This day in .....

6 June 2002 – Eastern Mediterranean Event. A near-Earth asteroid estimated at 10 meters diameter explodes over the Mediterranean Sea between Greece and Libya. The resulting explosion is estimated to have a force of 26 kilotons, slightly more powerful than the Nagasaki atomic bomb.

Eastern Mediterranean Event

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• 2002 Eastern Mediterranean event

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7 June 1099 – The First Crusade: The Siege of Jerusalem begins.

Siege of Jerusalem (1099)

Christian conquest of the First Crusade

For other sieges laid upon the city of Jerusalem in history, see Siege of Jerusalem.

The siege of Jerusalem during the First Crusade lasted for one month and eight days, from 7 June 1099 to 15 July 1099. It was carried out by the Crusader army, which successfully captured Jerusalem from the Fatimid Caliphate and subsequently founded the Kingdom of Jerusalem. Having returned the city and the Church of the Holy Sepulchre to Christian rule, the siege was the final major armed engagement of the First Crusade, which had been proclaimed in 1095 to recover the Holy Land for the Christians in the context of the Muslim conquest. A number of eyewitness accounts of the battle were recorded, with the most quoted events being derived from the anonymous Latin-language chronicle Gesta Francorum.

After Jerusalem was captured, thousands of Muslims and Jews were massacred by Crusader soldiers. As the Crusaders secured control over the Temple Mount, revered as the site of the two destroyed Jewish Temples, they also seized Al-Aqsa Mosque and the Dome of the Rock and repurposed them as Christian shrines.^[10] French nobleman Godfrey of Bouillon, prominent among the Crusader leadership, was elected to govern the new Christian state as the King of Jerusalem.

1. ^ Valentin, François (1867). Geschichte der Kreuzzüge (in German). Translated by della Torre, Robert (2 ed.). Regensburg: Druck und Verlag von Georg Joseph Manz. OCLC 681425816.
2. ^ France 1994, p. 3
3. ^ Asbridge 2004, p. 308
4. ^ France 1994, pp. 346–350
5. ^ ^{a b} France 1994, p. 343
6. ^ Asbridge 2004, p. 300
7. ^ Rubenstein 2011, p. 297
8. ^ France 1994, p. 131
9. ^ The "massacre" at the sack of Jerusalem has become a commonplace motive in popular depictions, but the historical event is difficult to reconstruct with any certainty. Arab sources give figures of between 3,000 and 70,000 casualties (in Abu Bakr ibn al-Arabi, and in Ibn al-Athir, respectively). The latter figure is rejected as unrealistic as it is very unlikely that the city at the time had a total population of this order; medieval chroniclers tend to substantially exaggerate both troop strength and casualty figures; they cannot be taken at face value naively, and it is less than straightforward to arrive at realistic estimates based on them. For a further study of the Arab accounts see Hirschler, Konrad (2014). The Jerusalem Conquest of 492/1099 in the Medieval Arabic Historiography of the Crusades: From Regional Plurality to Islamic Narrative.
10. ^ France, John. "Jerusalem, Siege of (1099)". In The Crusades – An Encyclopedia, Alan V. Murray, ed. pp. 677–679.

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8 June 1949 – George Orwell's Nineteen Eighty-Four is published.

Nineteen Eighty-Four

1949 novel by George Orwell

This article is about the 1949 novel by George Orwell. For the year, see 1984. For other uses, see 1984 (disambiguation).

Nineteen Eighty-Four (also published as 1984) is a dystopian novel and cautionary tale by English writer George Orwell. It was published on 8 June 1949 by Secker & Warburg as Orwell's ninth and final book completed in his lifetime. Thematically, it centres on the consequences of totalitarianism, mass surveillance, and repressive regimentation of people and behaviours within society.^[3][4] Orwell, a democratic socialist, modelled the authoritarian state in the novel on the Soviet Union in the era of Stalinism, and Nazi Germany.^[5] More broadly, the novel examines the role of truth and facts within societies and the ways in which they can be manipulated.

The story takes place in an imagined future in an unspecified year believed to be 1984, when much of the world is in perpetual war. Great Britain, now known as Airstrip One, has become a province of the totalitarian superstate Oceania, which is led by Big Brother, a dictatorial leader supported by an intense cult of personality manufactured by the Party's Thought Police. The Party engages in omnipresent government surveillance and, through the Ministry of Truth, historical negationism and constant propaganda to persecute individuality and independent thinking.^[6]

The protagonist, Winston Smith, is a diligent mid-level worker at the Ministry of Truth who secretly hates the Party and dreams of rebellion. Smith keeps a forbidden diary. He begins a sexual relationship with a colleague, Julia, and they learn about a shadowy resistance group called the Brotherhood. However, their contact within the Brotherhood turns out to be a Party agent, and Smith and Julia are arrested. He is subjected to months of psychological manipulation and torture by the Ministry of Love. He ultimately betrays Julia and is released; he finally realises he loves Big Brother.

Nineteen Eighty-Four has become a classic literary example of political and dystopian fiction. It also popularised the term "Orwellian" as an adjective, with many terms used in the novel entering common usage, including "Big Brother", "doublethink", "Thought Police", "thoughtcrime", "Newspeak", and "2 + 2 = 5". Parallels have been drawn between the novel's subject matter and real life instances of totalitarianism, mass surveillance, and violations of freedom of expression, among other themes.^[7][8][9] Orwell described his book as a "satire",^[10] and a display of the "perversions to which a centralised economy is liable," while also stating he believed "that something resembling it could arrive."^[10] Time included the novel on its list of the 100 best English-language novels published from 1923 to 2005,^[11] and it was placed on the Modern Library's 100 Best Novels list, reaching number 13 on the editors' list and number 6 on the readers' list.^[12] In 2003, it was listed at number eight on The Big Read survey by the BBC.^[13]

1. ^ "Nineteen Eighty-Four". knowthyshelf.com. 13 August 2015. Retrieved 11 February 2024.
2. ^ "Classify". OCLC. Archived from the original on 2 February 2019. Retrieved 22 May 2017.
3. ^ Murphy, Bruce (1996). Benét's reader's encyclopedia. New York: Harper Collins. p. 734. ISBN 978-0-06-181088-6. OCLC 35572906.
4. ^ Aaronovitch, David (8 February 2013). "1984: George Orwell's road to dystopia". BBC News. Archived from the original on 24 January 2018. Retrieved 8 February 2013.
5. ^ Lynskey, Dorian. "George Orwell's 1984: Why it still matters". BBC News. Archived from the original on 12 October 2023. Retrieved 7 October 2023 – via YouTube.
6. ^ Chernow, Barbara; Vallasi, George (1993). The Columbia Encyclopedia (5th ed.). Boston: Houghton Mifflin. p. 2030. OCLC 334011745.
7. ^ Crouch, Ian (11 June 2013). "So Are We Living in 1984?". The New Yorker. Archived from the original on 10 September 2023. Retrieved 3 December 2019.
8. ^ Seaton, Jean. "Why Orwell's 1984 could be about now". BBC. Archived from the original on 10 May 2020. Retrieved 3 December 2019.
9. ^ Leetaru, Kalev. "As Orwell's 1984 Turns 70 It Predicted Much of Today's Surveillance Society". Forbes. Archived from the original on 27 March 2023. Retrieved 3 December 2019.
10. ^ ^{a b} "The savage satire of '1984' still speaks to us today". The Independent. 7 June 1999. Archived from the original on 7 January 2023. Retrieved 7 January 2023. Orwell said that his book was a satire – a warning certainly, but in the form of satire.
11. ^ Grossman, Lev (8 January 2010). "Is 1984 one of the All-TIME 100 Best Novels?". Time. Archived from the original on 20 August 2017. Retrieved 29 December 2022.
12. ^ "100 Best Novels « Modern Library". www.modernlibrary.com. Archived from the original on 2 October 2010. Retrieved 29 December 2022.
13. ^ "BBC – The Big Read – Top 100 Books". BBC. Archived from the original on 31 October 2012. Retrieved 29 December 2022.

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9 June 1979 – The Ghost Train Fire at Luna Park Sydney (New South Wales, Australia) kills seven.

1979 Sydney Ghost Train fire

1979 amusement park fire in Milson's Point, New South Wales, Australia

The Sydney Ghost Train fire at Luna Park Sydney in Milsons Point, New South Wales, Australia killed seven people (six children and one adult) on 9 June 1979. Inadequate fire-fighting measures and low staffing caused the fire to completely destroy the amusement park's ghost train.^[1]

The fire was originally blamed on electrical faults, but arson by known figures has also been claimed. The exact cause of the fire could not be determined by a coronial inquiry. The coroner also ruled that, while the actions of Luna Park's management and staff before and during the fire (in particular their decision not to follow advice on the installation of a fire sprinkler system in the ride) breached their duty of care, charges of criminal negligence should not be laid. The case was reopened in 1987 but no new findings were made, although the original police investigation and coronial inquiry were criticised.

A memorial garden was installed by Luna Park in 1995, but its fixtures were lost during the park's 2003 redevelopment. In replacement, a plaque listing those killed was installed at the site of the ride, but a promised mural to surround the plaque was never painted. In 2007, North Sydney Council created a separate memorial park, which included a sculpture by Michael Leunig.

1. ^ Cite error: The named reference Marshall110 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).

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10 June 1965 – Vietnam War: The Battle of Dong Xoai begins.

Battle of Dong Xoai

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• Battle of Đồng Xoài

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11 June 1963 – Buddhist monk Thich Quang Duc burns himself with gasoline in a busy Saigon intersection to protest the lack of religious freedom in South Vietnam.

Thich Quang Duc

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• Thích Quảng Đức

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12 June 1978 – David Berkowitz, the "Son of Sam" killer in New York City, is sentenced to 365 years in prison for six killings.

David Berkowitz

American serial killer (born 1953)

For the American bridge player, see David Berkowitz (contract bridge).

"Son of Sam" redirects here. For other uses of "Son of Sam", see Son of Sam (disambiguation).

David Richard Berkowitz (born Richard David Falco, June 1, 1953), also known as the Son of Sam and the .44 Caliber Killer, is an American serial killer who pled guilty to eight shootings that began in New York City on July 29, 1976.^[2] Berkowitz grew up in New York City and served in the United States Army. Using a .44 Special caliber Bulldog revolver, he killed six people and wounded seven others by July 1977, terrorizing New Yorkers. Berkowitz eluded the biggest police manhunt in the city's history while leaving letters that mocked the police and promised further crimes, which were highly publicized by the press.

Berkowitz was arrested on August 10, 1977, and subsequently indicted for eight shootings. He confessed to all of them, and initially claimed to have been obeying the orders of a demon manifested in the form of a black dog belonging to his neighbor, "Sam". After being found mentally competent to stand trial, he pled guilty to second-degree murder and was sentenced to six consecutive life sentences in state prison with the possibility of parole after 25 years. He subsequently admitted that the dog-and-devil story was a hoax. In police investigations, Berkowitz was also implicated in many unsolved arsons in the city.

Intense media coverage of the case lent a kind of celebrity status to Berkowitz, which many observers noted that he seemed to enjoy. The New York State Legislature enacted new statutes, known popularly as "Son of Sam laws", designed to keep criminals from financially profiting from the publicity created by their crimes. The statutes have remained in New York despite various legal challenges, and similar laws have been enacted in several other states. During the mid-1990s, Berkowitz, by then professing to be a converted evangelical Christian, amended his confession to claim that he had been a member of a violent Satanic cult that orchestrated the incidents as ritual murder. A new investigation of the murders began in 1996 but was suspended indefinitely after inconclusive findings.

1. ^ "David Berkowitz "Son of Sam"" (PDF). Department of Psychology, Radford University. Retrieved May 8, 2023.
2. ^ "The Son of Sam: A Timeline of the Killings that Terrorized New York City". May 4, 2021.The Son of Sam: A Timeline of the Killings that Terrorized New York City|title=

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13 June 1971 – Vietnam War: The New York Times begins publication of the Pentagon Papers.

Pentagon Papers

U.S. defense report on 1945–1967 U.S. involvement in Vietnam

This article is about the U.S. government documents. For the 2003 film, see The Pentagon Papers (film).

