from the original on 2009-06-24. Retrieved 2009-07-11.
5. ^ Hassler, John; Krusell, Per; Olovsson, Conny (2021). "Directed Technical Change as a Response to Natural Resource Scarcity". Journal of Political Economy. 129 (11): 3039–3072. doi:10.1086/715849. hdl:10419/215453. ISSN 0022-3808. S2CID 199428841.
6. ^ Mohammed, Mikidadu (2017). Essays on the Causes and Dynamic Effects of Oil Price Shocks. University of Utah. Retrieved 27 January 2020.
7. ^ Mankiw, N. Gregory; Scarth William M. (2003). Macroeconomics: Canadian Edition Updated. New York: Worth Publishers. p. 270. ISBN 978-0-7167-5928-7. Retrieved 13 November 2009.

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23 December 1972 – The Immaculate Reception is caught by Franco Harris to win the Pittsburgh Steelers their first ever playoff victory, after defeating the Oakland Raiders.

Immaculate Reception

Unusual football play in 1972–73 NFL playoffs

The Immaculate Reception is one of the most famous plays in the history of American gridiron football. It occurred in the AFC divisional playoff game of the National Football League (NFL), between the Pittsburgh Steelers and the Oakland Raiders at Three Rivers Stadium in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, on December 23, 1972.

With his team trailing 7-6, on fourth down with 22 seconds left in the game, Steelers quarterback Terry Bradshaw threw a pass targeting Steelers running back John Fuqua. The ball bounced off the helmet of Raiders safety Jack Tatum. Steelers fullback Franco Harris caught it just before it hit the ground and ran for a game-winning touchdown. The play has been a source of some controversy and speculation ever since, with some contending that the ball touched only Fuqua (and did not in any way touch Tatum) or that it hit the ground before Harris caught it, either of which would have resulted in an incomplete pass by the rules of the time. Kevin Cook's The Last Headbangers cites the play as the beginning of a bitter rivalry between Pittsburgh and Oakland that fueled a historically brutal Raiders team during the NFL's most controversially physical era.^[1]

NFL Films has chosen the Immaculate Reception as the greatest play of all time, as well as the most controversial.^[2][3] The play was also selected as the Greatest Play in NFL History in the NFL Network's 100 series. The play proved to be a turning point for the Steelers, reversing four decades of futility with their first playoff win ever; they went on to win four Super Bowls by the end of the 1970s.

The play's name is a pun derived from the Immaculate Conception, a dogma in the Roman Catholic Church. The phrase was first used on air by Myron Cope, a Pittsburgh sportscaster who was reporting on the Steelers' victory. A Pittsburgh woman, Sharon Levosky, called Cope before his 11:00 p.m. sports broadcast that night and suggested the name, which was coined by her then-boyfriend Michael Ord during a celebration at a local bar after the two attended the game in person.^[4] Cope used the term on television and the phrase stuck.^[5] The phrase was apparently meant to imply that the play was miraculous in nature (see Hail Mary pass for a similar term).

1. ^ Cook, Kevin (2012-08-13). "Rowdy and Rough". ESPN. Retrieved 2022-05-14.
2. ^ NFL Top 10 – Controversial Calls
3. ^ "Franco Harris' Immaculate Reception Named NFL Network's Top Play in NFL History". Bleacher Report. September 20, 2019. Retrieved May 14, 2022.
4. ^ "Obituary: Michael P. Ord | Coined the term 'Immaculate Reception' after Franco Harris' famous catch".
5. ^ Finder, Chuck (November 11, 2012). "Couple who coined name for Immaculate Reception never sought credit". Pittsburgh Post-Gazette. Retrieved May 14, 2022.

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24 December 1952 – First flight of Britain's Handley Page Victor strategic bomber.

Handley Page Victor

British strategic bomber and tanker aircraft

The Handley Page Victor is a British jet-powered strategic bomber developed and produced by Handley Page during the Cold War. It was the third and final V bomber to be operated by the Royal Air Force (RAF), the other two being the Vickers Valiant and the Avro Vulcan. Entering service in 1958, the Victor was initially developed as part of the United Kingdom's airborne nuclear deterrent, but it was retired from the nuclear mission in 1968, following the discovery of fatigue cracks which had been exacerbated by the RAF's adoption of a low-altitude flight profile to avoid interception, and due to the pending introduction of the Royal Navy's submarine-launched Polaris missiles in 1969.

With the nuclear deterrent mission relinquished to the Royal Navy a large V-bomber fleet could not be justified. A number of Victors were modified for strategic reconnaissance, using a combination of radar, cameras, and other sensors. Prior to the introduction of Polaris, some had already been converted into tankers to replace Valiants; further conversions to tankers followed and some of these re-purposed Victors refuelled Vulcan bombers during the Black Buck raids of the Falklands War.

Remaining in the air refueling role, the Victor was the last of the V-bombers to be retired from service on 15 October 1993. In its refueling role the Victor was replaced by the Vickers VC10 and the Lockheed Tristar.

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25 December 1868 – Pardons for ex-Confederates: United States President Andrew Johnson grants an unconditional pardon to all Confederate veterans.

Pardons for ex-Confederates

U.S. government pardons issued to former Confederates during and after the American Civil War

Both during and after the American Civil War, pardons for ex-Confederates were given by US Presidents Abraham Lincoln and Andrew Johnson and were usually extended for those who had served in the military above the rank of colonel or civilians who had exercised political power under the Confederate government. The power to pardon offences to the US government was given to the chief executive in the US Constitution under Article II.

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26 December 1898 – Marie and Pierre Curie announce the isolation of radium

Marie Curie

Polish-French physicist and chemist (1867–1934)

This article is about the Polish-French physicist. For the musician, see Marie Currie. For other uses, see Marie Curie (disambiguation).

Maria Salomea Skłodowska-Curie^[a] (Polish: [ˈmarja salɔˈmɛa skwɔˈdɔfska kʲiˈri] ^ⓘ; née Skłodowska; 7 November 1867 – 4 July 1934), known simply as Marie Curie (/ˈkjʊəri/ KURE-ee,^[1] French: [maʁi kyʁi]), was a Polish and naturalised-French physicist and chemist who conducted pioneering research on radioactivity. She was the first woman to win a Nobel Prize, the first person to win a Nobel Prize twice, and the only person to win a Nobel Prize in two scientific fields. Her husband, Pierre Curie, was a co-winner of her first Nobel Prize, making them the first-ever married couple to win the Nobel Prize and launching the Curie family legacy of five Nobel Prizes. She was, in 1906, the first woman to become a professor at the University of Paris.^[2]

She was born in Warsaw, in what was then the Kingdom of Poland, part of the Russian Empire. She studied at Warsaw's clandestine Flying University and began her practical scientific training in Warsaw. In 1891, aged 24, she followed her elder sister Bronisława to study in Paris, where she earned her higher degrees and conducted her subsequent scientific work. In 1895 she married the French physicist Pierre Curie, and she shared the 1903 Nobel Prize in Physics with him and with the physicist Henri Becquerel for their pioneering work developing the theory of "radioactivity"—a term she coined.^[3][4] In 1906 Pierre Curie died in a Paris street accident. Marie won the 1911 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for her discovery of the elements polonium and radium, using techniques she invented for isolating radioactive isotopes. Under her direction, the world's first studies were conducted into the treatment of neoplasms by the use of radioactive isotopes. She founded the Curie Institute in Paris in 1920, and the Curie Institute in Warsaw in 1932; both remain major medical research centres. During World War I she developed mobile radiography units to provide X-ray services to field hospitals.

While a French citizen, Marie Skłodowska Curie, who used both surnames,^[5][6] never lost her sense of Polish identity. She taught her daughters the Polish language and took them on visits to Poland.^[7] She named the first chemical element she discovered polonium, after her native country.^[b] Marie Curie died in 1934, aged 66, at the Sancellemoz sanatorium in Passy (Haute-Savoie), France, of aplastic anemia likely from exposure to radiation in the course of her scientific research and in the course of her radiological work at field hospitals during World War I.^[9] In addition to her Nobel Prizes, she received numerous other honours and tributes; in 1995 she became the first woman to be entombed on her own merits in the Paris Panthéon,^[10] and Poland declared 2011 the Year of Marie Curie during the International Year of Chemistry. She is the subject of numerous biographical works.

Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

1. ^ Jones, Daniel (2011). Roach, Peter; Setter, Jane; Esling, John (eds.). Cambridge English Pronouncing Dictionary (18th ed.). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-15253-2.
2. ^ Cite error: The named reference Madame Curie's Passion was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
3. ^ "The Discovery of Radioactivity". Berkeley Lab. Archived from the original on 1 November 2015. The term radioactivity was actually coined by Marie Curie ...
4. ^ "Marie Curie and the radioactivity, The 1903 Nobel Prize in Physics". nobelprize.org. Archived from the original on 30 July 2018. Marie called this radiation radioactivity—'radio' means radiation.
5. ^ See her signature, "M. Skłodowska Curie", in the infobox.
6. ^ Her 1911 Nobel Prize in Chemistry was granted to "Marie Sklodowska Curie" File:Marie Skłodowska-Curie's Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1911.jpg.
7. ^ Cite error: The named reference goldsmith was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
8. ^ Cite error: The named reference independence was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
9. ^ "The Genius of Marie Curie: The Woman Who Lit Up the World" on YouTube (a 2013 BBC documentary)
10. ^ Cite error: The named reference nytimes was invoked but never defined (see the help page).

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27 December 1939 – Winter War: Finland holds off a Soviet attack in the Battle of Kelja.

Battle of Kelja

1939 battle of the Winter War

The Battle of Kelja, fought from December 25 to December 27, 1939 in and around the village of Kelja (now Portovoe, Priozersky District, Leningrad Oblast, Russia), was a part of the Winter War between Finland and the Soviet Union.^[4]

1. ^ "Battles: The Karelia Isthmus".
2. ^ "Battles of the Winter War: Battle of Kelja".
3. ^ "The Battle of Kelja, 25 - 27 December 1939".
4. ^ "STMMain".

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28 December 1659 – The Marathas defeat the Adilshahi forces in the Battle of Kolhapur.

Battle of Kolhapur

Redirect to:

• Shivaji#Siege of Panhala

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29 December 1998 – Leaders of the Khmer Rouge apologize for the Cambodian genocide that claimed over one million lives

Cambodian genocide

1975–1979 mass killing by the Khmer Rouge

The Cambodian genocide^[a] was the systematic persecution and killing of Cambodian citizens^[b] by the Khmer Rouge under the leadership of Prime Minister of Democratic Kampuchea, Pol Pot. It resulted in the deaths of 1.5 to 2 million people from 1975 to 1979, nearly 25% of Cambodia's population in 1975 (c. 7.8 million).^{[3][4][5][6][7]}

Pol Pot and the Khmer Rouge had long been supported by the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) and its chairman, Mao Zedong;^[c] it is estimated that at least 90% of the foreign aid which the Khmer Rouge received came from China, including at least US$1 billion in interest-free economic and military aid in 1975 alone.^[13][14][15] After it seized power in April 1975, the Khmer Rouge wanted to turn the country into an agrarian socialist republic, founded on the policies of ultra-Maoism and influenced by the Cultural Revolution.^[d] Pol Pot and other Khmer Rouge officials met with Mao in Beijing in June 1975, receiving approval and advice, while high-ranking CCP officials such as Politburo Standing Committee member Zhang Chunqiao later visited Cambodia to offer help.^[e] To fulfill its goals, the Khmer Rouge emptied the cities and forced Cambodians to relocate to labor camps in the countryside, where mass executions, forced labor, physical abuse, malnutrition, and disease were rampant.^[20][21] In 1976, the Khmer Rouge renamed the country Democratic Kampuchea.

The massacres ended when the Vietnamese military invaded in 1978 and toppled the Khmer Rouge regime.^[22] By January 1979, 1.5 to 2 million people had died due to the Khmer Rouge's policies, including 200,000–300,000 Chinese Cambodians, 90,000–500,000^[f] Cambodian Cham (who are mostly Muslim),^[26][27][28] and 20,000 Vietnamese Cambodians.^[29][30] 20,000 people passed through the Security Prison 21, one of the 196 prisons the Khmer Rouge operated,^[5][31] and only seven adults survived.^[32] The prisoners were taken to the Killing Fields, where they were executed (often with pickaxes, to save bullets)^[33] and buried in mass graves. Abduction and indoctrination of children was widespread, and many were persuaded or forced to commit atrocities.^[34] As of 2009, the Documentation Center of Cambodia has mapped 23,745 mass graves containing approximately 1.3 million suspected victims of execution. Direct execution is believed to account for up to 60% of the genocide's death toll,^[35] with other victims succumbing to starvation, exhaustion, or disease.

The genocide triggered a second outflow of refugees, many of whom escaped to neighboring Thailand and, to a lesser extent, Vietnam.^[36] In 2003, by agreement^[37] between the Cambodian government and the United Nations, the Extraordinary Chambers in the Court of Cambodia (Khmer Rouge Tribunal) were established to try the members of the Khmer Rouge leadership responsible for the Cambodian genocide. Trials began in 2009.^[38] On 26 July 2010, the Trial Chamber convicted Kang Kek Iew for crimes against humanity and grave breaches of the 1949 Geneva Conventions. The Supreme Court Chamber increased his sentence to life imprisonment. Nuon Chea and Khieu Samphan were tried and convicted in 2014 of crimes against humanity and grave breaches of the Geneva Conventions. On 28 March 2019, the Trial Chamber found Nuon Chea and Khieu Samphan guilty of crimes against humanity, grave breaches of the Geneva Conventions, and genocide of the Vietnamese ethnic, national and racial group. The Chamber additionally convicted Nuon Chea of genocide of the Cham ethnic and religious group under the doctrine of superior responsibility.^[2] Both Nuon Chea and Khieu Samphan were sentenced to terms of life imprisonment.^[39]

1. ^ Heuveline, Patrick (2015). "The Boundaries of Genocide: Quantifying the Uncertainty of the Death Toll During the Pol Pot Regime (1975-1979)". A Journal of Demography. 69 (2). doi:10.1080/00324728.2015.1045546. PMC 4562795. Retrieved 12 April 2024.
2. ^ ^{a b} "Trial Chamber Summary of Judgement Case 002/02" (PDF). United Nations Office of Legal Affairs.
3. ^ Cite error: The named reference Heuveline, Patrick 2001 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
4. ^ Cite error: The named reference CAS was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
5. ^ ^{a b} Cite error: The named reference Locard was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
6. ^ Sullivan, Meg (16 April 2015). "UCLA demographer produces best estimate yet of Cambodia's death toll under Pol Pot". UCLA. Retrieved 12 April 2024.
7. ^ Tyner, James A.; Molana, Hanieh Haji (1 March 2020). "Ideologies of Khmer Rouge Family Policy: Contextualizing Sexual and Gender-Based Violence during the Cambodian Genocide". Genocide Studies International. 13 (2): 168–189. doi:10.3138/gsi.13.2.03. ISSN 2291-1847. S2CID 216505042. Archived from the original on 9 April 2023. Retrieved 31 May 2022.
8. ^ ^{a b c} Chandler, David P. (2018). Brother Number One: A Political Biography of Pol Pot. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-429-98161-6.
9. ^ Strangio, Sebastian (16 May 2012). "China's Aid Emboldens Cambodia | YaleGlobal Online". Yale University. Archived from the original on 17 December 2020. Retrieved 26 November 2019.
10. ^ ^{a b c} "The Chinese Communist Party's Relationship with the Khmer Rouge in the 1970s: An Ideological Victory and a Strategic Failure". Wilson Center. 13 December 2018. Archived from the original on 26 March 2023. Retrieved 26 November 2019.
11. ^ Hood, Steven J. (1990). "Beijing's Cambodia Gamble and the Prospects for Peace in Indochina: The Khmer Rouge or Sihanouk?". Asian Survey. 30 (10): 977–991. doi:10.2307/2644784. ISSN 0004-4687. JSTOR 2644784.
12. ^ ^{a b} "China-Cambodia Relations". Radio Free Asia. Archived from the original on 26 March 2023. Retrieved 26 November 2019.
13. ^ ^{a b} Levin, Dan (30 March 2015). "China Is Urged to Confront Its Own History". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 20 May 2022. Retrieved 26 November 2019.
14. ^ Kiernan, Ben (2008). The Pol Pot Regime: Race, Power, and Genocide in Cambodia Under the Khmer Rouge, 1975–79. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-14299-0.
15. ^ Laura, Southgate (2019). ASEAN Resistance to Sovereignty Violation: Interests, Balancing and the Role of the Vanguard State. Policy Press. ISBN 978-1-5292-0221-2.
16. ^ Jackson, Karl D (1989). Cambodia, 1975–1978: Rendezvous with Death. Princeton University Press. p. 219. ISBN 978-0-691-02541-4.
17. ^ Ervin Staub. The roots of evil: the origins of genocide and other group violence. Cambridge University Press, 1989. p. 202
18. ^ David Chandler & Ben Kiernan, ed. (1983). Revolution and its Aftermath. New Haven: Yale University Southeast Asia Studies. ISBN 9780938692058.
19. ^ Wang, Youqin. "2016: 张春桥幽灵" (PDF) (in Chinese). The University of Chicago. Archived (PDF) from the original on 25 June 2020. Retrieved 26 November 2019.
20. ^ Etcheson 2005, p. 119.
21. ^ Heuveline 1998, pp. 49–65.
22. ^ Mayersan 2013, p. 182.
23. ^ Ben Kiernan, Wendy Lower, Norman Naimark, Scott Straus et al. The Cambridge World History of Genocide: Volume 3. Genocide in the Contemporary Era, 1914–2020. Cambridge University Press, 2023. [1]
24. ^ Kiernan 2003b.
25. ^ Bruckmayr, Philipp (1 July 2006). "The Cham Muslims of Cambodia: From Forgotten Minority to Focal Point of Islamic Internationalism". American Journal of Islam and Society. 23 (3): 1–23. doi:10.35632/ajis.v23i3.441.
26. ^ "Cambodia: Holocaust and Genocide Studies". College of Liberal Arts. University of Minnesota. Archived from the original on 6 November 2019. Retrieved 15 August 2022.
27. ^ "Genocide in Cambodia". Holocaust Memorial Day Trust. Archived from the original on 2 May 2023. Retrieved 15 August 2022.
28. ^ "Genocide in Cambodia". Holocaust Museum Houston. Archived from the original on 13 June 2021. Retrieved 15 August 2022.
29. ^ Cite error: The named reference :8 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
30. ^ Zhang, Zhifeng (25 April 2014). "华侨忆红色高棉屠杀：有文化的华人必死". Renmin Wang (in Chinese). Archived from the original on 24 November 2020. Retrieved 27 November 2019.
31. ^ "Mapping the Killing Fields". Documentation Center of Cambodia. Archived from the original on 26 March 2016. Retrieved 6 June 2018. Through interviews and physical exploration, DC-Cam identified 19,733 mass burial pits, 196 prisons that operated during the Democratic Kampuchea (DK) period, and 81 memorials constructed by survivors of the DK regime.
32. ^ Kiernan, Ben (2014). The Pol Pot Regime: Race, Power, and Genocide in Cambodia Under the Khmer Rouge, 1975–79. Yale University Press. p. 464. ISBN 978-0-300-14299-0. Like all but seven of the twenty thousand Tuol Sleng prisoners, she was murdered anyway.
33. ^ Landsiedel, Peter, "The Killing Fields: Genocide in Cambodia" Archived 21 April 2023 at the Wayback Machine, P&E World Tour, 27 March 2017. Retrieved 17 March 2019
34. ^ Southerland, D (20 July 2006). "Cambodia Diary 6: Child Soldiers – Driven by Fear and Hate". Archived from the original on 20 March 2018. Retrieved 28 March 2018.
35. ^ Seybolt, Aronson & Fischoff 2013, p. 238.
36. ^ State of the World's Refugees, 2000 Archived 17 February 2019 at the Wayback Machine United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, p. 92. Retrieved 21 January 2019
37. ^ "Agreement between the United Nations and the Royal Government of Cambodia concerning the prosecution under Cambodian law of crimes committed during the period of Democratic Kampuchea". United Nations Assistance to the Khmer Rouge Trials. 11 April 2022. Retrieved 14 November 2023.
38. ^ Mendes 2011, p. 13.
39. ^ "Judgement in Case 002/01 to be pronounced on 7 August 2014 | Drupal". www.eccc.gov.kh. Archived from the original on 11 April 2023. Retrieved 29 November 2019.

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30 December 1972 – Vietnam War: Operation Linebacker II ends.

Operation Linebacker II

American bombing campaign in the Vietnam war

"Christmas bombings" and "Christmas Day Bombing" redirect here. For other uses, see Christmas bombings (disambiguation).

Operation Linebacker II, sometimes referred to as the Christmas bombings, was a strategic bombing campaign conducted by the United States against targets in North Vietnam from December 18 to December 29, 1972, during the Vietnam War. More than 20,000 tons of ordnance was dropped on military and industrial areas in Hanoi and Haiphong and at least 1,624 civilians were killed. The operation was the final major military operation carried out by the U.S. during the conflict, and the largest bombing campaign involving heavy bombers since World War II.

By late 1972, U.S. combat involvement in Vietnam had been dramatically reduced, and negotiations to end the war were underway in Paris. After secret meetings in October between lead negotiators Henry Kissinger and Le Duc Tho, an informal agreement was reached. The terms included a total U.S. withdrawal, North Vietnam's recognition of South Vietnam, new borders based on the present front lines, and new elections in the South, which would include the then-banned Communist Party of Vietnam. South Vietnamese president Nguyen Van Thieu, however, totally rejected these terms when he was informed about them and, following Richard Nixon's reelection in November, the U.S. submitted new terms, which included the Vietnamese Demilitarized Zone (DMZ) as the recognized national border, leading to a breakdown in negotiations on December 16. Nixon issued an ultimatum for the North to return to negotiations within 72 hours, after which he ordered the bombing campaign on December 18. Conducted by more than 200 B-52 bombers from Strategic Air Command supported by tactical planes of the Seventh Air Force and Task Force 77, the raids ran continuously over a 12-day period. The U.S. acknowledged the loss of 16 B-52 bombers, while North Vietnam claimed 34 bombers shot down.

The effect of the bombings on the peace negotiations is debated. On December 22, Nixon asked the North to return to the talks with the terms offered in October and warned Thieu that he would sign the agreement even if Thieu did not. The North agreed, and Nixon ordered a halt to the bombings on December 30. The North Vietnamese delegation stated that the campaign played no role in the decision to return to negotiations, while an aide to Kissinger remarked that "[w]e bombed the North Vietnamese into accepting our concessions". On January 27, 1973, the Paris Peace Accords were signed along the same terms as the initial October agreement.

1. ^ Lương Cường (15 December 2022). "Victory of Ha Noi – Dien Bien Phu in the Air in 1972: Vietnamese spirit and wisdom". National Defence Journal. Central Military Commission of the Communist Party of Vietnam.
2. ^ Pribbenow, Merle L. (2001). "Rolling Thunder and Linebacker Campaigns: The North Vietnamese View". The Journal of American-East Asian Relations. 10 (3/4): 197–210. doi:10.1163/187656101793645524. JSTOR 23613043.
3. ^ Beagle, T. W. (2001). Operation Linebacker II (Report). Air University Press. pp. 35–50.
4. ^ "Operation Linebacker II: The 11-Day War". HistoryNet. 29 December 2020. Retrieved 7 November 2023.
5. ^ "How Operation Linebacker II Took the North Vietnamese By Surprise". HistoryNet. 4 January 2023. Retrieved 7 November 2023.
6. ^ Thompson, p. 257.
7. ^ ^{a b c} "Linebacker". Air Force Magazine. November 1997. Retrieved 27 December 2015.
8. ^ Thompson, p. 257.
9. ^ James R. McCarthy and Robert E. Rayfield. Linebacker II is a view from the rock. pp. 29–34
10. ^ ^{a b} Drenkowski & Grau 2007, p. 22
11. ^ Drenkowski & Grau 2007, p. 26
12. ^ B-52_Stratofortress Archived February 14, 2010, at the Wayback Machine, Project Get Out and Walk
13. ^ Dorr & Peacock 2000, p. 180.
14. ^ Pribbenow, p. 327.
15. ^ Cite error: The named reference Thompson was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
16. ^ "Nga nói gì về cuộc đấu MiG-21 và F-4 ở Việt Nam (2)". Kien thuc. 27 December 2013. Retrieved 27 December 2015.
17. ^ Morocco 1985, p. 150.

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31 December 2019 – The World Health Organization is informed of cases of pneumonia with an unknown cause, detected in Wuhan. This later turned out to be COVID-19, the cause of the COVID-19 pandemic

COVID-19

Contagious disease caused by SARS-CoV-2

For the global pandemic caused by the disease, see COVID-19 pandemic. For other diseases caused by coronaviruses, see Coronavirus diseases.

Medical condition

Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) is a contagious disease caused by the coronavirus SARS-CoV-2. The first known case was identified in Wuhan, China, in December 2019.^[7] The disease quickly spread worldwide, resulting in the COVID-19 pandemic.

The symptoms of COVID‑19 are variable but often include fever,^[8] fatigue, cough, breathing difficulties, loss of smell, and loss of taste.^[9][10][11] Symptoms may begin one to fourteen days after exposure to the virus. At least a third of people who are infected do not develop noticeable symptoms.^[12][13] Of those who develop symptoms noticeable enough to be classified as patients, most (81%) develop mild to moderate symptoms (up to mild pneumonia), while 14% develop severe symptoms (dyspnea, hypoxia, or more than 50% lung involvement on imaging), and 5% develop critical symptoms (respiratory failure, shock, or multiorgan dysfunction).^[14] Older people are at a higher risk of developing severe symptoms. Some complications result in death. Some people continue to experience a range of effects (long COVID) for months or years after infection, and damage to organs has been observed.^[15] Multi-year studies are underway to further investigate the long-term effects of the disease.^[16]

COVID‑19 transmission occurs when infectious particles are breathed in or come into contact with the eyes, nose, or mouth. The risk is highest when people are in close proximity, but small airborne particles containing the virus can remain suspended in the air and travel over longer distances, particularly indoors. Transmission can also occur when people touch their eyes, nose or mouth after touching surfaces or objects that have been contaminated by the virus. People remain contagious for up to 20 days and can spread the virus even if they do not develop symptoms.^[17]

Testing methods for COVID-19 to detect the virus's nucleic acid include real-time reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT‑PCR),^[18][19] transcription-mediated amplification,^[18][19][20] and reverse transcription loop-mediated isothermal amplification (RT‑LAMP)^[18][19] from a nasopharyngeal swab.^[21]

Several COVID-19 vaccines have been approved and distributed in various countries, many of which have initiated mass vaccination campaigns. Other preventive measures include physical or social distancing, quarantining, ventilation of indoor spaces, use of face masks or coverings in public, covering coughs and sneezes, hand washing, and keeping unwashed hands away from the face. While drugs have been developed to inhibit the virus, the primary treatment is still symptomatic, managing the disease through supportive care, isolation, and experimental measures.