The Pentagon Papers, officially titled The History of U.S. Decision-Making in Vietnam, 1945–1968, is a United States Department of Defense history of the United States' political and military involvement in Vietnam from 1945 to 1968. Released by Daniel Ellsberg, who had worked on the study, they were first brought to the attention of the public on the front page of The New York Times in 1971.^[1][2] A 1996 article in The New York Times said that the Pentagon Papers had demonstrated, among other things, that Lyndon B. Johnson's administration had "systematically lied, not only to the public but also to Congress."^[3]

The Pentagon Papers revealed that the U.S. had secretly enlarged the scope of its actions in the Vietnam War with coastal raids on North Vietnam and Marine Corps attacks—none of which were reported in the mainstream media. For his disclosure of the Pentagon Papers, Ellsberg was initially charged with conspiracy, espionage, and theft of government property; charges were later dismissed, after prosecutors investigating the Watergate scandal discovered that the staff members in the Nixon White House had ordered the so-called White House Plumbers to engage in unlawful efforts to discredit Ellsberg.^[4][5]

In June 2011, the documents forming the Pentagon Papers were declassified and publicly released.^[6][7]

1. ^ "The Pentagon Papers". United Press International (UPI). 1971. Archived from the original on July 29, 2010. Retrieved July 2, 2010.
2. ^ Sheehan, Neil (June 13, 1971). "Vietnam Archive: Pentagon Study Traces 3 Decades of Growing U.S. Involvement". The New York Times. Archived from the original on January 27, 2020. Retrieved August 3, 2015.
3. ^ Apple, R.W. (June 23, 1996). "25 Years Later;Lessons From the Pentagon Papers". The New York Times. Archived from the original on January 27, 2020. Retrieved October 23, 2013.
4. ^ "The Watergate Story". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on October 16, 2012. Retrieved October 26, 2013. Watergate prosecutors find a memo addressed to John Ehrlichman describing in detail the plans to burglarize the office of Pentagon Papers defendant Daniel Ellsberg's psychiatrist, The Post reports.
5. ^ "Pentagon Papers Charges Are Dismissed; Judge Byrne Frees Ellsberg and Russo, Assails 'Improper Government Conduct'". The New York Times. May 11, 1973. Archived from the original on February 20, 2023. Retrieved November 4, 2018.
6. ^ "Pentagon Papers". History (U.S. TV channel). Archived from the original on October 29, 2013. Retrieved October 26, 2013.
7. ^ "After 40 Years, Pentagon Papers Declassified In Full". NPR. Archived from the original on January 27, 2020. Retrieved November 4, 2018.

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14 June 1789 – Mutiny on the Bounty: Bounty mutiny survivors including Captain William Bligh and 18 others reach Timor after a nearly 7,400 km (4,600 mi) journey in an open boat.

Mutiny on the Bounty

1789 mutiny aboard the British Royal Navy ship HMS Bounty

This article is about the historical event. For other uses, see Mutiny on the Bounty (disambiguation).

The mutiny on the Royal Navy vessel HMS Bounty occurred in the South Pacific Ocean on 28 April 1789. Disaffected crewmen, led by acting-Lieutenant Fletcher Christian, seized control of the ship from their captain, Lieutenant William Bligh, and set him and eighteen loyalists adrift in the ship's open launch. The reasons behind the mutiny are still debated. Bligh and his crew stopped for supplies on Tofua, losing a man to natives. Bligh navigated more than 3,500 nautical miles (6,500 km; 4,000 mi) in the launch to reach safety and began the process of bringing the mutineers to justice. The mutineers variously settled on Tahiti or on Pitcairn Island.

Bounty had left England in 1787 on a mission to collect and transport breadfruit plants from Tahiti to the West Indies. A five-month layover in Tahiti, during which many of the men lived ashore and formed relationships with native Polynesians, led those men to be less amenable to military discipline. Relations between Bligh and his crew deteriorated after he reportedly began handing out increasingly harsh punishments, criticism, and abuse, Christian being a particular target. After three weeks back at sea, Christian and others forced Bligh from the ship. Twenty-five men remained on board afterwards, including loyalists held against their will and others for whom there was no room in the launch.

After Bligh reached England in April 1790, the Admiralty despatched HMS Pandora to apprehend the mutineers. Fourteen were captured in Tahiti and imprisoned on board Pandora, which then searched without success for Christian's party that had hidden on Pitcairn Island. After turning back towards England, Pandora ran aground on the Great Barrier Reef, with the loss of 31 crew and four Bounty prisoners. The ten surviving detainees reached England in June 1792 and were court-martialled; four were acquitted, three were pardoned, and three were hanged.

Christian's group remained undiscovered on Pitcairn until 1808, by which time only one mutineer, John Adams, remained alive. His fellow mutineers, including Christian, were dead, killed either by one another or by their Polynesian companions. No action was taken against Adams; descendants of the mutineers and their accompanying Tahitians live on Pitcairn into the 21st century.

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15 January 1752 – Benjamin Franklin proves that lightning is electricity (traditional date, the exact date is unknown).

Benjamin Franklin

Founding Father of the United States (1706–1790)

"Ben Franklin" redirects here. For other uses, see Benjamin Franklin (disambiguation).

Benjamin Franklin FRS FRSA FRSE (January 17, 1706 [O.S. January 6, 1705]^{[Note 1]} – April 17, 1790) was an American polymath, a leading writer, scientist, inventor, statesman, diplomat, printer, publisher, and political philosopher.^[1] Among the most influential intellectuals of his time, Franklin was one of the Founding Fathers of the United States; a drafter and signer of the Declaration of Independence; and the first postmaster general.^[2]

Franklin became a successful newspaper editor and printer in Philadelphia, the leading city in the colonies, publishing the Pennsylvania Gazette at age 23.^[3] He became wealthy publishing this and Poor Richard's Almanack, which he wrote under the pseudonym "Richard Saunders".^[4] After 1767, he was associated with the Pennsylvania Chronicle, a newspaper known for its revolutionary sentiments and criticisms of the policies of the British Parliament and the Crown.^[5]

He pioneered and was the first president of the Academy and College of Philadelphia, which opened in 1751 and later became the University of Pennsylvania. He organized and was the first secretary of the American Philosophical Society and was elected its president in 1769. He was appointed deputy postmaster-general for the British colonies in 1753,^[6] which enabled him to set up the first national communications network.

He was active in community affairs and colonial and state politics, as well as national and international affairs. Franklin became a hero in America when, as an agent in London for several colonies, he spearheaded the repeal of the unpopular Stamp Act by the British Parliament. An accomplished diplomat, he was widely admired as the first U.S. ambassador to France and was a major figure in the development of positive Franco–American relations. His efforts proved vital for the American Revolution in securing French aid.

From 1785 to 1788, he served as President of Pennsylvania. At some points in his life, he owned slaves and ran "for sale" ads for slaves in his newspaper, but by the late 1750s, he began arguing against slavery, became an active abolitionist, and promoted the education and integration of African Americans into U.S. society.

As a scientist, his studies of electricity made him a major figure in the American Enlightenment and the history of physics. He also charted and named the Gulf Stream current. His numerous important inventions include the lightning rod, bifocals, and the Franklin stove.^[7] He founded many civic organizations, including the Library Company, Philadelphia's first fire department,^[8] and the University of Pennsylvania.^[9] Franklin earned the title of "The First American" for his early and indefatigable campaigning for colonial unity. Foundational in defining the American ethos, Franklin has been called "the most accomplished American of his age and the most influential in inventing the type of society America would become".^[10]

His life and legacy of scientific and political achievement, and his status as one of America's most influential Founding Fathers, have seen Franklin honored for more than two centuries after his death on the $100 bill and in the names of warships, many towns and counties, educational institutions, and corporations, as well as in numerous cultural references and a portrait in the Oval Office. His more than 30,000 letters and documents have been collected in The Papers of Benjamin Franklin.

Cite error: There are <ref group=Note> tags on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=Note}} template (see the help page).

1. ^ Encyclopædia Britannica, Wood, 2021
2. ^ Morris, Richard B. (1973). Seven Who Shaped Our Destiny: The Founding Fathers as Revolutionaries. New York: Harper & Row. pp. 1, 5–30. ISBN 978-0-06-090454-8.
3. ^ Brands, H.W. (2010). The First American: The Life and Times of Benjamin Franklin. Knopf Doubleday Publishing. p. 390. ISBN 978-0-307-75494-3.
4. ^ Goodrich, Charles A. (1829). Lives of the Signers to the Declaration of Independence. W. Reed & Company. p. 267. Retrieved June 7, 2013.
5. ^ "William Goddard and the Constitutional Post". Smithsonian National Postal Museum. Retrieved October 19, 2010.
6. ^ "Benjamin Franklin, Postmaster General" (PDF). United States Postal Service. Archived (PDF) from the original on October 9, 2022. Retrieved May 29, 2021.
7. ^ Franklin Institute, Essay
8. ^ Burt, Nathaniel (1999). The Perennial Philadelphians: The Anatomy of an American Aristocracy. University of Pennsylvania Press. p. 142. ISBN 978-0-8122-1693-6.
9. ^ Isaacson, 2004, p. ^{[page needed]}
10. ^ Isaacson, 2004, pp. 491–492.

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16 June 1779 – Spain declares war on the Kingdom of Great Britain, and the Great Siege of Gibraltar begins.

Great Siege of Gibraltar

Failed Franco-Spanish attempt to capture Gibraltar (1779–1783)

The Great Siege of Gibraltar was an unsuccessful attempt by Spain and France to capture Gibraltar from the British during the American Revolutionary War.^[17] It was the largest battle in the war by number of combatants.^[18]

On 16 June 1779, Spain entered the war on the side of France and as co-belligerents of the revolutionary United Colonies—the British base at Gibraltar was Spain's primary war aim.^[19] The vulnerable Gibraltar garrison under George Augustus Eliott was blockaded from June 1779 to February 1783,^[20] initially by the Spanish alone, led by Martín Álvarez de Sotomayor. The blockade proved to be a failure because two relief convoys entered unmolested—the first under Admiral George Rodney in 1780 and the second under Admiral George Darby in 1781—despite the presence of the Spanish fleets. The same year, a major assault was planned by the Spanish, but the Gibraltar garrison sortied in November and destroyed much of the forward batteries.

After the Spanish consistently failed to either defeat the garrison or prevent the arrival of relief efforts, the besiegers were reinforced by French forces under de Crillon, who took over command in early 1782. After a lull in the siege, during which the Franco-Spanish besiegers gathered more guns, ships and troops, a "Grand Assault" was launched on 13 September 1782. This involved huge numbers—60,000 men, 49 ships of the line and 10 specially designed, newly invented floating batteries—against the 5,000 defenders. The assault proved to be a disastrous and humiliating failure, resulting in heavy losses for the Bourbon attackers. This was the largest action fought during the war in terms of numbers.

The final sign of defeat for the allies came when a crucial British relief convoy under Admiral Richard Howe slipped through the blockading fleet and arrived at the garrison in October 1782. The siege was finally lifted on 7 February 1783 and resulted in a decisive victory for the British. The siege was a factor in ending the American Revolutionary War^{[21][22][23][24]}—the Peace of Paris negotiations were reliant on news from the siege, particularly at its climax.^[25][26]

At three years, seven months and twelve days, it is the longest siege endured by the British Armed Forces.^[27][28]

1. ^ ^{a b} Chartrand & Courcelle 2006, pp. 18–22.
2. ^ Norwich 2006, p. 394.
3. ^ Montero 1860, p. 339.
4. ^ Chartrand & Courcelle 2006, p. 63: 'Of 7,500 men in the Gibraltar garrison in September (including 400 in hospital), some 3,430 were always on duty'
5. ^ Monti 1852, p. 133.
6. ^ Falkner 2009, p. 156.
7. ^ ^{a b} Montero 1860, p. 338.
8. ^ Montero 1860, p. 356.
9. ^ Chartrand & Courcelle 2006, p. 79 'some 30,000 sailors in the combined fleet'.
10. ^ Chartrand & Courcelle 2006, p. 49.
11. ^ Chartrand & Courcelle 2006, p. 79.
12. ^ Chartrand & Courcelle 2006, p. 89.
13. ^ ^{a b c d e} Clodfelter 2017, p. 132.
14. ^ Drinkwater 1905, p. 169.
15. ^ Montero 1860, p. 373.
16. ^ Chartrand & Courcelle 2006, pp. 81–81.
17. ^ Eggenberger 2012, p. 172.
18. ^ Adkins, Lesley and Roy (2017). Gibraltar: The Greatest Siege in British History. Viking. ISBN 978-1408708675.
19. ^ Stockley 2001, p. 19.
20. ^ Drinkwater 1905, p. 161.
21. ^ Allison & Ferreiro 2018, p. 220: critical event in the war outside America was a contemporaneous European siege that was bigger, lasted longer, and ultimately was as critical to establishing peace as the Yorktown victory
22. ^ Botta, Charles (1850). History of the United States of America: War of independence, Volume 2. National Library of the Netherlands: Fullarton & Company. p. 552.
23. ^ Bemis 2012, p. 77: That tremendous citadel thus became a vital factor in the diplomacy of the American Revolution
24. ^ Mackesy 1992, pp. 506–507.
25. ^ Falkner 2009, p. xix.
26. ^ Chartrand & Courcelle 2006.
27. ^ Adkins & Adkins 2017, p. 21.
28. ^ Dupuy, Hammerman & Hayes 1977, p. 130.