1. ^ "Covid-19". Oxford English Dictionary (Online ed.). Oxford University Press. April 2020. Retrieved 15 April 2020. (Subscription or participating institution membership required.)
2. ^ "Symptoms of Coronavirus". U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). 13 May 2020. Archived from the original on 17 June 2020. Retrieved 18 June 2020.
3. ^ "Q&A on coronaviruses (COVID-19)". World Health Organization (WHO). 17 April 2020. Archived from the original on 14 May 2020. Retrieved 14 May 2020.
4. ^ ^{a b} Ritchie H, Mathieu E, Rodés-Guirao L, Appel C, Giattino C, Ortiz-Ospina E, et al. (2020–2022). "Coronavirus Pandemic (COVID-19)". Our World in Data. Retrieved 23 April 2024.
5. ^ Mathieu E, Ritchie H, Rodés-Guirao L, Appel C, Giattino C, Hasell J, et al. (5 March 2020). "Coronavirus Pandemic (COVID-19)". Our World in Data. Archived from the original on 24 February 2024. Retrieved 24 February 2024.
6. ^ "The pandemic's true death toll". The Economist. 28 August 2023 [2 November 2021]. Retrieved 28 August 2023.
7. ^ Page J, Hinshaw D, McKay B (26 February 2021). "In Hunt for Covid-19 Origin, Patient Zero Points to Second Wuhan Market – The man with the first confirmed infection of the new coronavirus told the WHO team that his parents had shopped there". The Wall Street Journal. Retrieved 27 February 2021.
8. ^ Islam MA (April 2021). "Prevalence and characteristics of fever in adult and paediatric patients with coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19): A systematic review and meta-analysis of 17515 patients". PLOS ONE. 16 (4): e0249788. Bibcode:2021PLoSO..1649788I. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0249788. PMC 8023501. PMID 33822812.
9. ^ Saniasiaya J, Islam MA (April 2021). "Prevalence of Olfactory Dysfunction in Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19): A Meta-analysis of 27,492 Patients". The Laryngoscope. 131 (4): 865–878. doi:10.1002/lary.29286. ISSN 0023-852X. PMC 7753439. PMID 33219539.
10. ^ Saniasiaya J, Islam MA (November 2020). "Prevalence and Characteristics of Taste Disorders in Cases of COVID-19: A Meta-analysis of 29,349 Patients" (PDF). Otolaryngology–Head and Neck Surgery. 165 (1): 33–42. doi:10.1177/0194599820981018. PMID 33320033. S2CID 229174644.
11. ^ Agyeman AA, Chin KL, Landersdorfer CB, Liew D, Ofori-Asenso R (August 2020). "Smell and Taste Dysfunction in Patients With COVID-19: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis". Mayo Clin. Proc. 95 (8): 1621–1631. doi:10.1016/j.mayocp.2020.05.030. PMC 7275152. PMID 32753137.
12. ^ Wang B, Andraweera P, Elliott S, Mohammed H, Lassi Z, Twigger A, et al. (March 2023). "Asymptomatic SARS-CoV-2 Infection by Age: A Global Systematic Review and Meta-analysis". The Pediatric Infectious Disease Journal. 42 (3): 232–239. doi:10.1097/INF.0000000000003791. PMC 9935239. PMID 36730054. Retrieved 15 November 2023.
13. ^ Oran DP, Topol EJ (January 2021). "The Proportion of SARS-CoV-2 Infections That Are Asymptomatic: A Systematic Review". Annals of Internal Medicine. 174 (5): M20-6976. doi:10.7326/M20-6976. PMC 7839426. PMID 33481642.
14. ^ "Interim Clinical Guidance for Management of Patients with Confirmed Coronavirus Disease (COVID-19)". U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). 6 April 2020. Archived from the original on 2 March 2020. Retrieved 19 April 2020.
15. ^ Cite error: The named reference davis was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
16. ^ CDC (11 February 2020). "Post-COVID Conditions". U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Retrieved 12 July 2021.
17. ^ "Coronavirus disease (COVID-19): How is it transmitted?". World Health Organization (WHO). Retrieved 13 April 2023.
18. ^ ^{a b c} "Overview of Testing for SARS-CoV-2, the virus that causes COVID-19". U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). 11 February 2020. Retrieved 31 July 2022.
19. ^ ^{a b c} "Nucleic Acid Amplification Tests (NAATs)". U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). 11 February 2020. Retrieved 31 July 2022.
20. ^ Gorzalski AJ, Tian H, Laverdure C, Morzunov S, Verma SC, VanHooser S, et al. (August 2020). "High-Throughput Transcription-mediated amplification on the Hologic Panther is a highly sensitive method of detection for SARS-CoV-2". Journal of Clinical Virology. 129: 104501. doi:10.1016/j.jcv.2020.104501. PMC 7286273. PMID 32619959.
21. ^ Cite error: The named reference pmid32621814 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).

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1 January 1707 – John V is proclaimed King of Portugal and the Algarves in Lisbo

John V of Portugal

King of Portugal from 1706 to 1750

Dom John V (Portuguese: João Francisco António José Bento Bernardo; 22 October 1689 – 31 July 1750), known as the Magnanimous (o Magnânimo) and the Portuguese Sun King (o Rei-Sol Português),^[a] was King of Portugal from 9 December 1706 until his death in 1750. His reign saw the rise of Portugal and its monarchy to new levels of prosperity, wealth, and prestige among European courts.^[1]

John V's reign saw an enormous influx of gold into the coffers of the royal treasury, supplied largely by the royal fifth (a tax on precious metals) that was received from the Portuguese colonies of Brazil and Maranhão. John spent lavishly on ambitious architectural works, most notably Mafra Palace, and on commissions and additions for his sizable art and literary collections. Owing to his craving for international diplomatic recognition, John also spent large sums on the embassies he sent to the courts of Europe, the most famous being those he sent to Paris in 1715 and Rome in 1716.

Disregarding traditional Portuguese institutions of governance, John V ruled as an absolute monarch. In keeping with a traditional policy pursued by previous monarchs of the House of Braganza which stressed the importance of good relations with Europe, John's reign was marked by numerous interventions into the affairs of other European states, most notably as part of the War of the Spanish Succession. On the imperial front, John V pursued an expansionist policy, with significant territorial gains in Portuguese India and Portuguese America.

John V was a very pious man who devoted large parts of his day to prayer and religious study. He rewarded his long-awaited recognition as a lawful monarch by Pope Benedict XIV with a fervent devotion to the Catholic Church and some very large donations to the Holy See. The Pope granted John V the style "Most Faithful Majesty," which appealed to him greatly. However, John's relationship with the papacy varied at different periods in his reign; there were both close relations and conflicts at different times during the reigns of five different popes.^[2]

Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

1. ^ Carmo Reis, Vol V
2. ^ Nizza da Silva, pp. 318–321.

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2 January 1791 – Big Bottom massacre in the Ohio Country, North America, marking the beginning of the Northwest Indian War.

Big Bottom massacre

1791 mass killing of settlers by Native Americans in Ohio

United States historic place

The Big Bottom massacre was a mass killing perpetrated by Lenape and Wyandot warriors against American settlers on January 2, 1791. The massacre occurred near present-day Stockport, Ohio. It is considered part of the Northwest Indian Wars, in which native Americans in the Ohio Country clashed with American settlers, seeking to expel them from their territory.

Following the American Revolutionary War, the United States government was selling land in the Ohio Country, mostly to companies that promised to develop it. A group of squatters had moved up to this area and settled along flood plain, or "bottom" land, of the Muskingum River, some 30 mi (48 km) north of an Ohio Company of Associates settlement at Marietta, Ohio. The settlement was raided by Lenape and Wyandot warriors seeking to expel the interlopers. They stormed the incomplete blockhouse and killed eleven men, one woman, and two children. (Accounts vary as to the number of casualties.) The Native Americans captured three settlers, with at least one dying later, while four others escaped into the woods.

The Ohio Company of Associates sought to provide greater protection for settlers in the Northwest Territory, as the conflicts became more widespread. A coalition of Native American tribes fought to expel the newcomers and preserve their lands. The war did not end until 1794.

The Ohio History Connection manages the three-acre Big Bottom Park site, which has been listed on the National Register of Historic Places. In addition to the markers noted below, the site features a 12 ft (3.7 m)-tall marble obelisk, picnic tables, and information signs about the site's history.

1. ^ "National Register Information System". National Register of Historic Places. National Park Service. April 15, 2008.

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3 January 1956 – A fire damages the top part of the Eiffel Tower.

Eiffel Tower

Tower on the Champ de Mars in Paris, France

This article is about the landmark in Paris, France. For other uses, see Eiffel Tower (disambiguation).

"300-metre tower" and "Tour Eiffel" redirect here. For other tall towers, see List of tallest towers. For other uses, see Tour Eiffel (disambiguation).

The Eiffel Tower (/ˈaɪfəl/ EYE-fəl; French: Tour Eiffel [tuʁ ɛfɛl] ^ⓘ) is a wrought-iron lattice tower on the Champ de Mars in Paris, France. It is named after the engineer Gustave Eiffel, whose company designed and built the tower from 1887 to 1889.

Locally nicknamed "La dame de fer" (French for "Iron Lady"), it was constructed as the centerpiece of the 1889 World's Fair, and to crown the centennial anniversary of the French Revolution. Although initially criticised by some of France's leading artists and intellectuals for its design, it has since become a global cultural icon of France and one of the most recognisable structures in the world.^[5] The tower received 5,889,000 visitors in 2022.^[6] The Eiffel Tower is the most visited monument with an entrance fee in the world:^[7] 6.91 million people ascended it in 2015. It was designated a monument historique in 1964, and was named part of a UNESCO World Heritage Site ("Paris, Banks of the Seine") in 1991.^[8]

The tower is 330 metres (1,083 ft) tall,^[9] about the same height as an 81-storey building, and the tallest structure in Paris. Its base is square, measuring 125 metres (410 ft) on each side. During its construction, the Eiffel Tower surpassed the Washington Monument to become the tallest human-made structure in the world, a title it held for 41 years until the Chrysler Building in New York City was finished in 1930. It was the first structure in the world to surpass both the 200-metre and 300-metre mark in height. Due to the addition of a broadcasting aerial at the top of the tower in 1957, it is now taller than the Chrysler Building by 5.2 metres (17 ft). Excluding transmitters, the Eiffel Tower is the second tallest free-standing structure in France after the Millau Viaduct.

The tower has three levels for visitors, with restaurants on the first and second levels. The top level's upper platform is 276 m (906 ft) above the ground – the highest observation deck accessible to the public in the European Union. Tickets can be purchased to ascend by stairs or lift to the first and second levels. The climb from ground level to the first level is over 300 steps, as is the climb from the first level to the second, making the entire ascent a 600 step climb. Although there is a staircase to the top level, it is usually accessible only by lift. On this top, third level is a private apartment built for Gustave Eiffel's private use. He decorated it with furniture by Jean Lachaise and invited friends such as Thomas Edison.

1. ^ ^{a b} Bachman, Leonard R. (2019). Constructing the Architect: An Introduction to Design, Research, Planning, and Education. p. 80. ISBN 9781351665421.
2. ^ ^{a b} "Eiffel Tower". CTBUH Skyscraper Center.
3. ^ "Intermediate floor of the Eiffel tower".
4. ^ "Eiffel Tower". Emporis. Archived from the original on 22 April 2016.
5. ^ SETE. "The Eiffel Tower at a glance". Official Eiffel Tower website. Archived from the original on 14 April 2016. Retrieved 15 April 2016.
6. ^ Tourism Statistics, "Visit Paris Region" site of the Paris Ile de France Visitors Bureau, retrieved March 22, 2022.
7. ^ Cite error: The named reference :0 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
8. ^ Clayson, S. Hollis (26 February 2020), "Eiffel Tower", Architecture, Planning, and Preservation, Oxford University Press, doi:10.1093/obo/9780190922467-0014, ISBN 978-0-19-092246-7, retrieved 14 November 2021
9. ^ "Eiffel Tower grows six metres after new antenna attached". Reuters. 15 March 2022. Retrieved 15 March 2022.

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4 January 1958 – Sputnik 1, the first artificial Earth satellite, launched by the Soviet Union in 1957, falls to Earth from orbit

Sputnik 1

First artificial Earth satellite

"Sputnik" redirects here. For other uses, see Sputnik (disambiguation).

Sputnik 1 (/ˈspʌtnɪk, ˈspʊtnɪk/, Russian: Спутник-1, Satellite 1) was the first artificial Earth satellite. It was launched into an elliptical low Earth orbit by the Soviet Union on 4 October 1957 as part of the Soviet space program. It sent a radio signal back to Earth for three weeks before its three silver-zinc batteries became depleted. Aerodynamic drag caused it to fall back into the atmosphere on 4 January 1958. The world's first observation was made at the school observatory in Rodawisch (Saxony).^[6]

It was a polished metal sphere 58 cm (23 in) in diameter with four external radio antennas to broadcast radio pulses. Its radio signal was easily detectable by amateur radio operators,^[7] and the 65° orbital inclination made its flight path cover virtually the entire inhabited Earth.

The satellite's success was unanticipated by the United States. This precipitated the American Sputnik crisis and triggered the Space Race, part of the Cold War. The launch was the beginning of a new era of political, military, technological and scientific developments.^[8] The word sputnik is Russian for satellite when interpreted in an astronomical context;^[9] its other meanings are spouse or traveling companion.^[10][11]

Tracking and studying Sputnik 1 from Earth provided scientists with valuable information. The density of the upper atmosphere could be deduced from its drag on the orbit, and the propagation of its radio signals gave data about the ionosphere.

Sputnik 1 was launched during the International Geophysical Year from Site No.1/5, at the 5th Tyuratam range, in Kazakh SSR (now known as the Baikonur Cosmodrome). The satellite traveled at a peak speed of about 8 km/s (18,000 mph), taking 96.20 minutes to complete each orbit. It transmitted on 20.005 and 40.002 MHz,^[12] which were monitored by radio operators throughout the world. The signals continued for 21 days until the transmitter batteries depleted on 26 October 1957. On 4 January 1958, after three months in orbit, Sputnik 1 burned up while reentering Earth's atmosphere, having completed 1,440 orbits of the Earth,^[3] and travelling a distance of approximately 70,000,000 km (43,000,000 mi).^[13]

1. ^ "Sputnik 1 (PS-1 #1)". Gunter's Space Page. 11 December 2017. Retrieved 16 May 2021.
2. ^ "SL-1 R/B". n2yo.com.
3. ^ ^{a b} Cite error: The named reference rswSM was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
4. ^ ^{a b c} "Sputnik 1". Encyclopedia Astronautica. Archived from the original on 27 December 2016. Retrieved 8 January 2017.
5. ^ Cite error: The named reference nssdc.orbit was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
6. ^ "Sternwarte und Planetarium - die Beobachtung von Sputnik 1".
7. ^ Ralph H. Didlake, KK5PM; Oleg P. Odinets, RA3DNC (22 September 2008). "Sputnik and Amateur Radio". American Radio Relay League. Archived from the original on 11 October 2007. Retrieved 26 March 2008.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
8. ^ McDougall, Walter A. (Winter 2010). "Shooting The Moon". American Heritage. 59 (4). ISSN 0002-8738. Retrieved 3 January 2019.
9. ^ "Display: Sputnik-1 1957-001B". NASA. 27 April 2021. Retrieved 16 May 2021. This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.
10. ^ "Sputnik 1, Earth's First Artificial Satellite in Photos". SPACE.com. 4 October 2020.
11. ^ "APOD: October 3, 1998 – Sputnik: Traveling Companion". apod.nasa.gov. This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.
12. ^ Jorden, William J. (5 October 1957). "Soviet Fires Earth Satellite Into Space". The New York Times. Retrieved 28 December 2015.
13. ^ "Sputnik-1 1957-001B". NASA. 27 April 2021. Retrieved 16 May 2021. This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.