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17 June 1972 – Watergate scandal: five White House operatives are arrested for burglarizing the offices of the Democratic National Committee, in an attempt by some members of the Republican party to illegally wiretap the opposition.

Watergate scandal

1970s political cover-up scandal in the US

"Watergate" redirects here. For the buildings, see Watergate complex. For other uses, see Watergate (disambiguation).

For a chronological guide, see Timeline of the Watergate scandal.

The Watergate scandal was a significant political controversy in the United States during the presidency of Richard Nixon from 1972 to 1974, ultimately resulting in Nixon's resignation. It originated from attempts by the Nixon administration to conceal its involvement in the June 17, 1972, break-in at the Democratic National Committee headquarters located in the Watergate Office Building in Washington, D.C.

Following the apprehension of the five individuals involved in the break-in, both the press and the Department of Justice connected the funds found on those involved to the CRP (the fundraising organization of Richard Nixon's 1972 re-election campaign).^[1][2] Subsequent investigations and revelations during trials prompted the U.S. House of Representatives to grant the House Judiciary Committee expanded investigative authority.^[3][4] Additionally, the Senate established the U.S. Senate Watergate Committee, which conducted hearings.

Witnesses testified that Nixon had sanctioned plans to cover up his administration's involvement in the burglary and that there was a voice-activated taping system in the Oval Office.^[5][6] Nixon's administration resisted the investigations, leading to a constitutional crisis.^[7] The televised Senate Watergate hearings garnered nationwide attention and public interest.^[8]

Numerous revelations and Nixon's efforts to impede the investigation in 1973 led the House to initiate impeachment proceedings against him.^[9][10] The Supreme Court's ruling in United States v. Nixon (1974) compelled Nixon to surrender the Oval Office tapes, which revealed his complicity in the cover-up. The House Judiciary Committee approved three articles of impeachment against Nixon,^[11] who subsequently resigned from office on August 9, 1974, becoming the only U.S. president to do so. His successor, Gerald Ford, pardoned him on September 8, 1974.

The Watergate scandal resulted in 69 indictments and 48 convictions, involving several high-ranking officials from the Nixon administration.^[12] The term "Watergate" has since become synonymous with various clandestine and illicit activities conducted by Nixon's aides, including the bugging of political opponents' offices, unauthorized investigations, and the misuse of government agencies for political purposes.^[13] The addition of "-gate" to a term has since been used to denote public scandals,^[14][15][16] particularly in politics.^[17][18]

1. ^ Perry, James M. "Watergate Case Study". Class Syllabus for "Critical Issues in Journalism". Columbia School of Journalism, Columbia University. Archived from the original on July 15, 2019. Retrieved July 27, 2018.
2. ^ Dickinson, William B.; Cross, Mercer; Polsky, Barry (1973). Watergate: chronology of a crisis. Vol. 1. Washington, D.C.: Congressional Quarterly Inc. pp. 8, 133, 140, 180, 188. ISBN 0-87187-059-2. OCLC 20974031.
3. ^ Rybicki, Elizabeth; Greene, Michael (October 10, 2019). "The Impeachment Process in the House of Representatives". CRS Report for Congress. Washington, D.C.: Congressional Research Service, Library of Congress. pp. 5–7. R45769. Archived from the original on January 22, 2020. Retrieved November 7, 2019.
4. ^ "H.Res.74 – 93rd Congress, 1st Session". congress.gov. February 28, 1973. Archived from the original on December 30, 2019. Retrieved October 21, 2019.
5. ^ "A burglary turns into a constitutional crisis". CNN. June 16, 2004. Archived from the original on November 26, 2020. Retrieved November 7, 2019.
6. ^ "Senate Hearings: Overview". fordlibrarymuseum.gov. Archived from the original on July 2, 2017. Retrieved November 7, 2019.
7. ^ "A burglary turns into a constitutional crisis". CNN. June 16, 2004. Archived from the original on November 30, 2020. Retrieved May 13, 2014.
8. ^ "'Gavel-to-Gavel': The Watergate Scandal and Public Television". American Archive of Public Broadcasting. Retrieved November 10, 2019.
9. ^ "The Smoking Gun Tape" (Transcript of the recording of a meeting between President Nixon and H. R. Haldeman). Watergate.info website. June 23, 1972. Archived from the original on May 1, 2012. Retrieved January 17, 2007.
10. ^ White, Theodore Harold (1975). Breach of Faith: The Fall of Richard Nixon. New York: Atheneum Publishers. p. 7. ISBN 0-689-10658-0. OCLC 1370091.
11. ^ Manheim, Karl; Solum, Lawrence B. (Spring 1999). "Nixon Articles of Impeachment". Impeachment Seminar. Archived from the original on March 3, 2017.
12. ^ Cite error: The named reference convictions was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
13. ^ Ervin, Sam, et al., Final Report of the Watergate Committee.
14. ^ Hamilton, Dagmar S. "The Nixon Impeachment and the Abuse of Presidential Power", In Watergate and Afterward: The Legacy of Richard M. Nixon. Leon Friedman and William F. Levantrosser, eds. Santa Barbara, CA: Greenwood Publishing Group, 1992. ISBN 0-313-27781-8
15. ^ Smith, Ronald D. and Richter, William Lee. Fascinating People and Astounding Events From American History. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO, 1993. ISBN 0-87436-693-3
16. ^ Lull, James and Hinerman, Stephen. Media Scandals: Morality and Desire in the Popular Culture Marketplace. New York: Columbia University Press, 1997. ISBN 0-231-11165-7
17. ^ Trahair, R.C.S. From Aristotelian to Reaganomics: A Dictionary of Eponyms With Biographies in the Social Sciences. Santa Barbara, CA: Greenwood Publishing Group, 1994. ISBN 0-313-27961-6
18. ^ "El 'valijagate' sigue dando disgustos a Cristina Fernández | Internacional". El País. November 4, 2008. Archived from the original on July 2, 2017. Retrieved July 28, 2014.

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18 June 1940 – "Finest Hour" speech by Winston Churchill.

This was their finest hour

1940 speech by Winston Churchill

"This was their finest hour" was a speech delivered by Winston Churchill to the House of Commons of the United Kingdom on 18 June 1940, just over a month after he took over as Prime Minister at the head of an all-party coalition government.

It was the third of three speeches which he gave during the period of the Battle of France, after the "Blood, toil, tears and sweat" speech of 13 May and the "We shall fight on the beaches" speech of 4 June.^[1][2] "This was their finest hour" was made after France had sought an armistice on the evening of 16 June.^[a]

1. ^ Hansard debate, 13 May 1940 "His Majesty's Government"
2. ^ The Churchill Centre: We Shall Fight on the Beaches
3. ^ BBC Written Archives quoted in Gilbert, Martin (27 June 1983). Finest Hour: Winston S. Churchill 1939–1941. Heinemann. p. 566. ISBN 978-0434291878.

Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

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19 June 1978 – Garfield, holder of the Guinness World Record for the world's most widely syndicated comic strip, makes its debut.

Garfield

Comic strip created by Jim Davis

This article is about the comic strip. For the title character, see Garfield (character). For the president, see James A. Garfield. For other uses, see Garfield (disambiguation).

Garfield is an American comic strip created by Jim Davis. Originally published locally as Jon in 1976, then in nationwide syndication from 1978 as Garfield, it chronicles the life of the title character Garfield the cat, his human owner Jon Arbuckle, and Odie the dog. As of 2013, it was syndicated in roughly 2,580 newspapers and journals and held the Guinness World Record for being the world's most widely syndicated comic strip.^[1]

Though its setting is rarely mentioned in print, Garfield takes place in Jim Davis's hometown of Muncie, Indiana, according to the television special Happy Birthday, Garfield. Common themes in the strip include Garfield's laziness, obsessive eating, love of coffee and lasagna, disdain of Mondays, and dieting. Garfield is also shown to manipulate people to get whatever he wants. The strip's focus is mostly on the interactions among Garfield, Jon, and Odie, but other recurring characters appear as well.

On August 6, 2019, before its merger with CBS Corporation to become ViacomCBS (now Paramount Global), New York City–based Viacom announced that it would acquire Paws, Inc., including most rights to the Garfield franchise (the comics, merchandise and animated cartoons). The deal did not include the rights to the live-action Garfield films,^[2] which are still owned by The Walt Disney Company through its 20th Century Studios label, as well as the upcoming animated film The Garfield Movie which is set for worldwide distribution by Sony Pictures under its Columbia Pictures label, except in China, scheduled for 2024.^[3] Jim Davis continues to make comics, and a new Garfield animated series is in production for Paramount Global subsidiary Nickelodeon.^[4]

1. ^ "Garfield Named World's Most Syndicated Comic Strip". Business Wire. January 22, 2002. Archived from the original on September 10, 2004. Retrieved July 26, 2008.
2. ^ Mullin, Benjamin (August 6, 2019). "Viacom, Hungry For Hits, Gobbles Garfield". The Wall Street Journal. Retrieved August 12, 2019.
3. ^ O'Rourke, Ryan (September 16, 2022). "Garfield Release Date Moved to Spring 2024". Collider. Retrieved September 16, 2022.
4. ^ Steinberg, Brian (August 6, 2019). "Viacom Acquires Comic-Strip Cat Garfield". Variety. Retrieved August 6, 2019.

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2o June 1963 – The so-called "red telephone" is established between the Soviet Union and the United States following the Cuban Missile Crisis.

Moscow-Washington hotline

Redirect to:

• Moscow–Washington hotline

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22 June 1990 – Checkpoint Charlie is dismantled in Berlin.

Checkpoint Charlie

Well-known crossing point in the Berlin Wall; now a museum

A view of Checkpoint Charlie in 1963, from the American sector

Map of Berlin Wall with location of Checkpoint Charlie

Checkpoint Charlie (or "Checkpoint C") was the best-known Berlin Wall crossing point between East Berlin and West Berlin during the Cold War (1947–1991), as named by the Western Allies.^[1]

East German leader Walter Ulbricht agitated and maneuvered to get the Soviet Union's permission to construct the Berlin Wall in 1961 to stop emigration and defection westward through the Border system, preventing escape across the city sector border from East Berlin into West Berlin. Checkpoint Charlie became a symbol of the Cold War, representing the separation of East and West. Soviet and American tanks briefly faced each other at the location during the Berlin Crisis of 1961. On 26 June 1963, U.S. President John F. Kennedy visited Checkpoint Charlie and looked from a platform onto the Berlin Wall and into East Berlin.^[2]

After the dissolution of the Eastern Bloc and the reunification of Germany, the American guard house at Checkpoint Charlie became a tourist attraction. It is now located in the Allied Museum in the Dahlem neighborhood of Berlin.52°30′27″N 13°23′25″E / 52.50750°N 13.39028°E / 52.50750; 13.39028

1. ^ "A brief history of Checkpoint Charlie". Archived from the original on 19 March 2022. Retrieved 19 March 2022.
2. ^ Andreas Daum, Kennedy in Berlin. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2008, pp. 134‒35.

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23 June 1982 – Chinese American Vincent Chin is beaten to death in Highland Park, Michigan, by two auto workers who had mistaken him for Japanese and who were angry about the success of Japanese auto companies.

Vincent Chin

Vincent Chin may refer to:

• Vincent "Randy" Chin (1937–2003), Jamaican record producer and label owner
• Vincent Jen Chin (1955–1982), Chinese American victim of a racially motivated killing
• Vincent Chin, a victim in the 1993 Ramada Hotel drownings
• Vincent Gigante (1928–2005), American mobster nicknamed "The Chin"

Topics referred to by the same term

This disambiguation page lists articles about people with the same name.
If an internal link led you here, you may wish to change the link to point directly to the intended article.

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24 June 1948 – Start of the Berlin Blockade: the Soviet Union makes overland travel between West Germany and West Berlin impossible.

Berlin Blockade

USSR blockade of Berlin, 1948–1949

"Operation Vittles" redirects here. For the 1948 American short documentary film, see Operation Vittles (film).

The Berlin Blockade (24 June 1948 – 12 May 1949) was one of the first major international crises of the Cold War. During the multinational occupation of post–World War II Germany, the Soviet Union blocked the Western Allies' railway, road, and canal access to the sectors of Berlin under Western control. The Soviets offered to drop the blockade if the Western Allies withdrew the newly introduced Deutsche Mark from West Berlin.

The Western Allies organised the Berlin Airlift (German: Berliner Luftbrücke, lit. "Berlin Air Bridge") from 26 June 1948 to 30 September 1949 to carry supplies to the people of West Berlin, a difficult feat given the size of the city and the population.^[1][2] American and British air forces flew over Berlin more than 250,000 times, dropping necessities such as fuel and food, with the original plan being to lift 3,475 tons of supplies daily. By the spring of 1949, that number was often met twofold, with the peak daily delivery totalling 12,941 tons.^[3] Among these was the work of the later concurrent Operation Little Vittles in which candy-dropping aircraft dubbed "raisin bombers" generated much goodwill among German children.^[4]

Having initially concluded there was no way the airlift could work, the Soviets found its continued success an increasing embarrassment. On 12 May 1949, the USSR lifted the blockade of West Berlin, due to economic issues in East Berlin, although for a time the Americans and British continued to supply the city by air as they were worried that the Soviets would resume the blockade and were only trying to disrupt western supply lines. The Berlin Airlift officially ended on 30 September 1949 after fifteen months. The US Air Force had delivered 1,783,573 tons (76.4% of total) and the RAF 541,937 tons (23.3% of total),^{[nb 1]} totalling 2,334,374 tons, nearly two-thirds of which was coal, on 278,228 flights to Berlin. In addition Canadian, Australian, New Zealand and South African air crews assisted the RAF during the blockade.^[5]: 338 The French also conducted flights, but only to provide supplies for their military garrison.^[6]

American C-47 and C-54 transport airplanes, together, flew over 92,000,000 miles (148,000,000 km) in the process, almost the distance from Earth to the Sun.^[7] British transports, including Handley Page Haltons and Short Sunderlands, flew as well. At the height of the airlift, one plane reached West Berlin every thirty seconds.^[8]

Seventeen American and eight British aircraft crashed during the operation.^[9] A total of 101 fatalities were recorded as a result of the operation, including 40 Britons and 31 Americans,^[8] mostly due to non-flying accidents.

The Berlin Blockade served to highlight the competing ideological and economic visions for postwar Europe. It played a major role in aligning West Berlin with the United States and Britain as the major protecting powers,^[10] and in drawing West Germany into the NATO orbit several years later in 1955.

1. ^ Journey Across Berlin (1961). Universal Newsreel. 1957. Retrieved 22 February 2012.
2. ^ Air Force Story, The Cold War, 1948–1950 (1953). Universal Newsreel. 1953. Retrieved 22 February 2012.
3. ^ The American People: Creating a Nation and a Society. New York: Pearson Longman, 2008. p. 828.
4. ^ Smoler, Fredric (April/May 2003). "Where Berlin and America Meet Archived 28 August 2008 at the Wayback Machine" American Heritage. Retrieved 29 July 2010.
5. ^ "5 – National Security". South Africa: a country study. Federal Research Division, Library of Congress. 1997. ISBN 0-8444-0796-8.
6. ^ Jacques Bariéty (1994). "La France et la crise internationale du blocus de Berlin". Histoire, économie et société; Volume 13; numéro 1. pp. 29–44. Retrieved 11 June 2017.
7. ^ Berlin Airlift: Logistics, Humanitarian Aid, and Strategic Success Archived 16 January 2007 at the Wayback Machine, Major Gregory C. Tine, Army Logistician
8. ^ ^{a b} Cite error: The named reference turner27 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
9. ^ Tunner 1964, p. 218
10. ^ Daum, Andreas W. (2000). "America's Berlin, 1945‒2000: Between Myths and Visions". In Trommler, Frank (ed.). Berlin: The New Capital in the East (PDF). The American Institute for Contemporary German Studies, Johns Hopkins University. pp. 49–73. Retrieved 2 March 2021.

Cite error: There are <ref group=nb> tags on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=nb}} template (see the help page).

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25 June 1948 – The Berlin airlift begins.

Berlin Blockade

USSR blockade of Berlin, 1948–1949

"Operation Vittles" redirects here. For the 1948 American short documentary film, see Operation Vittles (film).

The Berlin Blockade (24 June 1948 – 12 May 1949) was one of the first major international crises of the Cold War. During the multinational occupation of post–World War II Germany, the Soviet Union blocked the Western Allies' railway, road, and canal access to the sectors of Berlin under Western control. The Soviets offered to drop the blockade if the Western Allies withdrew the newly introduced Deutsche Mark from West Berlin.

The Western Allies organised the Berlin Airlift (German: Berliner Luftbrücke, lit. "Berlin Air Bridge") from 26 June 1948 to 30 September 1949 to carry supplies to the people of West Berlin, a difficult feat given the size of the city and the population.^[1][2] American and British air forces flew over Berlin more than 250,000 times, dropping necessities such as fuel and food, with the original plan being to lift 3,475 tons of supplies daily. By the spring of 1949, that number was often met twofold, with the peak daily delivery totalling 12,941 tons.^[3] Among these was the work of the later concurrent Operation Little Vittles in which candy-dropping aircraft dubbed "raisin bombers" generated much goodwill among German children.^[4]

Having initially concluded there was no way the airlift could work, the Soviets found its continued success an increasing embarrassment. On 12 May 1949, the USSR lifted the blockade of West Berlin, due to economic issues in East Berlin, although for a time the Americans and British continued to supply the city by air as they were worried that the Soviets would resume the blockade and were only trying to disrupt western supply lines. The Berlin Airlift officially ended on 30 September 1949 after fifteen months. The US Air Force had delivered 1,783,573 tons (76.4% of total) and the RAF 541,937 tons (23.3% of total),^{[nb 1]} totalling 2,334,374 tons, nearly two-thirds of which was coal, on 278,228 flights to Berlin. In addition Canadian, Australian, New Zealand and South African air crews assisted the RAF during the blockade.^[5]: 338 The French also conducted flights, but only to provide supplies for their military garrison.^[6]

American C-47 and C-54 transport airplanes, together, flew over 92,000,000 miles (148,000,000 km) in the process, almost the distance from Earth to the Sun.^[7] British transports, including Handley Page Haltons and Short Sunderlands, flew as well. At the height of the airlift, one plane reached West Berlin every thirty seconds.^[8]

Seventeen American and eight British aircraft crashed during the operation.^[9] A total of 101 fatalities were recorded as a result of the operation, including 40 Britons and 31 Americans,^[8] mostly due to non-flying accidents.

The Berlin Blockade served to highlight the competing ideological and economic visions for postwar Europe. It played a major role in aligning West Berlin with the United States and Britain as the major protecting powers,^[10] and in drawing West Germany into the NATO orbit several years later in 1955.

1. ^ Journey Across Berlin (1961). Universal Newsreel. 1957. Retrieved 22 February 2012.
2. ^ Air Force Story, The Cold War, 1948–1950 (1953). Universal Newsreel. 1953. Retrieved 22 February 2012.
3. ^ The American People: Creating a Nation and a Society. New York: Pearson Longman, 2008. p. 828.
4. ^ Smoler, Fredric (April/May 2003). "Where Berlin and America Meet Archived 28 August 2008 at the Wayback Machine" American Heritage. Retrieved 29 July 2010.
5. ^ "5 – National Security". South Africa: a country study. Federal Research Division, Library of Congress. 1997. ISBN 0-8444-0796-8.
6. ^ Jacques Bariéty (1994). "La France et la crise internationale du blocus de Berlin". Histoire, économie et société; Volume 13; numéro 1. pp. 29–44. Retrieved 11 June 2017.
7. ^ Berlin Airlift: Logistics, Humanitarian Aid, and Strategic Success Archived 16 January 2007 at the Wayback Machine, Major Gregory C. Tine, Army Logistician
8. ^ ^{a b} Cite error: The named reference turner27 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
9. ^ Tunner 1964, p. 218
10. ^ Daum, Andreas W. (2000). "America's Berlin, 1945‒2000: Between Myths and Visions". In Trommler, Frank (ed.). Berlin: The New Capital in the East (PDF). The American Institute for Contemporary German Studies, Johns Hopkins University. pp. 49–73. Retrieved 2 March 2021.

Cite error: There are <ref group=nb> tags on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=nb}} template (see the help page).

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27 June 1976 – Air France Flight 139 (Tel Aviv-Athens-Paris) is hijacked en route to Paris by the PLO and redirected to Entebbe, Uganda.

Operation Entebbe

Redirect to:

• Entebbe raid

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28 June 1950 – Korean War: Seoul is captured by North Korean troops.

Korean War

1950–1953 North-South Korea war

For other conflicts and wars involving Korea, see List of Korean battles. For the conflict from 1945 to the present, see Korean conflict.

The Korean War was fought between North Korea and South Korea from 1950 to 1953. It began on 25 June 1950 when North Korea invaded South Korea and ceased after an armistice on 27 July 1953. North Korea was supported by China and the Soviet Union while South Korea was supported by the United States and US-led United Nations (UN) forces.

When World War II ended in 1945, Korea, which had been a Japanese colony for 35 years, was divided by the Soviet Union and United States at the 38th parallel into two zones.^[c] Due to Cold War tensions the two zones eventually became sovereign states in 1948. North Korea was led by Kim Il Sung in Pyongyang, while South Korea was led by Syngman Rhee in Seoul. Both states claimed to be the sole legitimate government of all of Korea and neither accepted the 38th parallel border as permanent.

Immediately prior to the war, Seoul was suppressing a communist uprising in Jeju (April 1948 - May 1949) and had border skirmishes with Pyongyang.^[35][36][37] After failing to unify Korea peacefully and Seoul's violent suppression of South Korean communists, Pyongyang launched an invasion of South Korea on 25 June 1950.^[38][39] In the absence of the Soviet Union,^[d] the United Nations Security Council denounced the attack and recommended countries to repel the North Korean army (KPA) under the United Nations Command.^[41] UN forces comprised twenty-one countries, with the United States providing around 90% of the military personnel.^[42][43]

After two months of war, the South Korean army (ROKA) and its allies were nearly defeated, holding onto only the Pusan Perimeter. In September 1950, however, UN forces landed at Incheon, cutting off KPA troops and supply lines. They invaded North Korea in October 1950 and advanced towards the Yalu River—the border with China. On 19 October 1950, the Chinese People's Volunteer Army (PVA) crossed the Yalu and entered the war.^[38] UN forces retreated from North Korea following PVA's first and second offensive. Communist forces captured Seoul again in January 1951 before losing it. Following the abortive Chinese spring offensive, they were pushed back to the 38th parallel, and the final two years turned into a war of attrition.

The combat ended on 27 July 1953 when the Korean Armistice Agreement was signed, allowing the exchange of prisoners and the creation of the Korean Demilitarized Zone (DMZ). The conflict displaced milions of people, inflicted around 3 million fatalities and a larger proportion of civilian deaths than World War II or the Vietnam War. Alleged war crimes include the killing of suspected communists by the South Korean government and the torture and starvation of prisoners of war by the North Koreans.^{[citation needed]} North Korea became one of the most heavily bombed countries in history.^[44] Virtually all of Korea's major cities were destroyed.^[45] No peace treaty was ever signed, making this a frozen conflict.^[46][47]