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5 January 1976 – The Khmer Rouge proclaim the Constitution of Democratic Kampuchea.

Democratic Kampuchea

1975–1979 state in Southeast Asia

This article is about Cambodia under the governance of the Khmer Rouge. For the regime generally, see Khmer Rouge. For the ruling party, see Communist Party of Kampuchea.

Kampuchea,^[a] officially Democratic Kampuchea (DK)^[b] from 1976 onward, was the Cambodian state from 1975 to 1979, under the totalitarian dictatorship of Pol Pot and the Communist Party of Kampuchea (CPK), commonly known as the Khmer Rouge (KR). It was established following the Khmer Rouge's capture of the capital Phnom Penh, effectively ending the United States-backed Khmer Republic of Lon Nol. After Vietnam took Phnom Penh in 1979, it was disestablished in 1982 with the creation of the CGDK in its place.

From 1975 to 1979, the Khmer Rouge's one-party regime killed millions of its own people through mass executions, forced labour, and starvation, in an event which has come to be known as the Cambodian genocide. The killings ended when the Khmer Rouge were ousted from Phnom Penh by the Vietnamese army.

The Khmer Rouge subsequently established a government-in-exile in neighbouring Thailand and retained Kampuchea's seat at the United Nations (UN). In response, Vietnamese-backed communists created a rival government, the People's Republic of Kampuchea, but failed to gain international recognition. In 1982, the Khmer Rouge established the Coalition Government of Democratic Kampuchea (CGDK) with two non-communist guerrilla factions, broadening the exiled government of Democratic Kampuchea.^[5] The exiled government renamed itself the National Government of Cambodia in 1990, in the run-up to the UN-sponsored 1991 Paris Peace Agreements.

1. ^ "Cambodia – Religion". Britannica. Retrieved 29 June 2020.
2. ^ Jackson, Karl D. (1989). Cambodia, 1975–1978: Rendezvous with Death. Princeton University Press. p. 219. ISBN 0-691-02541-X.
3. ^ "Khmer Rouge's Slaughter in Cambodia Is Ruled a Genocide". The New York Times. 15 November 2018. Archived from the original on 13 April 2019. Retrieved 13 April 2019.
4. ^ Kiernan, B. (2004) How Pol Pot came to Power. New Haven: Yale University Press, p. xix
5. ^ "Cambodia – COALITION GOVERNMENT OF DEMOCRATIC KAMPUCHEA". countrystudies.us. Retrieved 3 October 2020.

Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

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6 January 1449 – Constantine XI is crowned Byzantine Emperor at Mystras.

Constantine XI Palaiologos

Last Byzantine emperor, from 1449 to 1453

"Constantine Palaiologos" redirects here. For other uses, see Constantine Palaiologos (disambiguation).

"Constantine XI" redirects here. For the earlier emperor sometimes numbered this way, see Constantine Laskaris.

For other uses, see Constantine Dragases.

Constantine XI Dragases Palaiologos or Dragaš Palaeologus (Greek: Κωνσταντῖνος Δραγάσης Παλαιολόγος, Kōnstantînos Dragásēs Palaiológos; 8 February 1404 – 29 May 1453) was the last Roman (Byzantine) emperor, reigning from 1449 until his death in battle at the Fall of Constantinople in 1453. Constantine's death marked the definitive end of the Eastern Roman Empire, which traced its origin to Constantine the Great's foundation of Constantinople as the Roman Empire's new capital in 330.

Constantine was the fourth son of Emperor Manuel II Palaiologos and Helena Dragaš, the daughter of Serbian ruler Konstantin Dejanović. Little is known of his early life, but from the 1420s onward, he is repeatedly demonstrated to have been a skilled general. Based on his career and surviving contemporary sources, Constantine appears to have been primarily a soldier. This does not mean that Constantine was not also a skilled administrator: he was trusted and favored to such an extent by his older brother, Emperor John VIII Palaiologos, that he was designated as regent twice during John VIII's journeys away from Constantinople in 1423–1424 and 1437–1440. In 1427–1428, Constantine and John fended off an attack on the Morea (the Peloponnese) by Carlo I Tocco, ruler of Epirus, and in 1428 Constantine was proclaimed Despot of the Morea and ruled the province together with his older brother Theodore and his younger brother Thomas. Together, they extended Roman rule to cover almost the entire Peloponnese for the first time since the Fourth Crusade more than two hundred years before and rebuilt the ancient Hexamilion wall, which defended the peninsula from outside attacks. Although ultimately unsuccessful, Constantine personally led a campaign into Central Greece and Thessaly in 1444–1446, attempting to extend Byzantine rule into Greece once more.

In October 1448, John VIII died without children, and as his favored successor, Constantine was proclaimed emperor on 6 January 1449. During his brief reign, Constantine would have to deal with three main issues. First, there was the issue of an heir, as Constantine was also childless. Despite attempts by Constantine's friend and confidant George Sphrantzes to find him a wife, Constantine ultimately died unmarried. The second concern was religious conflict within what little remained of his empire. Emperor Constantine and his predecessor John VIII both believed in the reunion between the Greek Orthodox and Catholic Churches proclaimed at the Council of Florence. They accordingly sought to secure military aid from Catholic Europe, but much of the Byzantine populace, led by Mark of Ephesus, opposed the transformation of the Greek Orthodox Church into the Greek Byzantine Catholic Church; one of the Eastern Catholic Churches. Finally, the most important concern was the growing Ottoman Empire, which by 1449 completely surrounded Constantinople. In April 1453, the Sultan Mehmed II of the House of Osman laid siege to Constantinople with an army perhaps numbering as many as 80,000 men. Even though the city's defenders may have numbered less than a tenth of the sultan's army, Constantine considered the idea of abandoning Constantinople unthinkable. The emperor stayed to defend the city, which fell on 29 May 1453. On the night before Constantinople fell, the Emperor received Communion from Byzantine Catholic Cardinal Isidore of Kiev. Constantine died in battle on the following day. Although no reliable eyewitness accounts of his death survived, most historical accounts agree that the emperor tore off his Imperial insignia, led a last charge against the Ottomans, and died fighting.

Constantine was the last Christian ruler of Constantinople, which alongside his bravery at the city's fall cemented him as a near-legendary figure in later histories and Greek folklore. Some saw the foundation of Constantinople (the New Rome) under Constantine the Great and its loss under another Constantine as fulfillment of the city's destiny, just as Old Rome had been founded by a Romulus and lost under another, Romulus Augustulus. He became known in later Greek folklore as the Marble Emperor (Greek: Μαρμαρωμένος Βασιλεύς, romanized: Marmaromenos Vasilias, lit. 'Emperor/King turned into Marble'), reflecting a popular legend that Constantine had not actually died, but had been rescued by an angel and turned into marble, hidden beneath the Golden Gate of Constantinople awaiting a call from God to be restored to life and reconquer both the city and the old empire.

1. ^ Nicolle, Haldon & Turnbull 2007, p. 191.
2. ^ Gilliland Wright 2013, p. 63.

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7 January 1980 – U.S. President Jimmy Carter authorizes legislation giving $1.5 billion in loans to bail out the Chrysler Corporation

Jimmy Carter

President of the United States from 1977 to 1981

"James Earl Carter" redirects here. For his father, see James Earl Carter Sr. For other uses, see Jimmy Carter (disambiguation).

James Earl Carter Jr. (born October 1, 1924) is an American politician and humanitarian who served as the 39th president of the United States from 1977 to 1981. A member of the Democratic Party, Carter was the 76th governor of Georgia from 1971 to 1975, and a Georgia state senator from 1963 to 1967. At age 99, he is both the oldest living former U.S. president and the longest-lived president in U.S. history.

Carter was born and raised in Plains, Georgia. He graduated from the U.S. Naval Academy in 1946 and joined the U.S. Navy's submarine service. Carter returned home afterward and revived his family's peanut-growing business. He then manifested his opposition to racial segregation, supported the growing civil rights movement, and became an activist within the Democratic Party. He served in the Georgia State Senate from 1963 to 1967 and then as governor of Georgia from 1971 to 1975. As a dark-horse candidate not well known outside of Georgia, Carter won the Democratic nomination and narrowly defeated the incumbent Republican Party president Gerald Ford in the 1976 U.S. presidential election.

Carter pardoned all Vietnam War draft evaders on his second day in office. He created a national energy policy that included conservation, price control, and new technology. Carter successfully pursued the Camp David Accords, the Panama Canal Treaties, and the second round of Strategic Arms Limitation Talks. He also confronted stagflation. His administration established the U.S. Department of Energy and the Department of Education. The end of his presidency was marked by the Iran hostage crisis, an energy crisis, the Three Mile Island accident, the Nicaraguan Revolution, and the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan. In response to the invasion, Carter escalated the Cold War by ending détente, imposing a grain embargo against the Soviets, enunciating the Carter Doctrine, and leading the multinational boycott of the 1980 Summer Olympics in Moscow. He lost the 1980 presidential election in a landslide to the Republican nominee, Ronald Reagan.

After leaving the presidency, Carter established the Carter Center to promote and expand human rights; in 2002 he received a Nobel Peace Prize for his work related to it. He traveled extensively to conduct peace negotiations, monitor elections, and further the eradication of infectious diseases. Carter is a key figure in the nonprofit housing organization Habitat for Humanity. He has also written numerous books, ranging from political memoirs to poetry, while continuing to comment on global affairs, including two books on the Israeli–Palestinian conflict, in which he criticizes Israel's treatment of Palestinians as apartheid. Polls of historians and political scientists generally rank Carter as a below-average president, although both scholars and the public view his post-presidential activities more favorably. At 43 years, Carter's post-presidency is the longest in U.S. history.

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8 January 2002 – President of the United States George W. Bush signs into law the No Child Left Behind Act.

No Child Left Behind Act

2002 United States education reform law; repealed 2015

"No Child Left Behind" redirects here. For the Kanye West song, see No Child Left Behind (song). For the Viking album, see No Child Left Behind (album).

The No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 (NCLB)^[1][2] was a U.S. Act of Congress promoted by the Presidency of George W. Bush. It reauthorized the Elementary and Secondary Education Act and included Title I provisions applying to disadvantaged students.^[3] It mandated standards-based education reform based on the premise that setting high standards and establishing measurable goals could improve individual outcomes in education. To receive federal school funding, states had to create and give assessments to all students at select grade levels.

The act did not set national achievement standards. Instead, each state developed its own standards.^[4] NCLB expanded the federal role in public education through further emphasis on annual testing, annual academic progress, report cards, and teacher qualifications, as well as significant changes in funding.^[3] While the bill faced challenges from both Democrats and Republicans, it passed in both chambers of the legislature with significant bipartisan support.^[5]

Many provisions of the act generated significant controversy. By 2015, bipartisan criticism had increased so much that a bipartisan Congress stripped away the national features of No Child Left Behind. Its replacement, the Every Student Succeeds Act, turned the remnants over to the states.^[6][7]

1. ^ Pub. L.Tooltip Public Law (United States) 107–110 (text) (PDF), 115 Stat. 1425, enacted January 8, 2002.
2. ^ The Elementary and Secondary Education Act (The No Child Left Behind Act of 2004)
3. ^ ^{a b} "No Child Left Behind: An Overview". Education Week. Retrieved July 16, 2015.
4. ^ "No Child Left Behind". Sonoma County Office of Education. Archived from the original on April 6, 2012. Retrieved March 21, 2012.
5. ^ "To close the achievement gap with accountability, flexibility, and choice, so that no child is left behind". Library of Congress. March 22, 2001. Retrieved August 23, 2016.
6. ^ Layton, Lyndsey (December 11, 2015) "Obama signs new K–12 education law that ends No Child Left Behind". Washington Post
7. ^ Hirschfeld Davis, Julie (December 10, 2015). "President Obama Signs Into Law a Rewrite of No Child Left Behind". The New York Times.

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9 January 1959 – The Vega de Tera dam fails, triggering a disastrous flood that nearly destroys the town of Ribadelago and kills 144 residents

Vega de Tera disaster

1959 dam failure in Spain

The Vega de Tera disaster, (also known as the Ribadelago disaster [Catástrofe de Ribadelago]) was a flood that occurred on the early morning of 9 January 1959 in the Province of Zamora, Spain. The flood was caused by the failure of a dam, releasing water from the Vega de Tera reservoir. A total of 144 of the 664 residents in Ribadelago were killed. It was the first of two fatal dam failures in Europe that year; in December, the collapse of the Malpasset Dam resulted in over 400 fatalities.

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10 January 1990 – Time Warner is formed by the merger of Time Inc. and Warner Communications.

WarnerMedia

Not to be confused with Walden Media.

American media conglomerate owned by AT&T (1990–2022)

"Time Warner" redirects here. Not to be confused with Timo Werner. For the former cable television operator in the United States separated from Time Warner in 2009, see Time Warner Cable.

Warner Media, LLC (doing business as WarnerMedia) was an American multinational mass media and entertainment conglomerate owned by AT&T. It was headquartered at the 30 Hudson Yards complex in New York City.