1. ^ Kim, Heesu (1996). Anglo-American Relations and the Attempts to Settle the Korean Question 1953–1960 (PDF) (Thesis). London School of Economics and Political Science. p. 213. Archived (PDF) from the original on 10 April 2017. Retrieved 9 April 2017.
2. ^ "Italian Red Cross Hospital". Archived from the original on 22 August 2012. Retrieved 2 June 2012.
3. ^ "6.25전쟁 당시 대한민국에 도움의 손길 내밀었던 이탈리아". Newsis. 26 August 2016. Archived from the original on 7 July 2023. Retrieved 12 April 2021.
4. ^ "독일, 62년만에 6.25 전쟁 의료지원국에 포함…총 6개국으로 늘어". 헤럴드경제. 22 June 2018. Retrieved 4 April 2021.
5. ^ 임, 성호 (19 June 2020). "[6.25전쟁 70년] 이역만리 한국서 수백만명 살리고 의술 전파까지". Yeonhap News. Retrieved 4 April 2021.
6. ^ Young, Sam Ma (2010). "Israel's Role in the UN during the Korean War" (PDF). Israel Journal of Foreign Affairs. 4 (3): 81–89. doi:10.1080/23739770.2010.11446616. S2CID 219293462. Archived from the original (PDF) on 24 August 2015.
7. ^ ^{a b} Morris-Suzuki, Tessa (29 July 2012). "Post-War Warriors: Japanese Combatants in the Korean War". The Asia-Pacific Journal: Japan Focus. 10 (31).
8. ^ Whan-woo, Yi (16 September 2019). "Pakistan's Defense Day rekindles Korean War relief aid". The Korea Times. Archived from the original on 27 November 2020. Retrieved 2 May 2020.
9. ^ "Uruguay's little-known but important role in the Korean War". Korea.net. 10 February 2022. Retrieved 4 September 2022.
10. ^ Edles, Laura Desfor (1998). Symbol and Ritual in the New Spain: the transition to democracy after Franco. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. p. 32. ISBN 978-0521628853.
11. ^ Cite error: The named reference rozhlas cz was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
12. ^ ^{a b} Edwards, Paul M. (2006). Korean War Almanac. Almanacs of American wars. New York: Infobase Publishing. p. 528. ISBN 978-0816074679. Archived from the original on 4 July 2017.
13. ^ Kocsis, Piroska (2005). "Magyar orvosok Koreában (1950–1957)" [Hungarian physicians in Korea (1950–1957)]. ArchivNet: XX. századi történeti források (in Hungarian). Budapest: Magyar Országos Levéltár. Archived from the original on 10 May 2017. Retrieved 22 November 2016.
14. ^ "Romania's "Fraternal Support" to North Korea during the Korean War, 1950–1953". Wilson Centre. December 2011. Archived from the original on 21 February 2013. Retrieved 24 January 2013.
15. ^ Birtle, Andrew J. (2000). The Korean War: Years of Stalemate. U.S. Army Center of Military History. p. 34. Retrieved 21 August 2021.
16. ^ Millett, Allan Reed, ed. (2001). The Korean War, Volume 3. Korea Institute of Military History. U of Nebraska Press. p. 692. ISBN 978-0803277960. Retrieved 16 February 2013. Total Strength 602,902 troops
17. ^ Kane, Tim (27 October 2004). "Global U.S. Troop Deployment, 1950–2003". Reports. The Heritage Foundation. Archived from the original on 28 January 2013. Retrieved 15 February 2013.
    Ashley Rowland (22 October 2008). "U.S. to keep troop levels the same in South Korea". Stars and Stripes. Archived from the original on 12 May 2013. Retrieved 16 February 2013.
    Colonel Tommy R. Mize, United States Army (12 March 2012). "U.S. Troops Stationed in South Korea, Anachronistic?" (PDF). United States Army War College. Defense Technical Information Center. Archived from the original on 8 April 2013. Retrieved 16 February 2013.
    Louis H. Zanardi; Barbara A. Schmitt; Peter Konjevich; M. Elizabeth Guran; Susan E. Cohen; Judith A. McCloskey (August 1991). "Military Presence: U.S. Personnel in the Pacific Theater" (PDF). Reports to Congressional Requesters. United States General Accounting Office. Archived from the original (PDF) on 15 June 2013. Retrieved 15 February 2013.
18. ^ ^{a b c d e f g} USFK Public Affairs Office. "USFK United Nations Command". United States Forces Korea. United States Department of Defense. Archived from the original on 11 July 2016. Retrieved 29 July 2016. Republic of Korea – 590,911
    Colombia – 1,068
    United States – 302,483
    Belgium – 900
    United Kingdom – 14,198
    South Africa – 826
    Canada – 6,146
    Netherlands – 819
    Turkey – 5,453
    Luxembourg – 44
    Australia – 2,282
    Philippines – 1,496
    New Zealand – 1,385
    Thailand – 1,204^{[clarification needed]}
    Ethiopia – 1,271
    Greece – 1,263
    France – 1,119
19. ^ Rottman, Gordon L. (2002). Korean War Order of Battle: United States, United Nations, and Communist Ground, Naval, and Air Forces, 1950–1953. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 126. ISBN 978-0275978358. Retrieved 16 February 2013. A peak strength of 14,198 British troops was reached in 1952, with over 40,000 total serving in Korea.
    "UK-Korea Relations". British Embassy Pyongyang. Foreign and Commonwealth Office. 9 February 2012. Retrieved 16 February 2013. When war came to Korea in June 1950, Britain was second only to the United States in the contribution it made to the UN effort in Korea. 87,000 British troops took part in the Korean conflict, and over 1,000 British servicemen lost their lives^{[permanent dead link]}
    Jack D. Walker. "A Brief Account of the Korean War". Information. Republic of Korea Ministry of National Defense Institute for Military History. Retrieved 17 February 2013. Other countries to furnish combat troops, with their peak strength, were: United States (302,483), United Kingdom (14,198), Canada (6,146), Turkey (5,455), Australia (2,282), Thailand (2,274), Philippines (1,496), New Zealand (1,389), France (1,185), Colombia (1,068), Ethiopia (1,271), Greece (1,263), Belgium (900), Netherlands (819), Republic of South Africa (826), Luxembourg (52)
20. ^ "Land of the Morning Calm: Canadians in Korea 1950–1953". Veterans Affairs Canada. Government of Canada. 7 January 2013. Archived from the original on 23 March 2013. Retrieved 22 February 2013. Peak Canadian Army strength in Korea was 8,123 all ranks.
21. ^ ^{a b c d e f g h i j k} Cite error: The named reference ROK Web was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
22. ^ ^{a b c} Edwards, Paul M. (2006). Korean War Almanac. Almanacs of American wars. Infobase Publishing. p. 517. ISBN 978-0816074679. Retrieved 22 February 2013.
23. ^ Ramachandran, D. p (19 March 2017). "The doctor-heroes of war". The Hindu – via www.thehindu.com.
24. ^ Fact Sheet: America's Wars". U.S. Department of Veteran Affairs, Washington D.C., May 2017.
25. ^ 19만7056명 첫 全數조사 “젊은사람들 내 뒤에서 ‘얼마나 죽였길래’ 수군수군 이젠 훈장 안 달고 다녀…세상이 야속하고 나 스스로 비참할 뿐”
26. ^ The Statistics of the Korean War - ROK Ministry of National Defense Institute for Military History, 2014 (E-BOOK) Archived 9 July 2023 at the Wayback Machine (in Korean)
27. ^ The Statistics of the Korean War - ROK Ministry of National Defense Institute for Military History, 2014 (PDF) Archived 11 January 2021 at the Wayback Machine (in Korean)
28. ^ Shrader, Charles R. (1995). Communist Logistics in the Korean War. Issue 160 of Contributions in Military Studies. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 90. ISBN 978-0313295096. Retrieved 17 February 2013. NKPA strength peaked in October 1952 at 266,600 men in eighteen divisions and six independent brigades.
29. ^ Zhang 1995, p. 257.
30. ^ Xiaobing, Li (2009). A History of the Modern Chinese Army Lexington: University Press of Kentucky. p. 105: "By December 1952, the Chinese forces in Korea had reached a record high of 1.45 million men, including fifty-nine infantry divisions, ten artillery divisions, five antiaircraft divisions, and seven tank regiments. CPVF numbers remained stable until the armistice agreement was signed in July 1953."
31. ^ ^{a b} Kolb, Richard K. (1999). "In Korea we whipped the Russian Air Force". VFW Magazine. 86 (11). Retrieved 17 February 2013. Soviet involvement in the Korean War was on a large scale. During the war, 72,000 Soviet troops (among them 5,000 pilots) served along the Yalu River in Manchuria. At least 12 air divisions rotated through. A peak strength of 26,000 men was reached in 1952.^{[permanent dead link]}
32. ^ Cite error: The named reference xu was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
33. ^ Cite error: The named reference Cumings p. 35 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
34. ^ Cite error: The named reference Lewy pp. 450-453 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
35. ^ "The creation of an independent South Korea became UN policy in early 1948. Southern communists opposed this, and by autumn partisan warfare had spread throughout Korean provinces below the 38th parallel. The newly formed Republic of Korea Army (ROKA) in the south and the North Korean border constabulary as well as the Korean People's Army (KPA) in the north engaged in a limited border war." Millett (PHD), Allan. "Korean War". britannica.com. Archived from the original on 24 April 2016. Retrieved 21 April 2016.
36. ^ Cumings 2005, pp. 247–53.
37. ^ Stueck 2002, p. 71.
38. ^ ^{a b} Cite error: The named reference Devine 2007 819-821 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
39. ^ Lee, Steven Hugh (14 June 2014). "The Korean War in History and Historiography". The Journal of American-East Asian Relations. 21 (2): 185–206. doi:10.1163/18765610-02102010. Historian Kim Hakjoon argues that the many telegrams that Moscow and P'yǒngyang exchanged from January to June 1950, and, more important, the secret meetings between Stalin and Kim [Il Sung] in Moscow in April and Mao and Kim in Beijing during May, confirmed that the three Communist leaders were responsible for starting the Korean War on the morning of 25 June 1950.
40. ^ White, James D. (31 July 1950). "Soviet Union Ending Boycott of United Nation [sic] Because War in Korea Getting Bit Too Hot". Walla Walla Union-Bulletin/Associated Press. No. 106. Walla Walla, Washington. p. 9 – via NewspaperArchive.
41. ^ Derek W. Bowett, United Nations Forces: A Legal Study of United Nations Practice, Stevens, London, 1964, pp. 29–60
42. ^ Pembroke, Michael (2018). Korea: Where the American Century Began. Hardie Grant Books. p. 141.
43. ^ "United Nations Command > History > 1950–1953: Korean War (Active Conflict)". www.unc.mil. Retrieved 5 November 2020.
44. ^ Fisher, Max (3 August 2015). "Americans have forgotten what we did to North Korea". Vox. Retrieved 18 October 2021.
45. ^ Robinson, Michael E (2007). Korea's Twentieth-Century Odyssey. Honolulu, HI: University of Hawaii Press. pp. 119-120. ISBN 978-0824831745.
46. ^ He, Kai; Feng, Huiyun (2013). Prospect Theory and Foreign Policy Analysis in the Asia Pacific: Rational Leaders and Risky Behavior. Routledge. p. 50. ISBN 978-1135131197. Archived from the original on 4 July 2017.
47. ^ Li, Narangoa; Cribb, Robert (2014). Historical Atlas of Northeast Asia, 1590–2010: Korea, Manchuria, Mongolia, Eastern Siberia. Columbia University Press. p. 194. ISBN 978-0231160704. Archived from the original on 4 July 2017.

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29 June 2009 – Yemenia Flight 626 crashes into the Indian Ocean, killing 152 people and leaving schoolgirl Bahia Bakari as the sole survivor.

Yemenia Flight 626

2009 aviation accident near Comoros

Yemenia Flight 626 was an Airbus A310-324 twin-engine jet airliner operated by Yemenia that was flying a scheduled international service, from Sana'a in Yemen to Moroni in Comoros, when it crashed on 30 June 2009 at around 1:50 am local time (10:50 pm on 29 June UTC) while on approach to Prince Said Ibrahim International Airport, killing all but one of the 153 passengers and crew on board.^[1][2] The sole survivor, 12-year-old girl Bahia Bakari,^{[nb 1]} was found clinging to wreckage after floating in the ocean for thirteen hours.^[4][5][6] Bakari was discharged from the hospital on 23 July 2009.^[7]

The final report on the incident concluded that the crew's inappropriate flight control inputs led to an aerodynamic stall. The report also noted that the crew did not react to the warnings being issued by the aircraft.^[8]

1. ^ Cite error: The named reference fox was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
2. ^ Cite error: The named reference bbc was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
3. ^ Cite error: The named reference Yemenia plane crash survivor found swimming among bodies in Indian Ocean was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
4. ^ Cite error: The named reference Girl survives Yemen plane crash was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
5. ^ Cite error: The named reference bloom1 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
6. ^ Cite error: The named reference The Huffington Post was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
7. ^ Cite error: The named reference Yemenia crash survivor goes home was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
8. ^ "Rapport Final sur l'Accident Survenu le 29 Juin 2009 En mer au large de Moroni (Comores) De l'Airbus A310-324 Immatriculé 7O-ADJ Exploité par la compagnie Yemenia Airways" [Final Report on the Accident on June 29, 2009 At sea off Moroni (Comoros) Of the Airbus A310-324 Registered 7O-ADJ Operated by the company Yemenia Airways] (PDF) (in French). National Civil Aviation and Meteorological Agency. 25 June 2013. Archived (PDF) from the original on 23 July 2014. Retrieved 19 July 2013 – via Bureau of Enquiry and Analysis for Civil Aviation Safety.

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30 June 1905 – Albert Einstein publishes the article On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies, in which he introduces special relativity.

Special relativity

Theory of interwoven space and time by Albert Einstein

In physics, the special theory of relativity, or special relativity for short, is a scientific theory of the relationship between space and time. In Albert Einstein's 1905 treatment, the theory is presented as being based on just two postulates:^{[p 1][1][2]}

1. The laws of physics are invariant (identical) in all inertial frames of reference (that is, frames of reference with no acceleration).
2. The speed of light in vacuum is the same for all observers, regardless of the motion of light source or observer.

The first postulate was first formulated by Galileo Galilei (see Galilean invariance).

Cite error: There are <ref group=p> tags on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=p}} template (see the help page).

1. ^ Griffiths, David J. (2013). "Electrodynamics and Relativity". Introduction to Electrodynamics (4th ed.). Pearson. Chapter 12. ISBN 978-0-321-85656-2.
2. ^ Jackson, John D. (1999). "Special Theory of Relativity". Classical Electrodynamics (3rd ed.). John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Chapter 11. ISBN 0-471-30932-X.

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2 July 1937 – Amelia Earhart and navigator Fred Noonan are last heard from over the Pacific Ocean while attempting to make the first equatorial round-the-world flight.

Amelia Earhart

American aviation pioneer and author (1897–1937)

For other uses, see Amelia Earhart (disambiguation).

"Earhart" redirects here. For other uses, see Earhart (disambiguation).

Amelia Mary Earhart (/ˈɛərhɑːrt/ AIR-hart; born July 24, 1897; declared dead January 5, 1939) was an American aviation pioneer. On July 2, 1937, Earhart disappeared over the Pacific Ocean while attempting to become the first female pilot to circumnavigate the world. During her life, she embraced celebrity culture and women's rights, and since her disappearance has become a cultural icon.^[2] Earhart was the first female aviator to fly solo across the Atlantic Ocean and she set many other records.^[3] She was one of the first aviators to promote commercial air travel, wrote best-selling books about her flying experiences, and was instrumental in the formation of The Ninety-Nines, an organization for female pilots.^[4]

Born and raised in Atchison, Kansas, Earhart developed a passion for adventure at a young age, steadily gaining flying experience from her twenties. In 1928, Earhart became a celebrity after being the first female passenger to cross the Atlantic by airplane. In 1932, Earhart became the first woman to make a nonstop solo transatlantic flight and received the United States Distinguished Flying Cross.^[5] In 1935, Earhart became a visiting faculty member at Purdue University as an advisor in aeronautical engineering and a career counselor to female students. She was a member of the National Woman's Party and an early supporter of the Equal Rights Amendment.^[6][7] She was one of the most inspirational American figures from the late 1920s throughout the 1930s. Earhart's legacy is often compared to the early career of pioneer aviator Charles Lindbergh, as well as to figures like First Lady Eleanor Roosevelt for their close friendship and lasting impact on the issue of women's causes.

In 1937, during an attempt at becoming the first woman to complete a circumnavigational flight of the globe in a Lockheed Model 10-E Electra airplane, Earhart and her navigator Fred Noonan disappeared over the central Pacific Ocean near Howland Island. The two were last seen in Lae, New Guinea, on the last land stop before Howland Island. It is generally presumed that they ran out of fuel, crashed into the ocean and died near Howland Island.^[8] Nearly one year and six months after she and Noonan disappeared, Earhart was officially declared dead.

The mysterious nature of her disappearance has meant that public interest in her life remains significant. Earhart's airplane has never been found and this has led to speculation and conspiracy theories about the outcome of the flight. Decades after her presumed death, Earhart was inducted into the National Aviation Hall of Fame in 1968 and the National Women's Hall of Fame in 1973. She now has several commemorative memorials named in her honor around the United States, including a commemorative US airmail stamp, an airport, museum, bridge, cargo ship, earth-fill dam, playhouse, library, multiple roads and schools, and more. She also has a minor planet, planetary corona, and newly-discovered lunar crater named after her. Numerous films, documentaries and books have recounted her life. She is ranked ninth on Flying's list of the 51 Heroes of Aviation.^[9]

1. ^ Van Pelt 2005, p. 205.
2. ^ "Why does Amelia Earhart still fascinate us?". National Geographic. October 19, 2019.
3. ^ Oakes 1985.
4. ^ Lovell 1989, p. 152.
5. ^ Goldstein & Dillon 1997, pp. 111, 112.
6. ^ "Timeline: Equal Rights Amendment, Phase One: 1921–1972." Archived December 8, 2012, at the Wayback Machine feminism101.com. Retrieved: June 4, 2012.
7. ^ Francis, Roberta W."The History Behind the Equal Rights Amendment." equalrightsamendment.org, July 21, 2011. Retrieved: June 4, 2012.
8. ^ De Hart, Jane Sherron (1995). Ware, Susan (ed.). "The Perils of Flying Solo: Amelia Earhart and Feminist Individualism". Reviews in American History. 23 (1): 86–90. doi:10.1353/rah.1995.0004. ISSN 0048-7511. JSTOR 2703241. S2CID 201762326. Archived from the original on October 12, 2021. Retrieved March 10, 2021.
9. ^ Cite error: The named reference FlyingMag was invoked but never defined (see the help page).

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3 July 2005 – Same-sex marriage in Spain becomes legal.

Same-sex marriage in Spain

Same-sex marriage has been legal in Spain since July 3, 2005. In 2004, the nation's newly elected government, led by Prime Minister José Luis Rodríguez Zapatero of the Socialist Workers' Party, began a campaign to legalize same-sex marriage, including the right of adoption by same-sex couples.^[1] After much debate, a law permitting same-sex marriage was passed by the Cortes Generales (the Spanish Parliament, composed of the Senate and the Congress of Deputies) by a vote of 187–147 on June 30, 2005, and published on July 2. The law took effect the next day,^[2] making Spain the third country in the world to allow same-sex couples to marry on a national level, after the Netherlands and Belgium, and 17 days ahead of the right being extended across all of Canada.

Roman Catholic authorities were adamantly opposed, criticising what they regarded as the weakening of the meaning of marriage, despite support from 66% of the population.^[3][4] Other associations expressed concern over the possibility of lesbian and gay couples adopting children.^[5] After its approval, the conservative People's Party challenged the law in the Constitutional Court.^[6]

Approximately 4,500 same-sex couples married in Spain during the first year of the law.^[7] Shortly after the law was passed, questions arose about the legal status of marriage to non-Spaniards whose country did not permit same-sex marriage. A decision from the Justice Ministry stated that the country's same-sex marriage law allows a Spanish citizen to marry a non-Spaniard regardless of whether that person's homeland recognizes the union.^[8] At least one partner must be a Spanish citizen in order to marry, although two non-Spaniards may marry if they both have legal residence in Spain.

The November 2011 general election delivered a landslide victory to the People's Party, whose leader Mariano Rajoy said he opposed same-sex marriage, but any decision about repealing the law would be made only after the ruling of the Constitutional Court.^[9][10][11] On November 6, 2012, the law was upheld by the court with 8 support votes and 3 against.^[12][13][14] Minister of Justice Alberto Ruiz-Gallardón announced that the government will abide by the ruling and the law will not be repealed.^[15][16][17]

1. ^ "Spain's new government to legalize gay marriage". SignonSanDiego.com. Reuters. April 15, 2004. Archived from the original on March 4, 2009. Retrieved December 14, 2009.
2. ^ "Spain approves liberal gay marriage law". St. Petersburg Times. July 1, 2005. Archived from the original on November 7, 2014. Retrieved January 8, 2007.
3. ^ Cite error: The named reference PlanOut was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
4. ^ "Spanish bishops decry legislation weakening marriage". Catholic World News. July 20, 2005. Archived from the original on June 12, 2012. Retrieved January 11, 2007.
5. ^ "Manifiesto del Foro de la Familia" (in Spanish). 20 Minutos.es. June 18, 2005. Archived from the original on July 2, 2016. Retrieved January 12, 2007.
6. ^ Thornberry, Malcolm (October 28, 2005). "Spain's Highest Court Agrees To Hear Gay Marriage Challenge". 365gay.com. Archived from the original on October 31, 2005. Retrieved January 25, 2007.
7. ^ "Conservative mayor presides over gay wedding". Euronews. July 30, 2006. Archived from the original on March 15, 2011. Retrieved October 13, 2009.
8. ^ "Spain's same-sex marriage law applies to foreigners". Advocate.com. Reuters. August 9, 2005. Archived from the original on July 20, 2012. Retrieved December 22, 2006.
9. ^ "Spain gay rights and abortion activists fear backlash". BBC. November 25, 2011. Archived from the original on October 4, 2018. Retrieved November 28, 2011.
10. ^ "Factbox: Policies of Spain's People's Party". Reuters. November 20, 2011. Archived from the original on March 6, 2016. Retrieved November 28, 2011.
11. ^ "Mariano Rajoy, New Spain Prime Minister, Opposes Same-Sex Marriage Law". Huffington Post. November 28, 2011. Archived from the original on October 10, 2017. Retrieved November 28, 2011.
12. ^ Morris, Iciar Reinlein (November 6, 2012). "Same-sex marriage upheld by Spain's highest court". Reuters. Archived from the original on October 25, 2020. Retrieved May 29, 2020 – via uk.reuters.com.
13. ^ Internet, Unidad Editorial. "Amplio respaldo del Tribunal Constitucional al matrimonio homosexual". www.elmundo.es. Archived from the original on August 21, 2018. Retrieved May 29, 2020.
14. ^ "SENTENCIA" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on November 19, 2012.
15. ^ Internet, Unidad Editorial. "Gallardón no tocará la ley vigente". www.elmundo.es. Archived from the original on August 5, 2018. Retrieved May 29, 2020.
16. ^ "Gallardón: "No modificaré la ley y la dejaré exactamente como está"". El País. November 7, 2012. Archived from the original on October 1, 2017. Retrieved May 29, 2020 – via elpais.com.
17. ^ Cuatro/Agencias, Noticias (November 6, 2012). "El Gobierno mantendrá el matrimonio homosexual tal y como lo ha validado el TC". cuatro. Archived from the original on August 5, 2018. Retrieved May 29, 2020.

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4 July 1865 – Alice's Adventures in Wonderland is published.

Alice's Adventures in Wonderland

1865 children's novel by Lewis Carroll

"Alice in Wonderland" redirects here. For other uses, see Alice in Wonderland (disambiguation).

Alice's Adventures in Wonderland (commonly Alice in Wonderland) is an 1865 English children's novel by Lewis Carroll, a mathematics don at Oxford University. It details the story of a girl named Alice who falls through a rabbit hole into a fantasy world of anthropomorphic creatures. It is seen as an example of the literary nonsense genre. The artist John Tenniel provided 42 wood-engraved illustrations for the book.

It received positive reviews upon release and is now one of the best-known works of Victorian literature; its narrative, structure, characters and imagery have had a widespread influence on popular culture and literature, especially in the fantasy genre.^[1][2] It is credited as helping end an era of didacticism in children's literature, inaugurating an era in which writing for children aimed to "delight or entertain".^[3] The tale plays with logic, giving the story lasting popularity with adults as well as with children.^[4] The titular character Alice shares her name with Alice Liddell, a girl Carroll knew—scholars disagree about the extent to which the character was based upon her.^[5][6]

The book has never been out of print and has been translated into 174 languages. Its legacy covers adaptations for screen, radio, art, ballet, opera, musicals, theme parks, board games and video games.^[7] Carroll published a sequel in 1871 entitled Through the Looking-Glass and a shortened version for young children, The Nursery "Alice", in 1890.

1. ^ Cite error: The named reference Time was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
2. ^ Cite error: The named reference published was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
3. ^ Susina 2009, p. 3.
4. ^ Lecercle 1994, p. 1.
5. ^ Cohen 1996, pp. 135–136.
6. ^ Susina 2009, p. 7.
7. ^ Cite error: The named reference Alice industry was invoked but never defined (see the help page).

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5 July 1948 – National Health Service Acts created the national public health systems in the United Kingdom

National Health Service

Publicly-funded healthcare systems in the United Kingdom

"NHS" redirects here. For other uses, see NHS (disambiguation).

For the individual national healthcare services, see National Health Service (England), NHS Scotland, NHS Wales, and Health and Social Care (Northern Ireland).