It was established as Time Warner in 1990, following a merger between Time Inc. and Warner Communications. The company had film, television and cable operations. Its assets included WarnerMedia Studios & Networks (which consisted of the entertainment assets of Turner Broadcasting, HBO, and Cinemax as well as Warner Bros., which itself consisted of the film, animation, television studios, the company's home entertainment division and Studio Distribution Services, its joint venture with Universal Pictures Home Entertainment, DC Comics, New Line Cinema, and, together with CBS Entertainment Group^[6], a 50% interest in The CW); WarnerMedia News & Sports (consisted of the news and sports assets of Turner Broadcasting, including CNN, Turner Sports, and AT&T SportsNet); WarnerMedia Sales & Distribution (consisted of digital media company Otter Media); and WarnerMedia Direct (consisted of the HBO Max streaming service).

Despite spinning off Time Inc. in 2014, the company retained the Time-Warner name from 1990, also becoming Time Warner in 2003, until 2018, when the company was renamed WarnerMedia after it was acquired by AT&T.^[7] On October 22, 2016, AT&T officially announced that they intended on acquiring Time Warner for $85.4 billion (or $108.7 billion when including assumed Time Warner debt), valuing the company at $107.50 per share.^[8][9] The proposed merger was confirmed on June 12, 2018,^[10] after AT&T won an antitrust lawsuit that the U.S. Justice Department filed in 2017 to attempt to block the acquisition,^[11] and was completed two days later, when the company became a subsidiary of AT&T.^[12] The company's final name was adopted a day later.^[13] Under AT&T, the company moved to launch a streaming service built around the company's content, known as HBO Max. WarnerMedia refolded Turner's entertainment-based networks under a singular umbrella unit on August 10, 2020, through a consolidation of the WarnerMedia Entertainment and Warner Bros. Entertainment assets into a new unit, WarnerMedia Studios & Networks Group.^[14][15] On May 17, 2021, nearly three years after the acquisition, AT&T decided to leave the entertainment business by announcing that it had proposed to sell its ownership of WarnerMedia in a merger with Discovery, Inc. to form a new publicly traded company, Warner Bros. Discovery. The deal closed on April 8, 2022.

The company's previous assets included Time Inc., TW Telecom, AOL, Time Warner Cable, AOL Time Warner Book Group, and Warner Music Group; these operations were either sold to others or spun off as independent companies. The company was ranked No. 98 in the 2018 Fortune 500 list of the largest United States corporations by total revenue.^[16]

1. ^ "Financial and Operational Schedules & Non-GAAP Reconciliations" (PDF). AT&T. January 26, 2022. Archived (PDF) from the original on March 13, 2022. Retrieved April 27, 2022.
2. ^ Cohen, Roger (December 21, 1992). "The Creator of Time Warner, Steven J. Ross, Is Dead at 65". The New York Times. Archived from the original on May 9, 2021. Retrieved April 11, 2018.
3. ^ "Time Warner Inc. Reports Fourth-Quarter and Full-Year 2017 Results (10-K)". Time Warner. February 1, 2018. Archived from the original on December 2, 2017. Retrieved February 5, 2018.
4. ^ "AT&T Corporate Profile". about.att.com. Archived from the original on 2022-03-14. Retrieved 2020-11-03.
5. ^ "Business Units | WarnerMedia". www.warnermediagroup.com. Archived from the original on August 11, 2020. Retrieved April 25, 2019.
6. ^ formerly CBS Corporation
7. ^ Flint, Joe (March 11, 2014). "Time Inc. spinoff probably won't mean name change for Time Warner". Los Angeles Times. Archived from the original on May 2, 2019. Retrieved April 6, 2018.
8. ^ Hagey, Keach; Sharma, Amol; Cimilluca, Dana; Gryta, Thomas (October 22, 2016). "AT&T Is in Advanced Talks to Acquire Time Warner". The Wall Street Journal. ISSN 0099-9660. Archived from the original on October 22, 2016. Retrieved March 18, 2019.
9. ^ Littleton, Cynthia (October 22, 2016). "AT&T Sets $85.4 Billion Time Warner Deal, CEOs Talks 'Unique' Potential of Combination". Variety. Archived from the original on October 23, 2016. Retrieved October 23, 2016.
10. ^ Gold, Hadas. "Judge approves $85 billion AT&T-Time Warner deal". CNNMoney. Archived from the original on July 11, 2018. Retrieved June 12, 2018.
11. ^ Kang, Cecilia; Merced, Michael (November 20, 2017). "Justice Department Sues to Block AT&T-Time Warner Merger". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on December 11, 2017. Retrieved December 11, 2017.
12. ^ "AT&T Completes Acquisition of Time Warner Inc". AT&T. June 15, 2018. Archived from the original on June 15, 2018. Retrieved June 15, 2018.
13. ^ "Time Warner is changing its name to WarnerMedia; Turner CEO to depart". CNBC. June 15, 2018. Archived from the original on March 20, 2020. Retrieved June 15, 2018.
14. ^ Hayes, Dade (August 10, 2020). "WarnerMedia Begins Layoffs In Latest Streamlining Effort". Deadline Hollywood. Archived from the original on August 23, 2022. Retrieved August 31, 2020.
15. ^ Goldberg, Lesley (August 7, 2020). "Bob Greenblatt, Kevin Reilly Out Amid Major WarnerMedia Restructuring". The Hollywood Reporter. Archived from the original on August 7, 2020. Retrieved August 31, 2020.
16. ^ "Fortune 500 Companies 2018: Who Made the List". Fortune.com. Archived from the original on March 5, 2019. Retrieved November 10, 2018.

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11 January 1569 – First recorded lottery in England.

Lottery

Gambling that involves the drawing of numbers at random for a prize

Not to be confused with the Mexican game of chance Lotería.

For other uses, see Lottery (disambiguation) and Lottery ticket (disambiguation).

A lottery (or lotto) is a form of gambling that involves the drawing of numbers at random for a prize. Some governments outlaw lotteries, while others endorse it to the extent of organizing a national or state lottery. It is common to find some degree of regulation of lottery by governments. The most common regulation is prohibition of sale to minors, and vendors must be licensed to sell lottery tickets. Although lotteries were common in the United States and some other countries during the 19th century, by the beginning of the 20th century, most forms of gambling, including lotteries and sweepstakes, were illegal in the U.S. and most of Europe as well as many other countries. This remained so until well after World War II. In the 1960s, casinos and lotteries began to re-appear throughout the world as a means for governments to raise revenue without raising taxes.

Lotteries come in many formats. For example, the prize can be a fixed amount of cash or goods. In this format, there is risk to the organizer if insufficient tickets are sold. More commonly, the prize fund will be a fixed percentage of the receipts. A popular form of this is the "50–50" draw, where the organizers promise that the prize will be 50% of the revenue.^{[citation needed]} Many recent lotteries allow purchasers to select the numbers on the lottery ticket, resulting in the possibility of multiple winners.

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12 January 2005 – Deep Impact launches from Cape Canaveral on a Delta II rocket.

Deep Impact (spacecraft)

NASA space probe launched in 2005

Deep Impact was a NASA space probe launched from Cape Canaveral Air Force Station on January 12, 2005.^[4] It was designed to study the interior composition of the comet Tempel 1 (9P/Tempel), by releasing an impactor into the comet. At 05:52 UTC on July 4, 2005, the Impactor successfully collided with the comet's nucleus. The impact excavated debris from the interior of the nucleus, forming an impact crater. Photographs taken by the spacecraft showed the comet to be more dusty and less icy than had been expected. The impact generated an unexpectedly large and bright dust cloud, obscuring the view of the impact crater.

Previous space missions to comets, such as Giotto, Deep Space 1, and Stardust, were fly-by missions. These missions were able to photograph and examine only the surfaces of cometary nuclei, and even then from considerable distances. The Deep Impact mission was the first to eject material from a comet's surface, and the mission garnered considerable publicity from the media, international scientists, and amateur astronomers alike.

Upon the completion of its primary mission, proposals were made to further utilize the spacecraft. Consequently, Deep Impact flew by Earth on December 31, 2007, on its way to an extended mission, designated EPOXI, with a dual purpose to study extrasolar planets and comet Hartley 2 (103P/Hartley).^[5] Communication was unexpectedly lost in August 2013 while the craft was heading for another asteroid flyby.

1. ^ Ray, Justin (January 9, 2005). "Delta Launch Report: Overview of NASA's Deep Impact comet mission". Spaceflight Now. Retrieved January 7, 2010.
2. ^ "Deep Impact (EPOXI): Key Dates". NASA. Archived from the original on November 14, 2016. Retrieved November 12, 2016.
3. ^ ^{a b c d} "Deep Impact Launch: Press Kit" (PDF). NASA. January 2005. Archived from the original (PDF) on June 26, 2021. Retrieved July 3, 2018.
4. ^ Cite error: The named reference SFN Over was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
5. ^ Tune, Lee; Steigerwald, Bill; Hautaluoma, Grey; Agle, D.C. (December 13, 2007). "Deep Impact Extended Mission Heads for Comet Hartley 2". University of Maryland, College Park. Archived from the original on June 20, 2009. Retrieved August 7, 2009.

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13 January 1951 – First Indochina War: The Battle of Vĩnh Yên begins.

Battle of Vĩnh Yên

1951 battle of the First Indochina War

The Battle of Vĩnh Yên (Vietnamese: Trận Vĩnh Yên) which occurred from 13 to 17 January 1951, was a major engagement in the First Indochina War between the French Union and the Việt Minh. The French Union forces, led by World War II hero Jean de Lattre de Tassigny, inflicted a decisive defeat on the Việt Minh forces, which were commanded by Võ Nguyên Giáp. The victory marked a turn in the tide of the war, which was previously characterized by a number of Việt Minh victories.

1. ^ Clodfelter 2008, p. 653.
2. ^ Morgan 2010, p. 138.
3. ^ Tucker 1999, p. 62.
4. ^ https://www.quansuvn.net/index.php?topic=24429.45
5. ^ ^{a b} Stone 2018, p. 8; Rutherford 2002, pp. 167; Warren 2013, p. 79.
6. ^ Stone 2018, p. 8; Davidson 1991, pp. 112; Van Nguyen Duong 2014, p. 26; Keegan 1983, p. 652.
7. ^ Davidson 1991, p. 112.
8. ^ Stone 2018, p. 8.

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14 January 2010 – Yemen declares an open war against the terrorist group al-Qaeda.

Al-Qaeda insurgency in Yemen

Ongoing conflict

The Al-Qaeda insurgency in Yemen is an ongoing armed conflict between the Yemeni government, the United States and their allies, and al-Qaeda-affiliated cells in Yemen. It is a part of the Global War on Terror.

Government crackdown against al-Qaeda cells began in 2001, escalating steadily until 14 January 2010, when Yemen declared open war on al-Qaeda.^[35][36] In addition to battling al-Qaeda across several provinces, Yemen was forced to contend with a Shia insurgency in the north and militant separatists in the south. Fighting with al-Qaeda escalated further during the course of the 2011 Yemeni revolution, with Jihadists seizing most of the Abyan Governorate and declaring it an Emirate. A second wave of violence began in early 2012, with militants claiming territory across the southwest amid heavy combat with government forces.

On 16 September 2014, a full-scale civil war erupted after Houthi fighters stormed Sana'a and ousted interim President Hadi, fracturing the Yemeni government between the UN recognized government of President Hadi and the Houthis' newly formed Supreme Political Council. The full-scale civil war led to a rise of Islamist Groups (Al-Qaeda, ISIS), insurgencies (Houthis), and call for separation of South Yemen.

1. ^ "AQAP: A Resurgent Threat - Combating Terrorism Center at West Point". www.ctc.usma.edu. 11 September 2015. Archived from the original on 28 May 2017. Retrieved 4 November 2017.
2. ^ "What is the real challenge for Yemen's Hadrami Elite forces?". 19 July 2016. Archived from the original on 12 July 2017. Retrieved 14 June 2017.
3. ^ Plaut, Martin (17 January 2010). "Somalia and Yemen 'swapping militants'". BBC News. Archived from the original on 2 July 2011. Retrieved 8 February 2010.
4. ^ Muaad Al-Maqtari (22 March 2012). "Conflicting reports on Al-Shabab fighters entering Yemen". yementimes.com. Archived from the original on 18 July 2014. Retrieved 20 July 2014.
5. ^ Osman, Abdulaziz (8 June 2017). "Heavy Losses Reported as Somali Puntland Forces Repel Al-Shabab Attack". Archived from the original on 22 August 2017. Retrieved 4 November 2017.
6. ^ "The Paris Attacks Underscore the Deep Threat Still Posed by Al Qaeda". 10 January 2015. Archived from the original on 25 December 2018. Retrieved 11 February 2017.
7. ^ Radman, al-Sabri, Hussam, Assim (28 February 2023). "Leadership from Iran: How Al-Qaeda in Yemen Fell Under the Sway of Saif al-Adel". Sana'a Center For Strategic Studies. Archived from the original on 6 March 2023.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
8. ^ ^{a b} Военные, которые пострадали в Йемене, работали по белорусскому контракт Archived 20 January 2019 at the Wayback Machine — Tut.by (27 ноября 2013)
9. ^ Завоюет ли Беларусь позиции на глобальных рынках оружия? Archived 17 April 2019 at the Wayback Machine (10 сентября 2011)
10. ^ "Торговля оружием и будущее Белоруссии | Владимир Сегенюк". maxpark.com. Archived from the original on 21 October 2018. Retrieved 31 July 2021.
11. ^ "Russia denies Mike Pompeo's allegation of links between Iran, al-Qaeda". Business Standard India. 14 January 2021. Archived from the original on 21 January 2021. Retrieved 6 April 2021.
12. ^ See:
    • "Exclusive: Iran Steps up Support for Houthis in Yemen's War – Sources". U.S. News & World Report. 21 March 2017. Archived from the original on 22 March 2017. Retrieved 30 March 2017.
    • "Arab coalition intercepts Houthi ballistic missile targeting Saudi city of Jazan". english.alarabiya.net. Al Arabiya. 20 March 2017. Archived from the original on 29 March 2017. Retrieved 30 March 2017.
    • Taleblu, Behnam Ben; Toumaj, Amir (21 August 2016). "Analysis: IRGC implicated in arming Yemeni Houthis with rockets". www.longwarjournal.org. Long War Journal. Archived from the original on 22 March 2017. Retrieved 30 March 2017.
    • Segall, Michael (2 March 2017). "Yemen Has Become Iran's Testing Ground for New Weapons". jcpa.org. Jerusalem Center for Public Affairs. Archived from the original on 16 March 2017. Retrieved 30 March 2017.
    • "Exclusive: Iran steps up weapons supply to Yemen's Houthis via Oman – officials". Reuters. 20 October 2016. Archived from the original on 10 November 2017. Retrieved 31 July 2017.
13. ^ "Syrian regime coordinates military training with Yemeni Houthis". ARA News. 9 March 2015. Archived from the original on 13 March 2015. Retrieved 9 March 2015.
14. ^ "North Korea's Balancing Act in the Persian Gulf". The Huffington Post. 17 August 2015. Archived from the original on 17 August 2015. Retrieved 17 August 2015. North Korea's military support for Houthi rebels in Yemen is the latest manifestation of its support for anti-American forces.
15. ^ "Fact Check: Is Qatar Supporting Terrorism? A Look at Its Ties to Iran, ISIS and the Muslim Brotherhood". Haaretz. Associated Press. 11 July 2017. Archived from the original on 30 July 2017. Retrieved 4 November 2017.
16. ^ "Putin's Latest Moves: The Military Alliance Among Iran, Hezbollah And Russia In Syria Could Spread To Yemen". International Business Times. 25 September 2015. Archived from the original on 27 September 2015. Retrieved 25 September 2015. Moscow is now supporting the Tehran-backed Houthi rebels who are fighting forces loyal to the U.S.-supported exiled president.
17. ^ See:
    • Al-Abyad, Said (11 March 2017). "Yemeni Officer: 4 Lebanese 'Hezbollah' Members Caught in Ma'rib". english.aawsat.com. Asharq Al-Awsat. Archived from the original on 21 March 2017. Retrieved 30 March 2017.
    • Pestano, Andrew V. (25 February 2016). "Yemen accuses Hezbollah of supporting Houthi attacks in Saudi Arabia". www.upi.com. Sana'a, Yemen: United Press International. Archived from the original on 17 March 2017. Retrieved 30 March 2017.
    • Hatem, Mohammed (24 February 2016). "Yemen Accuses Hezbollah of Helping Houthis in Saudi Border War". www.bloomberg.com. Bloomberg News. Archived from the original on 31 March 2017. Retrieved 30 March 2017.
    • "Yemen government says Hezbollah fighting alongside Houthis". www.reuters.com. Reuters. 24 February 2016. Archived from the original on 17 March 2017. Retrieved 30 March 2017.
    • "Report: Houthi Commander Admits Iran, Hezbollah Training Fighters in Yemen". www.thetower.org. The Tower. 17 January 2017. Archived from the original on 17 March 2017. Retrieved 30 March 2017.
18. ^ "Libyan city declares itself part of Islamic State caliphate". CP24. 9 November 2014. Archived from the original on 28 January 2015. Retrieved 29 January 2015.
19. ^ "Gale Cengage Product Failure". Archived from the original on 25 December 2018. Retrieved 29 June 2015.
20. ^ "al-Qaeda's Yemeni affiliate, the Islamic Army of Aden-Abyan (IAA), has executed a number of spectacular attacks against Western interests in recent years. It was responsible for the 1998 kidnapping of sixteen Western tourists in the southern province of Abyan, the USS Cole bombing in 2000, and an assault on the French tanker the Limburg in 2002, among other attacks. Despite these international strikes, the IAA is the classic al-Qaeda affiliate: a local phenomenon that assists the larger jihadi network in its war against the West." "Archived copy" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 20 March 2012. Retrieved 15 October 2012.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
21. ^ ^{a b} "S/2018/705 - E - S/2018/705". undocs.org. Archived from the original on 12 June 2019. Retrieved 20 September 2020.
22. ^ "Saudi Coalition Says Head of Yemen's Islamic State Captured". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 23 March 2020. Retrieved 25 June 2019.
23. ^ "Video Footage: Saudi & Yemeni Special Forces Capture ISIS Leader in Yemen". Republicanyemen.net. 25 June 2019. Archived from the original on 15 December 2019. Retrieved 25 June 2019.
24. ^ "US drone strike kills IS group leader in Syria, says defence department". 9 July 2023.
25. ^ Gregory D. Johnsen (7 July 2015). "This Man Is The Leader In ISIS's Recruiting War Against Al-Qaeda In Yemen". Buzzfeed. Archived from the original on 7 July 2015. Retrieved 28 September 2017.
26. ^ Eland, Ivan (2013). The Failure of Counterinsurgency: Why Hearts and Minds Are Seldom Won. Abc-Clio. ISBN 9781440830105. Archived from the original on 11 October 2017. Retrieved 24 May 2018.
27. ^ Freeman, Colin (12 June 2014). "Al-Qaeda map: Isis, Boko Haram and other affiliates' strongholds across Africa and Asia". The Daily Telegraph. London. Archived from the original on 29 August 2014. Retrieved 29 August 2014.
28. ^ Muaad Al-Maqtari (22 March 2012). "Conflicting reports on Al-Shabab fighters entering Yemen". yementimes.com. Archived from the original on 18 July 2014. Retrieved 20 July 2014.
29. ^ "U.S. escalates clandestine war in Yemen". Los Angeles Times. 16 May 2012. Archived from the original on 2 July 2014. Retrieved 20 July 2014.
30. ^ "The U.S. deploys more troops in Yemen". yemenpost.net. 18 June 2013. Archived from the original on 15 November 2013. Retrieved 20 July 2014.
31. ^ "In Yemen chaos, Islamic State grows to rival al Qaeda". Reuters. 30 June 2015. Archived from the original on 10 December 2015. Retrieved 28 September 2017.
32. ^ "AQAP and Suspected AQAP Attacks in Yemen Tracker 2010, 2011, and 2012". Critical Threats. 21 May 2012. Archived from the original on 30 November 2013. Retrieved 17 November 2013.
33. ^ "US hails Yemen's Qaeda offensive". Agence France-Presse. 16 June 2012. Archived from the original on 28 February 2014. Retrieved 17 November 2013.
34. ^ "В Йемене погиб американский военный". ГОЛОС АМЕРИКИ. 29 January 2017. Archived from the original on 5 March 2021. Retrieved 23 April 2021.
35. ^ "Yemen in war with al Qaeda, urges citizens to help". Reuters AlertNet. 14 January 2010. Archived from the original on 8 March 2020. Retrieved 3 March 2010.
36. ^ "Middle East - Yemeni al-Qaeda suspects 'killed'". Al Jazeera. 16 January 2010. Archived from the original on 21 January 2010. Retrieved 3 March 2010.

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15 January 1892 – James Naismith publishes the rules of basketball.

Rules of basketball

Rules governing the game of basketball

The rules of basketball are the rules and regulations that govern the play, officiating, equipment and procedures of basketball. While many of the basic rules are uniform throughout the world, variations do exist. Most leagues or governing bodies in North America, the most important of which are the National Basketball Association and NCAA, formulate their own rules. In addition, the Technical Commission of the International Basketball Federation (FIBA) determines rules for international play; most leagues outside North America use the complete FIBA ruleset.

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16 January 1920 – The League of Nations holds its first council meeting in Paris, France.

League of Nations

20th-century international organisation, predecessor to the United Nations

Not to be confused with Commonwealth of Nations or Nations League.

This article is about the intergovernmental organisation. For the group in professional wrestling, see League of Nations (professional wrestling).

The League of Nations (French: Société des Nations [sɔsjete de nɑsjɔ̃]) was the first worldwide intergovernmental organisation whose principal mission was to maintain world peace.^[1] It was founded on 10 January 1920 by the Paris Peace Conference that ended the First World War. The main organization ceased operations on 18 April 1946 when many of its components were relocated into the new United Nations. As the template for modern global governance, the League profoundly shaped the modern world.

The League's primary goals were stated in its eponymous Covenant. They included preventing wars through collective security and disarmament and settling international disputes through negotiation and arbitration.^[2] Its other concerns included labour conditions, just treatment of native inhabitants, human and drug trafficking, the arms trade, global health, prisoners of war, and protection of minorities in Europe.^[3] The Covenant of the League of Nations was signed on 28 June 1919 as Part I of the Treaty of Versailles, and it became effective with the rest of the Treaty on 10 January 1920. Australia was granted the right to participate as an autonomous member nation, marking the start of Australian independence on the global stage.^[4] The first meeting of the Council of the League took place on 16 January 1920, and the first meeting of the Assembly of the League took place on 15 November 1920. In 1919, U.S. president Woodrow Wilson won the Nobel Peace Prize for his role as the leading architect of the League.

The diplomatic philosophy behind the League represented a fundamental shift from the preceding hundred years. The League lacked its own armed force and depended on the victorious Allies of World War I (Britain, France, Italy and Japan were the initial permanent members of the Executive Council) to enforce its resolutions, keep to its economic sanctions, or provide an army when needed. The Great Powers were often reluctant to do so. Sanctions could hurt League members, so they were reluctant to comply with them. During the Second Italo-Ethiopian War, when the League accused Italian soldiers of targeting International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement medical tents, Benito Mussolini responded that "the League is very well when sparrows shout, but no good at all when eagles fall out."^[5]

At its greatest extent from 28 September 1934 to 23 February 1935, it had 58 members. After some notable successes and some early failures in the 1920s, the League ultimately proved incapable of preventing aggression by the Axis powers in the 1930s. The credibility of the organization was weakened by the fact that the United States never joined. Japan and Germany left in 1933, Italy left in 1937, and Spain left in 1939. The Soviet Union only joined in 1934 and was expelled in 1939 after invading Finland.^[6][7][8][9] Furthermore, the League demonstrated an irresolute approach to sanction enforcement for fear it might only spark further conflict, further decreasing its credibility. One example of this hesitancy was the Abyssinia Crisis, in which Italy's sanctions were only limited from the outset (coal and oil were not restricted), and later altogether abandoned despite Italy being declared the aggressors in the conflict. The onset of the Second World War in 1939 showed that the League had failed its primary purpose; it was largely inactive until its abolition. The League lasted for 26 years; the United Nations (UN) replaced it in 1946 and inherited several agencies and organisations founded by the League.

Current scholarly consensus views that, even though the League failed to achieve its main goal of world peace, it did manage to build new roads towards expanding the rule of law across the globe; strengthened the concept of collective security, gave a voice to smaller nations; fostered economic stabilization and financial stability, especially in Central Europe in the 1920s; helped to raise awareness of problems like epidemics, slavery, child labour, colonial tyranny, refugee crises and general working conditions through its numerous commissions and committees; and paved the way for new forms of statehood, as the mandate system put the colonial powers under international observation.^[10] Professor David Kennedy portrays the League as a unique moment when international affairs were "institutionalised", as opposed to the pre-First World War methods of law and politics.^[11]

1. ^ Christian, Tomuschat (1995). The United Nations at Age Fifty: A Legal Perspective. Martinus Nijhoff Publishers. p. 77. ISBN 978-90-411-0145-7.
2. ^ "Covenant of the League of Nations". The Avalon Project. Archived from the original on 26 July 2011. Retrieved 30 August 2011.
3. ^ See Article 23, "Covenant of the League of Nations". Archived from the original on 26 July 2011. Retrieved 20 April 2009., Treaty of Versailles. Archived from the original on 19 January 2010. Retrieved 23 January 2010. and Minority Treaties.
4. ^ Rees, Dr Yves (2020). "The women of the League of Nations". www.latrobe.edu.au. Retrieved 28 October 2023.
5. ^ Jahanpour, Farhang. "The Elusiveness of Trust: the experience of Security Council and Iran" (PDF). Transnational Foundation of Peace and Future Research. p. 2. Archived (PDF) from the original on 27 July 2014. Retrieved 27 June 2008.
6. ^ Osakwe, C O (1972). The participation of the Soviet Union in universal international organizations.: A political and legal analysis of Soviet strategies and aspirations inside ILO, UNESCO and WHO. Springer. p. 5. ISBN 978-90-286-0002-7.
7. ^ Pericles, Lewis (2000). Modernism, Nationalism, and the Novel. Cambridge University Press. p. 52. ISBN 978-1-139-42658-9.
8. ^ Ginneken, Anique H. M. van (2006). Historical Dictionary of the League of Nations. Scarecrow Press. p. 174. ISBN 978-0-8108-6513-6.
9. ^ Ellis, Charles Howard (2003). The Origin, Structure & Working of the League of Nations. Lawbook Exchange Ltd. p. 169. ISBN 978-1-58477-320-7.
10. ^ Cite error: The named reference Pedersen2007 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
11. ^ Kennedy 1987.

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17 January 2010 – Rioting begins between Muslim and Christian groups in Jos, Nigeria, results in at least 200 deaths.