Logos of the National Health Service

Logo of the NHS in England^[a][1]

Logo of HSC in Northern Ireland

Logo of NHS Scotland

Logo of NHS Wales

The National Health Service (NHS) is the umbrella term for the publicly funded healthcare systems of the United Kingdom, comprising the NHS in England, NHS Scotland and NHS Wales. Health and Social Care in Northern Ireland was created separately and is often locally referred to as "the NHS".^[2] The original three systems were established in 1948 (NHS Wales/GIG Cymru was founded in 1969) as part of major social reforms following the Second World War. The founding principles were that services should be comprehensive, universal and free at the point of delivery—a health service based on clinical need, not ability to pay.^[3] Each service provides a comprehensive range of health services, provided without charge for people ordinarily resident in the United Kingdom apart from dental treatment and optical care.^[4] In England, NHS patients have to pay prescription charges; some, such as those aged over 60, or those on certain state benefits, are exempt.^[5]

Taken together, the four services in 2015–16 employed around 1.6 million people with a combined budget of £136.7 billion.^[6] In 2014, the total health sector workforce across the United Kingdom was 2,165,043 making it the fifth largest employer and largest non-military public organisation in the world.^[7][8][9]

When purchasing consumables such as medications, the four healthcare services have significant market power that influences the global price, typically keeping prices lower.^[10] A small number of products are procured jointly through contracts shared between services.^[11] Several other countries either copy the United Kingdom's model or directly rely on Britain's assessments for their own decisions on state-financed drug reimbursements.^[12]

Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

1. ^ "NHS Identity Guidelines | NHS logo". www.england.nhs.uk. Retrieved 11 November 2021.
2. ^ "Health funding in Northern Ireland – Northern Ireland Affairs Committee – House of Commons".
3. ^ Choices, NHS. "The principles and values of the NHS in England". www.nhs.uk. Retrieved 23 November 2016.
4. ^ "NHS entitlements: migrant health guide – Detailed guidance". UK Government. Retrieved 6 June 2016.
5. ^ "Who can get free prescriptions". NHS. 9 November 2020. Retrieved 5 January 2022.
6. ^ "10 truths about Britain's health service". Guardian. 18 January 2016. Retrieved 19 January 2016.
7. ^ Cowper, Andy (23 May 2016). "Visible and valued: the way forward for the NHS's hidden army". Health Service Journal. Retrieved 28 July 2016.
8. ^ Triggle, Nick (24 May 2018). "10 charts that show why the NHS is in trouble". Retrieved 6 October 2019.
9. ^ Tombs, Robert (2014). The English and Their History. Vintage Books. p. 864.
10. ^ "The UK has much to fear from a US trade agreement". www.newstatesman.com. 3 June 2019. Retrieved 5 June 2019.
11. ^ "An overview of NHS Procurement of Medicines and Pharmaceutical Products and Services for acute care in the United Kingdom" (PDF). www.sps.nhs.uk/. Retrieved 24 May 2021.
12. ^ "US takes aim at the UK's National Health Service". POLITICO. 4 June 2019. Retrieved 5 June 2019.

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6 July 1967 – Nigerian Civil War: Nigerian forces invade Biafra, beginning the war.

Nigerian Civil War

1967–1970 civil war in Nigeria

The Nigerian Civil War (6 July 1967 – 15 January 1970), also known as the Biafran War, was a civil war fought between Nigeria and the Republic of Biafra, a secessionist state which had declared its independence from Nigeria in 1967. Nigeria was led by General Yakubu Gowon, and Biafra by Lieutenant Colonel Chukwuemeka "Emeka" Odumegwu Ojukwu.^[15] Biafra represented the nationalist aspirations of the Igbo ethnic group, whose leadership felt they could no longer coexist with the federal government dominated by the interests of the Muslim Hausa-Fulanis of Northern Nigeria.^[16] The conflict resulted from political, economic, ethnic, cultural and religious tensions which preceded the United Kingdom's formal decolonisation of Nigeria from 1960 to 1963. Immediate causes of the war in 1966 included a military coup, a counter-coup, and anti-Igbo pogroms in Northern Nigeria.^[17]

Within a year, Nigerian government troops surrounded Biafra, and captured coastal oil facilities and the city of Port Harcourt. A blockade was imposed as a deliberate policy during the ensuing stalemate which led to the mass starvation of Biafran civilians.^[18] During the 2+1⁄2 years of the war, there were about 100,000 overall military casualties, while between 500,000 and 2 million Biafran civilians died of starvation.^[19]

Alongside the concurrent Vietnam War, the Nigerian Civil War was one of the first wars in human history to be televised to a global audience.^[20] In mid-1968, images of malnourished and starving Biafran children saturated the mass media of Western countries. The plight of the starving Biafrans became a cause célèbre in foreign countries, enabling a significant rise in the funding and prominence of international non-governmental organisations (NGOs). Biafra received international humanitarian aid from civilians during the Biafran airlift, an event which inspired the formation of Doctors Without Borders following the end of the war. The United Kingdom and the Soviet Union were the main supporters of the Nigerian government, while France, Israel (after 1968) and some other countries supported Biafra.^[21] The United States' official position was one of neutrality, considering Nigeria as "a responsibility of Britain",^[22] but some interpret the refusal to recognise Biafra as favouring the Nigerian government.^[23][24]

The war highlighted challenges within pan-Africanism during the early stages of African independence from colonial rule, suggesting that the diverse nature of African peoples may present obstacles to achieving common unity. Additionally, it shed light on initial shortcomings within the Organization of African Unity.^[25] The war also resulted in the political marginalization of the Igbo people, as Nigeria has not had another Igbo president since the end of the war, leading some Igbo people to believe they are being unfairly punished for the war.^[26] Igbo nationalism has emerged since the end of the war, as well as various neo-Biafran secessionist groups such as the Indigenous People of Biafra and Movement for the Actualization of the Sovereign State of Biafra.^[27] All the Post-Biafra groups were aimed at agitating for memories and interest of all easterners.

Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

1. ^ ^{a b c d} Jowett, Philip S.; Ruggeri, Raffaele (2016). Modern African wars. 5: The Nigerian-Biafran war 1967-70 / Philip S. Jowett ; illustrated by Raffaele Ruggeri. Oxford: Osprey Publishing. ISBN 9781472816115.
2. ^ ^{a b} S.A, Telewizja Polska. "Starve a rebellious nation to death". tvpworld.com.
3. ^ Lionel, Ekene (15 April 2018). "Lynn Garrison: Biafran War Pilot Speaks on His Exploits – Military Africa".
4. ^ Nkwocha, 2010: 156
5. ^ ^{a b c} Karl DeRouen & U. K. Heo (2007). Civil wars of the world: Major conflicts since World War II. Tomo I. Santa Bárbara: ABC CLIO, p. 569. ISBN 978-1-85109-919-1.
6. ^ ^{a b c} Phillips, Charles, & Alan Axelrod (2005). "Nigerian-Biafran War". Encyclopedia of Wars. Tomo II. New York: Facts On File, Inc., ISBN 978-0-8160-2853-5.
7. ^ Onyema Nkwocha (2010). The Republic of Biafra: Once Upon a Time in Nigeria: My Story of the Biafra-Nigerian Civil War – A Struggle for Survival (1967–1970). Bloomington: AuthorHouse, p. 25. ISBN 978-1-4520-6867-1.
8. ^ West Africa. Londres: Afrimedia International, 1969, p. 1565. "Malnutrition affects adults less than children, half of whom have now died, reports Debrel, who also describes the reorganisation of the Biafran army after the 1968 defeats, making it a 'political' army of 110,000 men; its automatic weapons, ..."
9. ^ Stan Chu Ilo (2006). The Face of Africa: Looking Beyond the Shadows. Bloomington: AuthorHouse, p. 138. ISBN 978-1-4208-9705-0.
10. ^ Paul R. Bartrop (2012). A Biographical Encyclopedia of Contemporary Genocide. Santa Bárbara: ABC-CLIO, p. 107. ISBN 978-0-313-38679-4.
11. ^ Bridgette Kasuka (2012). Prominent African Leaders Since Independence. Bankole Kamara Taylor, p. 331. ISBN 978-1-4700-4358-2.
12. ^ Stevenson 2014, p. 314: "The mass killing during the Nigeria-Biafra War was the result of a 'deliberately imposed economic blockade on the inhabitants of Nigeria's southeastern region by the country's federal government' that led to an induced 'famine in which over two million people died of starvation and related diseases.'"
13. ^ Godfrey Mwakikagile (2001). Ethnic Politics in Kenya and Nigeria. Huntington: Nova Publishers, p. 176. ISBN 978-1-56072-967-9.
14. ^ DeRouen & Heo, 2007: 570
15. ^ "Nigeria – Independent Nigeria". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 22 January 2020.
16. ^ Daly, Samuel Fury Childs (2020). "A Nation on Paper: Making a State in the Republic of Biafra". Comparative Studies in Society and History. 62 (4): 868–894. doi:10.1017/S0010417520000316. S2CID 224852757.
17. ^ Plotnicov, Leonard (1971). "An Early Nigerian Civil Disturbance: The 1945 Hausa-Ibo Riot in Jos". The Journal of Modern African Studies. 9 (2): 297–305. doi:10.1017/S0022278X00024976. ISSN 0022-278X. JSTOR 159448. S2CID 154565379.
18. ^ Campbell, Colin (29 March 1987). "Starvation Was The Policy". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 17 April 2021.
19. ^ "ICE Case Studies: The Biafran War". American University: ICE Case Studies. American University. 1997. Archived from the original on 14 February 2017. Retrieved 6 November 2016.
20. ^ Daly, Samuel Fury Childs (2020). A history of the Republic of Biafra : law, crime, and the Nigerian Civil War. Cambridge, United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9781108887748.
21. ^ Chinua, Achebe (2012). There was a country: a personal history of Biafra. pearson.
22. ^ Luepke, Anna-Katharina (2018). The 'Other Side' of the Nigeria-Biafra War: A Transnational History (PDF) (PhD). Bangor University. p. 2. Retrieved 10 January 2023. p. 2: The United States, on the other hand, professed neutrality considering Nigeria, in the words of an American diplomat, as 'a responsibility of Britain'.
23. ^ "Foreign Relations of the United States, 1964–1968". Office of the Historian, US State Department. Retrieved 25 April 2022.
24. ^ Luepke, Anna-Katharina (2018). The 'Other Side' of the Nigeria-Biafra War: A Transnational History (PDF) (PhD). Bangor University. p. 104. Retrieved 10 January 2023. p. 104: Despite remaining officially neutral and declaring an arms embargo on both sides, the United States leaned more towards federal Nigeria. A report prepared for president Nixon in January 1969 sees U.S. options as limited, arguing that 'our role is important but it alone will not ensure a solution' and 'to the degree that we have leverage, we have it only with the Feds'. The U.S. thus followed a policy described in the report in the following terms: 'support the Feds diplomatically, endorse "One Nigeria" with Ibo protection but refuse to sell arms'.
25. ^ Ayittey, George B. N. (November 2010). "The United States of Africa: A Revisit". The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science. 632 (1): 86–102. doi:10.1177/0002716210378988. S2CID 145436388.
26. ^ Ugwueze, Michael I. (3 April 2021). "Biafra War Documentaries: Explaining Continual Resurgence of Secessionist Agitations in the South-East, Nigeria". Civil Wars. 23 (2): 207–233. doi:10.1080/13698249.2021.1903781. S2CID 233593634.
27. ^ Onuoha, G. (2014). "The politics of 'hope' and 'despair': Generational dimensions to Igbo nationalism in post-civil war Nigeria". African Sociological Review / Revue Africaine de Sociologie. 18 (1): 2–26. doi:10.4314/asr.v18i1 (inactive 31 January 2024). ISSN 1027-4332.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of January 2024 (link)

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7 July 1456 – A retrial verdict acquits Joan of Arc of heresy 25 years after her death.

Retrial of Joan of Arc

Redirect to:

• Rehabilitation trial of Joan of Arc

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8 July 1889 – The first issue of the Wall Street Journal is published.

Wall Street Journal

Redirect to:

• The Wall Street Journal

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9 July 1877 – The inaugural Wimbledon Championships opens.

The Championships, Wimbledon

Redirect to:

• Wimbledon Championships

• From a page move: This is a redirect from a page that has been moved (renamed). This page was kept as a redirect to avoid breaking links, both internal and external, that may have been made to the old page name.

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10 July 1985 – Greenpeace vessel Rainbow Warrior is bombed and sunk in Auckland, New Zealand harbour by French DGSE agents, killing Fernando Pereira.

Sinking of the Rainbow Warrior

1985 covert attack by French foreign intelligence service on a Greenpeace ship

The sinking of Rainbow Warrior, codenamed Opération Satanique,^[1] was a state terrorism bombing operation by the "action" branch of the French foreign intelligence agency, the Directorate-General for External Security (DGSE), carried out on 10 July 1985. During the operation, two operatives sank the flagship of the Greenpeace fleet, Rainbow Warrior, at the Port of Auckland on her way to a protest against a planned French nuclear test in Moruroa. Fernando Pereira, a photographer, drowned on the sinking ship.

The sinking was a cause of embarrassment to France and President François Mitterrand. They initially denied responsibility, but two French agents were captured by New Zealand Police and charged with arson, conspiracy to commit arson, willful damage, and murder. It resulted in a scandal which led to the resignation of the French Defence Minister Charles Hernu, while the two agents pleaded guilty to manslaughter and were sentenced to ten years in prison. They spent a little over two years confined to the Polynesian island of Hao before being freed by the French government.^[2]

France was also forced to apologise and had to pay reparations to New Zealand, Pereira's family and to Greenpeace.

Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

1. ^ Bremner, Charles (11 July 2005). "Mitterrand ordered bombing of Rainbow Warrior, spy chief says". The Times. London. Archived from the original on 31 January 2017. Retrieved 16 November 2006.
2. ^ Cite error: The named reference UN was invoked but never defined (see the help page).

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11 July 1943 – World War II: Allied invasion of Sicily – German and Italian troops launch a counter-attack on Allied forces in Sicily.