2010 Jos riots

Ethno-religious conflict in central Nigeria

The 2010 Jos riots were clashes between Muslim and Christian ethnic groups in central Nigeria in and near the city of Jos. The first spate of violence of 2010 started on 17 January in Jos and spread to surrounding communities. Houses, churches, mosques and vehicles were set ablaze, during at least four days of fighting.^[1] At least 326 people, and possibly more than a thousand, were killed.^[2]

Hundreds of people died in fresh clashes in March 2010.^[3] Many people were killed and dumped into wells.^[4]

This is the third major incident of rioting in Jos within a ten-year span. Some one thousand people were killed in riots in 2001, and at least 700 died in subsequent violence in 2008.^[5]

Jos is the capital of Plateau State, in the middle of the divide between the predominantly Muslim north of Nigeria and the predominantly Christian south.^[6] Since 2001, the area has been plagued by violence motivated by multiple factors.^[7] The clashes have been characterised as "religious violence" by many news sources,^[8][9] although others cite ethnic and economic differences as the root of the violence.^[7]

1. ^ "Curfew relaxed in Nigeria's violence-wracked city: army". Jos. Agence France-Presse. Archived from the original on 28 January 2010. Retrieved 26 January 2010.
2. ^ Human Rights Watch (12 December 2013). "Leave Everything to God": Accountability for Inter-Communal Violence in Plateau and Kaduna States, Nigeria. pp. 49–81. Archived from the original on 21 April 2015. Retrieved 6 May 2015.
3. ^ Smith, David (8 March 2010). "Hundreds dead as more religious violence hits Nigeria". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved 30 January 2020.
4. ^ "A Deadly Cycle: Ethno-Religious Conflict in Jos, Plateau State, Nigeria - Nigeria". ReliefWeb. Retrieved 30 January 2020.
5. ^ Saka, Ahmed (19 January 2010). "Religious violence erupts again in central Nigeria". Associated Press. Archived from the original on 22 January 2010. Retrieved 19 January 2010.
6. ^ Nossiter, Adam (19 January 2010). "Christian-Muslim Mayhem in Nigeria Kills Dozens". The New York Times. New York, NY. Archived from the original on 21 January 2010. Retrieved 19 January 2010.
7. ^ ^{a b} "'Hundreds dead' in Nigeria attack". BBC News. 8 March 2010. Archived from the original on 9 March 2010. Retrieved 8 March 2010.
8. ^ "Nigeria religious riots 'kill 200' in Jos". BBC News. 20 January 2010. Archived from the original on 23 March 2010. Retrieved 8 March 2010.
9. ^ Baldauf, Scott (8 March 2010). "Nigeria violence: Muslim-Christian clashes kill hundreds". BBC News. Archived from the original on 11 March 2010. Retrieved 8 March 2010.

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18 January 1977 – Scientists identify a previously unknown bacterium as the cause of the mysterious Legionnaires' disease.

Legionnaires' disease

Form of atypical pneumonia

Medical condition

Legionnaires' disease is a form of atypical pneumonia caused by any species of Legionella bacteria,^[3] quite often Legionella pneumophila. Signs and symptoms include cough, shortness of breath, high fever, muscle pains, and headaches.^[2] Nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea may also occur.^[1] This often begins 2–10 days after exposure.^[2]

A legionellosis is any disease caused by Legionella, including Legionnaires' disease (a pneumonia) and Pontiac fever (a related upper respiratory tract infection),^[10] but Legionnaires' disease is the most common, so mentions of legionellosis often refer to Legionnaires' disease.

The bacterium is found naturally in fresh water.^[4] It can contaminate hot water tanks, hot tubs, and cooling towers of large air conditioners.^[4] It is usually spread by breathing in mist that contains the bacteria.^[4] It can also occur when contaminated water is aspirated.^[4] It typically does not spread directly between people, and most people who are exposed do not become infected.^[4] Risk factors for infection include older age, a history of smoking, chronic lung disease, and poor immune function.^[5][11] Those with severe pneumonia and those with pneumonia and a recent travel history should be tested for the disease.^[12] Diagnosis is by a urinary antigen test and sputum culture.^[6]

No vaccine is available.^[7] Prevention depends on good maintenance of water systems.^[7] Treatment of Legionnaires' disease is with antibiotics.^[8] Recommended agents include fluoroquinolones, azithromycin, or doxycycline.^[13] Hospitalization is often required.^[12] The fatality rate is around 10% for healthy persons and 25% for those with underlying conditions.^[8]

The number of cases that occur globally is not known.^[1] Legionnaires' disease is the cause of an estimated 2–9% of pneumonia cases that are acquired outside of a hospital.^[1] An estimated 8,000 to 18,000 cases a year in the United States require hospitalization.^[9] Outbreaks of disease account for a minority of cases.^[1][14] While it can occur any time of the year, it is more common in the summer and fall.^[9] The disease is named after the outbreak where it was first identified, at a 1976 American Legion convention in Philadelphia.^[15]

1. ^ ^{a b c d e} Cunha BA, Burillo A, Bouza E (23 January 2016). "Legionnaires' disease". Lancet. 387 (10016): 376–385. doi:10.1016/s0140-6736(15)60078-2. PMID 26231463. S2CID 28047369.
2. ^ ^{a b c d} "Legionella (Legionnaires' Disease and Pontiac Fever) Signs and Symptoms". Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). 26 January 2016. Archived from the original on 12 March 2016. Retrieved 21 March 2016.
3. ^ ^{a b} "Legionella (Legionnaires' Disease and Pontiac Fever) About the Disease". Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). 26 January 2016. Archived from the original on 25 March 2016. Retrieved 21 March 2016.
4. ^ ^{a b c d e f} "Legionella (Legionnaires' Disease and Pontiac Fever) Causes and Transmission". Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). 9 March 2016. Archived from the original on 25 March 2016. Retrieved 21 March 2016.
5. ^ ^{a b} "Legionella (Legionnaires' Disease and Pontiac Fever) People at Risk". Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). 26 January 2016. Archived from the original on 27 March 2016. Retrieved 21 March 2016.
6. ^ ^{a b} "Legionella (Legionnaires' Disease and Pontiac Fever) Diagnostic Testing". Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). 3 November 2015. Archived from the original on 12 March 2016. Retrieved 21 March 2016.
7. ^ ^{a b c} "Legionella (Legionnaires' Disease and Pontiac Fever) Prevention". Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). 26 January 2016. Archived from the original on 25 March 2016. Retrieved 21 March 2016.
8. ^ ^{a b c d} "Legionella (Legionnaires' Disease and Pontiac Fever) Treatment and Complications". Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). 26 January 2016. Archived from the original on 29 March 2016. Retrieved 21 March 2016.
9. ^ ^{a b c} "Legionella (Legionnaires' Disease and Pontiac Fever) History and Disease Patterns". Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). 22 January 2016. Archived from the original on 25 March 2016. Retrieved 21 March 2016.
10. ^ Harrison's Principles of Internal Medicine (21st ed.). New York: McGraw Hill. 2022. p. 1249. ISBN 978-1-264-26850-4.
11. ^ "Legionella: Causes, How it Spreads, and People at Increased Risk". Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). 30 April 2018. Retrieved 17 September 2019.
12. ^ ^{a b} "Legionella (Legionnaires' Disease and Pontiac Fever) Clinical Features". Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). 28 October 2015. Archived from the original on 12 March 2016. Retrieved 21 March 2016.
13. ^ Mandell LA, Wunderink RG, Anzueto A, et al. (1 March 2007). "Infectious Diseases Society of America/American Thoracic Society consensus guidelines on the management of community-acquired pneumonia in adults". Clinical Infectious Diseases. 44 (Suppl 2): S27–72. doi:10.1086/511159. PMC 7107997. PMID 17278083.
14. ^ "Legionella (Legionnaires' Disease and Pontiac Fever) Prevention". Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). 28 October 2015. Archived from the original on 12 March 2016. Retrieved 21 March 2016.
15. ^ "Legionella (Legionnaires' Disease and Pontiac Fever)". Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). 15 January 2016. Archived from the original on 22 March 2016. Retrieved 21 March 2016.

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19 January 1942 – World War II: The Japanese conquest of Burma begins.

Japanese invasion of Burma

Part of World War II

The Japanese invasion of Burma was the opening phase of the Burma campaign in the South-East Asian theatre of World War II, which took place over four years from 1942 to 1945. During the first year of the campaign (December 1941 to mid-1942), the Japanese Army (with aid from Thai Phayap Army and Burmese insurgents) drove British Empire and Chinese forces out of Burma, then began the Japanese occupation of Burma and formed a nominally independent Burmese administrative government.

1. ^ ^{a b} Bradford, James. International Encyclopedia of Military History. Routledge, 2006, p. 221
2. ^ ^{a b} Facts on File: World War II in the China-Burma-India theater Retrieved 20 March 2016
3. ^ Bayly and Harper, p. 170
4. ^ Donald M. Seekins, Historical Dictionary of Burma (Myanmar) (Scarecrow Press, 2006), pp. 123–126, 354.
5. ^ Reynolds, Bruce E. (1994). Thailand and Japan's Southern Advance, 1940–1945. Palgrave Macmillan US. p. 116. ISBN 978-0-312-10402-3.
6. ^ ^{a b c} Japanese conquest of Burma, December 1941 – May 1942 Retrieved 20 March 2016
7. ^ McLynn, The Burma Campaign: Disaster into Triumph, 1942–1945, p. 67.
8. ^ ^{a b} Allen (1984), p. 638
9. ^ Beevor, Antony (2012). "16". The Second World War. Weidenfeld & Nicolson. p. 309. ISBN 978-0-316-08407-9.
10. ^ Tucker, Spencer C. (2003). The Second World War. Macmillan International Higher Education. p. 122. ISBN 978-0-230-62966-0.^{[permanent dead link]} (includes 15,000 missing)
11. ^ Zaloga, Steven. "M3 and M5 Stuart Light Tank 1940–45". Osprey Publishing, 18 Nov 1999. p. 14. According to Zaloga, all but one tank of the two regiments of the 7th Armoured Brigade had been lost.
12. ^ Air Force Sixtieth Anniversary Commemorative Edition: The Flying Tigers p. 33 Retrieved 20 March 2016
13. ^ Black, Jeremy (2016). Air Power: A Global History. p. 108. ISBN 9781442250970.

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20 January 1841 – Hong Kong Island is occupied by the British during the First Opium War.

First Opium War

1839–1842 war between Britain and China

"Opium War" redirects here. For other uses, see Opium War (disambiguation).

For the first and Second Opium Wars in China in the 19th century considered as a collective, see Opium Wars. For the film, see The Opium War (film).

The First Opium War (Chinese: 第一次鴉片戰爭; pinyin: Dìyīcì yāpiàn zhànzhēng), also known as the Anglo-Chinese War, was a series of military engagements fought between the British Empire and the Qing dynasty of China between 1839 and 1842. The immediate issue was the Chinese enforcement of their ban on the opium trade by seizing private opium stocks from merchants at Guangzhou^[d] and threatening to impose the death penalty for future offenders. Despite the opium ban, the British government supported the merchants' demand for compensation for seized goods, and insisted on the principles of free trade and equal diplomatic recognition with China. Opium was Britain's single most profitable commodity trade of the 19th century. After months of tensions between the two states, the Royal Navy launched an expedition in June 1840, which ultimately defeated the Chinese using technologically superior ships and weapons by August 1842. The British then imposed the Treaty of Nanking, which forced China to increase foreign trade, give compensation, and cede Hong Kong Island to the British. Consequently, the opium trade continued in China. Twentieth-century nationalists considered 1839 the start of a century of humiliation, and many historians consider it the beginning of modern Chinese history.

In the 18th century, the demand for Chinese luxury goods (particularly silk, porcelain, and tea) created a trade imbalance between China and Britain. European silver flowed into China through the Canton System, which confined incoming foreign trade to the southern port city of Guangzhou. To counter this imbalance, the British East India Company began to grow opium in Bengal and allowed private British merchants to sell opium to Chinese smugglers for illegal sale in China. The influx of narcotics reversed the Chinese trade surplus, drained the economy of silver, and increased the numbers of opium addicts inside the country, outcomes that seriously worried Chinese officials.

In 1839, the Daoguang Emperor, rejecting proposals to legalise and tax opium, appointed Viceroy of Huguang Lin Zexu to go to Canton to halt the opium trade completely.^[7] Lin wrote an open letter to Queen Victoria appealing to her moral responsibility to stop the opium trade, although she never read it.^[8][9][10] Lin then resorted to using force in the western merchants enclave. He arrived in Guangzhou at the end of January and organized a coastal defense. In March, British opium dealers were forced to hand over 2.37 million pounds of opium. On 3 June, Lin ordered the opium to be destroyed in public on Humen Beach to show the Government's determination to ban smoking.^[11] All other supplies were confiscated and a blockade of foreign ships on the Pearl River was ordered.^{[12][page needed]}

Tensions escalated in July after British sailors killed a Chinese villager and the British government refused to hand the accused men over to Chinese authorities. Fighting later broke out, with the British navy destroying the Chinese naval blockade, and launching an offensive.^[11] In the ensuing conflict, the Royal Navy used its superior naval and gunnery power to inflict a series of decisive defeats on the Chinese Empire.^[13] In 1842, the Qing dynasty was forced to sign the Treaty of Nanking—the first of what the Chinese later called the unequal treaties—which granted an indemnity and extraterritoriality to British subjects in China, opened five treaty ports to British merchants, and ceded Hong Kong Island to the British Empire. The failure of the treaty to satisfy British goals of improved trade and diplomatic relations led to the Second Opium War (1856–60). The resulting social unrest was the background for the Taiping Rebellion, which further weakened the Qing regime.^{[14][full citation needed][15]}

1. ^ ^{a b c d} Martin, Robert Montgomery (1847). China: Political, Commercial, and Social; In an Official Report to Her Majesty's Government. Volume 2. London: James Madden. pp. 80–82.
2. ^ Mao 2016, pp. 50–53.
3. ^ The Chinese Repository, vol. 12, p. 248.
4. ^ Bate 1952, p. 174.
5. ^ Rait, Robert S. (1903). The Life and Campaigns of Hugh, First Viscount Gough, Field-Marshal. Volume 1. p. 265.
6. ^ Makeham, John (2008). China: The World's Oldest Living Civilization Revealed. Thames & Hudson. p. 331. ISBN 978-0-500-25142-3.
7. ^ Fay (2000) p. 73.
8. ^ Fay (2000) p. 143.
9. ^ "digital china/harvard: Letter of Advice to Queen Victoria". cyber.harvard.edu. Retrieved 23 November 2022.
10. ^ "Longman World History". wps.pearsoncustom.com. Retrieved 23 November 2022.
11. ^ ^{a b} "Opium Wars | Definition, Summary, Facts, & Causes | Britannica". www.britannica.com. Retrieved 28 November 2021.
12. ^ Farooqui, Amar (March 2005). Smuggling as Subversion: Colonialism, Indian Merchants, and the Politics of Opium, 1790–1843. Lexington Books. ISBN 0-7391-0886-7.
13. ^ Steve Tsang, A modern history of Hong Kong (2007) pp. 3–13.
14. ^ Tsang, A modern history of Hong Kong p. 29.
15. ^ "The Mechanics of Opium Wars". The Australian Museum. Retrieved 28 June 2022.

Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

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21 January 1951 – The catastrophic eruption of Mount Lamington in Papua New Guinea claims 2,942 lives.

1951 eruption of Mount Lamington

Volcanic eruption in the Territory of Papua and New Guinea

In early January 1951, a series of minor explosions and earthquakes rocked Mount Lamington, a volcano in Oro Province, Territory of Papua and New Guinea. Prior to the eruption, Mount Lamington was not recognized as a volcano due to the absence of historically-recorded eruptions and dense vegetation cover. From January 15, volcanic activity intensified, and tall eruption plumes were generated. The largest eruption occurred on the morning of January 21 when a thick black plume of ash rose 15,000 metres (50,000 ft) into the atmosphere.^[1] The eruption collapsed a lava dome and produced a lethal pyroclastic flow that killed 2,942 people. In the years after the eruption, new lava domes formed and collapsed in succession. Activity persisted until July 1956. The eruption is the deadliest natural disaster in Australian history, as the region was under the rule of the Government of Australia.

1. ^ National Geophysical Data Center / World Data Service (NGDC/WDS) (1972), Global Significant Volcanic Eruptions Database (Data Set), National Geophysical Data Center, NOAA, doi:10.7289/V5JW8BSH

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22 January 1905 – Bloody Sunday in Saint Petersburg, beginning of the 1905 revolution.

Bloody Sunday (1905)

1905 protest in St. Petersburg, Russia

For other events of the same name, see Bloody Sunday (disambiguation).

Bloody Sunday or Red Sunday^[1] (Russian: Кровавое воскресенье, tr. Krovavoye voskresenye, IPA: [krɐˈvavəɪ vəskrʲɪˈsʲenʲjɪ]) was the series of events on Sunday, 22 January [O.S. 9 January] 1905 in St Petersburg, Russia, when unarmed demonstrators, led by Father Georgy Gapon, were fired upon by soldiers of the Imperial Guard as they marched towards the Winter Palace to present a petition to Tsar Nicholas II of Russia.

Bloody Sunday caused grave consequences for the Tsarist autocracy governing Imperial Russia: the events in St. Petersburg provoked public outrage and a series of massive strikes that spread quickly to the industrial centres of the Russian Empire. The massacre on Bloody Sunday is considered to be the start of the active phase of the Revolution of 1905. In addition to beginning the 1905 Revolution, historians such as Lionel Kochan in his book Russia in Revolution 1890–1918 view the events of Bloody Sunday to be one of the key events which led to the Russian Revolution of 1917.

1. ^ A History of Modern Europe 1789–1968 by Herbert L. Peacock m.a.

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23 January 1849 – Elizabeth Blackwell is awarded her M.D. by the Geneva Medical College of Geneva, New York, becoming the United States' first female doctor

Elizabeth Blackwell

British-American physician (1821–1910)

For the botanical illustrator, see Elizabeth Blackwell (illustrator). For the English botanist and mycologist, see Elizabeth Marianne Blackwell.

Elizabeth Blackwell (3 February 1821 – 31 May 1910) was a British and American physician, notable as the first woman to earn a medical degree in the United States, and the first woman on the Medical Register of the General Medical Council for the United Kingdom.^[1] Blackwell played an important role in both the United States and the United Kingdom as a social reformer, and was a pioneer in promoting education for women in medicine. Her contributions remain celebrated with the Elizabeth Blackwell Medal, awarded annually to a woman who has made a significant contribution to the promotion of women in medicine.^[1]

Blackwell was not initially interested in a career in medicine.^[1] She became a schoolteacher in order to support her family. This occupation was seen as suitable for women during the 1800s; however, she soon found it unsuitable for her. Blackwell's interest in medicine was sparked after a friend fell ill and remarked that, had a female doctor cared for her, she might not have suffered so much.^[1] Blackwell began applying to medical schools and immediately began to endure the prejudice against her sex that would persist throughout her career. She was rejected from each medical school she applied to, except Geneva Medical College in New York, in which the male students voted in favor of Blackwell's acceptance, albeit as a joke.^[2][3] Thus, in 1847, Blackwell became the first woman to attend medical school in the United States.^[1]

Blackwell's inaugural thesis on typhoid fever, published in 1849 in the Buffalo Medical Journal and Monthly Review, shortly after she graduated,^[4][5] was the first medical article published by a female student from the United States. It portrayed a strong sense of empathy and sensitivity to human suffering, as well as strong advocacy for economic and social justice.^[4] This perspective was deemed by the medical community as feminine.^[4]

Blackwell founded the New York Infirmary for Women and Children with her sister Emily Blackwell in 1857, and began giving lectures to female audiences on the importance of educating girls.^[6] She played a significant role during the American Civil War by organizing nurses, and the Infirmary developed a medical school program for women, providing substantial work with patients (clinical education). Returning to England, she helped found the London School of Medicine for Women in 1874.

1. ^ ^{a b c d e} Boyd, Julia (2013). The Excellent Doctor Blackwell: The Life of the First Woman Physician. Thistle Publishing. ISBN 9781909609785.
2. ^ Boomer, Lee. "Life Story: Elizabeth Blackwell".
3. ^ Krasner, Barbara (2018). "Elizabeth Blackwell: Doctor". Cobblestone. 39: 20 – via EBSCO Collection.
4. ^ ^{a b c} Sanes, Samuel (1944). "Elizabeth Blackwell: Her First Medical Publication". Bulletin of the History of Medicine. 16 (1): 83–88. JSTOR 44440963.
5. ^ Cite error: The named reference Thesis was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
6. ^ "Elizabeth Blackwell, M.D., Consulting Physician, New Hospital For Women". The British Medical Journal. 1 (2581): 1523–1524. 1910. doi:10.1136/bmj.1.2581.1523-b. JSTOR 25291104. S2CID 220006798.

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24 January 1742 – Charles VII Albert becomes Holy Roman Emperor.

Charles VII, Holy Roman Emperor

Holy Roman Emperor from 1742 to 1745

Charles VII (6 August 1697 – 20 January 1745) was Prince-Elector of Bavaria from 26 February 1726 and Holy Roman Emperor from 24 January 1742 to his death. He was also King of Bohemia (as Charles III) from 1741 to 1743. Charles was a member of the House of Wittelsbach, and his reign as Holy Roman Emperor thus marked the end of three centuries of uninterrupted Habsburg imperial rule, although he was related to the Habsburgs by both blood and marriage.

Charles was the eldest son of Maximilian II Emanuel, Elector of Bavaria, and the Polish princess Theresa Kunegunda Sobieska. He became elector following the death of his father in 1726. In 1722, Charles married Archduchess Maria Amalia of Austria, daughter of Holy Roman Emperor Joseph I and niece of Emperor Charles VI. The couple had seven children together. After Charles VI died in 1740, Elector Charles claimed the Archduchy of Austria and briefly gained hold of the Bohemian throne. In 1742, he was elected emperor of the Holy Roman Empire. He ruled until his death three years later.^[1][2][3]

1. ^ Fritz Wagner. "Karl VII". Deutsche Biographie. Retrieved January 12, 2020.
2. ^ Die Herrscher Bayerns: 25 historische Portraits von Tassilo III. bis Ludwig III. C.H.Beck. 2006. pp. 250–. ISBN 978-3-406-54468-2.
3. ^ Bettina Braun; Katrin Keller; Matthias Schnettger (2016). Nur die Frau des Kaisers?: Kaiserinnen in der Frühen Neuzeit. Böhlau Verlag Wien. pp. 194–. ISBN 978-3-205-20085-7.

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25 January 1858 – The Wedding March by Felix Mendelssohn is played at the marriage of Queen Victoria's daughter, Victoria, and Friedrich of Prussia, and becomes a popular wedding processional.

Wedding March (Mendelssohn)

Composition by Felix Mendelssohn

"Wedding March" redirects here. For other uses, see The Wedding March (disambiguation).

Not to be confused with Bridal Chorus.

Wedding March

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Problems playing this file? See media help.

Felix Mendelssohn's "Wedding March" in C major, written in 1842, is one of the best known of the pieces from his suite of incidental music (Op. 61) to Shakespeare's play A Midsummer Night's Dream. It is one of the most frequently used wedding marches, generally being played on a church pipe organ.

At weddings in many Western countries, this piece is commonly used as a recessional, though frequently stripped of its episodes in this context. It is frequently teamed with the "Bridal Chorus" from Richard Wagner's opera Lohengrin,^[1] or with Jeremiah Clarke's "Prince of Denmark's March",^[2] both of which are often played for the entry of the bride.

The first known instance of Mendelssohn's "Wedding March" being used at a wedding was when Dorothy Carew wed Tom Daniel at St Peter's Church, Tiverton, England, on 2 June 1847^[3] when it was performed by organist Samuel Reay. However, it did not become popular at weddings until it was selected by Victoria, The Princess Royal for her marriage to Prince Frederick William of Prussia on 25 January 1858.^[1] The bride was the daughter of Queen Victoria, who loved Mendelssohn's music and for whom Mendelssohn often played while on his visits to Britain.

An organ on which Mendelssohn gave recitals of the "Wedding March", among other works, is housed in St Ann's Church in Tottenham.

Franz Liszt wrote a virtuoso transcription of the "Wedding March and Dance of the Elves" (S. 410) in 1849–50.^[4] Based on Liszt's transcription, Vladimir Horowitz then transcribed the "Wedding March" into a virtuoso showpiece for piano and played it as an encore at his concerts.^[5]

1. ^ ^{a b} Emmett, William (1996). The national and religious song reader. New York: Haworth Press. p. 755. ISBN 978-0-7890-0099-6.
2. ^ Crockett, Laura (2008). Wedding Ceremonies for the Historically Inclined. New York: Lulu.com. p. 114. ISBN 978-0-557-00140-8.
3. ^ "Mendelssohn's Wedding March. First Performed at a Nuptial Ceremony at Tiverton". Western Gazette. British Newspaper Archive. 8 September 1904. Retrieved 28 August 2016 – via British Newspaper Archive.
4. ^ "Liszt: A Midsummer Night's Dream: Wedding March & Dance of the Fairies (after Mendelssohn), S410 (page 1 of 2)". Presto Music. Retrieved 2022-03-22.
5. ^ "Horowitz Wedding March - download free sheet music and scores". en.scorser.com. Retrieved 2022-03-22.

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26 January 1956 – Soviet Union cedes Porkkala back to Finland

Porkkalanniemi

Peninsula in Finland

"Porkkala" redirects here. For other uses, see Porkkala (disambiguation).

Porkkalanniemi (Swedish: Porkala udd) is a peninsula in the Gulf of Finland, located at Kirkkonummi (Kyrkslätt) in Southern Finland.

The peninsula had great strategic value, as coastal artillery based there would be able to shoot more than halfway across the Gulf of Finland. If the same power controlled the Estonian coast, on the opposite side of the gulf, it would then be able to block Saint Petersburg's naval access to the Baltic Sea. The distance to Estonia at the closest point is only 36 km (22 mi). Porkkala is furthermore located only 30 kilometers (19 mi) from Helsinki, the Finnish capital, and a foreign power based there would be able to exert significant pressure on the Finnish government.

Nowadays, the coasts of the peninsula are popular birdwatching areas during the spring migrations of Arctic geese and other waterfowl.

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27 January 1996 – Germany first observes the International Holocaust Remembrance Day.

International Holocaust Remembrance Day

International memorial day on 27 January for the victims of Nazi genocides

There are a number of Holocaust memorial days, but not all of them are on the same day.

The International Holocaust Remembrance Day, or the International Day in Memory of the Victims of the Holocaust, is an international memorial day on 27 January that commemorates the victims of the Holocaust, which resulted in the genocide of one third of the Jewish people, along with countless members of other minorities by Nazi Germany between 1933 and 1945, an attempt to implement its "final solution" to the Jewish question. 27 January was chosen to commemorate the date when the Auschwitz concentration camp was liberated by the Red Army in 1945.

The day remembers the killing of six million Jews, two-thirds of Europe's Jewish population, and millions of others by the Nazi regime and its collaborators.^[1][2] It was designated by United Nations General Assembly resolution 60/7 on 1 November 2005.^[3] The resolution came after a special session was held earlier that year on 24 January to mark the 60th anniversary of the liberation of the Nazi concentration camps and the end of the Holocaust.^[4][5][6][7]

Many countries have instituted their own Holocaust memorial days. Many, such as the UK's Holocaust Memorial Day, also fall on 27 January, while others, such as Israel's Yom HaShoah, are observed at other times of the year.

1. ^ "Documenting Numbers of Victims of the Holocaust and Nazi Persecution". encyclopedia.ushmm.org. Retrieved 27 January 2019.
2. ^ "International Holocaust Remembrance Day" (PDF). Retrieved 24 January 2022.
3. ^ "Resolution 60/7 Holocaust Remembrance" (PDF). United Nations. 1 November 2005. Retrieved 24 January 2022.
4. ^ "28th Special Session of the General Assembly (1st meeting)". United Nations. 24 January 2005. Retrieved 27 January 2022.
5. ^ "28th Special Session of the General Assembly (2nd meeting)". United Nations. 24 January 2005. Retrieved 27 January 2022.
6. ^ "International Holocaust Remembrance Day". www.ushmm.org. Retrieved 27 January 2019.
7. ^ "International Holocaust Remembrance Day". 27 January 2019. Retrieved 27 January 2019.

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28 January 1754 – Sir Horace Walpole coins the word serendipity in a letter to a friend.

Serendipity

Unplanned, fortunate discovery

For other uses, see Serendipity (disambiguation).

"Happy accident" redirects here. For other uses, see Happy Accidents.

Serendipity is an unplanned fortunate discovery.^[2] Serendipity is a common occurrence throughout the history of product invention and scientific discovery.^[3]

1. ^ Cite error: The named reference alexanderfleming was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
2. ^ "Serendipity". OxfordDictionaries.com. Oxford dictionary. Archived from the original on July 11, 2017. Retrieved 23 April 2018.
3. ^ Vuong, Quan-Hoang (2022). A New Theory of Serendipity: Nature, Emergence and Mechanism. Walter de Gruyter GmbH. ISBN 9788366675582.

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