Allied invasion of Sicily

1943 military campaign of World War II on the island of Sicily, Italy

"Invasion of Sicily" redirects here. For the Athenian offensive in the Second Peloponnesian War, see Sicilian Expedition. For the 1860 conquest of Sicily as part of the Unification of Italy, see Expedition of the Thousand.

The Allied invasion of Sicily, also known as the Battle of Sicily and Operation Husky, was a major campaign of World War II in which the Allied forces invaded the island of Sicily in July 1943 and took it from the Axis powers (Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany). It began with a large amphibious and airborne operation, followed by a six-week land campaign, and initiated the Italian campaign.

To divert some of the Axis forces to other areas, the Allies engaged in several deception operations, the most famous and successful of which was Operation Mincemeat. Husky began on the night of 9–10 July 1943 and ended on 17 August. Strategically, Husky achieved the goals set out for it by Allied planners; the Allies drove Axis air, land and naval forces from the island and the Mediterranean sea lanes were opened for Allied merchant ships for the first time since 1941. These events led to the Italian dictator, Benito Mussolini, being toppled from power in Italy on 25 July, and to the Allied invasion of Italy on 3 September.

The German leader, Adolf Hitler, "canceled a major offensive at Kursk after only a week, in part to divert forces to Italy," resulting in a reduction of German strength on the Eastern Front.^[15] The collapse of Italy necessitated German troops replacing the Italians in Italy and to a lesser extent the Balkans, resulting in one-fifth of the entire German army being diverted from the east to southern Europe, a proportion that would remain until near the end of the war.^[16]

1. ^ Gaujac, p. 68
2. ^ Royal Australian Navy – the corvettes/minesweepers HMAS Cairns, Cessnock, HMAS Gawler, HMAS Geraldton, HMAS Ipswich, HMAS Lismore, HMAS Maryborough, and HMAS Wollongong
   Royal Australian Air Force – No. 3 Squadron RAAF (fighters), No. 450 Squadron RAAF (fighters), No. 458 Squadron RAAF (maritime patrol), and No. 462 Squadron RAAF (heavy bombers)
3. ^ "SICILY 1943 Battle Honors". Royal Australian Navy Official site. For service in the prescribed area, 10 July to 17 August 1943
4. ^ "450 Squadron RAAF Roll of Honour". Queensland War Memorial Register. 16 September 2015.
5. ^ Mitcham & von Stauffenberg (2007), p. 63
6. ^ ^{a b} Mitcham & von Stauffenberg (2007), p. 307
7. ^ Le Operazioni in Sicilia e in Calabria (Luglio-Settembre 1943), Alberto Santoni, p.400, Stato maggiore dell'Esercito, Ufficio storico, 1989
8. ^ Including Navy and Air Force personnel.
9. ^ Dickson(2001) p. 201
10. ^ Shaw, p. 119
11. ^ ^{a b} Hart, Basil H. Liddel (1970). A History of the Second World War. London, Weidenfeld Nicolson. p. 627.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
12. ^ Cite error: The named reference Sicily p. 305 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
13. ^ ^{a b} Ufficio storico dello Stato Maggiore dell'Esercito (USSME) (1993). Le operazioni in Sicilia e in Calabria. Rome. pp. 400–401.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
14. ^ "La guerra in Sicilia". Sbarchi Alleati in Italia.
15. ^ Atkinson 2007, p. 172
16. ^ Charles T. O'Reilly. "Forgotten Battles: Italy's War of Liberation, 1943–1945." Lexington Books, 2001. pp. 37–38.

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12 July 1962 – The Rolling Stones perform their first ever concert, at the Marquee Club in London.

The Rolling Stones

English rock band

This article is about the band. For the magazine, see Rolling Stone. For other uses, see Rolling Stone (disambiguation).

The Rolling Stones are an English rock band formed in London in 1962. Active across seven decades, they are one of the most popular and enduring bands of the rock era. In the early 1960s, the band pioneered the gritty, rhythmically driven sound that came to define hard rock. Their first stable line-up consisted of vocalist Mick Jagger, guitarist Keith Richards, multi-instrumentalist Brian Jones, bassist Bill Wyman, and drummer Charlie Watts. During their early years, Jones was the primary leader of the band. After Andrew Loog Oldham became the group's manager in 1963, he encouraged them to write their own songs. The Jagger–Richards partnership became the band's primary songwriting and creative force.

Rooted in blues and early rock and roll, the Rolling Stones started out playing covers and were at the forefront of the British Invasion in 1964, becoming identified with the youthful counterculture of the 1960s. They then found greater success with their own material, as "(I Can't Get No) Satisfaction", "Get Off of My Cloud" (both 1965), and "Paint It Black" (1966) became international number-one hits. Aftermath (1966), their first entirely original album, is often considered to be the most important of their early albums. In 1967, they had the double-sided hit "Ruby Tuesday"/"Let's Spend the Night Together" and experimented with psychedelic rock on Their Satanic Majesties Request. By the end of the 1960s, they had returned to their rhythm and blues-based rock sound, with hit singles "Jumpin' Jack Flash" (1968) and "Honky Tonk Women" (1969), and albums Beggars Banquet (1968), featuring "Sympathy for the Devil" and "Street Fighting Man", and Let It Bleed (1969), featuring "You Can't Always Get What You Want" and "Gimme Shelter".

Jones left the band shortly before his death in 1969, having been replaced by guitarist Mick Taylor. That year they were first introduced on stage as "the greatest rock and roll band in the world". Sticky Fingers (1971), which yielded "Brown Sugar" and "Wild Horses" and included the first usage of their tongue and lips logo, was their first of eight consecutive number-one studio albums in the US. It was followed by Exile on Main St. (1972), featuring "Tumbling Dice" and "Happy", and Goats Head Soup (1973), featuring "Angie". Taylor left the band at the end of 1974, and was replaced by Ronnie Wood. The band released Some Girls in 1978, featuring "Miss You", and Tattoo You in 1981, featuring "Start Me Up". Steel Wheels (1989) was widely considered a comeback album and was followed by Voodoo Lounge (1994). Both releases were promoted by large stadium and arena tours, as the Stones continued to be a huge concert attraction; by 2007, they had recorded the all-time highest-grossing concert tour three times, and they were the highest-earning live act of 2021. Following Wyman's departure in 1993, the band continued as a four-piece core, with Darryl Jones becoming their regular bassist, and then as a three-piece core following Watts' death in 2021, with Steve Jordan becoming their regular drummer. Hackney Diamonds, the band's first new album of original material in 18 years, was released in October 2023, becoming their fourteenth UK number-one album.

The Rolling Stones' estimated record sales of more than 250 million make them one of the best-selling music artists of all time. They have won three Grammy Awards and a Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award. They were inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 1989 and the UK Music Hall of Fame in 2004. Billboard and Rolling Stone have ranked them as one of the greatest artists of all time.

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13 July 1985 – The Live Aid benefit concert takes place in London, Englend, United Kingdom and Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, as well as other venues such as Sydney, Australia and Moscow, Russia, Soviet Union.

Live Aid

1985 benefit concert

For the 2005 benefit concerts, see Live 8.

Live Aid was a multi-venue benefit concert and music-based fundraising initiative held on Saturday 13 July 1985. The original event was organised by Bob Geldof and Midge Ure to raise further funds for relief of the 1983–1985 famine in Ethiopia, a movement that started with the release of the successful charity single "Do They Know It's Christmas?" in December 1984. Billed as the "global jukebox", Live Aid was held simultaneously at Wembley Stadium in London, attended by about 72,000 people, and John F. Kennedy Stadium in Philadelphia, attended by 89,484 people.^[1][2]

On the same day, concerts inspired by the initiative were held in other countries, such as the Soviet Union, Canada, Japan, Yugoslavia, Austria, Australia, and West Germany. It was one of the largest satellite link-ups and television broadcasts of all time; an estimated audience of 1.9 billion, in 150 nations, watched the live broadcast, nearly 40 percent of the world population.^[3][4]

The impact of Live Aid on famine relief has been debated for years. One aid relief worker stated that following the publicity generated by the concert, "humanitarian concern is now at the centre of foreign policy" for Western governments.^[5] Geldof has said, "We took an issue that was nowhere on the political agenda and, through the lingua franca of the planet – which is not English but rock 'n' roll – we were able to address the intellectual absurdity and the moral repulsion of people dying of want in a world of surplus."^[6] In another interview he stated that Live Aid "created something permanent and self-sustaining" but also asked why Africa is getting poorer.^[5]

The organisers of Live Aid tried to run aid efforts directly, channelling millions of pounds to NGOs in Ethiopia. It has been alleged that much of this went to the Ethiopian government of Mengistu Haile Mariam – a regime the UK Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher opposed^[7] – and it is also alleged some funds were spent on guns.^[5][8]

While the BBC World Service programme Assignment reported in March 2010 that the funds had been diverted, the BBC Editorial Complaints Unit later found "that there was no evidence to support such statements."^[9] Brian Barder, British Ambassador to Ethiopia from 1982 to 1986, wrote on his website that "the diversion of aid related only to the tiny proportion that was supplied by some NGOs to rebel-held areas."^[10]

1. ^ Live Aid on Bob Geldof's official site Archived 5 February 2011 at the Wayback Machine
2. ^ "Billboard Boxscore". Billboard. 27 July 1985. Retrieved 6 March 2020.
3. ^ Cite error: The named reference CNN was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
4. ^ World Population Prospects: The 2017 Revision Archived 19 September 2016 at the Wayback Machine. United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs. Retrieved 7 June 2018.
5. ^ ^{a b c} "Cruel to be kind?". The Guardian. Retrieved 31 March 2019.
6. ^ "Live Aid index: Bob Geldof". The Guardian. Retrieved 14 June 2019.
7. ^ "Margaret Thatcher demanded UK find ways to 'destabilise' Ethiopian regime in power during 1984 famine". The Independent. Retrieved 10 April 2019.
8. ^ "Live Aid: The Terrible Truth". Spin. 13 July 2015. Retrieved 30 March 2019.
9. ^ "BBC apologises over Band Aid money reports". BBC. Retrieved 19 July 2020.
10. ^ "Ethiopia famine relief aid: misinterpreted allegations out of control". Barder.com. Retrieved 18 July 2020.

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14 July 1933 – The Nazi eugenics begins with the proclamation of the Law for the Prevention of Hereditarily Diseased Offspring that calls for the compulsory sterilization of any citizen who suffers from alleged genetic disorders.

Law for the Prevention of Hereditarily Diseased Offspring

1933 compulsory sterilisation law in Nazi Germany

Law for the Prevention of Genetically Diseased Offspring (German: Gesetz zur Verhütung erbkranken Nachwuchses) or "Sterilisation Law" was a statute in Nazi Germany enacted on July 14, 1933, (and made active in January 1934)^[1] which allowed the compulsory sterilisation of any citizen who in the opinion of a "Genetic Health Court" (Erbgesundheitsgericht) suffered from a list of alleged genetic disorders – many of which were not, in fact, genetic. The elaborate interpretive commentary on the law was written by three dominant figures in the racial hygiene movement: Ernst Rüdin, Arthur Gütt [de] and the lawyer Falk Ruttke [de].

While it has close resemblances with the American Model Eugenical Sterilization Law developed by Harry H. Laughlin, the law itself was initially drafted in 1932, at the end of the Weimar Republic period, by a committee led by the Prussian health board.

1. ^ ... made active: IBM and the Holocaust, Edwin Black, 2001 Crown / Random House, p 93

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15 July 1910 – In his book Clinical Psychiatry, Emil Kraepelin gives a name to Alzheimer's disease, naming it after his colleague Alois Alzheimer.

Alois Alzheimer

German psychiatrist and neuropathologist (1864–1915)

Alois Alzheimer (/ˈæltshaɪmər/ ALTS-hy-mər, US also /ˈɑːlts-, ˈɔːlts-/ AHLTS-, AWLTS-,^[1][2] German: [ˈaːlɔɪs ˈʔaltshaɪmɐ]; 14 June 1864 – 19 December 1915) was a German psychiatrist and neuropathologist and a colleague of Emil Kraepelin. Alzheimer is credited with identifying the first published case of "presenile dementia", which Kraepelin would later identify as Alzheimer's disease.^[3]

1. ^ Jones, Daniel (2011). Roach, Peter; Setter, Jane; Esling, John (eds.). "Alzheimer's disease". Cambridge English Pronouncing Dictionary (18th ed.). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-15255-6.
2. ^ "Alzheimer's disease". Random House Webster's Unabridged Dictionary.
3. ^ Berrios, G. E. (1 November 1990). "Alzheimer's disease: A conceptual history". International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry. 5 (6): 355–65. doi:10.1002/gps.930050603. ISSN 1099-1166. S2CID 145155424.

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